Regional Planning

Course Supervisor:
Prof. Dr. Shaker Mahmood Mayo
What is Regional
Planning?
 Traditional and Critical Scientific
Methodologies; a Comparison

Traditional Scientific Methodology Critical Scientific Methodology

“…characterized as acquiring knowledge “…characterized as acquiring knowledge
for the sake of knowledge” for the welfare of homosapiens”

Process
• Observation and experiment
• Generalization
• Formulation of hypotheses
• Attempt of verification
• Proof or refutation
Process
• Problem (failure of an existing theory)
• Formulation of a new theory
• Deduction of testable hypotheses
• Testing the theory
• Choice between competing theories
 Components of Scientific Theory

What is Theory? What is Hypothesis?

“…a set of logically linked, mutually consistent “…the assertions or propositions of a theory.”
hypotheses” They may have two forms namely; Axioms &
Theorems

Axioms? Theorems?
“…the statements that can’t be deduced from “...the statement that can be deduced from
other statements.” axioms and other statements.”

(Often referred to as Intuitive Knowledge) (Often referred to as Acquired Knowledge)

Linking with The Previous Discussion, Regional Planning Relates To Critical Scientific Theory, It Is mainly Based On
Acquired Knowledge, And It Is Always Problem Based. Therefore, Before Defining Regional Planning,
One Needs to Know What is Regional Problem?

Regional Problems Regional planning

Disparities …brings in Parity
Inequalities …promotes Equality
Imbalances …eliminates Imbalances
Centralization/Polarization …advocates decentralized growth
Depreciation …appreciates the depressed areas
Differences …reduces the differences
Impair …wipes out impaired settings
Odds …recommends evenly/just treatment
Heterogeneity …culminates into homogeneity
Exclusiveness …highly inclusive in nature
Distinctiveness …envisions similarities and unifications
 Modern Planning History;
Crises…Response…Crises
 Paul Knox—an urban planner, argues that the profession of
planning emerges out of series of crises and people’s responses Crises
to them and ends up into another crises.
– Health crises (epidemics)
– Social crises (riots, strikes)
– Other crises (fire, flood, etc.) Response

 Planning tries to mitigate the adverse elements of capitalism,

but also makes capitalism viable over the long term
Crises
 Roots of Modern Planning;
Romanticism vs. Progressivism
Physical
Environment

 Romantics were utopian visionaries

o generally attempted to balance city/country
opposition
o seldom saw their plans actualized
o had a major influence on planning profession

 Progressives were activists

o motivated by desire to reduce poverty or the harmful
effects of poverty
o Hull House (Jane Addams)

Social
Environment
 Crises… Response… Crises

Complex Game
1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Simple Game 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
 Let’s
change the
rules of the
game!!
 Universities Polarization in Punjab
Categories Lahore Faisalabad Multan Rawalpindi Gujranwala Bahawalpur Sargodha Gujrat Taxila Wah
Public 12 4 3 3 0 1 1 1 1 0

Private 17 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

Total 29 5 4 3 1 1 1 1 2 1

% 60.42 10.42 8.33 6.25 2.08 2.08 2.08 2.08 4.17 2.08

70

Higher Education is 60

highly polarized in 50

Punjab and Lahore

40

act as primate city

30

based on tertiary
20

or higher education
10

0
provision in Punjab
 Therefore, regional planning mainly
deals with inequalities, imbalances,
concentrations and polarizations and
alter them into:
egalitarianism, balanced development,
decentralized and interconnected,
generative systems to qualify as a
corrective science.
 Concluding Regional Planning…
• It related with critical scientific theory
• It is corrective mechanism of planning crises
• Dualism
• Growth management
• Inducing growth
• Supra urban but below national; intermediary
• Linkages, flows, and networks
• Holistic; Geddes's TRIADS (Place, Work, Folk)
• Regionalization
• Inter and intra regional perspective
 Regional Planning
Regional Planning is essentially a process of orderly
and systematic anticipation of the future of a region,
involving recommendations of the necessary
remedial and constructive actions by public and
private agencies to achieve the objectives of
the planed regional community.

S. Rengasamy
 Regional Planning

Regional Planning is the process of

formulating and clarifying social objectives
in the ordering of activities in supra-urban
space.

John Glasson
 Regional Planning

Regional Planning deals with the efficient

placement of land-use activities,
infrastructure, and settlement growth
across a larger area of land than an
individual city or town.

Wiki
Roberta Capello (2011)
Chronological order of
Regional Theories

Location
Theories

Regional
Growth
Theories

Local
Development
Theories

Local
Growth
Theories

Roberta Capello (2011)

 Theoretical Perspectives/Views

1. Classical Economist’s View:

The Classical economists hardly evince any interest in the spatial
dimension of economic development. They believed that factor flows/
market forces would bring equilibrium automatically.
They argued that wage and income levels among regions would not
last long. They further argued that labor would flow from (migration)

Labor
low wage region to high wage region, While capital will flow in the
reverse direction (i.e., from high wage region to low wage regions). Developing Developed
countries countries

capital
Later on, classicalists view failed, and many economists started
questioning the “Self Equilibrating Model” of the classical economists.

• Natural negative feedback loop/system

• Divorce b/w economy and space
 Theoretical Perspectives/Views

2. Marxist View:
Regional disparity is the characteristic feature of capitalism and is
aggravated by rivalry and competition and the search of maximal
profits and is the very nature of capitalist relations of production
and by the private ownership of the means of production.

• Sportsmanship versus gamesmanship

• Insatiable human appetite
 Theoretical Perspectives/Views
3. Perrouxian View:
French Economist Perroux , discovered that:

a. Growth does not appear everywhere and at the same time.

b. It manifests itself in points or poles of growth with variable intensities.
c. It spreads by different channels and with varying terminal effects for the
economy as a whole.
[Perroux heavily relied on Schumpeter’s theory of economic development to explain
why growth appears in a particular place. A/C to Schumpeter “development occurs
as a result of discontinuous spurts in a dynamic world”] According to Perroux once
growth emerges in a particular place, it becomes center of growing economic
activities and in their turn induces growth in the dependent regions. A/C to Perroux
the process of economic development is essentially unbalanced, and the centers of
growth may give birth to other centers or it may become a center of stagnation.
• William Ogburns theory of Cultural Lag
• Volcano theories in physical science
 The tectonic plate moves over a fixed hotspot
forming a chain of volcanoes

The volcanoes
get younger
from one end
to the other.
 Theoretical Perspectives/Views
4. Myrdal’s View:
The outstanding Swedish Economist Gunnar Myrdal was one of the first among western
scholars to pay attention to the grave consequences, not only economic but political as well,
which may result from the aggravation of disparities in economic development. In his book,
“Economic Theory and Underdeveloped Regions” he presented the “Cumulative
Causation Model”.

According to this model, economic development having started in some advantageous place
continues to develop in that place and the play of market forces normally tends to increase
rather than decrease inequalities between regions.
Myrdal goes on to argue that once growth starts through historical accident in a locality, “the
ever increasing internal and external economies–(lower average costs of production and
increased rate of output, availability of trained workers, communication facilities, access to
larger markets) tends to sustain the continuous growth at the expense of other localities and
regions where instead relative stagnation or regression became the pattern”.
 Theoretical Perspectives/Views
Myrdal explains the impact of the growing region (nucleus) on rest of the economy with the help of two
opposite kinds of forces, which he calls the “Spread effect” and “Back wash effect”.

1. “The Spread effect” – refers to all growth inducing effects i.e., inflow of raw materials, new
technologies, demand for the agricultural products, If strong enough, these forces may
start a cumulative expansionary process in the lagging regions.
2. “The Backwash effect”– refers to all adverse effects i.e., withdrawal of skilled labor from
underdeveloped regions, capital and goods–all of which rush to the dynamic center of
development. Due to the accumulation of concentration advantages, the backwash effect
predominates. This of course, increases the relative backwardness of underdeveloped
regions. Thus Myrdal made a synthesis of various elements involved in the process of
regional growth including agglomeration economies, factor flows, social environment, and
role of public policy.
• Natural positive feedback loop/system
• Urbanization process
 Theoretical Perspectives/Views

5. Hirschman’s View:
Albert Hirschman, an American Economic Professor, explained economic
growth process in terms strikingly similar those of Myrdal.
Hirschman felt that “ Inter regional inequality of growth is an inevitable
concomitant and condition of growth itself” .Hirschman explained his concept with
the help of two terms i.e.,” Trickling–down effect” and Polarization effect”. Trickling
down effect (analogous to Myrdal’s Spread effect) Polarization effect (analogous to
backwash effect).
Some economists criticized Hirschman’s theory of “economic transmission”–
for having created terminological confusion for the terms already accepted in the
scientific language.
 Regional Development

Regional development is the provision of aid and other

assistance to regions which are less economically developed.
Regional development may be domestic or international in
nature. The implications and scope of regional development
may therefore vary in accordance with the definition of a region,
and how the region and its boundaries are perceived internally
and externally.
 Why Regional Development Planning?

• The region is the intermediate spatial unit where national policies and
local interests merge, and where functional interrelationship of
development constraints and potentials is the most
concrete…intermediary
• The regional approach to national development makes it possible to deal
with the regions and their specific problems and potentials individually,
without loosing the national perspective…subsidiarity
• The problems of mass poverty, unemployment and occasional
employment can not be attacked entirely on a national or on a local level.
They must be tackled at the regional and national scales
simultaneously…addressing basic issues/needs
 Why Regional Development Planning?

• The regional approach brings the understanding of development and its

prospective outcomes closer to the local population concerned and who
are not only considered as an object of development, but an active
participant…fusion of people, space and money/capital
• As a precondition to development, a certain level of infrastructure in
the forms of roads, railways, ports, storage facilities, energy and
communication networks must be acquired. The location of such
infrastructures lies in the overall framework of regional development
scheme…infrastructural demands
 Why Regional Development Planning?

• Regions provide a convenient spatial base for coordinating the

activities of a wide variety of specialized ministerial sectoral
programs and projects…coordination platform for development:
• On one hand it refers to horizontal and vertical coordination of planning
activities on the regional level, and
• On the other hand, it refers to the aspects of participation aiming at the
increased involvement of the people at the grassroots levels.
 Why Regional Development Planning?
Basically the purpose of Regional Planning is to correct the distortions in the planning
process. General objectives of Regional Planning are as follows:

1. The clash between economic goals (formulated in terms of outputs only) and
the social development objectives and needs.
2. The concentration of industry and infrastructure in a few areas thus creating
enclaves of modernization in the midst of growing economic stagnation.
3. Undue emphasis on heavy industry to the neglect of agriculture
4. Promoting a pattern of education unsuited to the needs of general masses
5. Problems of inadequate employment opportunities.

S. Rengasamy
 Why Regional Development Planning?

6. Problems of inadequate exploiting of resources in a particular area.

7. Overcoming limitations on agriculture through the use of most
advanced technology.
8. The problem of improving access to and the distribution of the higher
order type of social facilities.
9. The problem of insecurity in some newly acquired territorial addition
to the state.
10. The problem of groups experiencing social economic or political
disadvantages in some area of the ‘nation state’.
11. The problem of experiencing physical discomfort through overcrowding
and congestion.

S. Rengasamy
Regional Development Planning:
a practical example
 Policies for Development in Delhi Regional Plan-2021

The analysis of the proposed population vis-à-vis actual population indicate

that with effective cooperation of the participating States, the policy to contain
the population of Delhi, and to harness the spread of the developmental
impulse and agglomeration economies generated by Delhi for harmonized,
balanced and environmentally sustainable spatio-economic development of the
NCR has been substantially successful.

The broad objective of the Regional Plan-2021 "for promoting growth

and balanced development of the Region” is to be achieved by
proceeding objectives:
 Specific Objectives in Delhi Regional Plan-2021
 Providing suitable economic base for future growth by identification and development of
regional settlements capable of absorbing the economic development impulse of NCT-Delhi.
 Providing efficient and economic rail and road based transportation networks (including mass
transport systems) well integrated with the land use patterns.
 Minimizing the adverse environmental impact that may occur in the process of development of
the National Capital Region.
 Developing selected urban settlements with urban infrastructural facilities such as transport,
power, communication, drinking water, sewerage, drainage, etc. comparable with NCT-Delhi.
 Providing a rational land use pattern in order to protect and preserve good agricultural land
and utilize unproductive land for urban uses.
 Promoting sustainable development in the region to improve quality of life.
 Improving efficiency of existing methods of resource mobilization and adopt innovative
methods of resource mobilization and facilitate, attract and guide private investment in
desired direction.
 Delineation of Regions
Regionalization
Classifications and types of Regions

Regionalism
 Regional Delineation; what is a region

“A region is a sub-system within a system

(the country itself)”.
If sub-systems develop greater inter-connectivity, the greater will be
the efficiency of the system. The essential task of planning therefore, is
to bind various regions into a system in which only those inequalities
remain which simply cannot be obliterated.

Efficient
Nodal connecti
Regional
growth vity
System
S. Rengasamy
 Regional delineation; a challenging task

“Regionalization is the process of delineating/making regions”

Harry W. Richardson wrote…

“Defining regions precisely is such a nightmare that most regional economists
prefer to shy away from the task, and are relieved when they work with
administrative regions on the grounds that policy considerations require it
or that data are not available for any other spatial units.”
 Classification and Types of Regions
A. Regions as per Regional/Locational Economics
1. Homogeneous Regions of various hues (Formal regions)
2. Nodal, polarized, heterogeneous (Functional regions)
3. Planning and Programming Regions
B. Regions as per Multi-level Planning
4. Macro region
5. State region/ Meso region
6. Micro/ Micro-Miner region
C. Regions as per ‘stages-of-development’ Analysis
7. Developed Region
8. Backward and Depressed Region (Vestigial regions)
9. Neutral and Intermediate Regions
D. Regions as per the Activity Status Analysis
10. Mineral regions
11. Manufacturing regions
12. Urban or Congested regions
 Types of Regions
A. Regions in Regional Economic Perspectives

1. Homogenous Region/Formal Regions

o They are formal regions and if the basis of homogeneity is topography, rainfall, climate
or other geo-physical characteristic, they become geographer’s darlings.
o Economic homogeneity is more relevant for planning. The structure of employment,
the occupational pattern, the net migration, the density of population, the resource and
industrial structure, if similar in a space, the regions become homogeneous in economic
sense. The greater the economic similarities, the greater the interest the economists will
have in homogeneous regions.
o Sometimes, however, a clear-cut homogeneous region may have, as many differences in
sub-regions as to make them quite different yet a region may remain ‘homogeneous’,
because of folk, work, and spatial commonality.
The Cultural Map
of Pakistan
 Types of Regions
2. Polarized / Nodal / Heterogeneous /Functional Regions
o Polarized or nodal regions look for a center—a large town usually considered for some
service delivery. Its influence extends beyond the city area. The villages and even
towns are dependent upon it for services and marketing.
o There is little concern for uniformity when a polarized or nodal region is taken.
Cohesiveness is due to internal flows, contacts and interdependencies. The nodal
regions are functional regions between which there are flows of men, material,
money, and information. The city region need not correspond to the administrative
region as hinterland as several clear-cut regions may be served by a city.
o If the ‘size of the mass’ of the nodes is large, then there will be great pull effects of the
center. However, as the distance increases, the costs of overcoming frictions will rise
and the people of different areas will look for a different nodal point.
 Types of Regions

3. Planning Regions
Planning region is an area that is large enough to enable substantial changes in the distribution
of population and employment to take place within its boundaries, yet which is small enough
for its planning problems to be viewed as a whole – Keeble.
In demarcating planning regions, administrative convenience assumes paramount importance,
but for the sake of administrative convenience one should not forget about the homogeneity
and nodality. So, homogeneity, nodality and administrative convenience should be given
equal importance in making planning regions.

Functional Administrative Planning

Formal Regions
Regions Regions Regions
 Types of Regions
Characteristics of Planning Regions
● Contiguity; Geographically it should be a contiguous unit, though could be sub divided into plain, hilly
tract, coastal (Pakistan’s case).
● Social cultural homogeneity; The people of the region should have social and cultural cohesiveness.
● Separate data collection unit; The region should have a separate unit for data collection and analysis.
● The region should have an economic existence; which can be assessed from statistical records.
● People’s participation; It should be small enough to ensure people’s participation in its development.
● Span of control; It should be under one administrative agency.
● Optimum size; It should not be too small. Its geographical size should be big enough to exploit resources
● Minimum (or) narrow disparity; It should have fairly homogeneous physical and economic structure.
● Presence of growth point; It should have one or more growth points.
● Consensus in defining problems and solving it; There should be common aspirations and approaches to
their solution; it should permit and encourage competition but not rivalry or apathy between areas

S. Rengasamy
 Types of Regions
B. Multi-level Planning perspective
4. Macro Regions
Macro region is naturally bigger. Macro region can be a state/province or even a
group of states/Provinces, if they are not big enough. A Macro-major region can
be a zone in a country, which may comprise of a few States.
In a sense macro regions are second in hierarchy, next to the national level. It is
also possible that a physical macro region may comprise parts of different states
of a country for project planning purposes. (e.g., big river valley projects, an
electric grid of different states, and, for the purpose of a particular activity
(facility) planning, the macro region will be parts of different states.
 Types of Regions
5. Meso Regions
Meso region can be identified with a ‘division’ of a state. In case of India, Chattisgarh
Region, Bundelkhand Region, Mahakoshal region is usually a subdivision of a state,
comprising of several districts. In Pakistan, the Divisional jurisdiction may corresponds to
Meso regions.
There should be some identifiable affinity in the area which may even facilitate planning.
It can be cultural or administrative region and it will be even better if it is a
homogeneous physical region(resource) region. A meso region can also become a nodal
region provided the combined micro regions or parts there of can be developed in a
complementary manner.
 Types of Regions
6. Micro Regions
In multi-level planning, district is the micro region. It becomes the lowest territorial unit of planning in the
hierarchy of planning regions. The most important reason why district is the most viable micro region for
planning is the existence of database and compact administration. This is the area, which is viable for plan
formulation with administration for plan implementation and monitoring.
A metropolitan area can be one micro region and the area of influence can be another micro region. A nodal
point is also a micro region, though in many cases micro regions are basically rural areas, which may have a
number of minor nodes without any organizational hierarchy influencing the entire area. The basic
characteristic of a micro region is its smallness. There can be some specific micro regions such as belts of
extraction of mineral or a reclaimed area, or a not-so-big command area of an irrigational project.
7. Micro – Minor Region
This is the region which is associated with, what is called, the grass-root planning. A micro-minor region can be
a block (in India) for which also data exists now and for which there may be a plan. In case of Pakistan, tehsils
may qualify for Micro-Minor regions. At block level, most of the officers will be more concerned with the
implementation of the plans than formulating the plans. Minimum needs can be satisfied with the production
of basic goods with the help of low entropy local resources.
 Types of Regions
C. Regions based on Development status
8. Developed / Development Regions
Developed regions are naturally those which are having a high rate of accretion in goods
and services i.e., their share in the GDP of the country is relatively higher. This may be
with or without rich natural resources by most certainly because of the use of upgraded
technology by highly skilled and motivated persons. The locus of infrastructure facilities in
abundance will put a region in the state of “nothing succeeds like success” and the region
may continue to forge ahead of the backward regions at a higher rate.
A developed region may become ‘overdeveloped’ in certain respects e.g., it may suffer
from the diseconomies of congestion and the Perroux’s ‘growth pole’ becomes
overcritical here. Infrastructure costs become very high and people can go into the jitters
due to pollution and stresses of various types.
 Types of Regions
9. Backward/Underdeveloped/Depressed Regions

There can be ‘backward or depressed’ regions in the developing as well as the developed
economies. Backward economies are thoroughly depressed regions. Regions, in which the
economy is largely subsistence one, have in the most co-existed with the modern sector
regions since long. There is development even in these regions but these regions have not
come out of the low level equilibrium trap.
There can be region, which may not be at subsistence level but may be relatively
backward. Lack of infrastructure facilities, adverse geo-climate conditions, low investment
rate, high rare of growth of population, and low levels of urbanization and industrialization
are causes and consequences of backwardness.
In less developed countries, even the most ancient occupation (agriculture) is backward
and unless it is made progressive with massive real and financial input support, the region
cannot come out of backwardness.
 Types of Regions
10. Vestigial Regions/Outback Regions
As some regions inhabited by the red Indians in USA/Australia or tribals in India can
remain backward and may even remain near the subsistence level. The inhibitions may
have ancient traditions and may be smudged in their surroundings, but the per capita
income may be much lower than in the neighboring regions.

11. Neutral Regions/ Intermediate regions

New towns and satellite belts are designated as ‘neutral’ regions and they promise
good prospects of further development because here further employment generation
and income propagation is possible without congestion. Such regions can be
demarcated around urban centers. Intermediate regions are those regions, which are
‘islands of development around a sea of stagnation’. Some metropolitan regions are
surrounded by areas of utter penury. It should be the task of the planners to develop
linkage activities that the hinterland of such intermediate regions also develops.
Outback Region in Australia
 Types of Regions
D. Regions based on the activity status
12. Mineral regions
Many mineral regions promise high growth rates for the region as well as for the prosperity of the country,
unless the region suffers from ‘Bihar Syndrome’, in India.
As the mines continue to yield sufficient minerals and the costs are also not prohibitive, not only the mineral-
producing region develops but it helps other regions also to develop. After the minerals exhaust, the region
will bear degraded look; people move away to other areas and the erstwhile area will bear a deserted look.
Germany took great pains to rehabilitate such areas and vast pits and trenches were suitably reclaimed for
various purposes like water storage, eco-forestry and even cultivation after enriching the soil. If new deposits
of minerals cannot be discovered, there can be several ways of reclaiming wasteland and developing non-
mineral based activities.
Regional planning will require a long-term plan for developing such regions after extraction is no longer a
profitable activity. The Middle East countries have made adequate planning to diversify their economies so
that after the oil wealth exhausts their economies do not relapse to backwardness.
 Types of Regions
13. Manufacturing Regions and Congested/Agglomerative Regions
Some regions become big manufacturing regions not because they have natural resources but
because of the infrastructure development, momentum of an early start, continued government
support etc. Autonomous, imitative, supplementary, complementary, induced and speculative
investments keep in giving strength to the manufacturing regions.
It would be prudent not to develop narrow manufacturing base, otherwise territorial
specialization can become a problem if the crop supplying the raw materials fails or if the minerals
which are base for the industries, exhaust—the case of Japan. In such regions the internal and
external economies are available in ever-greater measure and such regions keep on developing.
When all the thresholds are crossed, such regions become too congested and the diseconomies
overwhelm the economies of production—High density, increasing pollution, reduction in the
quality of life result.

Scale Localization Urbanization Globalization

economies economies economies economies
 Types of Regions

14. Cultural Regions

A cultural region can also be quite well demarcated. (French Canada
and English Canada are such regions). In India various states are
demarcated on the basis of language and culture primarily. There are
affinities of cultural origin in such region. A rich cultured region should
be rich in economic terms also.
 Regionalization
Regionalization is the process of delineating regions, but each time depending
upon the purpose for which the region is to be delineated.
For example, if the intention is to develop an arid region, the ‘region’ will be differently
defined, including only arid areas. If the congestion is to be removed then the most
congested and polluted areas will be included in the ‘congested region’. If the intention is
substantially reduce poverty and unemployment, then a ‘depressed region’ is to be
delineated. The homogeneity of a region will differ with the purpose for which delineation is
being made.
Geographers were always interested in the process of regionalization and were very fond of
pictorial characterization rather than scientific explanation. (Pokshishevskly). Geographers
believed that there is some sort of determinism in economic development. USSR
geographers even coined the word fortunatov for a region well endowed with resources.
 Regionalization

Methods of regional delimitation

1. Fixed Index Method
Under the fixed index method, a number of characteristics common to regions
are chosen (e.g. population, density, per capita income, unemployment, rate of
industrialization). An arbitrary weight is given to each index and a single weighted
mean is obtained for each region, then contiguous regions with similar indices
are grouped together in order to minimize the variance within the group.
 Regionalization

Methods of regional delimitation

2. The Variable Index Method
Under the variable index method, variable weights are assigned to highlight
the different regions. The weight given to each activity, in each region is
different, in accordance with the value or the volume regionally produced.
For example, if region A is the wheat region and the region B is the coal
region, the weight of the wheat index will be the largest in the former, and
the weight of the coal index will be the largest in the latter.
This method is good when those criteria can be compared with each other.
However in those cases where compatibility is not possible (e.g., in case
where one feature is literacy and the other is steel production) it becomes
necessary to employ the cluster method.
 Regionalization
Methods of regional delimitation
3. The Cluster Method
Cluster means grouping together. This concept is used to implement IRDP. This concept
is used in the planning as a strategy to strengthen lateral links and to dissolve growing
vertical links in the settlement system. Such a cluster while providing greater viability
and threshold for development efforts will also create for themselves a greater
bargaining power in bringing about reciprocity in exchange of goods and services. Both
at the macro and micro level clustering can be done by:
1. superimposing of maps and
2. by developing a composite index of development
 Regionalization; physiographic example
1. The Great Mountain Wall • Western Himalayas
• Eastern Himalayas
2. The Great Plain (Sutlaj, Beas,Ravi • North Western
Ganga,Upper Ganga, • Upper Ganga
Yamuna,BrahmaPutra) • Middle Ganga
• Delta
• Assam Valley
3. The Great Plateau of Peninsular India • North Western Peninsular India
• North Eastern Peninsular Plateau
• Maharastra
• Karnataka Plateau
• Tamilnadu Plateau
• Andhra Plateau
4. Coastal Plains • West Coast
• East Coast
5. The Island • Laccadive, Minicoy & Amindiv, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

SP Chaterjee (1965)
 Regionalization; economic example
1. V. Nath Resources development regions Soil climate topography 15 regions
& divisions of India land use
2. Bhat & Rao Regional planning for Distribution of natural 11 regions
India resources
3. Sen Gupta & Population resource Population density, 3 regions
Galina dasyuk regions growth rate, resource dynamic,
potentiality, levels of prospective,
socio-economic disparity Problematic
4. K.l. Vij & Energy resource Energy & power 8 regions
Chandra regionalization
5. Sri. Hasim Inter regional Movement of 61 6 macro
linkages & economic commodities regions
regionalization
6. Gidadhubly & Economic Movement of 5 selected 5 macro regions
Bhat regionalization commodities

7. Chandrasekara Regional development &
planning regions
8. Sengupta Resource development
Land & raw materials 13 macro regions
for industrial development 35 micro regions
Homogeneity, nodality, 7 macro regions
Production specialization, 42 meso regions
energy resources
Can you do all this for Pakistan
or Punjab Province???
Dualism /Inter and Intra /Schism
Perspectives in Regional Planning

Lecture - 3
 Inter and Intra Regional Perspectives in RDP
For a convenient understanding, theories explaining development in spatial context
may be divided into two categories;
● those which emphasized the play of intra-regional factors leading to
development or underdevelopment, and
● those which stressed the role of spatial interaction between developed and
underdeveloped regions, largely detrimental to the interest of the later.

Modernization Theory Dependency Theory

Intra regional Inter regional

perspective perspective
 1. Intra Regional Perspectives Low real income

Low savings
Theories in this group assign importance to factors relating to Low productivity Low buying power
natural resources, technical advancement, and social institutions Low demand

that hindered or accelerated the process of development.

Low rate of
capital Low investment

Nurkse’s (1958) ‘vicious circle theory’

formation

Nurkse’s (1958) ‘vicious circle theory’ presented an attractive idea that

underdeveloped countries were trapped in a series of interlocking
problems of poverty and stagnation. The starting point was poverty,
which was an insurmountable obstacle to development.

If this thesis was valid then it would be difficult to understand as

how the presently developed countries, which were not so, have
made advancement.
 1. Intra Regional Perspectives
Spiralism

Boeke
Boeke (1953) attributed underdevelopment in the oriental world to limited
needs, backward sloping supply curves of effort and risk taking, and an absence of profit
seeking attitude. He stressed that the Societal
eastern society was molded by fatalism and
Dynamics
resignation.
His gloomy analysis was rightly questioned by a number of scholars including Lewis,
Baner, and Yarney.
Societal Statics
McClelland
McClelland (1961) found a high association between a country’s level of achievement
motivation and rate of its economic development.
 1. Intra Regional Perspectives

Hagen & Hoselitz

Hagen (1962) postulated ‘authoritarian theory’ holding feudal bringing up of the
children responsible for the economic development of a country, In his ‘theory of
social deviance’, Hoselitz (1960) assigned key role to ‘deviants’ in
development. He defined deviants as the one who break traditions, adopt
innovations and thereby accelerate the process of transformation from
underdevelopment to development.

George (1981)
Accused the local elites of the third world countries as the real cause
of underdevelopment, in postcolonial situation. According to her these elites
remained the natural friends of western developed countries and exploited the
native poor for their own vested interest and retarded the process of
development.
 1. Intra Regional Perspectives

Berry (1969)
Underlined the development role of integrated urban
hierarchy in which innovations filtered down from cities to
towns and from both to their surrounding countryside…Cities
as Engine of Growth

Llyod and Dicken

Llyod and Dicken (1972) observed that definable hierarchy of
central places was a characteristic feature of an economically
developed region.
 1. Intra Regional Perspectives
Johnson (1965)
He associated development inequality with varying access to urban
market. Some other theories described the sequence of development
phases, and viewed the existing gap between developed and
developing countries as a matter of time lag. The chief exponents of
this historical thesis were German scholars namely List, Brune,
Hilderbrand, Bucher, Schmoller and Sombart.

Rostow (1960)
Borrowing an analogy from the flight of an airplane he noted five
stages in economic transformation of a capitalist society; traditional
society, precondition for take-off, take-off, drive to maturity, and age
of High Mass consumption. The different countries of the world could
be assigned to a particular stage a given point in time.
 Tools/Techniques for Intra regional analysis
Theories reviewed above explained development and underdevelopment in an area and regional
disparities accruing out of them through the intrinsic conditions. Role of social, psychological
and spatial factors were emphasized. The historical perspective was strong in most of them.

# Intra regional tools Principal analytical questions

1 Intra regional
compendium
2 Income measures
3 Income and product
accounts
4 Input-output analysis
5 Mix and share analysis
What are the comparative socio-economic profile of the
regions subunits?
What are the levels of different types of income in the subunits
of the region
What are the levels of income in different parts of the region in
association with their different patterns of production
What are the inter industry linkages and their multiplier effects
among different subunits of the region
How has the changing economic composition of the area been
reflected in different industries in the subunits of the region
 Tools/methods/Techniques for Intra regional analysis
# Intra regional tools
6 Location Quotient
7 Indexes of concentration and
association
8 General interaction studies
9 Extended commodity trade
system analysis
10 Income accrual analysis
Principal analytical questions
What are the comparative levels of concentration in
selected characteristics or activities among different
subunits of the region
To what degree are selected activities or characteristics
geographically concentrated in the region in
comparison with selected attributes of regions subunits
What are the major types of trade interactions among
subunits of the region, and what do they imply about
regions economic growth potentials
What are the marketing chains within the region for
important area commodities, and how well do specific
links in these chains operate
To what extent and how do export sales translate into
greater volumes of income accruing in the various
subunits of the region
 Tools/methods/Techniques for
Intra regional analysis

# Intra regional tools Principal analytical questions

11 Resource hazard inventory What are the distribution of key natural resources and
hazards, and their implications in the region?

12 Resource suitability What are the suitability of natural resources in different

classification parts of the region?

13 Resource depletability analysis What are the comparative depletability of major natural
resources in different parts of the region?

14 Resources sector reports What are the relationships between major sectors of
economic activity and key natural resources at different
places in the region?

15 User origin analysis Where do people served by different socioeconomic

functions of towns in the area reside?
 Tools/methods/techniques for
Intra regional analysis

# Intra regional tools Principal analytical questions

16 Settlement typology What are the pattern of dominant economic functions
scheme among towns in the regions settlement system?
17 Settlement scalogram What are the hierarchical pattern of socioeconomic
analysis functions in the regions settlement system?

18 Market center studies What are the major trade functions of the regions markets?
What are the markets for those functions? and
How are regions market centers linked through trade?
2. Inter Regional Perspectives
Theories emphasizing spatial interaction

The second group of theories, with spatial interaction as the main analytical
framework, viewed development and underdevelopment as the two facets of the
same coin. Development in one region was at the cost of underdevelopment in some
other due to operation of ‘backwash effect’.
Western colonial power exploited the third world through direct control during the
colonial period and through tied trade and by extension of their aid and model of
development in postcolonial period.
The developed world created third world and third world created fourth world in their
own countries by the greed of elites, arrogance of bureaucrats, hypocrisy of
politicians and of western trained pseudo planners and academicians.
 2. Inter Regional Perspectives
In just contrast some theories, such as ‘Growth Pole’ of Perroux, Boudville and
Richardson ‘Spatial Diffusion’ of Haggerstrand (1967): and ‘Growth Foci’
Functionalism
of Misra et al. (1976) gave due recognition to spread effects of development. These
Radicalism
theories envisaged that if metropolitan development is sustained at high level,
differences between center and periphery may be eliminated, as the economic
dynamism of the major cities trickle down to smaller places and ultimately into
most tradition bound peripheral areas
The spatial interaction theories derived their meaning from three different
context of space economy;
1.free market mechanism
2.colonial setting and
3.neocolonial situation
 2. Inter Regional Perspectives

1. Free market mechanism

was always biased in favor of development

areas. ‘Core-Periphery Theory’ by Friedmann
(1966), ‘Circular and Cumulative Causation
Theory’ by Myrdal (1957) represented
this context.
 2. Inter Regional Perspectives

2. The second was Colonial Setting in which the imperial powers flourished at the cost
of their colonies siphoning off the later’s resources. This was well illustrated by colonial
dependency theory of Kundu and Raza (1982), and in the writing of Marxist scholars such as
Davey (1975) and Pavlov e.t all, (1975).

3. The third context was Postcolonial Situation in which the newly independent developing
countries remained dependent on developed countries and found it difficult to extricate
themselves from the network of exploitation. Amin (1974) called this process ‘Peripheral
Capitalism’ and Santos used the term ‘dependent capitalism’ (1978). The other exponents of
this idea were Baram (1970), Frank (1972), Fanon (1963) and Potekin (1962).
 Tools/methods/Techniques for
Inter regional analysis

# Inter regional tools Principal analytical questions

1 Area compendium What is the overall socioeconomic profile of the larger

region?
2 Sectoral analysis What are the salient characteristics and local economic
roles of regions sectors?

3 Income measures What are the levels of different types of income in the area?

4 Income and product What is the value of production in the area and how is this
accounts value expressed as regions income?

5 Economic base analysis What is the general relationship between area export sales
and the total employment in the area/region?
 Tools/methods/Techniques for
Inter regional analysis

# Inter regional tools Principal analytical questions

6 Input output analysis What are the natures and economic effects of inter industry
production linkages in the region?

7 Production linkage What are the natures of major forward and backward
studies production linkages across the borders of the region?

8 Flow studies What volumes of goods flow to and from markets outside
the region?

9 Mix and share analysis How has the industry makeup of the area economy
affected levels of employment in the region?

10 Location Quotient How specialized is the area economy, relative to the

country, in certain activities normally associated with
specific characteristics of the region?
 Hypotheses on Regional Disparities
On the basis of study of trend and pattern of regional disparities in the development of different regions
and various countries four hypotheses were extended:

The first hypothesis was Spatial Convergence based on development experiences of the
western developed countries. It was stated that regional disparities tend to lessen with the
process of development.
The hypothesis found its support in the ‘Spread and Backwash Theory’ of Myrdal (1957), ‘Trickle
Down and Polarization Effect Theory’ of Hirschman (1958), Urban Hierarchy Thesis
for Development Innovation of Berry (1969), Growth Pole Theory of Perroux, Boudville
and Richardson, Spatial Diffusion of Haggerstrand (1967) and Growth Foci of Misra et al., (1976).
 Hypothesis on regional disparities

The spatial convergence hypothesis was falsified in case of third world developing countries
where regional disparities increased with the process of development. In these countries the
Self-Perpetuation Hypothesis; the second hypothesis was based on the findings of Latin
American and African situation.
The thesis found its support in colonial and neocolonial dependency theory of Frank (1972),
Amin (1974) and Kundu and Raza (1982). Additional point that favored this hypothesis was
development planning based on the principle of techno-economic efficiency and demonstration
effort. In the capital scarce third world countries with the meager development resources were
invested in economically efficient regions that accelerated the regional disparities.
 Hypothesis on regional disparities

The third hypothesis, which was Concentration Cycle Hypothesis, is a

synthesis of convergence and divergence hypothesis. It is well known as Inverted
‘U’ Shape Hypothesis of Williamson (1965). It denotes that regional
disparities increases in the beginning of development process remain constant for
some time and ultimately decrease with the process of development. It may be
true in case of very long duration of time.

However, the experience of developing countries showed that there was no visible
sign for the decrease of regional disparities in these countries. All these facts lead
to fourth hypothesis that there is no association between development and
regional disparities. In short it may be stated as ‘no trade-off hypothesis.’
 Role of Regional Planning
The main purpose of regional planning is to ensure optimal utilization of space and optimal
distribution of human activities over the space. To achieve this, it plays either.

Passive or indicative role…Intra regional

is to point out how the sectoral investments decision can be integrated at the
regional level and the advantages there of.

Active or imperative role….Inter regional….Regionalism

is formulating and then implementing measures to assist the growth of certain
regions, while restraining the growth of others.
 ?
What is Schism
Von Thunen's
RegionalLand se
U Model
 oV n Thunen's
RegionalLand Use Model

Regional Location economics

Planning Economic geography

Spatial economics

Regional economics

Agglomeration economics
 Von Thunen's Regional Land Use
Model

If modern economics began with Adam

Smith (1723-1790), modern location
economics began with Von Thunen (1826).
Johann Heinrich von Thünen
He was the first to develop a basic (1783-1850)

analytical model of the relationships

between markets, production, and
distance (Transportation Costs).

Transport
Production Markets
cost
 Modern Urban Planning:
Historical antecedents
The roots of the UK town and country planning system—emerged in the
immediate post-war years—evolved over the previous half century in response
to industrialization and urbanization issues such as:
● Pollution Regional Urban
● Urban sprawl, and Planning Planning
● Ribbon development

These concerns were expressed through the work of thinkers such as Ebenezer
Howard and the philanthropic industrialists such as the Lever Brothers and
the Cadbury family, and architects such as Raymond Unwin and Patrick
Abercrombie. Some of the initial planning legislation included:
● The Housing and Town Planning Act 1909
● Housing and Town Planning Act 1919
● Town Planning Act 1925 and
● Town and Country Planning Act 1932
 Chronological order of
Regional Theories

Location
Theories

Regional
Growth
Theories

Local
Development
Theories

Local
Growth
Theories

Roberta Capello (2011)

Chronological order of
Regional Theories

Location
Theories

Regional
Growth
Theories

Local
Development
Theories

Local
Growth
Theories

Roberta Capello (2011)

 Von Thunen's Regional
Land Use Model Economic Darwinism
Survival of the fittest rule—
Von Thunen
For this purpose he looked upon the agricultural
landscape. He explored that the relative costs of
transporting different agricultural commodities
to the central market determined the agricultural
land use around a city.
The most productive activities will thus compete
for the closest land to the market and activities not
productive enough will locate further away.

Social Darwinism
Survival of the fittest rule—Herbert Spencer
 Idealistic Realistic
Visualization Visualization
The model had a set of assumptions corresponding to
early 19th century conditions:

1. Isolation; There is one isolated market in an Centrality

Isolated
Soil Quality
isolated state having no interactions (trade) State
with the outside.
2. Ubiquitous land characteristics; The land
surrounding the market is entirely flat and its No Rivers
fertility uniform. Assumptions Flat Land mountains
3. Transportation; It is assumed there are no
transport infrastructures such as roads or
rivers and that farmers are transporting their Same
Climate Farmers behave
production to the market using horses and Transport
Constant rationally…
Means
carts.

Transportation costs are dependent on commodity type being transported as well

as distance to the market involved.
The model compares the relationships between production cost, the market
price and the transport cost of an agricultural commodity and is expressed
as follows:

R = Y(p-c) - Yfm
R = Rent per unit of land
Y = Yield per unit of land
p = Market price per unit of yield
c = Average production costs per unit of yield
m = Distance from market (in kilometers or miles)
f = Freight rate per unit of yield and unit of distance
 All agricultural land uses are maximizing their productivity (Rent)—dependent
upon their location from the market (Central City).
The role of farmer is to maximize their profit—the market price minus the
transport and production costs.

Therefore, the following uses/activities tend

to locate near the market:

1. the most productive activities (gardening

or milk production) or
2. activities with high transport costs
(firewood, vegetables)
 Idealistic Realistic
Visualization Visualization
The aforementioned figures provides an overview of Von Thunen’s
agricultural land use model with the basic assumptions being applied
(isolation, ubiquity, transportation). It can be divided in two parts:

1. The pure isolated state over an isotropic plain (left). In this case, the
model takes a shape of perfect concentric circles.
2. The potential impacts of modified transport costs (a navigable river) and
the presence of a competing center (right).

The relationships between agricultural land use and market distance are very
difficult to establish in the contemporary context. However, a strong
relationship between the transport system and regional agricultural land use
patterns do exists.
 Rent Gradients by Land Use
500

450

400

350

300
R(Wheat)
Rent

250 R(Barley)
R(Oats)

200

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Distance
 Land Use Cutpoints

30.0

25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0
Wheat
0.0 Barley
Oats
Rural Land Rent Gradients
and Land Use Zones
 Application of Von Thunens Model to
Continental USA

Forest
Dairy Wheat
Dairy
Forest Wheat Corn and Vegetables Beef Cattle Vegetables
Soybeans and Sheep
Beef Cattle Corn and
and Sheep Soybeans
Specialty
Cotton and Crops
Tobacco
Cotton and
Tobacco

Specialty
Assumptions Crops
Assumptions 1. New York City the only market
1. New York City the only market 2. Crops ranked by rent paying ability
2. Crops ranked by rent paying ability 3. No terrain variation
3. No terrain or climatic variation A 4. Climatic variation considered B
 Assignment:

Search for Urban Land Rent Model

Please, Submit it in the form of an

assignment by next week
 William Alonso 1933-99

…Urban land Rent Gradient