Waldemar A.
K l e m m 1
Hexavalent Chromium in Portland Cement
REFERENCE: Klemm, W. A., "Hexavalent Chromium in Port-
land Cement," Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, CCAGPD, Vol.
16, No. 1, June 1994, pp. 43-47.
ABSTRACT: Due to increasing environmental and health-related
concerns, the amount of hexavalent chromium found in portland
cement is coming under increasing scrutiny. Hexavalent chromium
has been classified as a carcinogen, and its release into the air or
groundwater is regulated and controlled under many Federal and
State regulations.
In addition to carcinogenic risks, soluble chromium has long been
linked to chromate-sensitive contact dermatitis of workers exposed
to wet cement or concrete. As a consequence, Scandinavian coun-
tries have limited the amount of hexavalent chromium allowed in
portland cement. This is generally accomplished by intergrinding
clinker and gypsum with the chemical reducing agent, ferrous sul-
fate, which maintains hexavalent chromium below 2 ppm. Devel-
opments in this area are reviewed.
Studies at a California cement plant showed that more than half
of the hexavalent chromium in the cement was contributed by the
grinding media in the finish mill. Attempts to reduce the chromium
to its benign trivalent form with ferrous sulfate failed in full-scale
trial grinds, due to oxidation of the ferrous iron. This indicates that
further research is needed to find better methods for introducing
ferrous sulfate into the cement or to develop more stable reducing
agents.
KEYWORDS: portland cement, concrete, hexavalent chromium,
chromate, ferrous sulfate, ferrous iron, dermatitis, cement burns
As early as 1950, it was recognized in Europe that soluble
chromium compounds in portland cement contributed to the se-
rious and debilitating medical condition known as cement der-
matitis [1], which results in skin irritation, ulceration, and pain-
ful scarring. Soluble chromium, generally as chromate or
dichromate, is chromium in the 6 + valence state and is referred
to as hexavalent chromium, Cr(VI), or Cr 6+. Such sensitivity
may slowly develop in masons and concrete workers after many
years of exposure to soluble chromium in cement.
The high pH of hydrating cement, due to its lime and alkali
content, has also long been known to result in cement bums.
Second or third degree burns may occur after relatively short
exposures to fresh mortar or concrete through unprotected cloth-
ing and require prompt medical attention, including, in the most
severe cases, skin grafts [2]. Allergic chromate hypersensitivity
can greatly exacerbate the severity of the cement burn.
In recent years, the International Agency for Research on
Cancer (IARC) has classified hexavalent chromium as a known
human carcinogen by inhalation exposure pathways [3,4]. As a
1Senior principal scientist, Construction Technology Laboratories,
Inc., 5420 Old Orchard Rd., Skokie, IL 60077-1030.
© 1994 by the American Society for Testing and Materials
43
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consequence, hexavalent chromium exposure is regulated by
State and Federal agencies including the State of California's
Safe Drinking Water and Toxics Enforcement Act of 1986
(Proposition 65) and the Toxics " H o t Spots" Information and
Assessment Act of 1987 (AB2588), as well as the Federal Gov-
ernment's Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA),
the EPA's Boiler and Industrial Furnace (BIF) regulations under
RCRA, and the Clean Air Act. For example, California (Prop-
osition 65) has identified a chemical-specific daily intake, rep-
resenting " n o significant risk" of 0.001 I~g/day for hexavalent
chromium [5]. With regard to exposure assessment, hexavalent
chromium has been determined by the State to be carcinogenic
by inhalation only.
The hexavalent chromium content of portland cement may
range between 1 and 30 ppm (Ixg/g or mg/kg), but is usually
less than 20 ppm. The major sources of chromium are the kiln
feed raw materials, refractory brick in the kiln, and wear metal
from the grinding media and liners in the mills. In cement, the
hexavalent chromium content is usually less than 30% of the
total chromium present. It has been found that when clinker is
ground with chrome alloy balls (17 to 28% chromium), the hexa-
valent chromium content of the cement may increase to over
twice that present in the original clinker.
In Denmark and Sweden, it is prohibited by law to use cement
or concrete containing soluble chromates (hexavalent chromium)
at concentrations in excess of 2 ppm of dry portland cement,
in order to prevent human exposure in cases where skin contact
is unavoidable [6]. A patented cement manufacturing "anti-
chromate eczema process" involves the intergrinding of clinker,
gypsum, and ferrous sulfate heptahydrate (FeSO4-7H20) to
chemically reduce hexavalent chromium to its benign tfivalent state.
The resulting oxidation-reduction reaction is: Cr 6+ + 3Fe 2÷ ----
Cr 3+ + 3Fe 3+.
Review of the Medical, Chemical, and Patent Literature
Ellis and Freeman [1] suggested that the connection between
chromate sensitivity and dermatitis in cement workers was first
made in 1950 by Jaeger and Pelloni [7] in Switzerland. Denton,
Keenan, and Birmingham [8] reported research that demon-
strated that a patient with a strong hypersensitivity to dichromate
showed repeated allergic contact-type dermatitis reactions to
aqueous cement washings adjusted to pH 5.5, containing 1 to 4
ppm hexavalent chromium. Control subjects did not react to the
test solutions. Subsequently, this led to a number of studies of
the chromium content in portland cement and the source of that
chromium. Johnston and Calnan [9] concluded that the chro-
44 CEMENT,CONCRETE, AND AGGREGATES
mium content of cement is derived mainly from the raw mate-
rials and only partly from the refractory and the chrome alloy
bails in the mills. A study of the chromium content of East
German cements was reported by Bergt in 1961 [10]. The range
of water-soluble chromium contents for the 147 portland ce-
ments tested was 6.0 to 11.7 ppm. It was determined that 31%
of the chromium content originated with the raw materials, the
burning process contributed 62%, and the remainder came from
the mill liners and the grinding media. Matouschek [11], in a
study of the effect of chrome-magnesite refractory on the chro-
mium content of clinker, found that with new refractory there
was a "chromium surge" that occurred approximately six h after
the kiln had been fired. However, after this event, the chromate
content of the clinker was not increased by refractory bricks
having a moderate content of chromium oxide. Pisters [12] in-
vestigated the chromium contents of about 300 portland and
portland blastfurnace cements, and found that approximately
20% of the total chromium content exists as soluble hexavalent
chromate (1 to 30 ppm Cr6+). It was determined that the greatest
part of the chromium in cement comes from the raw materials.
There was no significant increase in the chromium content due
to either kiln refractory or chrome alloy metals in the grinding
mills.
The earliest work relating to the study and chemical reduction
of hexavalent chromium in portland cement was conducted by
Fregert and G.ruvberger [13,14]. It was reported, in agreement
with previous studies, that the water-extractable hexavalent chro-
mium represents only a fraction of the total chromium present
in the cement. It was found that the soluble chromate (Cr6÷)
could be readity reduced to its insoluble trivalent form (Cr3+),
with no adverse effects on cement performance by the addition
of ferrous sulfate. Other reducing agents, such as sodium thio-
sulfate, sodium metabisulfite, and ascorbic acid were evaluated,
but found to be unsatisfactory because even at high concentra-
tions they did not achieve complete chemical reduction of hex-
avalent chromium. Finely divided metals such as zinc and alu-
minum powder required large" amounts to be effective and
presented handling difficulties. It was found that sodium dithio-
• 4
nate was quite effective at lowconcentrations, but deteriorated
rapidly with storage. Further laboratory investigations by Fre-
gert, Gruvberger, and Sandahl [15] confirmed the efficacy of
ferrous sulfate (FeSO4"7H20) and determined that 0.35% (w/w)
of ferrous sulfate heptahydrate is sufficient to completely reduce
20 ppm Cr(VI) in cement to less than 0.01 ppm Cr(VI) as an
aqueous slurry. In simulated grinding tests, it was found that due
to high temperature and high humidity, the ferrous sulfate lost
some of its reducing capacity and less of the hexavalent chro-
mium present was reduced.
As a consequence of the pioneering work by Fregert et al.,
serious efforts were made, particularly in Scandinavia, to de-
velop and to patent commercial processes for the production of
hexavalent chromium-free portland cement by means of inter-
grinding portland clinker with ferrous sulfate. In 1982, Rasmus-
sen [16] filed an International Patent Application, assigned to
Aalborg Portland A/S, which claimed a method for intergrinding
clinker, gypsum, and ferrous sulfate to produce a portland
cement product substantially free of water-soluble chromate.
The ferrous sulfate hydrate, in a preferred amount of 0.4% by
weight, was added as a dry material to either the feed or dis-
charge ends of a variety of different finish mill configurations.
It was important that the residence time and temperature of the
ferrous sulfate in the mill was reduced to a minimum to prevent
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excessive oxidation of the ferrous iron. The ferrous sulfate used
were products sold under the trade marks of MELSTAR ® and
FERROMEL-20 ® (Melchemie B.V., Arnhem, Netherlands).
Corresponding Danish patents and U.S. patents [17,18] have
been issued. It should be noted that ferrous sulfate has previ-
ously been used as a portland cement additive or admixture, but
for different purposes than soluble chromium reduction. Hodge
[19] patented a process in which hydrated ferrous sulfate could
be used in the range of 3 to 5% as a replacement for gypsum,
whereas Edelson and Angstadt [20] used 0.1 to 5% ferrous sul-
fate additions to cement as a retarding admixture and not as a
gypsum substitute.
Further improvements on the process were developed by Ras-
mussen [21] in which the ferrous sulfate heptahydrate was made
to be a free-flowing substance by being mixed with fly ash,
gypsum, or other absorbing powder including byproducts, raw
materials, or waste products from the cement industry and sub-
jected to moderate drying in the range of 20 to 60°C. Norelius
[22] filed an International Patent Application, assigned to Ce-
menta AB, in which he disclosed the use of ferrous sulfate hep-
tahydrate in the form of ferrogypsum. Ferrogypsum was pre-
pared by mixing "green salt," a waste product from the
manufacture of titanium dioxide, in the moist state with the ap-
propriate amount of gypsum. The ferrogypsum is subsequently
interground with clinker to produce a portland cement free of
hexavalent chromium. "Green salt" had previously been ap-
proved in Sweden as a concrete additive. With a normal gypsum
addition of 50 kg/ton of cement, the ferrogypsum should consist
of 10 wt.% "green salt" and 90 wt.% gypsum and added at a
rate of 52 kg/ton of cement. Jakobson [23], concerned about the
stability of ferrous sulfate in cement, patented a process in which
a high surface area metallic iron, such as sponge iron, was also
added in the amount of - 1 0 g/kg of cement in order to stabilize
the Fe(II) salt during storage.
The concern over chromate eczema from exposure to wet ce-
ment led to further patent activity. In 1985, an East German
patent was issued to Reifenstein and coworkers [24] for elimi-
nating hexavalent chromium in cement by adding 0.01 to 10
wt.% of ferrous sulfate or ferrous ammonium sulfate to the
clinker stream prior to grinding. A similar Japanese patent [25]
was issued in 1991. Other approaches to the reduction of Cr(VI)
to Cr(III) were patented processes [26-28] for calcining the ce-
ment clinker under an oxidizing atmosphere followed by gran-
ulating it or selecting sizes less than 10 mm, and heating it to
550°C with waste coal dust to produce a reducing atmosphere.
After cooling to 300°C, the clinker was ground to yield a low-
chromate cement.
Solonetskii and coworkers [29] reported that the addition of
a chemical industry waste, containing 25 to 28 wt.% ferrous
oxide and about 12 wt.% sulfuric acid to clinker eliminated hex-
avalent chromium. The proportions used were 15 kg FeO/H2SO4
waste per ton of clinker. About 7% of a gypsum-containing
waste was also added to produce the chromate-free cement prod-
uct. A review on the general subject of hexavalent chromium in
portland cement and related health hazards was written by
Szczerba and Foszcz [30]. Although most of the research on
reduction of hexavalent chromium has involved the use of fer-
rous iron, the possibility of other reducing agents has also been
investigated. Larsen [31] has disclosed in an International Patent
Application, assigned to Aalborg Portland A/S, a cement com-
position containing manganous sulfate (MnSO4), which is effec-
tive for reducing the content of water-soluble chromate in ce-

TABLE 1--Total chromium and hexavalent chromium by ICP-MS and IC.
Control 1 Control 3
Time of sampling, h 0755 0830
Iron oxide, % 3.45 3.38
Sulfate, % 2.45 2.43
Chromium (total), ppm 63.0 63.7
Chromium (hexavalent), ppm 18.0 14.0
ment. The advantage of manganese(II) compounds, such as the
sulfate, is that they are much more oxidation stable than the
corresponding iron(II) compounds in dry cement compositions
at high temperatures and they also have a high chromate-reduction
efficiency. Clinker containing 19.7 ppm Cr 6+ was interground in
a laboratory ball mill with 5% gypsum and 0.75% manganous
sulfate. After leaching, the water-soluble chromate content was
0.0 ppm.
Laboratory and Plant Tests at Southwestern Portland
Cement Company
At the time, California's publicly approved referendum
known as Proposition 65 was being promulgated, a concentrated
effort was made by California cement manufacturers to analyze
their raw materials, clinker, and cements for the heavy metals
on the Governor's list in order to determine if any exceeded the
" n o significant risk" exposure levels specified by law (e.g.,
greater than 0.001 ~xg hexavatent chromium per day). At South-
western Portland Cement Company in Victorville, CA, it was
found that raw mill product contained less than 1.00 ppm (mg/
kg) of Cr(VI), and clinker from the two kilns in operation (long
dry and suspension preheater) contained 7.31 and 4.00 ppm
Cr(VI), respectively. After finish grinding, the hexavalent chro-
mium contents of the seven cement types produced were deter-
mined. The cr(VI) levels fell into two distinct groups, namely
low and high chromate-content cements. Four cement types, in-
cluding Type I/II and Type V cements contained Cr(VI) in the
range of 14.80 to 20.50 ppm. The other three cement types,
mainly lower volume specialties, contained Cr(VI) in the range
of 3.38 to 9.76 ppm, with a mean of 6.7 ppm. It was determined
that, at this time, the large mills used for the manufacture of
Type I/II and Type V cements contained Magotteaux chrome-
alloy balls (~17% chromium), whereas the small mills generally
used for the specialties contained Armco "Moly Cop" bails
(-0.5% chromium). There appears to be a strong correlation be-
tween cement ground with chrome-alloy Magotteaux balls and
the elevated Cr(VI) content in that cement. The two sources of
gypsum used were also analyzed and were found to have a hex-
avalent chromium content in the range of 1.15 to 1.79 ppm.
Analyses were conducted by an environmental testing laboratory
using the diphenylcarbazide colorimetric method [32].
In order to determine the feasibility of reducing the hexavalent
chromium content in cement by means of intergrinding with
ferrous sulfate, several laboratory mill grinds were conducted.
A Type I/II portland cement (4080 Blaine) was interground in a
small Bico mill for ten min with 0.1% and with 0.4%
FeSO4.7H20. The fineness of each was increased to 5080 and
5150 Blaine, respectively. Subsequent chemical analyses indi-
cated that the Cr(VI) content had decreased from 8.5 ppm in the
original cement to less than 1.0 ppm in the two cements con-
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KLEMM ON HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM IN PORTLAND CEMENT 45
Ferrous Sulfate Addition Period
Sample i Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 7
0835 0920 0940 0945 1000 1029 1120
... 3.66 3.80 ... 3.61 3.49 3.44
... 2.73 2.89 ... 2.53 2.47 2.42
... 61.6 67.7 ... 68.6 68.0 66.9
... 15.0 15.0 ... 18.0 16.0 19.0
taining ferrous sulfate. At that time, the method detection limit
for the colorimetric method used was also 1.0 ppm Cr(VI).
Somewhat later, the experiment was repeated, but 0.1% ferrous
sulfate was added to the laboratory mill as an aqueous solution
with HEA-2 (W. R. Grace) grinding aid. The HEA-2 addition
was equivalent to 0.5 lbs per ton of cement. Furthermore, the
FeSOJHEA-2 solution had been previously prepared three
weeks earlier. The Type I/II cement (4080 Blaine) was reground
to a fineness of 4570 Blaine, and upon analysis was found to
contain 4.2 ppm of hexavalent chromium. It appears that some
oxidation of the ferrous sulfate may have occurred during the
three-week storage of the solution and, as a result, only half on
the total Cr(VI) in the cement was chemically reduced.
A full-scale trial grind was conducted on the Victorville
plant's Number 12 finish mill, which has a Magotteaux chrome-
alloy ball charge and a production rate during the test of 82.5
tons/h. Control cement samples were taken prior to the addition
of ferrous sulfate heptahydrate. During and after the time in
which FeSO4-7H20 was being added, additional cement samples
were taken over a 5-min period at approximately 20 min inter-
vals. The ferrous-sulfate addition to the clinker feed belt was
made with great difficulty due to its severe caking characteris-
tics. Starting at 8:35 a.m., approximately 2,200 pounds of ferrous
sulfate heptahydrate was added over a period of 70 min, yielding
an average addition of 0.624% anhydrous FeSO4 to the ground
cement product. Based upon Fe203 analyses of the cement sam-
ples by X-ray fluorescence (XRF), it appears that the actual fer-
rous sulfate content rose rapidly to about 0.8% and then decayed
to about 0.1% after several hours.
Subsequently, Controls 1 and 3 and Samples 1, 2, 3, 4, and 7
were selected for further analytical work. These seven samples
were sent to a commercial analytical laboratory for the deter-
mination of both total chromium and hexavalent chromium by
inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and
ion chromatography (IC), respectively. The analytical results are
shown in Table 1.
Based upon the analyses of these samples, the mean value for
total chromium over the test period represented is 65.6 ppm
Cr(III/VI) with a standard deviation of 2.8 ppm Cr(III/VI). The
mean value for hexavalent chromium over the same test period
is 16.4 ppm Cr(VI) with a standard deviation of 1.9 ppm Cr(VI).
It is apparent that under the trial grind test conditions the addi-
tion of ferrous sulfate heptahydrate had failed to reduce the
amount of hexavalent chromium that was either initially present
in the clinker or being continuously generated during the grind-
ing process from the chrome-alloy grinding media.
Prior to receipt of the total and hexavalent chromium analyt-
ical results from the analytical laboratory, the amount of ferrous
iron in the collected samples was determined by a potassium
dichromate titration procedure generally used to analyze reduced
iron in clinker. Although the iron content in the cement had
46 CEMENT, CONCRETE, AND AGGREGATES
peaked at 3.8% over the Control baseline level of approximately
3.4%, no Fe(II) was found in any sample. Additionally, a color
comparison of Control cement against cement containing added
ferrous sulfate indicated that the latter cement had a slightly
brownish cast, which is characteristic of oxidized rather than
reduced iron. Based upon this experience, it would seem quite
difficult to successfully intergrind ferrous sulfate heptahydrate
with clinker and gypsum in any large finish mill due to the large
circulating load of the mill/separator system, the elevated mill
temperatures, and the high-volume air sweep. All of these fac-
tors would lead to the ready oxidation of ferrous iron.
This plant trial did not duplicate the success claimed by Aal-
borg Portland in either their International Patent Applications
[16,21] or their U.S. patent [18]. Although an example is dis-
closed by Aalborg Portland that describes the production of ce-
ment with ferrous sulfate heptabydrate on a two-compartment
closed-circuit finish mill, the work emphasizes adding the
ferrous sulfate to the second mill of two serially connected finish
mills, using open circuit mills or adding the ferrous sulfate be-
tween the next to the last and the last stage of multistage mills.
The purpose of this is to maintain the mill temperature between
120 and 140°C and keep the residence time within the finish
mill to a minimum in order to prevent excessive oxidation.
Characteristics of Ferrous Sulfate Heptahydrate
Ferrous sulfate heptahydrate (Chemical Abstract Service
Number 7782-63-0), also known as iron(II) sulfate, green vitriol,
iron vitriol, and copperas, is a green crystalline material of the
compositionFeSOa'7H20. It is found in nature as the mineral
melanterite, an alteration product of iron sulfides. It is soluble
in water and its aqueous solutions are oxidized slowly by air
when cold and rapidly when hot. The oxidation rate is increased
under alkaline conditions. Although it is available as an indus-
trial chemical, it is also produced as a byproduct of other chem-
ical and metallurgical processes such as the extraction of tita-
nium dioxide from ilmenite by leaching with sulfuric acid.
The commercial product used in the Southwestern Portland
Cement Company trial grind was obtained from QC Corporation
(Cape Girardeau, MO) through Van Waters & Rogers. It sold
for $480.00 per ton, delivered. The product was received in
50-1b bags and was found to be very badly caked and possibly
hygroscopic in nature. Up to 1% of an anticaking agent (calcium
carbonate) may be added at the customer's request. This, how-
ever, does not prevent hardening, but only delays the process.
Methods of Analysis for Hexavalent Chromium
Generally the analysis of total chromium may be accom-
plished by a number of common methods including XRF, flame
atomic absorption (flame AA), and inductively coupled plasma
by either emission (ICP Emission) or mass spectrometry (ICP-
MS). These methods are nondiscriminatory and fail to differ-
entiate between the various chromium valence states. Hexava-
lent chromium (Cr 6÷) is the principal soluble form of chromium
and is generally found as the chromate (CrO42-) or dichromate
(Cr2072-) anions. The most common analytical method for the
analysis of hexavalent chromium is by its colorimetric deter-
mination as a complex with diphenylcarbazide in acid solution.
The resulting red-violet color has an absorption maximum at 540
nm. The reaction with diphenylcarbazide is nearly specific for
hexavalent chromium and there are no serious interferences from
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other metal salts unless Cr(VI) concentrations are very low and
elevated amounts of molybdenum, mercury, and vanadium, or
both, are also present.
Published analytical methods using the diphenylcarbazide col-
orimetric procedure include the EPA Method 7196 [32], which
may be used in conjunction with the Toxicity Characteristic
Leaching Procedure (TCLP), which is RCRA SW-846 Method
1311, the standard water/wastewater procedure [33] and a
method developed for hexavalent chromium in cements and kiln
dusts [34]. The highest sensitivity analytical methods for hex-
avalent chromium presently used by some commercial environ-
mental laboratories with detection limits as low as 1 ppb (txg/
kg) involve the alkaline extraction of Cr(VI) from a sample fol-
lowed by analysis of the filtrate by ion chromatography (IC).
Some laboratories have developed and use specific procedures
that they regard as proprietary. Written copies of their methods
may not be available for distribution.
ASTM C-I Committee and Use of Processing Additions to
Control Hexavalent Chromium
In Dec. 1991, a request was made by L. D. Adams (South-
down, Inc.) to J. T. Conway, Chairman of Subcommittee C01.20
on Additions, to consider the use of ferrous sulfate as a pro-
cessing addition in accordance with the Standard Specification
for Processing Additions for Use in the Manufacture of Hydrau-
lic Cements (ASTM C465).
At the June 1992 ASTM C-1 Meeting in Louisville, KY, a
presentation was made by Adams to Subcommittee C01.10 on
Portland Cement, in which the reasons for the elimination of
hexavalent chromium from cement were discussed. Examples of
present California laws and regulations pertaining to hexavalent
chromium in relation to its potential carcinogenic effects were
presented. Subsequently, a letter dated 10 Aug. 1992 was re-
ceived from J. T. Conway, Chairman of Subcommittee C01.20
on Additions, in which he stated that the opinion of Subcom-
mittee C01.20 is that "any material could be considered a pro-
cessing addition if it meets the requirements of ASTM Specifi-
cation C 465." In a letter dated 14 Aug. 1992 from W. Scott
Orthey, C-1 Staff Manager, it was stated that at their meeting of
18 June 1992 in Louisville, KY, the C01.90 Executive Subcom-
mittee approved the above response to Adams' inquiry to Sub-
committee C01.20. This results in the establishment of an ap-
proved ASTM mechanism that will allow a suitable reducing
agent to be added at the finish mill, or elsewhere during cement
manufacture, as a processing addition in accordance with ASTM
Specification C 465.
Conclusions
Prior to the full-scale trial grind at the Southwestern Portland
Cement Company Victorville plant, there was a great deal of
optimism regarding the anticipated effectiveness of intergrinding
ferrous sulfate heptahydrate with clinker and gypsum in order
to significantly reduce the hexavalent chromium content in port-
land cement. Now the subject is regarded much differently. Fer-
rous sulfate will readily oxidize in a finish mill environment,
and once oxidized, it can no longer act to reduce the hexavalent
chromium. This was substantiated with the plant trial grind at
Victorville. It cannot be assumed that hexavalent chromium in
cement can be controlled or eliminated by simply adding ferrous
sulfate at the finish mill.
 KLEMM ON HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM IN PORTLAND CEMENT
Further research is required to either discover better methods
for the addition of ferrous sulfate or develop other suitable and
stable reducing agents that can be added at the finish mill to
eliminate hexavalent chromium in cement, and which do not
conflict with any existing patents. Recent political events and
the new Administration in Washington assure that there will be
an enhanced awareness and attention to environmental matters.
Thus, one can be certain that any potential hexavalent chromium
problems in the cement industry will not disappear or be
forgotten.
Acknowledgments
The author was formerly the Manager of the Central Process
Laboratory, Southdown, Inc., Victorville, CA 92392 when this
paper was prepared. The author wishes to thank L. D. Adams
of Southdown, Inc. for his assistance and contributions to this
work. Additionally, the support and encouragement of H. M. yon
Seebach is gratefully acknowledged.
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