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Principles
Ideal Ideal transformer
transform equations
er
By Faraday's law
An ideal
of induction:
transformer is a
theoretical linear .
transformer that is
lossless and . . (eq. 1)[a][4]
perfectly
.
coupled.[6] Perfect
coupling implies . . (eq. 2)
infinitely high core
magnetic Where is the
Real transformer
Leakage flux of a transformer
Leakage flux
Equivalent circuit
If the flux does not contain even harmonics
the following equation can be used for half-
cycle average voltage Eavg of any
waveshape:
Effect of frequency
Energy losses
Construction
Cores
Solid cores
Toroidal cores
Air cores
Windings
Windings are usually arranged concentrically to minimize
flux leakage.
Cooling
Cutaway view of liquid-immersed transformer. The
conservator (reservoir) at top provides liquid-to-
atmosphere isolation as coolant level and temperature
changes. The walls and fins provide required heat
dissipation.
Insulation
Bushings
Classification parameters
Transformers can be classified in many
ways, such as the following:
Types
Various specific electrical application
designs require a variety of transformer
types. Although they all share the basic
characteristic transformer principles, they
are customized in construction or electrical
properties for certain installation
requirements or circuit conditions.
History
Discovery of induction
Faraday's experiment with induction between coils of
wire[97]
.
where is the magnitude of the EMF in
Volts and ΦB is the magnetic flux through
the circuit in webers.[102]
Induction coils
Notes
a. With turns of the winding oriented
perpendicularly to the magnetic field lines, the
flux is the product of the magnetic flux
density and the core area, the magnetic field
varying with time according to the excitation
of the primary. The expression dΦ/dt, defined
as the derivative of magnetic flux Φ with time
t, provides a measure of rate of magnetic flux
in the core and hence of EMF induced in the
respective winding. The negative sign in eq. 1
& eq. 2 is consistent with Lenz's law and
Faraday's law in that by convention EMF
"induced by an increase of magnetic flux
linkages is opposite to the direction that
would be given by the right-hand rule."
b. Although ideal transformer's winding
inductances are each infinitely high, the
square root of winding inductances' ratio is
equal to the turns ratio.
c. This also implies the following: The net
core flux is zero, the input impedance is
infinite when secondary is open and zero
when secondary is shorted; there is zero
phase-shift through an ideal transformer;
input and output power and reactive volt-
ampere are each conserved; these three
statements apply for any frequency above
zero and periodic waveforms are
conserved.[8]
d. Direction of transformer currents is
according to the Right-Hand Rule.
e. Windings of real transformers are usually
wound around very high permeability
ferromagnetic cores but can also be air-core
wound.
f. Section Leakage factor and inductance of
Leakage inductance derives a transformer
equivalent in terms of various measurable
inductances (winding, self, leakage,
magnetizing and mutual inductances) and
turns ratio, which are collectively essential to
rigorous counter EMF understanding.
g. "The turn ratio of a transformer is the ratio
of the number of turns in the high-voltage
winding to that in the low-voltage winding."
(Common usage has evolved over time from
'turn ratio' to 'turns ratio'.)
h. A step-down transformer converts a high
voltage to a lower voltage while a step-up
transformer converts a low voltage to a
higher voltage, an isolation transformer
having 1:1 turns ratio with output voltage the
same as input voltage.
i. Percent impedance is the ratio of the
voltage drop in the secondary from no load to
full load; and is here represented with the
variable Z.[23] In some texts, Z is used for
absolute impedance instead.
j. A standardized open-circuit or unloaded
transformer test called the Epstein frame can
also be used for the characterization of
magnetic properties of soft magnetic
materials including especially electrical
steels.[27]
k. ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.13 defines
polarity in terms of the relative instantaneous
directions of the currents entering the primary
terminals and leaving the secondary
terminals during most of each half cycle, the
word 'instantaneous' differentiating from say
phasor current.[32][33]
l. Transformer polarity can also be identified
by terminal markings H0,H1,H2... on primary
terminals and X1,X2, (and Y1,Y2, Z1,Z2,Z3... if
windings are available) on secondary
terminals. Each letter prefix designates a
different winding and each numeral
designates a termination or tap on each
winding. The designated terminals H1,X1,
(and Y1, Z1 if available) indicate same
instantaneous polarities for each winding as
in the dot convention.[34]
m. When a voltage transformer is operated
with sinusoidal voltages in its normal
frequency range and power level the voltage
polarity at the output dot is the same (plus
minus a few degrees) as the voltage polarity
at the input dot.
n. Experimental transformers using
superconducting windings achieve
efficiencies of 99.85%.[40]
o. Transformer hum's fundamental noise
frequency is two times that of the power
frequency as there is an extension and a
contraction of core laminations for every
cycle of the AC wave and a transformer's
audible hum noise level is dominated by the
fundamental noise frequency and its first
triplen harmonic, i.e., by the 100 & 300 Hz, or
120 & 360 Hz, frequencies.[44]
p. IEC's IEV-121-12-59 defines magnetic
saturation as the "state of a ferromagnetic or
ferrimagnetic substance in which magnetic
polarization or magnetization cannot be
significantly increased by increasing the
magnetic field strength."
q. The life expectancy halving rule holds more
narrowly when the increase is between about
7 °C to 8 °C in the case of transformer
winding cellulose insulation.
r. For example, the delta-wye transformer, by
far the most common commercial three-
phase transformer, is known as the Dyn11
vector group configuration, Dyn11 denoting D
for delta primary winding, y for wye
secondary winding, n for neutral of the wye
winding, and 11 for relative phase position on
the clock by which the secondary winding
leads the primary winding, namely, 30°
leading.
s. While the above formal definition, derived
from standards such as IEEE C57.12.80,
applies to large transformers, it is not
uncommon in colloquial, or even trade,
parlance for small general-purpose
transformers to be referred to as 'power'
transformers, for distribution transformers to
be referred to as 'power distribution'
transformers, and so on.
t. 1. Tank 2. Lid 3. Conservator tank 4. The oil
level indicator (end of conservator tank) 5.
Buchholz relay for detecting gas bubbles
after an internal fault 6. Piping to conservator
tank and Buchholz relay 7. Tap changer to
change output voltage 8. The motor drive of
the tap changer (can be controlled by an
automatic voltage regulator) 9. Drive shaft for
tap changer 10. High voltage (HV) bushing
connects the internal HV coil with the
external HV grid 11. High voltage bushing
current transformers for measurement and
protection 12. Low voltage (LV) bushing
connects LV coil to LV grid 13. Low voltage
current transformers . 14. Bushing voltage-
transformer for metering the current through
the passing bushing 15. Core 16. Yoke of the
core 17. Limbs connect the yokes and hold
them up 18. Coils 19. Internal wiring between
coils and tapchanger 20. Oil release valve 21.
Vacuum valve
References
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External links
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