SPE-177052-MS

Improved Fracture Characterization in the La Paz Field: A Case Study

L. A. Lander, A. Silva, and J. Chiquito, Weatherford; A. Cadena, PDVSA

Copyright 2015, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference held in Quito, Ecuador, 18 –20 November
2015.

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Abstract
Maintaining and increasing production are the main challenges for oil and gas companies in today’s
difficult market. To achieve these goals, these companies are looking for new techniques to improve
fracture characterization. Open natural fractures, when present, can provide the conduit for the majority
of natural gas in low porosity, hard rock environments. Therefore, a complete understanding of fracture
attributes is required for optimal production, as well as cementing and completion design, well placement,
and reservoir modeling.
In the La Paz field in Venezuela, previous petrophysical interpretation assumed the cementation
exponent, m to be equal to 2. This assumption was made due to the absence of special core analysis and
logging information such as dipolar sonic and micro resistivity image logs, increasing the uncertainty in
the petrophysical model.
Using the crossplot of Ø vs. Rt on log log coordinates it was possible to determine the cement exponent,
m, value for each zone. This parameter was fundamental to the estimation of the fracture and matrix
porosity, fracture Intensity Index, and the Partitioning Coefficient.
The methodology applied in this case study is based on advanced acoustic analysis integrated with
triple combo and borehole micro resistivity images. The triple combo (gamma ray, induction resistivity,
neutron and density) and the image data allowed identification of the natural fractures, and the Stoneley
wave analysis confirmed that several of the fractures observed in the borehole image data were open.
This methodology reduced the fracture characterization uncertainty of the La Paz Field and helped to
more accurately estimate petrophysical properties where special core data is not available.

Introduction
Around the world, the identification of fractured intervals is a key factor in the successful production of
carbonate formations, including the Cretaceous formations of western Venezuela. Identification of
fractured formations is critical for correct completion decisions in development and exploration wells.
Integration of triple combo, borehole image and dipolar sonic log data facilitates the characterization of
the fractures.
The La Paz oil field in Venezuela was discovered in 1922 approximately 40 Km west of the city of
Maracaibo. Oil was first produced from the Guasare (Paleocene) sandstone, limestone, and Eocene
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sandstone (Figure 1). Initial oil production averaged about 500 bbl/day. Deeper drilling resulted in greater
production from the Cretaceous limestones of the Cogollo Groups which had initial productions averaging
5000 bbl/day1.

Figure 1—Vertical section through the La Paz field, on shore Venezuela1

Method Description

Fractures from Borehole Images

Borehole imaging is the only tool able to characterize both very small features like fractures or cross
bedding and major structural features. Based on resistivity contrast and image morphology analysis,
geologists identify and classify the main planar or linear structural features (bedding planes, fractures
planes, and joints) and determine their orientation (Figure 2)3.
SPE-177052-MS 3

Figure 2—Planar computation.3

When a carbonate reservoir is logged with an imager, the final product describes the fracture type,
orientation, shape, and fracture density. Different types of natural fractures can be identified and classified
as resistive, conductive and partial fractures (Figure 3). In most cases, drilling-induced fractures are
developed on the borehole wall and do not extend into the formation, while natural fractures extend
beyond the borehole wall as a part of the reservoir fracture system3.
4 SPE-177052-MS

Figure 3—Fracture Characteristics depending on resistivity contrast.2

Planar features such as natural fractures appear as a sinusoidal pattern on the borehole image. Fractures
result from the combination of far-field, non-equal principal stresses, near-field stresses around the
borehole and stress perturbation resulting from drilling operations (mud pressure and thermal effect). The
two most important principal stresses in the analysis of the wellbore rock mechanics are the far field and
wellbore stresses. Stress-induced fractures are generally classified by the mode of origin, shear and tensile
failure modes, breakout, high angle echelon, etc3.
Acoustic Measurements Integrated to Fracture Characterization: Dipole Shear Anisotropy and
Dispersion Analysis
Sonic tools measure the dynamic elastic properties of the formation around the borehole using
compressional and shear velocity measurements3. Compressional, shear, and Stoneley data integrated with
borehole images makes fracture characterization of the reservoir possible.
Acoustic anisotropy is recognized when a shear wave propagated through a formation has different
slowness in different directions, caused by the anisotropic nature of the rock’s elastic properties. Most of
the sedimentary rocks have acoustic anisotropy related to three main mechanisms: fractures, layering, or
stress imbalance.
SPE-177052-MS 5

Acoustic radial analysis through flexural dispersive waves enables the identification of the dominant
mechanism that produced anisotropy4. Four mechanisms can be identified in the formation, as shown in
Figure 4:
A. Homogenous isotropic.
B. Inhomogeneous isotropic.
C. Homogenous anisotropic.
D. Inhomogeneous anisotropic.

Figure 4 —Dispersion analysis for anisotropy mechanism identification.2

The homogenous isotropic mechanism happens when shear data measured and the predictive model
overlay and no shear wave splitting occurs. The Inhomogeneous isotropic mechanism is identified when
no shear splitting occurs but slowness data from field are higher than the model prediction.
The homogeneous anisotropic, is the case in which shear have splitting, fast and slow shear slowness
are different in the frequency range, this mechanism is associated to layering or fractures. Finally, the
Inhomogeneous anisotropic is the case in which shear wave split occurs, slowness are crossing over the
frequency range, indicating stress induced around the borehole wall.
6 SPE-177052-MS

Stoneley Wave Analysis

The Stoneley wave is a guided mode that travels up the borehole wall in a piston-like motion (Figure
5), acting as a pressure pulse radially contracting and expanding the borehole equally in all directions. The
Stoneley wave is also dispersive, whereby its energy decreases radially away from the borehole-formation
interface. In the presence of open fractures intersecting the borehole, the Stoneley wave will attenuate and
also generate a reflected wave from the discontinuity between the fracture and borehole wall.

Figure 5—Fracture effect on Stonley wave. When Stonley wave propagate and cross over an open fracture, part of the energy is
transmitted.2

Open Hole Log Analysis

The key to unlock the hydrocarbon potential of naturally fractured reservoir is to evaluate its static
hydrocarbon content through accurate determination of water saturation and predict its dynamic flow
capacity through estimation of porosity and permeability. This characterization should be performed both
in the matrix and the fracture systems at the conditions of the reservoir.
Elkewedy and Tiab developed a practical technique to describe the most important petrophysical
properties of naturally fractured reservoirs5.The proposed technique is quite simple. It is based upon
deriving formation resistivity factor, tortuosity, partitioning coeffient, fracture intensity index, matrix
porosity and fracture porosity at reservoir conditions in terms of total porosity and cementation exponent,
m, only.
SPE-177052-MS 7

The application of this simple technique combined with the borehole image and the acoustic infor-
mation may ultimately result in opening new potentials, particularly in uncored carbonates.
Cementation exponent, m, in Naturally Fracture Reservoirs Cementation exponent, m, is one of the
important variables in Archie’s equation (equation 1) which is considered to be fundamental in formation
evaluation from well logs. Archie is given in general terms as:
(1)

In formations with interparticle porosity, the value of m is assumed to equal 2. Theoretically, the value
of m for a plane fracture equals 1.0. This can be proven by considering the following relationships:
(2)

(3)

Since tortuosity for a plane straight fracture equals 1.0, then combining equations 2 and 3 suggest that
m⫽ 1.0 for a plane fracture. Some researchers have proposed different relationships between F and f
depending on the model used to simulate the porous medium5. However, the equation 2 will be used
consistently in this study since it is based on a more realistic representation of the reservoir rock by
considering the average cross sectional area open to flow5. A study by Maute and Sprunt6 recommend a
fixed value of a⫽1.0, and concluded that there is no practical difference in water saturation error between
fixed and variable ⬙a⬙ values5. In fact, the original Archie’s equation does not include parameter ⬙a⬙.
In reality, fractures are not planes. They usually have a tortuous path, so naturally fractured reservoirs
will exhibit a value for the cementation exponent, m, in the range between 1.0 and 2.0 depending on the
intensity of the fracturing and the interaction between fracture voids and matrix voids. Furthermore, a
naturally fractured formation may have a value of m slightly higher than 2.0 if it contains shaly material.
Specifically, the cementation exponent, m, increases with the degree of shale content in the reservoir 5.
Interrelated factors influencing cementation exponent, m, can be summarized as:
A. Pore-pore throat geometry which reflects:
1.Tortuosity.
2.Specific surface area.
3.Grain shape.
4.Cementation.
5.Uniformity of mineral mixture distribution.
6.Clay content distribution.
B. Anisotropy.
C. Degree of electrical isolation.
D. The occurrence of open fracture.
Partitioning Coefficient, ␥ Partitioning coefficient (equation 4), ␥, simply represents the apportioning
of total porosity, Øt, between interparticle (matrix) porosity, Øma, and the larger pores (vugs, fissures,
fractures, etc.). It is usually given by5:
(4)

Fracture Intensity Index, FII Pirson introduced the concept of Fracture Intensity Index (equation 5),
FII7. It represents the magnitude of formation porosity attributed to fractures as the ratio between
secondary porosity (fractures) to the solid rock volume as5:
8 SPE-177052-MS

(5)

Fracture and matrix porosity Accurate assessment in a dual porosity system (e.g. matrix and fractures)
is critical for estimating in-place reserves and producibility of the formation. However, the range of
magnitude of the fracture porosity, and consequently its contribution to the total reservoir fluid capacity,
is still a matter of controversy among researchers.
Equations 6 and 7 provide accurate in-situ determination of Øf and Øma on a wider range within wells
drilled throughout the reservoir in terms of Øt and m as:
(6)

(7)

Case Study
Maintaining and increasing production are the main challenges for the state-owned oil company in
Venezuela. To meet these goals, the company is looking for new techniques to improve fracture
characterization in the Cretaceous Formation of the La Paz field.
The main challenge in this formation is the fracture characterization due to the absence of special
logging information such as dipolar sonic and micro resistivity image log. Weatherford technology
enabled the acquisition of the conventional and special log data to understand the characteristics of the
formation.
The workflow (Figure 6) proposed combined open hole logs, sonic response and geology features to
improve fracture characterization and generate the petrophysical model.
SPE-177052-MS 9

Figure 6 —Workflow

Master log The master log (Figure 7) gives a direct description of the minerals in the wellbore; the
lithology column is based on analysis of lagged samples of cuttings. Samples are generally collected at
regular intervals in this case every 10 ft and prior to tripping out of the hole. The litology column shown
in the master log (Figure 7) displays an estimate of gross lithology as a percent of cuttings reported in
increments of 10%.
10 SPE-177052-MS

Figure 7—Master log

The ROP (Rate of Penetration) curve shows the speed at which the bit penetrates each meter or foot
of formation, as determied by a sensor on the drawworks. The ROP curve can be plotted as a step chart
or a continuos line, increasing from left to right.
A variety of factors affect ROP, including rock type, porosity, and many others. Because drilling
practices affect ROP as much as geology does, the mud logger makes note of certain drilling parameters
next to the ROP curve, specially when they change8.
Deviations from the ROP baseline or high values (figure 7, track 1) indicate the presence of natural
fracture zones in the well. Hence, the rate of penetration (ROP) provides an idea of the fracture depths.
Routine Core Analysis (RCA) Petrophysical data obtained from core measurements are normally con-
sidered to be the most accurate. This data is used to calibrate the petrophysical model and gives additional
information about the reservoir not obtainable by logs.
The histograms presented in Figures 8 and 9 came from a neighboring well. The porosity histogram in
Figure 8 shows very low porosity values, the porosity ranges are between 0.001 and 0.09 with an average
of the matrix porosity of 4%.
SPE-177052-MS 11

Figure 8 —Porosity Histogram

Figure 9 —Permeability Histogram

12 SPE-177052-MS

The permeability histogram in Figure 9 shows low matrix permeability values with an average of 0.09
mD.
The low matrix porosity and permeability demonstrate that the main gas production in the formation
under study comes from the open natural fractures and not from the matrix. Open natural fractures are
important to enhancing permeability of low porosity reservoirs.
Øt and m Pickett plots have been long recognized as very useful in log interpretation. In Pickett’s
method, a resistivity index, I, and water saturation, Sw, are calculated form log-log plots of true (in some
cases apparent) resistivity versus porosity or the response of a porosity tool9.
Archie’s 10 basic formation evaluations can be combined as proposed by Pickett 11 to obtain:
(8)

As previously mentioned, the cementation exponent, m, is an important variable in Archie’s equation

which is considered to be fundamental in formation evaluation from well logs. When special core data is
not available, cross plotting log porosity versus log resistivity is the best technique to determine the value
of cementation exponent, m, for natural fracture reservoirs in situ.
Equation 8 indicates that a crossplot of Ø vs. Rt on log log coordinates should result in a straight line
with a negative slope equal to m for intervals with constant values of aRw, n and Sw (Figure 10).

Figure 10 —Øe vs Rt. Maraca Formation

SPE-177052-MS 13

Previous petrophysical interpretation assumed the cementation exponent, m, equal to 2, creating an

unaccurate water estimation calculation. Table 1 summarizes the the cementation exponent, m, obtained
using the crossplot of Ø vs. Rt on log log coordinates for each zone.

Table 1—Cementation exponent m

Shear Anisotropy and Dispersion Analysis Acoustic radial analysis through flexural dispersive waves
was done to examine the fast and slow shear wave characteristics. The dispersion profiles are shown in
Figures 11 and 12. Figure 11 was taken at depth X175 ft., where the parallel nature of the fast and slow
dispersion curves indicate intrinsic anisotropy, caused by the presence of open natural fractures. On the
other hand, Figure 12 was taken at X400 ft, where the dispersion and radial slowness profile indicate that
the rock was homogeneus isotropic.

Figure 11—Dispersion analysis at depth X175 ft. within the fractured zone
14 SPE-177052-MS

Figure 12—Dispersion analysis at depth X400 ft. within the non-fractured zone

Fracture Characterization and Petrophysical model In this case study, a routine petrophysical evalu-
ation was permormed with open hole logs mainly indicating the presence of carbonate. Due to the low
primary porosity and permeability, the gas production depends on the occuence of open fractures.
The micro resistivity borehole analysis presents mainly conductive (Figure 13) and resistive fractures
(Figure 14), the structural analysis of the borehole images show that the fractures have strike mainly
NE-SW (Figure 15, 16) with most of them dipping to 70 to 90 to NE. Even with the high quality of the
micro resistivity borehole image; until the incorporation of the triple combo and acoustic measurements
it was not possible to characterize the fractures (open, partially open, or closed).
SPE-177052-MS 15

Figure 13—Conductive Fracture

Figure 14 —Induced Fracture

16 SPE-177052-MS

Figure 15—Schmidt Plot. Conductive Fractures

Figure 16 —Schmidt Plot. Induces Fractures

Figure 17 shows the advanced acoustic analysis integrated with triple combo and borehole micro
resistivity image. The open fracture zones present following logs responses:
SPE-177052-MS 17

Figure 17—Advanced acoustic analysis integrated with triple combo and borehole micro resistivity image. Anisotropy dispersion
showed anisotropy. Stoneley reflection indicate which fractures identified in the image were open

● Bigger borehole size (track 3).

● Low resistivity values of the induction tool (track 4).
● Low density values combined with neutron high porosity responses in the neutron curve (Track 5).
● High conductivity in the static image (track 7).
● The Stoneley wave dispersion, whereby its energy decreases radially away from the borehole-
formation interface (track 10).
● High anisotropy values (track 15).

In summary, the triple combo and the image data allowed identification of the presence of natural
fractures in the formation under study while the Stoneley wave analysis allowed confirmation that several
of the fractures identified in the borehole image data were open.
The petrophysical results are summarized in Table 3, indicating that the most prospective zones are
Lisure and Apon (Piche) due to the high fracture density, lateral propagation of the fracture and the lowest
water saturation in the matrix (Figure 18). The fracture intensity index (IFF_Elk) and the Partiotion
coefficient (V_Elk) correlates with the analysis made in the special logs (Sonic and image log).
18 SPE-177052-MS

Table 3—Petrophysical properties

Figure 18 —Matrix (Phima_Elk) and Fracture (PHIF_Elk) porosity, water saturation estimations (Sw_Matriz), Fracture Intensity Index
(IFF_Elk) and Partitioning Coefficient (V_Elk)

The workflow proposed in this case study allowed improved fracture characterization in the La Paz
field, giving a new dimension (far from the borehole wall) not available in the neighboring wells The case
study also demonstrated that the cementation exponent value by formation permitted more accurate
estimations of the petrophysical properties.
Conclusions
The workflow applied in this study reduced the fracture characterization uncertainty in the Cretaceous
Formation of the La Paz Field; it also helps to estimates more accurate petrophysical properties when
SPE-177052-MS 19

special core data is not available. The results obtained in this case study will allow to extend this
methodology to other fields with similar conditions to improve identifications of different potential areas
of gas production.

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