COURSE NAME: EARTH’S PHYSICAL

ENVIRONMENT

COURSE CODE: BENV 1102

CONTACT HOURS: 60 HRS

PREPARED BY RATEMO SAMMY KINARA

 TABLE OF CONTENT

Learning Outcome........................................................................................................................................ iii

1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO EARTHS PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT........................................................ 1

1.1 Components of environment ........................................................................................................ 1

2. THE ATMOSPHERE ................................................................................................................................ 4

2.1 The Galaxy ..................................................................................................................................... 4

Composition of the Atmosphere ............................................................................................................ 5

Layers of the Atmosphere ...................................................................................................................... 8

The Troposphere ................................................................................................................................... 9

The Stratosphere and Ozone Layer ....................................................................................................... 9

The Mesosphere and Ionosphere........................................................................................................... 9

3. LITHOSPHERE ...................................................................................................................................... 13

3.1 The structure of the Earth........................................................................................................ 13

3.2 Formation, Modification and Distribution of Landforms .................................................... 25

Today....................................................................................................................................................... 25

3.3 LANDFORMS AND HUMAN USE OF THE EARTH ......................................................... 33

4. NATURE OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE MATERIALS................................................................................. 38

5. WEATHER AND CLIMATE PATTERNS ................................................................................................... 45

6. HYDROSPHERE .................................................................................................................................... 49

7. NUTRIENTS .......................................................................................................................................... 50

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LEARNING OUTCOME
On completion of this course a student will be able to:

1) Describe the geographical patterns to the earth’s physical environment that results from
environmental processes;
2) Describe overview of the processes of, and interactions between the atmosphere, biosphere,
hydrosphere and lithosphere;
3) Appreciate the complexity and interrelatedness of environmental processes and patterns;
4) Apply the principles and mechanisms of earth structure and geo-processes.

Course content
Introduction; Definition; Overview; The internal structure of the earth (fundamental concepts,
Internal and external structure and resources; Atmosphere: Solar Radiation: fate, Albedo,
Adiabatic processes, rotational effects of the sun, Ocean currents; Regional climates:
topographical influences, Urban climate Microclimates, influence of vegetation and soils
processes, microclimates and habitats; Weather and geographical patterns of climate; Light:
Nature, Fate of light; Temperature: Thermal energy exchange; Hydrosphere: Water, Structure,
physical properties, movement, water cycle and distribution; Nutrients: micro and Macro
nutrients; Lithosphere: formation, modification and distribution of landforms.

Mode of Delivery
Lecture method, case studies, field work, practicals, and group discussions
Mode of Assessment / Evaluation
Each paper shall be assessed on the basis of 100% total marks apportioned as follows:
a) End of Semester Written Examination 70%
b) Continuous Assessment: In-class questions, tests, take-home assignments,
individual/group presentations; 30%.

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 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO EARTHS PHYSICAL
ENVIRONMENT
Earth: the planet on which we live; the world (has the capacity to support life).

The Earth System A system is any entity that consists of interrelated parts or components, and the
analysis of systems provides physical geographers with ideal opportunities to study these relationships as
they affect Earth’s features and environments. Earth certainly fits this definition because many
continuously changing variables combine to make our home planet, the Earth system, function the way
that it does. The individual components of a system, termed variables, are studied or grouped together
because these variables interact with one another as parts of a functioning unit.

“Environment” means the physical factors of the surroundings of human beings, including physical
factors composed of land, water, atmosphere, climate, sound, odour, taste, the biological factors of
animals and plants and the social factors of aesthetics and includes both the natural and the built
environment.

1.1Components of environment
Non-living components e.g. air, water, soil, rock and man made built up environment like roads and
buildings

Living e.g. Human beings, plants, animals, and micro-organisms

• Varieties of living organisms = Biodiversity

• Biodiversity is understood at three levels: ecosystem, species and genetic

Physical Environment: the part of the human environment that includes purely physical factors (as soil,
climate, water supply).

Natural resources are the endowments given by nature, which can be used to create wealth. For example,
forest resources can be harnessed for timber, charcoal, firewood, etc. to generate income. The other
resources include lakes, rivers, mountains, wildlife, mineral deposits, land and many more.

Ecosystem consists of an interactive relationship between one or more living organisms and the
environment where they live, e.g. forests, wetlands, water, land and built environment. The relationships
take place through a number of ways, including:

Food chain is a linear network of links in a food web starting from "producer" species (such as grass or
trees) and ending at apex predator species (like grizzly bears or killer whales), detrivores (like earthworms
or woodlice), or decomposer species (such as fungi or bacteria)

Food web is the natural interconnection of food chains and generally a graphical representation (usually
an image) of what-eats-what in an ecological community

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Nutrient cycle is the movement and exchange of organic and inorganic matter back into the production of
living matter. The process is regulated by food web pathways that decompose matter into mineral
nutrients. A Nutrient cycle occurs within ecosystems as revealed on Figure 1 below:

Figure 1: Nutrient Cycle

Carbon cycles is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere,
pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth.

Hydrological Cycle is the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth, its
stages are as follows:

Evaporation: the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas from earths’ surface

Transport: the movement of water through the atmosphere, specifically from over the oceans to over land
i.e. clouds (ice crystals / tiny water droplets

Condensation: The transported water vapour eventually condenses, forming tiny droplets in clouds.

Precipitation: mechanism through which water is transported from the atmosphere to the earths’ surface in
form of rain, sleet or snow.

Groundwater: occurs when precipitation soaks into the ground and this is the main source of the
formation of the waters found on land - rivers, lakes, groundwater and glaciers.

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Run-off: is the process by which most of the water which returns to land flows downhill on earths’
surface

This entire process repeats as illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2: The stages of the Hydrological Cycle

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 2. THE ATMOSPHERE
Introduction

In general, the unit looks at the study of physical environment characteristics particularly with
regard to the atmospheric processes that govern distribution and characteristics of all the other
components of the environment.

2.1 The Galaxy

It is a collection or a cluster of stars each of which may contain in several million stars. The earth
galaxy is called the empty Milky Way and it is believed to contain several thousand million stars.
The universe consists of many galaxies at least 50 billion of which are known. About 500 billion
galaxies are thought to exist in the observable universe. The earth is only 1/330,000 of the size of
the sun which itself is 5000 million times smaller than the galaxy.

The earth is different in many aspects from other planets of the solar system. In area, it is only
1/11 Jupiter area and twice the area of mars. Its density is comparable only to those Mercury and
Venus.

Figure 3: The solar (planetary) system

Table 1: The distance of the planets from the sun in the atmosphere

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 Distance Radius Mass
Planet (000 km) (km) (kg) Discoverer Date
Mercury 57,910 2439 3.30e23
Venus 108,200 6052 4.87e24
Earth 149,600 6378 5.98e24
Mars 227,940 3397 6.42e23
Jupiter 778,330 71492 1.90e27
Saturn 1,426,940 60268 5.69e26
Uranus 2,870,990 25559 8.69e25 Herschel 1781
Neptune 4,497,070 24764 1.02e26 Galle 1846
Pluto 5,913,520 1160 1.31e22 Tombaugh 1930

The present atmosphere of the Earth is probably not its original atmosphere. Our current
atmosphere is what chemists would call an oxidizing atmosphere, while the original atmosphere
was what chemists would call a reducing atmosphere. In particular, it probably did not contain
oxygen.

The atmosphere is rather a like a thin envelope of air surrounding the earth tied on it, rotating
and evolving it by forces of gravity. The atmosphere is aid to be thin envelope because it extends
from 500 – 1,000Km above earth’s surface when compared to the diameter of the earth which is
13,000km (nobody knows the exact height above sea-level at which the last molecule of air is
located).

The air is real and does has weight such the weight of this air above any given point is called the
pressure.

The air in the atmosphere is most dense at the earth surface. The density of air present in the
atmosphere declines with height such that the top of the atmosphere (atmosphere/ space
interface) the density of air is zero (0) since there are no air molecules.

Composition of the Atmosphere

The original atmosphere may have been similar to the composition of the solar nebula and close
to the present composition of the Gas Giant planets, though this depends on the details of how
the planets condensed from the solar nebula. That atmosphere was lost to space and replaced by
compounds outgassed from the crust or (in some more recent theories) much of the atmosphere
may have come instead from the impacts of comets and other planetesimals rich in volatile
materials.

The oxygen so characteristic of our atmosphere was almost all produced by plants (cyanobacteria
or, more colloquially, blue-green algae). Thus, the present composition of the atmosphere is 79%
nitrogen, 20% oxygen, and 1% other gases.

The components of a dry and pure atmosphere

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The atmosphere contains air in form of various gases and much particulate matter for example
smoke, dust, sand particles, etc. However for a pure atmosphere and dry atmosphere, the major
contents are as shown in the table below:

Table 2: The components of atmosphere

Element (dry atmosphere) Symbol % composition by volume of dry
atmosphere
Nitrogen N2 79
Oxygen O2 20
Argon Ar 0.93
X Carbon dioxide CO2 0.03 (variable)
Neon Ne 0.0018
Helium He 0.0005
XX Ozone O3 0.00006
Hydrogen H2
Krypton Kr
Xeron Xe
Methane CH4
Wet atmosphere
XXX Water vapour

These gases are found in these same proportions at any time point of sampling in the atmosphere.
Moreover, these gases are mechanically mixed; they do not react with each other in the
atmosphere. Consequently, the atmosphere is said to be a mechanical mixture of gases.

However, a normal atmosphere is not dry. One important element present in the atmosphere is
water vapour which is found in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. It is 3% by weight and 4% by
volume of the atmospheric contents at sea level. All contents of the atmosphere in the table
including water vapour are certainly crucial in ordinary circumstances. However in the study of
earth’s physical environment, 3 of these are atmospheric contents are singled out for special
consideration. These include ozone, carbon dioxide and water vapour.

Ozone
It is found everywhere in the atmosphere and It is of a particular importance to us because of its
photochemical reactions with the incoming solar short-wave and ultra violet wave length band of
radiation in the solar.

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Figure 4: Layers of the ozone

Source: World Meteorological Organization, Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1998.

From the graph above, most atmospheric ozone is concentrated in a layer in the stratosphere,
about 15-30 kilometers above the Earth's surface. Ozone is a molecule containing three oxygen
atoms. It is blue in color and has a strong odor. Normal oxygen, which we breathe, has two
oxygen atoms and is colorless and odorless. Ozone is much less common than normal oxygen.
Out of each 10 million air molecules, about 2 million are normal oxygen, but only 3 are ozone.

However, even the small amount of ozone plays a key role in the atmosphere. The ozone layer
absorbs a portion of the radiation from the sun, preventing it from reaching the planet's surface.
Most importantly, it absorbs the portion of ultraviolet light called UVB. UVB has been linked to
many harmful effects, including various types of skin cancer, cataracts, and harm to some crops,
certain materials, and some forms of marine life.

Carbon dioxide

It is one of the permanent gas in the atmosphere in small quantities (0.003% by volume of dry
air) found everywhere in the atmosphere. This gas in spite of its small quantities, it plays an
important role in determining environmental characteristics e.g. it is used as one of the best
building element in sun light and chlorophyll in green plants.

Because of its nature, it is not supporting life; it is vastly used as a preservative in food
manufacturing processes and even in fire extinguishing activities. However, its crucial role in
environmental characteristics is in its capacity to act as a greenhouse gas. In this way, it permits
the incoming solar short wave length bands. By so doing it retains heat in the earth’s atmospheric
systems.
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This characteristic of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere means increases of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere would automatically increase global mean surface temperatures to an extent that
there will be changes in environmental characteristics e.g. precipitation amounts of water
available in liquid form, etc.

A decline in carbon dioxide would imply a drop in global mean surface temperature probably
back to the ice age characteristics. Any increase or decrease in temperature even by 3®C is
disastrous with the fact that during the last little ice gas of 15,000 years ago; the global mean
surface temperature were known than at the present by 3.5ºC thus the role of carbon dioxide in
regulating environmental temperatures cannot be overlooked.

Water vapour

Water vapour is one of the three phases of water that is confined to the lower atmosphere and the
sources of water vapour include water bodies, vegetation and wet surfaces from which it is
derived by evaporation processes into the atmosphere.

The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere varies horizontally and vertically away from
moisture sources. In the atmosphere, water vapour is confined within 10-15km above the earth’s
surface; beyond this level, the environmental temperatures are far too cold to permit the
existence of water in vapour form.

Water vapour is crucial in all environmental processes e.g. its from vapour that fresh water
resources are represented through precipitation hence it is true to say that without water vapour,
there may not be life either in vegetation or fauna. Also without water vapour, there would be no
weather because water vapour or air are needed to make weather.

Layers of the Atmosphere

The Earth's atmosphere is divided into several layers. The lowest region, the troposphere,
extends from the Earth's surface up to about 10 kilometers (km) in altitude. Virtually all human
activities occur in the troposphere. Mt. Everest, the tallest mountain on the planet, is only about 9
km high. The next layer, the stratosphere, continues from 10 km to about 50 km. Most
commercial airline traffic occurs in the lower part of the stratosphere. The distinct layers are
shown in the following Figure 5 below:

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Figure 5: Layers of the Atmosphere

The Troposphere

The troposphere is where all weather takes place; it is the region of rising and falling packets of
air. The air pressure at the top of the troposphere is only 10% of that at sea level (0.1
atmospheres). There is a thin buffer zone between the troposphere and the next layer called the
tropopause.

The Stratosphere and Ozone Layer

Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, where air flow is mostly horizontal. The thin ozone
layer in the upper stratosphere has a high concentration of ozone, a particularly reactive form of
oxygen. This layer is primarily responsible for absorbing the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.
The formation of this layer is a delicate matter, since only when oxygen is produced in the
atmosphere can an ozone layer form and prevents an intense flux of ultraviolet radiation from
reaching the surface, where it is quite hazardous to the evolution of life. There is considerable
recent concern that manmade fluorocarbon compounds may be depleting the ozone layer, with
dire future consequences for life on the Earth.

The Mesosphere and Ionosphere

Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere and above that is the ionosphere (or thermosphere),
where many atoms are ionized (have gained or lost electrons so they have a net electrical
charge). The ionosphere is very thin, but it is where aurora takes place, and is also responsible
for absorbing the most energetic photons from the Sun, and for reflecting radio waves, thereby
making long-distance radio communication possible.

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The structure of the ionosphere is strongly influenced by the charged particle wind from the Sun
(solar wind), which is in turn governed by the level of solar activity. One measure of the
structure of the ionosphere is the free electron density, which is an indicator of the degree of
ionization

SOLAR RADIATION

This is the process through which energy from the sun reach the earth’s atmospheric systems. It
was observed that over 99 of the energy available in the earth’s atmospheric systems is received
from the sun. Therefore, the methods in which energy from the sun reach the (methods of energy
transfer) include convection, conduction and radiation as presented below:

Conduction

Under this method, material media are required and bodies are important, example this includes
two bodies A and B with different temperatures where the temperature of A is more than the
temperature of B. then the molecules of A will transfer some of its Kinetic energy to the
molecules of body B until the temperatures of A and B are equal. Some materials for example
metals are good conductor of heat but air is a very bad conductor of heat. Moreover, the sun is
about 150million kilometers from the earth’s atmospheric systems.

Consequently, the earth’s atmospheric systems are not in direct conduct with the sun. Moreover,
there is empty space between the atmosphere and the sun hence energy transfer cannot be the
method by which the earth’s atmospheric systems get their energy from the sun. However,
energy transfer by conduction is crucial process near and at the earth’s surface itself (See:
Diagram).

Convection

In convection method of energy transfer, the materials in form of fluids must exist. In this
method, the molecules that are formed near a heat source carry bodily fluids to the neighboring
molecules. This method cannot be the method by which energy from the sun reaches the earth’s
surface. This is because there is no material medium between the top of the atmosphere and the
solar surface, it is empty space. Never the less, convective processes are very crucial particularly
in the low latitudes but also very common in middle and high latitudes during (See: Diagram).

Radiation

The name radiation is derived from the generation of energy by a source in ever increasing radii
of circles hence radiation. Radiation does not require any material medium; under this method,
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magnetic waves of energy are generated and transmitted in very small waves called short waves
(less than 4ɱ km) from the sun at a speed of 3x108ms-1 the speed of light (See: Diagram).

The wave length lambda (ἀ) of transmission of energy suspends on temperatures of the
generating surface. The sun generates energy in short waves less than 4ɱ km while the earth’s
atmospheric systems generate energy in long waves, this is because the sun is at a temperature
above 6000k while the earth’s temperature is between 250k and 300k.

THE RADIATION BALANCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE (LIMIT OF THE INCOMING

SOLAR RADIATIONS)

The processes that affect solar radiation in the atmosphere include absorption, scattering and
reflection. Over 99% of the energy in the earth’s atmospheric systems comes from the sun. Only
a small part of the energy less than 1% is derived from radioactive decay of some of the earth’s
crust materials e.g. radium.

Absorption

Incoming solar radiation is absorbed by ozone, water vapour, other gases and particulate matter
in the atmosphere. The amount of solar energy lost through absorption processes is 15% of the
amount received at the top of the atmospheres.

Scattering

This is one of the most important processes that happen to solar radiation in the atmosphere
without it we would be unable to see inside the buildings, around corners, etc. in areas that are
not directly exposed to the solar beam.

The sun would be received in the sky as a fiery in an otherwise dark sky very much like the
astronauts observe it from outer space. During day time at noon when the atmosphere is
cloudless and dust free almost 50% of the incoming visible part of the light spectrum in the blue
wave length band (VIB) is scattered in the sky giving the sky the characteristic blue colour at
noon.

Early in the morning at sunrise and late in the evening at sunset, the light rays from the sun
transverse the maximum number of molecules and AB to reach the observable eye. This scatters
most of the visible spectrum below the observer’s vision and only red orange at sunrise and
orange red at sunset are scattered on the horizon meaning that we observe red orange sunrises
and orange red sunsets.

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In areas affected by pollution, the sun appears as the dull red disk in the dirtish white sky. This
means that most of the sunlight in being lost and in these areas crops that require a lot of sunlight
for example fruits and vegetables are fair poorly. Scattering is beneficial however some energy
are lost through back scattering where energy is lost to outer space and about 10% of the total
energy arriving on the top of the atmosphere is lost.

Reflection

It occurs at the top of the atmosphere as the solar beam enters the atmosphere from the vacuum
(space). It also occurs at cloud tops but by far the greatest losses through reflection occurs at the
earth’s surface itself where some surfaces depending on their albedo may reflect as much as 90%
e.g. snow. The total losses through reflection process are about 30% of the total energy arriving
at the top of the atmosphere (See: Figure).

1. Absorption by
 Ozone 03%
 Water vapour 12%
2. Reflection 30%
3. Back scattering 10%
4. Absorption by the earth’s surface 45%
Total 100%

Although it would appear that 55% of the energy is lost in the atmosphere through absorption,
back scattering and reflection processes, this is not so! The 15% absorbed by ozone and water
vapour remains in the earth’s atmosphere systems. Thus 60% of the total energy arriving at the
top of the atmosphere is actually absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere systems. This is the reason
why the atmosphere is said to be largely transparent to the incoming solar short wave radiation
and confirms the observation that atmosphere is heated from below rather than from above.

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 3. LITHOSPHERE
The earth’s crust consisting of the soil and rocks is the lithosphere. The soil is made up of inorganic and
organic matter and water. The main mineral constituents are compounds or mixtures derived from the
elements of Si, Ca, K, Al, Fe, Mn, Ti, O etc. (Oxides, Silicates, and Carbonates).
The organic constituents are mainly polysaccharides, organo compounds of N, P and S. The organic
constituents even though form only around 4% – 6% of the lithosphere, they are responsible for the
fertility of the soil and hence its productivity.

3.1The structure of the Earth

We have found out about the Earth’s structure through many subtle forms of investigation,
particularly by studying the paths of earthquake waves as they travel through the Earth’s interior,
and by studying evidence of volcanic eruptions which bring material from deep within the
Earth’s interior to the surface. You will see from Figure 1.1 that the Earth’s structure is divided
into three zones.

Figure 1. 1: The Structure of the Earth

Crust
This is the solid outer layer of the Earth, and in relative terms, this is equivalent to the skin of an
apple. Its depth is usually never more than 1 per cent of the Earth’s radius, or averaging 40–50
km, but this varies considerably around the globe. There are two different types: oceanic and
continental and they are compared in Table 1.1.

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Table 1. 1: The differences between oceanic and continental crust

Oceanic crust Continental crust

Known as sima (rich in silica, and magnesium) Known as sial (rich in silica and aluminium)

Composed mainly of basaltic lavas Composed mainly of granitic rocks

Average 6–10 km in thickness Average 35–40 km in thickness, but can
be up to 70 km thick under mountain
ranges
Relatively denser than continental crust Relatively less dense than oceanic crust
(average density = 3; NB water = 1) (average density 2.7–2.8; NB soil = 2.75)
Can be subducted beneath continental crust as Cannot be subducted, but instead ‘floats’
it is denser. At its deepest (in subduction above the denser oceanic crust
zones), has a temperature of 1200°C
Occurs under the oceans and forms 60–70 per Occurs only under large land masses or
cent of the total crust continental shelves, or beneath certain shallow
seas, and forms 30–40 per cent of the total
crust
Relatively younger than continental crust (is Relatively older than oceanic crust – the
destroyed at subduction zones and is recycled) world’s oldest rocks are the great continental
shields, e.g. North America, Australia.

The boundary between the crust and the mantle is known as the Mohovoriãiç discontinuity, or
‘Moho’. At this point, shockwaves (e.g. from earthquakes) begin to travel faster, indicating a
change in structure.

Mantle
This is the zone within the Earth’s interior ranging from 25 to 70 km below the surface, to a
depth of ~2,900 km. It is composed mainly of silicate rocks, rich in iron and magnesium. Apart
from the rigid top layer (the Lithosphere, which also includes the crust), the lower mantle (the
Asthenosphere) remains in a semi-molten1 state. At the base of the mantle, temperatures may
reach up to 5,000°C. These high temperatures may help to generate convection currents which
drive plate tectonics. The boundary between the mantle and the core is known as the Gutenberg
discontinuity.
Core
This is the very centre of the Earth and is composed of iron and nickel. It consists of an outer
core (semi-molten) and inner core (solid). The temperature at the very centre of the Earth
(~6,300 km below surface) may reach 5,500°C.

Individual Activity
Study the above section carefully, and make sure that you understand the differences between the
each of ‘zones’ of the Earth’s structure. If it will make it clearer, redraw Figure 1.1, and make
your own annotations from the text, and the information given in Table 1.1.

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Plate tectonics

History
Francis Bacon (in 1620) was the first to formally draw attention to the fact that the continents
could be fitted together like a jigsaw puzzle. In the early twentieth century, both Alfred Wegener
(Germany) and F.B. Taylor (USA) came independently to same idea, that continents were not
static, but were drifting. However, the concept of continental drift usually attributed to Alfred
Wegener.
Wegener suggested that there was once one large supercontinent, which he named Pangea. From
the Carboniferous (250 million years ago) until sometime in the Quaternary (from 2.5 million
years ago), this broke up, first splitting into Laurasia in the north and Gondwanaland in the
south, before forming the continental configurations that we know today. You can see his theory
in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1. 2: The supercontinent cycle

Wegener drew evidence from several sciences to support this theory.

Biology

 Certain identical rare fossils have been found in different continents, now separated by vast
oceans.
 Mesosaurus (a small Permian reptile), for example, has only been found in South Africa and
Brazil.
 A plant which existed only during coal-forming times has only been found in India and
Antarctica.
Geology

• Rocks of similar type, formation and age have been found in South Africa and Brazil.

• Mountain ranges and fold belts all become consistent if the modernday continents are fitted back into
the Pangean landmass (e.g. the mountains of northwest Europe correspond geologically with then
Appalachians of the USA). Look at Figure 1.2 and imagine where the modern-day mountain ranges are
found – you will see that when then continents are fitted together, the mountain ranges line up.

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Climatology

• Evidence of glaciation has been found in tropical Brazil and central India.
• Coal (which forms under warm, humid conditions) has been found under Antarctica.
• Limestone, sandstone and coal found in Britain could not have formed under its current climatic
regime.
However, Wegener’s theory was rejected at first, mainly because he was unable to explain a driving
mechanism that would force the continents to drift apart.

Later evidence in support of sea floor spreading

In the 1950s, scientists began to study palaeomagnetism – as molten lava cools at the surface of the
Earth’s crust, the minerals contained within it (especially iron) align themselves with the magnetic pole.
Although the Earth’s magnetic pole was already known to vary on an annual basis, it was discovered that
periodically, the magnetic pole actually reversed completely (during the past 76 million years, there are
thought to have been 171 reversals). As new lava was being extruded from the submarine volcanoes, the
minerals contained within it would therefore align themselves according to the direction of the magnetic
pole, and would thus contain a record of the Earth’s magnetic polarity. This magnetic striping was found
to be virtually symmetrical either side of the Mid Atlantic Ridge.

In 1962, while investigating islands in the mid-Atlantic, American oceanographer Maurice Ewing
discovered a continuous submarine mountain range extending the entire longitudinal length of the
Atlantic sea floor. He also noted that the rocks were of volcanic origin, and geologically young (not
ancient, as previously assumed). What he had actually discovered was in fact the Mid Atlantic Ridge.

Also in 1962, there was the discovery that the sea floor was spreading. While studying the age of rocks
from the edge of the North American coast to the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, American geologist Harry
Hess discovered that the rocks became progressively younger towards the Mid Atlantic Ridge. He
confirmed that the newest rocks were still being formed in Iceland, and that the Atlantic could be
widening by up to 5 cm per year.

However, if new crust was being formed at the Mid Atlantic Ridge, yet the Earth was not expanding in
size, evidence was needed to suggest that the crust must be being destroyed elsewhere. This was found to
be so around the margins of the Pacific, and thus the now virtually universally accepted theory of plate
tectonics was born.

The theory of plate tectonics

The Earth’s lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) is divided into seven large, and several smaller plates
(see Figure 1.3). These plates are constantly moving, and are driven by convection currents in the mantle.
Plate boundaries mark the sites of the world’s major landforms, and they are also areas where mountain-
building, volcanoes and earthquakes can be found.

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Figure 1. 3: The world distribution of tectonic plate boundaries

However, in order to account for such activity at the plate boundaries, several points should be noted
(modified from Waugh, 2000):

• Continental crust is less dense than oceanic crust so it does not sink. Whereas oceanic crust is
continuously being created and destroyed, continental crust is permanent, and hosts the oldest
rocks on the planet (the shieldlands).
• Continental plates may be composed of both continental and oceanic crust (e.g. Eurasia).
• Continental crust may extend further than the margins of the land masses (when continental crust
is covered by an ocean, it is known as continental shelf).
• It is not possible for plates to overlap, so they may either crumple up to form mountain chains, or
one plate must sink below the other.
• If two plates are moving apart, new crust is formed in the intervening space, as no ‘gaps’ may
occur in the Earth’s crust.
• The earth is not expanding, so if newer crust is being created in one area, older crust must be
being destroyed elsewhere.
• Plate movements are geologically fast and continuous. Sudden movements manifest themselves
as earthquakes.
• Very little structural change takes place in the centre of the plates (the shieldlands). Plate margins
mark the sites of the most significant landforms, including volcanoes, batholith intrusions, fold
mountains, island arcs and deep-sea trenches (see later sections throughout this section).
Plate boundaries

There are three types of plate boundary (or margin): constructive, destructive and passive.

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Constructive margins

These arise where two plates move away from each other, and new crust is created at the boundary. They
are mainly found between oceanic plates, and are consequently underwater features. Rift valleys may
initially develop, but molten rock from the mantle (magma) rises to fill any possible gaps. Constructive
margins are often marked by ocean ridges (e.g. the Mid Atlantic Ridge, the East Pacific Rise). The rising
magma forms submarine volcanoes, which in time may grow above sea level (e.g. Iceland, Tristan da
Cunha and Ascension Island on the Mid Atlantic Ridge, and Easter Island on the East Pacific Rise).
Different rates of latitudinal movement along the boundary cause transform faults to develop as the
magma cools – these lie perpendicular (at a right angle) to the plate boundary. Of the annual volume of
lava2 ejected onto the Earth’s surface, 73 per cent is found on mid-ocean ridges, and approximately one-
third of the lava ejected onto the Earth’s surface during the past 500 years is found in Iceland. The
Atlantic Ocean formed as the continent of Laurasia split in two, and the Atlantic is continuing to widen by
approximately 2–5 cm per year.

Very rarely, constructive margins can occur on land, and it is thought that this is happening in East Africa
at the Great African Rift Valley System. Extending for 4,000 km from the Red Sea to Mozambique, its
width varies from 10 to 50 km, and at points its sides reach over 600 m in height. Where the land has
dropped sufficiently, the sea has invaded – it has been suggested that the Red Sea is the beginnings of a
newly forming ocean. Associated volcanoes include Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya to the east and
Ruwenzori to the west.

Destructive margins

These occur where two plates move towards each other, and one is forced below the other into the mantle.
The Pacific Ocean is virtually surrounded by destructive plate margins with their associated features, and
its perimeter has become known as the Pacific Ring of Fire. The features present at destructive margins
will depend upon what types of plates are converging.

When oceanic crust meets continental crust:

• The thinner, denser oceanic crust is forced to dip downwards at an angle and sink into the
subduction zone beneath the thicker, lighter and more buoyant continental crust.
• A deep-sea trench forms at the plate margin as subduction takes place. These form the deepest
areas on the planet.
• As the oceanic crust descends, the edge of the continental crust may crumple to form fold
mountains, which run in chains parallel to the boundary (e.g. the Andes).
• Sediments collecting in the deep-sea trench may also be pushed up to form fold mountains.
• As the oceanic crust descends into the hot mantle, additional heat generated by friction helps the
plate to melt, usually at a depth of 400–600 km below the surface.
• As it is less dense than the mantle, the newly formed magma will tend to rise to the Earth’s
surface, where it may form volcanoes.
• However, as the rising magma at destructive margins is very acidic, it may solidify before it
reaches the surface and form a batholith at the base of the mountain chain (see below).

18
 • As the oceanic plate descends, shallow earthquakes occur where the crust is stretched as it dips
beneath the surface. Deeper earthquakes arise from increases in friction and pressure may be
released as earthquakes.
• As the oceanic plate descends, increased stresses may trigger earthquakes: shallow earthquakes
occur where the crust is stretche as it dips beneath the surface, and deeper earthquakes occur due
to increases in friction and pressure as the plate subducts.
• The area in the subduction zone where most earthquakes take place is known as the Benioff zone.
• The depth of the deeper earthquakes may also provide an indication as to the angle of subduction,
where gentler angles of subduction give rise to shallower earthquakes.
• If subduction occurs offshore, island arcs may form (e.g. Japan, the West Indies).
When oceanic crust meets oceanic crust:

• Where two oceanic plates collide, either one may be subducted.

• Similar features arise as those where an oceanic plate meets a continental
• plate.
When continental crust meets continental crust (note that this is very rare):

• Because continental crust cannot sink, the edges of the two plates and the intervening sediments
are crumpled to form very deep-rooted fold mountains.
• The zone marking the boundary of the two colliding plates is known as the suture line.
• These boundaries mark the site at which the Earth’s crust is at its thickest. For example, the Indo-
Australian Plate is moving northeastwards and is crashing into the rigid Eurasian Plate, creating
the Himalayas.
• Uplift is a continuous process (it is happening right now); however, weathering and erosion of the
mountain tops means that the actual height of the mountains is not as great as the rate of uplift
would suggest.
• Sediments which form part of the Himalayas were once underlying the Tethys Sea, which existed
at the time of the Pangean supercontinent.

Passive margins

These occur where two plates slide past each other and crust is neither created nor destroyed. The
boundary between the two plates is characterized by pronounced transform faults, which lie parallel to the
plate boundary. As the plates slide past each other, friction builds up and causes the plates to stick, and
release is in the form of earthquakes.

An excellent example of a passive margin is the San Andreas Fault (one of several hundred known faults)
in California, which marks a junction between the North American and the Pacific Plates. Although both
plates are moving in a northwesterly direction, the Pacific Plate moves at a faster rate than the North
American late (6 cm per year, compared with just 1 cm per year), creating the illusion that the plates are
moving in opposite directions.

19
Earthquakes

General information

Earthquakes result from the sudden release of pressure which has slowly built up within the rocks of the
Earth’s crust. Energy is released in the form of shockwaves known as seismic waves, which lose energy
as they radiate outwards from the centre of the earthquake (the focus). The point on the Earth’s surface
that suffers the greatest intensity of seismic waves is the epicentre, which lies directly above the focus.

Earthquake intensity is measured on the modified Mercalli scale, which ranges from one to 12,
depending upon the intensity (see Table 1.2). This is a semi-quantitative linear scale.

Earthquake magnitude is measured on the Richter scale (named after the seismologist who devised it),
which rates them on a scale of one to nine. It is a logarithmic scale where each step represents a tenfold
increase in measured wave amplitude. Translated into energy, each whole number represents a 31.5-fold
increase in energy release. Thus a magnitude 3.0 on the Richter scale is 31.5 more energy than a 2.0 and
992 times more energy than a 1.0. A value greater than 7.0 denotes a major earthquake. Since 1993 the
Richter scale has been improved, as it was difficult to measure or differentiate between quakes at high
intensity. The moment magnitude scale is more accurate than the original Richter amplitude magnitude
scale. For example, the 1964 earthquake at Prince William Sound in Alaska had an amplitude magnitude
of 8.6 but on the moment magnitude scale it increased to a 9.2. The largest earthquake recorded occurred
in Chile, in 1960, and reached 9.6 on the moment Richter scale (see Table 1.2). This earthquake is closely
followed by the magnitude 9.0 which occurred in northern Sumatra on 26 December 2004, causing the
most destructive tsunami ever. Most major earthquakes have magnitudesnof ~6.5. The Richter scale is a
quantitative logarithmic scale.

Table 1. 2: The Mercalli and Richter scales

Modified Description of effects on land Richter scale (magnitude)

Mercalli scale
(intensity)
I Vibrations show up on instruments; however, movement is not felt by 0.0–4.3
humans.
II Movement felt by those resting and/or on the upper floors of tall
buildings
II Shaking felt inside buildings. Hanging objects swing. People outside
may not realise earthquake is taking place.

IV Most people indoors feel movement. Hanging objects may swing. 4.3–4.8
Windows, doors and dishes rattle. Parked cars may rock. Some people
outside may feel movement.

V Movement noticed by all. Doors swing open and closed, liquids spill,
dishe break, etc. Pictures and wall hangings swing. Small objects may
move/fall over. Those sleeping may wake up. Trees may shake

VI People have difficulty walking. Movement felt by all. Windows break, 4.8–6.2
20
Modified Description of effects on land Richter scale (magnitude)
Mercalli scale
(intensity)
pictures fall off walls, furniture moves, objects fall from shelves.
Plaster in walls may begin to crack. Trees and bushes shake. No major
structural damage, although it may be slight in poorly constructed
buildings.

VII People have difficulty standing. Drivers feel their cars shaking. Some
furniture breaks. Large bells ring. Plaster, loose bricks and tiles fall
from buildings. Slightto-moderate damage in well-constructed
buildings, considerable damage in poorly constructed buildings.

VIII Car steering may be affected. Tree branches break. Well-constructed 6.2–7.3
buildings may suffer slight damage. Houses that are not secured down
may begin to move off their foundations. Poorly constructed buildings
may experience severe damage. Tall structures (including towers and
chimneys) may fall. Cracks appear in wet ground, hillslides may take
place in wet ground. Water levels in wells may change.

IX General panic among populations. Sand and mud may bubble from the
ground. Well-constructed buildings may be severely damaged. Houses
that are notsecured down may move off their foundations. Reservoirs
experience damage Some underground pipes are broken. Cracks appear
on the ground.
X Most buildings collapse, some bridges may be affected. Railway tracks
begin to bend. Dams seriously damaged. Large landslides may occur,
and water may be thrown onto the banks of rivers, canals, lakes, etc.
Large cracks appear on theground.

XI Large cracks appear on the ground. Rocks fall. Railway tracks bend and 7.3–8.9
roads break up. Most buildings destroyed (some earthquake-proof
buildings may withstand tremors up to 8.5 on the Richter scale). Some
bridges may collapse. Underground pipelines destroyed.

XII Total destruction. Ground moves in a wave-like motion. Large amounts

of rock may be moved. Rivers change their course. Objects are thrown
into the air. Vision is blurred.

Often severe earthquakes are so deep in the Earth that no surface displacements are seen. However, as the
shockwaves reach the surface, landwaves may roll across the terrain, which may trigger events such as
mass movements and avalanches. By their nature, earthquakes are often quite difficult to predict, and so
they are capable of causing much damage should they strike without warning. Earthquakes take place all
the time, but it is the size and location of the earthquake which will determine the scale of destruction.

21
Often, the extent to which an earthquake is termed ‘damaging’ depends upon its location in relation to
human populations. Note that much of the damage associated with earthquakes may not be due to the
tremors themselves, but to the after-effects, such as fires from broken gas pipes, disruption of transport
and other services, poor sanitation, disease (e.g. from broken sewers and contaminated water supplies),
exposure caused by lack of shelter, food shortages, lack of medical equipment, etc.

Earthquake features

There are three main stages to an earthquake:

• Foreshocks relate to the initial shattering of obstructions or bonds along the failure plane.

• Principal shock is the most severe shock. It may last from just a fewmseconds to a couple of minutes.

• Aftershocks recur as the shockwaves travel around the Earth. They generally decrease in frequency and
intensity over time, but may occur over a period of several days to several months. They have great
potential to cause damage, as structures have already been weakened by the principal shock.

Types of shockwave

Earthquakes produce three different types of shockwave, which become progressively weaker with
distance from the Earthquake focus, like ripples on a pond. The nature of the wave also determines how it
travels through the Earth’s interior (see Figure 1.4).

Figure 1. 4: The movement of the different earthquake waves through the structure of the Earth

The three main types of wave and their differences are outlined in Table 1.3:

22
 Table 1. 3: The main types of earthquake wave

Wave type Wave Speed How it passes through the Earth’s Figure
character interior

Primary (P) Longitudinal Fastest waves, travelling at an Are able to pass through solids and Figure
average speed of liquids, so can travel through the 1.5a
5 km per second. core

Secondary Transverse Slower, travelling at an average Are not able to travel through Figure
(S) speed of 3 km per second (i.e. liquids, so cannot pass through the 1.5b
60 per cent of the speed of P outer core.
waves).
Surface/long Transverse Slowest waves, with greatest Travel around the surface of the Figure
(L) waves wavelength5, but they carry Earth – the surface waves of the 1.5c
most of earthquake’s energy. Chilean earthquake of 1960 travelled
20 times around the Earth, and were
still registering on seismometers 60
hours after the main shock

23
Figure 1. 5: The different types of earthquake wave

Tsunamis

These are huge ‘tidal waves’ caused by the displacement of the sea bed. Displacement may be caused by
an earthquake, but may also be caused by the slumping of sediments around the coast, or especially near
to deep-sea trenches. Whole series of waves may be set up, which have wavelengths of several hundred

24
kilometres. Because they possess so much energy, they may race across the ocean for thousands of
kilometres at speeds of up to 900 km per hour – a large tsunami can cross the Pacific in about 24 hours.

The height of a tsunami is directly proportional to the depth of the water across which it is travelling. In
the middle of the deep ocean, a tsunami wave may be relatively unnoticeable. Therefore its effects are at
their most intense in shallow waters, so shelving coastlines are particularly vulnerable to damage should a
tsunami hit.

Most dangerous tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean, as it is surrounded by tectonic plate margins. The
Pacific Tsunami Warning System has been set up, which triggers warning alarms if an earthquake greater
than 6.5 on the Richter scale is detected by one of its 69 seismic stations across the area. Tsunami
warnings can then be issued, and appropriate action taken in areas at risk.

However, as was discovered on 26 December 2004, a tsunami originating from a magnitude 9.0
earthquake in northern Sumatra killed over 100,000 people in countries surrounding the Indian Ocean.
There are now moves to set up tsunami warning systems in the Indian and Atlantic Oceans.

Further student study:

Research on Vulcanicty and Rock types:

3.2 Formation, Modification and Distribution of Landforms

The earth is a dynamic reality, constantly changing. On the surface of the earth, one can see the
changes caused over time by interior forces operating on the crust of the earth and exterior forces
operating on the surface features of the earth. The interior of the earth is not a solid mass of rock
and produces forces which change the surface forms and their locations on the earth’s surface.
The exterior forces of moving water, air, and ice work upon the surface features to alter the
landscape created by the interior forces.

INTERIOR FORCES 50 million

Earth scientists have proven that years ago
the shape and locations of the
continental landmasses have been CONTINENTAL
and are moving. Once they were
DRIFT
joined together in one huge landmass
which broke apart. The separate pieces

Today

25
of that original mega-continent began moving apart until they came to their present, temporary
configuration on the face of the earth. The continental drift theory states that the lithosphere,
or crust, of the earth is composed of many segments or lithospheric plates which are underlain
by less than solid rock matter which is slowly, but continually, moving. This causes the plates to
move also. Where plates are being caused to move apart, the gap is filled with rock material

which moves up from below the earth’s crust. The ridge which generally runs north to south in
the middle of the Atlantic Ocean is an example of this phenomenon. This process causes the
distances between Europe and North America and the distances between South America and
Africa to increase as the continents are pushed, or drift, farther apart each year. The process
operates very slowly, because in a period or fifty to one hundred years, the changes are not easily
observable. Easily observable or not, the movement and change has occurred and is currently
occurring. In other places, the plates may be moving toward one another, or one may be moving
toward another. When this happens, one plate usually overrides the other. The one which is
overridden is submerged and its rock material heats and softens and becomes part of the molten
material beneath the lithosphere. These places where plates meet may be areas with higher than
average incidences of volcanic and/or earthquake activity. The North and South American west

26
coast is an area where this type of movement is taking place. There are also areas of the ocean,
particularly in the Pacific where surface materials are being drawn down into the earth’s interior.
This occurs in the deep trenches which exist there, often along continental margins. The
lithosphere, then, is not the solid, static reality most people assume it to be, except when they
experience an earth tremor, earthquake, or volcanic eruption. In the normal day-to-day activities
of most individuals, they tend to be unaware of the dynamic nature of the lithosphere. In reality,
the lithosphere is constantly changing as plates move; new material emerges at mid-ocean ridges
from the mantle of earth; lithospheric material of one plate is drawn down beneath an adjacent
plate and softens and rejoins the mantle material; and earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur
where the stresses built up within the lithosphere from the interaction of the plates provide
opportunities for such occurrences. The study of plate tectonics attempts to explain the various
kinds of interactions plates may have with one another in much greater detail.

The stresses caused by the plates of the lithosphere moving and colliding are responsible for
many of the features of the earth’s surface. One category of land-forming processes is
epeirogeny or epeirogenesis. This is often called continent building. It involves the raising or
lowering of very large segments of the earth’s surface.
This happens with little or no folding of the surface. It
might involve some warping of the surface. An example
of this would be the creation of a large plateau area. Much
of the continent of Africa is composed of large expanses
of plateaus.

Another category of land-forming processes is diastrophism, the tectonic process which

produces dramatic changes in the shape of the earth’s surface. Diastrophism includes such
processes as orogenesis or orogeny, faulting,
and folding. Orogenesis refers to the formation
of linear mountain chains on continents.
Orogenesis is often referred to as mountain
building. In it, rock strata , or layers, are thrust
upwards in folds to form a range of mountains.
The strata may also be changed by blocks of the
crust being thrust up in somewhat rectangular
blocks.

When folding occurs, the

trough, or valley, formed
where the rock strata
27
folds downward is referred to as a syncline. In the reverse process, where the rock strata folds
upward, the ridge, or higher and rounded area is referred to as an anticline. Stresses in the
lithosphere which produce diastrophism can cause both faulting and folding in the same area.
The strains of folding which produce an anticline greatly weaken the rock as it is stretched by the
folding process. This causes the ridge or upfold to be very susceptible to the forces of
weathering and then the forces of erosion.

When faulting occurs, a large, deep rupture or crack is created in the

lithosphere. The accumulated stresses, kinetic energy, trapped in the
lithosphere will eventually cause some kind of movement along the
rupture or fault. One side may be thrust up as in a fault block
mountain or a tilted plateau such as the Arabian Peninsula. There
may be horizontal movement more than vertical movement, such as
when two of the lithospheric plates are moving in different
directions, as is the case of the San Andreas fault in California. In
the case of lateral movement, a road which crosses the fault may be offset and the two sides no
longer meet where the road had crossed the fault. When the accumulated pressure in the
lithosphere is released by movement along a fault, the movement causes earth tremors and
earthquakes. Earthquakes are one of the two tremendously destructive occurrences that are
associated with the fault zones of the world such as the Pacific rim.

Vulcanism is the process which often results in the other type of disaster associated with fault
zones. When weaknesses in the lithosphere exist, such as those associated with faults. The
molten material of the earth’s mantle, which is under pressure, may succeed in forcing its way
into the lithosphere and may even manage to pass through the lithosphere and erupt out onto the
surface of the earth. The most dramatic example of this process is a volcanic eruption, but that is
not the only way in which movements of molten rock
material causes changes in the earth’s crust. The molten
rock material below the lithosphere and sometimes
trapped within the lithosphere is referred to as magma,
but once it erupts unto the earth’s surface, its liquidity
increases and it is referred to as lava.

Magma is molten rock which exists beneath the

lithosphere. This is rock material which
can move because it is not in the form of a
solid. Some earth scientists believe that it
moves in convectional currents which are
powered by the heat of the earth’s core.
Sometimes, this molten material moves
into the lithosphere, pushing in between
the rock strata where weaknesses allow it
to intrude. Such a land-forming process
which does not involve the movement of
magma out onto the surface of the earth is

28
called intrusion. The magma forcing itself between layers or rock strata pushes the rock strata
above it upward, causing a bulge in the surface of the earth. Over a long period of time, this
molten material cools and solidifies forming some form of igneous rock. Some of these
intrusions fill vertical cracks in the lithosphere, whereas other intrusions are horizontal between
the rock strata. Sometimes the horizontal intrusions are rather thin, while at other times they can
be somewhat thick, causing quite a bulge on the earth’s surface. In this latter case, the softer
surface rock may erode after a long time, leaving an exposed dome of igneous rock material
which is referred to as a dome mountain if it is large [see the illustration on page 4]

When magma, under pressure, is able to intrude into the lithosphere and find a way to reach the
surface the process is referred to
as vulcanism. This occurs in
many mountain ranges and
contributes to the formation of
mountains. This is also the
process which created most of
the islands in the Pacific Ocean.
The Hawaiian Islands are the
tops of large volcanoes which
formed in the Pacific basin.
There are still active volcanoes
on the Hawaiian Islands. In the
1990s, scientists located a new
island in the Hawaiian Island
chain which is still being
constructed by volcanic
activity. This new island hasn’t The Pacific Rim, where tectonic plates meet, is a
yet become large enough to zone of frequent earthquakes and volcanic
remain above the surface of the eruptions.
Pacific Ocean, but volcanic
activity there is continuing to build it up toward the surface of the ocean. When the lava from
these eruptions eventually cools, it forms some type of igneous rock too.

EXTERIOR FORCES In addition to the interior forces and processes which cause the earth’s
surface to be a dynamic stage upon which the human story is acted out, there are other forces
which operate from outside the lithosphere and act upon it. These exterior forces aid in creating
some very grand landforms and landscapes such as the Grand Canyon in Colorado, but they are
particularly active in creating the less grand and less imposing landforms and landscapes with
which most people interact daily.

Humans tend to be largely unaware of the actions of interior forces in their day-to-day lives
except when those forces cause an earth tremor, earthquake, or volcanic eruption. Humans may
be somewhat more aware of the action of the exterior land-forming processes even though they
often operate slowly and gradually. People may be aware that a stream is cutting away at their
yard as the forces of erosion and deposition cause its course to shift. They may have to work

29
hard or spend much money in an effort to stop the natural eroding actions of the stream, so they
will be aware of the exterior forces.

The forces associated with water, wind and ice work to change the surface of the earth by
interacting with that surface. The process of weathering causes solid rock to be broken down
into smaller particles by chemical and/or mechanical means. Weathering occurs in many ways,
but all of them prepare materials of the earth’s surface for the exterior forces of erosion and
deposition. Through changes in temperature,
and the resulting expansion and contraction of
the surface rock of landforms, some types of
rock are more likely to crack and crumble and
flake off. Mechanical weathering produces
the smaller pieces of rock that are separated
from the larger rock are lighter in weight and
can be more easily carried away by moving
water, wind, or moving ice. This process of
earth materials being relocated by moving
water, air or ice is known as erosion. Another
type of mechanical weathering results from
water entering cracks in rocks when
EXFOLIATION – the layers of rock follow
temperatures are cold. When the water freezes
and the temperature drops below four degrees rounded joint cracks formed by the
Fahrenheit, the ice in the crack begins to greater expansion of rock at the surface
expand (this is contrary to how ice behaves in comparison with that underneath.
above that temperature when it contracts as This is an example of mechanical
cold things are “supposed to behave”). While weathering.
it is expanding, it is acting like a lever and
applying pressure to the sides of the crack. This makes the crack bigger. On the next cold, wet
night this process is repeated until the rock splits into smaller pieces. This is the same process
that causes potholes in the streets of mid-latitude cities in the winter.

Another kind of weathering process is the chemical weathering process. This involves the
weakening of rock structures by chemical reactions occurring which remove some of the
chemical elements or change the chemical compounds in the rock. Any mineral compound in
rock which can dissolve in water
will be weakened by exposure to
moisture. Caves in limestone
areas are examples of chemical
weathering. Water passing
through rock, particularly along
cracks in the limestone, over a
long period of time, dissolves
some of the limestone and leaves Karst topography caused by the collapsing of weakened limestone
cavities in what was once solid into what had been large caves caused by chemical weathering.
limestone. Under some

30
circumstances, water becomes a mild acid and then reacts chemically with any mineral
compounds in rock that can react with an acid. This kind of chemical weathering has been
accelerated by increasing pollution, particularly around large urban areas, which causes the
phenomenon known as acid rain. Rainwater passing through a thick ground cover of
decomposing leaves, particularly pine needles, also becomes mildly acidic, or mildly alkaline,
depending on the chemicals produced by the decomposing vegetation. These acidic or alkaline
solutions then contribute to the process of chemical weathering.

Erosion can occur once rock material is reduced in size enough that the force of gravity, moving
water, moving air, or moving ice can cause it to move. When gravity can overcome the inertia of
a rock, it will fall from the face of a cliff or tumble down an incline. This occurrence qualifies as
a form of erosion because earth material has been removed from its original location. When the
moving rock material stops moving, it can be said that deposition has occurred. Erosion and
deposition are the beginning and end of one process. When earth materials are eroded (moved)
from one place, they do not cease to exist. They are carried by the agent of erosion, moving
water, moving air, or moving ice, and left, deposited, somewhere else, so the process ends in
deposition. The faster the agent of erosion moves and the larger the volume of it, the larger the

Erosion and
deposition occur all
along the stream as
banks erode and
gravel bars and sand
bars are formed.

pieces of earth material it can carry and move. As the erosional agent slows down, the heavier
particles begin being deposited on the earth’s surface. When the erosional agent stops moving,
the smallest particles settle to the surface of the earth and contribute to some form of depositional
landform. Gullies and canyons are examples of erosional landforms; whereas, deltas, alluvial
fans, and terminal moraines are examples of depositional landforms.

31
Landforms are composed of a variety of rock. Igneous rock was mentioned in the section about
interior forces. Igneous rock is rock which has been formed by the solidifying of magma or
lava. There are many kinds of igneous rocks, depending on what chemical compounds were in
the molten matter that cooled to form the rock. The process of deposition can be the beginning
of the formation of another family or rock, sedimentary rock. Earth materials that have been
deposited and left undisturbed for a long time may be solidified by the pressure of overlying
materials and become a form of sedimentary rock. There are a variety of sedimentary rocks,
depending on the kinds of materials which were deposited. The different kinds of sediment
result in sandstone, limestone, etc. There is a third member of the rock family, metamorphic
rock. As its name suggests, metamorphic rock is rock which has been changed. The varieties of
metamorphic rock all started as either a form of sedimentary rock or igneous rock. When
exposed to enough heat and/or pressure, sedimentary rock and igneous rock are transformed into
harder, less permeable, metamorphic rock. The varieties of metamorphic rock depend on the
kinds of rock they were originally – e.g., limestone becomes marble when it becomes a
metamorphic rock.

THE FOUR MAJOR LANDFORMS Landforms are always being created and changed. This
usually happens so slowly that few people notice it. Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and major
floods may create changes which are quickly and easily visible. There are four major types of
landforms and thousands of minor landforms which are created and changed by the forces
discussed above. The four major landforms will be illustrated and described below, but the
minor landforms will not be. It might be fascinating to study about the many minor landforms,
or one category of them like glacial landforms, in an earth science or physical geography
textbook. The diagram below illustrates a cross section of the major landforms to give an
impression of relative elevations and shapes.

Plains These are generally level or gently rolling land surfaces with low elevation. They
usually have little local relief [the difference in elevation between the highest point and the
lowest point in the area]. Plains are often found along the coasts of continents or islands.
Frequently there may be large inland plains at somewhat higher elevations. The flood plain is a
narrow linear plain formed by the erosional action of a river. Where water is readily available,
plains have been very hospitable to human habitation.

32
Plateaus Plateaus are large areas of level or gently rolling land which stand above the elevation
of the surrounding areas. Usually there is little local relief on the plateau’s surface. There is
usually a sharp drop-off called an escarpment between the surface of the plateau and the lower
land next to it. Sometimes plateaus are called tablelands. Plateaus are usually found in dry
climates. Plateaus have been formed in humid regions, but the amount of water available there
accelerates the process of erosion and the plateau eventually becomes a dissected plateau which,
to the naked eye looks like a region of hills. Examination of the rock strata beneath the surface
reveals horizontal layers or rock strata which testify to this region of hill having originally been a
plateau. The Ozark Highlands or Ozark Plateau is an example of a dissected plateau.

Hills These are areas having elevations greater Physical

MOUNTAINS OR HILLS?
than 500 feet and local relief of more than 500
geographers can’t trust place names to
feet but less than 2,000 feet. Most of the land
accurately identify landforms. Place
is sloped rather than level. In hills, the slopes
are usually moderate rather than steep. names are given by the people who
settle an area, not by geographers, and
Mountains Mountains are areas with have a tendency to stick, even if they
elevation usually greater than 2,000 feet. They are technically inaccurate. The Green
are characterized by steep slope, narrow Mountains of Vermont have the
divides, ridges, and peaks. The local relief is
elevations and local relief to qualify
usually more than 2,000 feet. Little level land
exists in most mountains. Mountains have a them as hills, but the name Green
major influence on the climate of their Mountains has been used and accepted
windward and leeward sides. They also for so many years that no one will
influence transportation routes through them. support a movement to change the
While not absolute barriers to the movement of name to the Green Hills of Vermont.
humans and their products, mountains discourage such movement and make the task more
difficult.

3.3 LANDFORMS AND HUMAN USE OF THE EARTH

It is impossible to discuss human activity on the earth without discussing landforms – they are a
major part of the “site” of any location. Using the
terminology of the five themes of geography, landforms are SITE refers to the
a major part of the physical place of a location. Physical characteristics of a place or
geography most definitely studies landforms, but all forms location which are provided
of human geography must also consider the landforms of by nature.
any area being examined. Landforms may influence climate
and soil, and thereby the vegetation, of an area. These are additional components of physical
place. The studies of historical geographers have shown that human movements have been
encouraged or discouraged by particular landforms. The studies of economic geographers have
shown that certain economic activities are more likely to be practiced in particular types of
landform areas. Landforms do not determine where people will settle, what routes of travel they
will take, or what types of economic activities they will practice; but they do influence the
decisions. The critical factors in these decisions are cultural: the level of technology possessed
33
by a people is a major determiner, and the intensity of their desire also is important. The way in
which two cultures live on and use similar landform areas may have many similarities or may
have significant differences due to their different cultures.

An example of the influence of landforms can be seen on the largest island of Japan, Honshu.
Only about fifteen percent of the land on that island is relatively level. The rest is mountainous
or hilly, with mountains predominating. If one looks at maps of level land on Honshu and of
population density, one discovers that they look very similar – most people live on the areas of
level land. A study of Japanese culture will show that they use the areas of level land intensively
and with great care to maintain its productivity. They use as little of their level land for non-
productive purposes, houses or gardens, as possible. On the hilly land adjacent to the level land,
they have created terraces to expand the areas where they can practice their intensive agriculture.

An examination of the Midwest of the United States shows that on such a large area of level
land, people have settled in patterns that show no direct relation to landform types. The cultural
imprint on the land as seen from the air is very rectangular, or geometric. With such large areas
of level land, the human features have followed the geometric survey system instituted in the late
18th century. Roads, farm boundaries, and political boundaries often follow these geometric
survey lines. Sometimes when one of these boundaries meets a river, the river was used for part
of the boundary.

In the Appalachian mountain region, population is not so highly concentrated in the little areas of
level land as on the island of Honshu, because the people had the option of not settling in the
mountains. Since the Appalachian mountains have lowlands to the east, west, and south of them,
people had the choice of going through them to the west, or going around them to the south to
large areas of undeveloped, level land. The
Appalachians remained a relatively forgotten, SITUATION refers to the qualities an area
isolated part of the United States for a long has relative to other areas – a town on a
time because the major forms of major transportation line may grow and
transportation followed the passes through
attract people and businesses, whereas
the mountains or went around the southern
end of them. The interest of most people was an isolated town far from any major
to get through or around them to land that transportation line will probably not attract
was more easily developed. In the many people or businesses.
Appalachian area, passes like the Hudson-Mohawk valleys and the Cumberland Gap became
important transportation corridors – there was more development near these areas than was
typical of most of Appalachia. Their “situation” was better than most areas in Appalachia. A
study of highways and railroads that cross the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada shows
that they follow the natural passes through the mountains. Here too, more people desired to pass
through these mountains than to settle in them.

It is not difficult to pick out a general principle from these examples: mountains, and hills to a
lesser degree, tend to limit settlement choices and channel transportation; whereas, level lands
like plains are less restrictive. Humans have more easy choices on level land as long as the

34
climate is relatively desirable. Another general principle is that human decisions are greatly
influenced by culture, particularly the technology level of the culture.

The submerging coastline of the U.S. east coast with its SUBMERGENCE --
many estuaries has many naturally good locations where port epeirogeny has caused a
cities have developed. The emergent coastline of the U.S. large portion of the
Gulf of Mexico coast has few good locations for large ports. continental landmass to
For many years, New Orleans was the “premier port” along decrease in elevation,
the U.S. gulf coast. After 1945, however, the city of Houston thereby flooding valleys
was able to develop into a major port too, in spite of and former coastal plains.
unfavorable natural conditions. The island bars which EMERGENCE --
develop offshore along emergent coastlines had prevented epeirogeny has caused a
large ships from reaching Galveston Bay. Modern technology large portion of the
available after 1945, made it possible to open a channel large continental landmass to
enough for large commercial ships from the Gulf of Mexico increase in elevation
to Galveston Bay. The developing oil industry in Texas and extending the coastline
along the Gulf Coast provided the necessary desire – humans onto land which had been
don’t usually undertake large, expensive projects just because part of the continental
they are able to do so. Humans put forth the effort and spent shelf. This often results in
the money because they have a compelling reason – usually a coastline fringed with
economic or military. island bars which inhibit
access to the actual
Before World War I, the Germans had developed several coastline.
plans for invading France if was should come between them.
One was to march across neutral Belgium’s plains and risk
war with Great Britain, who was pledged by treaty to protect Belgium’s neutrality. Another was
to march through neutral Switzerland, whose neutrality was not protected by treaty. An
examination of a physical map of Europe makes it clear why the plan that called for marching
through mountainous Switzerland was rejected.

Landforms influence more than just transportation route choices. They can influence climate,
soil, and vegetation. It is a general rule that the steeper the slope of land is, the thinner the soil
is. Gravity and the erosive force of water constantly remove weathered materials from steep
lands and deposit them on more level areas at lower elevations. The hills and mountains have
thin, poorly developed soils and support only the growth of plants that can grow in thin, poorly
developed soils. The bottom lands of the wider valleys downstream receive much of the eroded
material from hilly land upstream. Here, in the bottom lands, there is much parent material from
which good soil can develop. The bottom lands of the valleys supported much richer vegetation
than the hills, and settlers cleared the forests and used this deep, rich soil for productive
agricultural purposes. The high productivity of the farms on the Mississippi River flood plain, in
the years without floods, attests to the richness of the alluvial soils developed on thousands of
years of deposited sediments. The lack of wheat, corn, or soybean fields on the slopes of the
Ozark hills attests to the unsuitability of that thinner, less developed soil for agricultural
purposes.

35
Mountains influence climate. When mountain ridges run roughly perpendicular to the prevailing
winds, the side of the mountain the winds ascend, the windward side, usually receives much
precipitation. The other side, the leeward side where the winds descend, receives little
precipitation and has an arid or semi-arid climate. The Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains in
the western part of the United States illustrates this, as do the Andes Mountains in South
America. If these mountains were not there or if they ran in an east-west direction instead of a
north-south direction, the climates of North and South America would be greatly different from
what it is. Because temperatures vary at different elevations, getting cooler at higher elevations,
climates within mountain
ranges are very complex and
varied. The degree of exposure
to moisture bearing winds also
influences the climate
variations within mountain
ranges. Due to the varied
conditions, particularly
temperatures, different kinds of
commercial and subsistence
agriculture are practiced at
different elevations. This is
referred to as altitudinal
zonation and is illustrated above.

Plains are usually seen as being very conducive to human development. They are easy to
cultivate if they receive adequate rainfall and present few problems for the construction of cities,
roads, and highways. Under some circumstances, though, plains can present humans with
problems to overcome if they want to develop that area. Plains, particularly at low elevations,
often have problems with drainage. If an area receives much precipitation, the soil may not be
able to absorb it and a swampy condition may exist. The early settlers of New Orleans buried
their dead above ground in vaults because the water table in that area is too near the surface.
Houses were built without basements for that reason also. Lands at higher elevations may have
less trouble with water, even if they receive more precipitation, because the water table is not so
near the surface of the land. Hilly and mountainous regions have little trouble with water logged
soil at their higher elevations because there is much runoff. Where there is much precipitation,
and/or little vegetation on the hills to slow the water, runoff can because severe floods in the
valleys and flood plain areas downstream.

The nature of the bedrock also influences the water table. Where the bedrock is porous,
limestone or sandstone, the groundwater can pass down into the rock. In areas with limestone
bedrock, water may dissolve passages in the rock (caves), and water can pass through the soil
rather quickly. In the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, this limestone condition, in an area with
great precipitation, creates an unexpected condition – the soil can get too dry if rains don’t come
frequently enough because the soil doesn’t hold much moisture for long. Most of the water
moves underground through the caves and sinkholes rather than being held in the soil.
Agriculture in this area depends on crops that need little water. Irrigation could only be

36
practiced if a reliable source of water could be found. Where the bedrock is impermeable, not
porous, water cannot leave the soil and enter the bedrock. [Bedrock of igneous or metamorphic
rock is more likely to create this condition.] With impermeable bedrock, the groundwater must
slowly move downhill through the soil. An area like this that receives less rainfall than the
Yucatan could have problems with soil that is too wet. Here, a farmer might have to find ways
to drain his land before he can use it profitably.

CONCLUSIONS
In many ways, human use of the earth is influenced by landforms. Any study of human activity
in a particular location must consider the landforms and their influences. Human assessment of
the usability of particular areas with their particular landforms, however, is highly determined by
culture, particularly the level of technology possessed and used in that culture. Different groups
of people, with different cultures having different world views and different historical
experiences, may assess the usability of an area very differently.

37
 4. NATURE OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE MATERIALS
The earth’s surface is covered in many materials with different characteristics. These surface
materials include vegetation, soils, sands, snow and ice as well as water more of fresh and saline
moreover some of these materials covering the earth’s surface are mobile e.g. water which is
capable of moving both horizontally as ocean currents and vertically as upwelling; Winds
blowing across the ocean surface often push water away from an area. When this occurs, water
rises up from beneath the surface to replace the diverging surface water and these earth’s surface
materials induce climate differ because;

The Albedo

This defined as the ratio of the energy by the surface to the total energy incident to the surface of
the earth i.e. albedo can be expressed as; the radiation reflected by a surface divided by total
global radiation falling on the surface as it is expressed as a percentage (%). Below is the
reflection capacity of the surface materials:

Surface Albedo/ reflection capacity (%)

Fresh fallen snow 75 – 95

Old snow 40 – 75
Deserts 30 – 35
Deciduous forests 10 – 35
Grasses 15 – 25
Clouds (type and thickness) 50 – 60
Water (colour and angle of incidence) 05 – 70
Soils 15 – 30

Therefore the Albedo would determine the amount of solar energy falling on the surface that
would be absorbed in a given area.

The Thermal capacity

Water has a very high thermal capacity compared to land. Consequently, when water is heated at
the same rate with land mass the water temperatures will confine to be relatively cool compared
to land whose temperatures will be high. These temperature differences will also reverse when
the heating is reduced i.e. at night the land temperatures will go much faster than those of the
water. In summer water temperatures will relatively low compared to land; in winter the water
will remain relatively warmer when compared to land. These differences in thermal capacities of
the surface materials create significant temperature differences.

38
The Absorption

Another factor is the ability to absorb heat energy. Water has a high thermo-capacity compared
to that of land. Consequently for equal heating of the water and land, land will become hot much
faster than water. Similarly in cooling, land cools much faster than water. All these attributes of
the various earth surface materials have implications in the determination of climate e.g. coastal
and islands regions enjoy mild winters and warm summers while continental areas experience
cold winters and hot summers. This is because of the influence of the water bodies that water in
summer would not permit hot temperatures nor would they permit very cold temperatures in
winter; similarly, ocean currents have the following consequently;

Ocean currents

When used in association with water, the term "current" describes the motion of the water. Some
currents you may be familiar with are the motion of rainwater as it flows down the street, or the
motion of the water in a creek, stream, or river flowing from higher elevation to lower elevation.
This motion is caused by gravity. The speed and direction (velocity) of currents can be measured
and recorded.
Oceanic currents are driven by tides, winds, and differences in water density. Currents are
essential for maintaining the existing balance of life on Earth, but they can be deadly as well.

Current measurements are important to shipping, commercial fishing, recreational boating,

swimmers and safety. By using predicted, real-time and short-term forecasted currents, people
can safely dock and undock ships, maneuver them in confined waterways and safely navigate
through coastal waters. With this information, merchandise and people can arrive on schedule.
Lack of this knowledge can lead to collisions and delayed arrivals.

Warm currents: these permit almost throughout the year precipitation in the areas where they
are found e.g. the North Atlantic rift current and the Kuoroslo current. This is because these
currents generate water vapour into the onshore winds of these areas such that the winds over the
coastal region and Islands are moisture laden and give rise to precipitation.

Hot currents: hot currents near shores or around Islands remove moisture from onshore winds
by cooling the winds from below. Consequently, such shore regions influenced by cold winds
are subjected to mist and fogs and limited precipitation. And may in fact be responsible for the
observed deserts e.g. Namibia desert.

However, cold currents have an asset in that they are usually good fishing grounds. This is
because could currents reduce upwelling in these regions which brings about planktons and small
fish rely which create the fish chain.

39
THE ROTATIONAL EFFECT OF THE SUN

The rotation of earth on its axis at a constant speed from West to East in 24 hours resulting into
day, night, time and its measurement among others, see Figure 6 below;

Figure 6: Rotation of the Earth

The earth rotates at a constant speed from West to East with the following:
 Time and its measurement
 Day and night

Rotation and time

The earth will rotate on its axis such that any given Meridian is a certain fixed position relative to
the stationer sun at a constant time intervals. This interval taken by a meridian to rotate from
west to east and return to the same position relative to the fixed sun is called the day. And for
convenience, it is then divided into 24hrs and hours in turn are divided into minutes, then
minutes into seconds and then seconds into micro seconds, etc. as indicated in Figure 7 below:

40
Figure 7: Rotation, time and measurement

Day and night

Because of constant rotation of the earth on its axis, approximately half of the globe experiences
day light i.e. the day while the other part experiences darkness i.e. the night as presented in
Figure 8 below:

Figure 8: Rotation, Day and Night

Consequences of the rotation of the earth on its axis

41
All man-made time places have to confirm to the rotation of the earth. The time taken for any
given longitude to rotate and return to the same position relative to the fixed sun is 24hrs i.e. it
takes approximately earth rotates on its axis 24 hours to complete one rotation. This has
important environmental consequences.

 Rotation creates a diurnal cycle of light and darkness, temperature, and humidity
changes.
 Rotation requires the creation of standardized time zones. There are 24, one for each
hour of the earth's rotation.
 Rotation causes the tides‐ the twice daily rise and fall of sea level. Tides are complicated
because they are the result of both the gravity of the moon and the gravity of the sun.
Sometimes the sun and the moon are lined up with the earth, but most of the time they are
not. Tides are highest when the earth, sun and moon are in a straight line.
 The Coriolis force. Rotation causes a deflection of ocean and air currents. The earth
rotates much faster than the winds or currents move. This causes a large deflection in the
direction that winds move and ultimately results in rotation around low pressure cells and
high pressure cells. It also causes large rotating pools of water in the oceans called gyres.
The Coriolis force only operates on large features.
 All locations along any given meridian keep exactly the same time of the day (tomorrow)
regardless of season.
 Locations along any given latitude e.g. the equator keep different times of the day and as
a consequence experience different weather characteristics.
 Approximately half of the globe experience day time at any given moment while the
other half experiences darkness i.e. the night.
 Winds do not blow from high pressure centers to low pressure centers in a straight line
rather they flow in curved paths.
 At the equator there is no deflection.

Revolution of the earth around the sun

There are two types of Earth revolution: around its axis and around the Sun. The Earth revolves
around the Sun once every 365.242199 mean solar days (that’s why we have leap years). The
Earth orbits the Sun at a speed of 108,000 km/h as indicated in Figure 9 below:

42
Figure 9: The earth revolution

The earth revolves around the sun at a constant speed with the following impacts:
 Time and its measurement
 The creation of seasons
 The apparent northward and southward movement of the overhead sun within the tropics
 The variation in day- light length

Revolution and time

The rotation of the earth on its axis at a constant speed gave us the days. The evolution of the
earth around the sun at a constant speed takes exactly 365¼ days to complete a single revolution.
By convention, the ¼ day is ignored in the three years – termed ordinal year and made-up for in
the 4th year termed the Leap year with 366 days. The revolution of the earth around the sun
combines the time dimension. The year can then be divided into months, weeks, days, hours,
minutes, etc. as indicated in Figure 10 below:

43
Figure 10: Revolution and Time

Revolution and seasons

The Earth is never in the same exact same position from day to day. It moves closer to, and
further away from, the Sun. Earth’s perihelion (147,098,074 km) occurs around January 3, and
the aphelion around July 4 (152,097,701 km). The changing Earth-Sun distance results in an
increase of about 6.9% in solar energy reaching the Earth at perihelion as related to aphelion.
The southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that the Earth reaches
the closest approach to the Sun, so the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from
the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year.
The earth’s orbit of revolution around the sun is not exactly circular with the sun at the center.
One hemisphere will be nearer to the sun than the other i.e. the sun is not constantly overhead at
the equator.

In particular, on June 21, it is the middle of the northern hemisphere summer and the northern
hemisphere is said to be experiencing summer while the southern hemisphere is experiencing
winter.
Similarly, on December 22, the southern hemisphere is nearest to the sun and experiences
summer while the northern hemisphere being furthest from the sun experiences winter.
When both hemispheres are equally distanced from the sun on March 21 and September 23, it is
spring in the hemisphere that would experience summer and autumn in the hemisphere which
would experience winter in the nearest future. Similarly, March 21 and September 23 are said to
be the Equinox i.e. the sun is overhead at the equator and both hemispheres are equally distanced
from the sun.

Revolution and length of day-light hours

44
The tilt of the earth’s axis of rotation at 23½® from the vertical means that during the revolution
around the sun, all the latitudes are not equally exposed to the sun’s rays
On December 22 for example, day light hours increase pole-wards from the equator such that by
latitude 66½®S, all locations on this latitude (the arctic circles) are in total day light up to the
south pole while from the equator north wards, the length of day light hours declines such that by
66½®N, all latitudes beyond it rotate in total darkness that means that latitudes in the southern
hemisphere for example will have more day light than comparable latitudes in the northern
hemisphere.

Similarly, on June 21, the number of day light hours increase pole wards suit that all latitudes
above the Arctic Circle complete their rotation in total day light while all latitudes below the
Arctic Circle complete their rotation in total darkness.

The regional climates: Topography, vegetation, soil processes, urban climates, microclimates,
habitats

REGIONAL CLIMATE (students research)

Topographic influences
Urban climate/ microclimates
Influence of vegetation
Soil process

5. WEATHER AND CLIMATE PATTERNS

Weather

The weather of a given place or location is the sum total of all its (weather) elements at any
given moment in time (i.e. day to day state of the atmosphere). The principle elements of
weather include; temperature, pressure, wind (speed and direction), cloud cover and type,
humidity, visibility, sun shine (number of sunlight hours), precipitation (rain, snow, hail, sleet,
etc.). The elements of weather are measured at many points through the world and observations
are taken at internationally agreed time intervals and the major internationally agreed time
intervals are;
0000z (GMT) 3:00am East
0600z 9:00am East
1200z 3:00pm East
1800z 9:00pm East

The reason for this arrangement is an attempt to deduce an instantaneous global weather patterns
picture e.g. in Uganda, we have about 30 weather/ climatic stations (but over precipitations).
45
Climate- is the average weather condition of a place over a long period, usually over 30 years or
more, long enough to yield meaningful averages.

Temperature

It is one of the most crucial elements of weather. In the low latitude regions, seasonal
temperature variations are small unlike in the middle and high altitude regions. In the low
latitudes, temperature variations are marked with altitude (temperature declines with height in
the lower atmosphere at 6.5®C/km). This has permanent implications in the determination of
vegetation species upslope a mountain or a highland. This particular characteristic also obtains
the middle and high latitudes.
However, there are limited seasonal temperature variations in the low latitudes but diurnal
temperature variations are marked.
Mean Temperature = Maximum Temperature + Minimum Temperature of the day divided by 2

The lowest temperatures are just before sun rise and the highest temperatures are after the
overhead sun.

Thus in the low latitude regions, temperature observations on a daily basis may be sufficient and
temperature observations mat serve to provide data that may be useful in determining climatic
variations or climate change.
However, in the middle and high latitudes above latitude 3ring0®C, diurnal temperature
variations are not significant. This is because during any given season say in summer, there is
more than 16 hours of sun light leaving only less than 8 hours of darkness. This means that even
if temperatures vary during the rainy season during the day, the variation is very small.
However, the significant diurnal temperature variation occur when the environmental
temperatures are close to freezing i.e. from 0®C to about -4®C in the winter season. This is
because the freezing of water determines several social and human activities including the
closure of roads, airports, harbors and outdoor games such as football, etc.

The important temperature observations are the seasonal ones and the mean seasonal
temperatures determine:
The expected power composition needs
The agricultural activities
Sporting activities
Social characteristics such as clothing patterns
The operations of the road network, airports and harbors
Finally, in these latitudes too, temperature records are cyclical in determining climatic
variations of changes

46
Precipitation

This includes rain, snow, sleet, hailstorm, etc. in the middle and high latitudes; precipitation
usually occurs throughout the year i.e. there is no dry season particularly in coastal and inland
areas. Thus in spite of the precipitation being crucial in agricultural activities and the
replenishment of the global fresh water resources it is taken for granted.
In continental regions of these latitudes precipitation occurs usually in summer but this is also
the season when agricultural activities are critical. Thus in these latitudes in general temperatures
are more critical than the business as usual precipitation.

In the low latitudes, although all the elements of weather are important precipitation is the most
crucial here and it mainly occurs as rainfall. The spacial and temporal distribution of rainfall here
desrcibes climatic characteristics adequately.

The spacial and temporal rainfall characteristics determine:

 Human settlement patterns
 Crop variations
 Disease patterns
 Agricultural patterns/ systems

Over short time periods, rainfall measurements are crucial in determining the:
 State of communication links
 Outdoor activities

Over longtime periods, rainfall records constitute the basis for objective seasonal precipitation
evaluation and determination of climate variations or change. Therefore precipitation
measurements are crucial in the understanding of the current weather activities globally, making
short term assessment of outdoor conditions including flooding or drought monitoring and
confirming climate variations or change.

Visibility

It is defined as the distance at which a sharp black object can be identified from an observation
point. Visibility observations are very crucial especially in:
 The aviation industry, airports and aerodrome operations
 Road communication/ transport industry
 Agricultural operations particularly harvesting of some produce
 Parts of harbour operations
 The fishing industry

47
All these require immediate visibility characteristics in the areas of operation, so visibility
measurements are very necessary. Over a long period of time, say over 30 years, visibility data
forms the norm on the sites situated for the building of airport, aerodromes or establishments of
parts or indeed bus terminals are based.

Factors Affecting Climate:

• Latitude- the further north or south of the equator, the colder it becomes.

• Altitude- temperature decreases with height (the rate of decrease is known as the lapse
rate- the temperature will drop 0.6˚ for every 100m climbed).

• Distance from sea- the sea heats up and cools down slowly so it heats up land around it in
winter and cools down land around it in summer.

• Wind Direction- Northerly winds bring colder temperatures and southerly winds bring
warm temperatures (northern hemisphere).

• Ocean Currents- Different ocean currents bring different conditions

• Aspect- In the northern hemisphere south facing slopes receive more sunlight

• The rain shadow effect- The west coast of a country receives more rain than the east.

• Air masses- Air masses move around and the direction they are coming from affects the
weather they bring.

48
 6. HYDROSPHERE
Introduction

The hydrosphere is the liquid water component of the earth and it includes the oceans, seas,
lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams. It covers about 70% of earth’s surface and is the home of many
plants, animals and organisms.

The hydrosphere includes all of the water on or near the Earth's surface. The hydrosphere
includes water in the oceans, lakes, rivers, wetlands, polar ice caps, soil, rock layers beneath
Earth’s surface, and clouds.

The water cycle

The continuous movement of water into the air, onto land, and then back to water sources is
known as the process by which liquid water is heated by the sun and then rises into the
atmosphere as water vapor, see Figure 11 below;

Figure 11: The Water cycle

Water movement

Water continually evaporates from Earth's oceans, lakes, streams, and soil, but the majority of
the water evaporates from the oceans. In the process of condensation, water vapor forms water
droplets on dust particles. These water droplets form clouds, in which the droplets collide, stick
together, and create larger, heavier droplets. These larger droplets fall from clouds as rain in the
process called Precipitation may also take the form of snow, sleet, or hail, see Figure 12 below;

49
Figure 12: Water Movement on the earth

Physical properties and distribution (students’ research)

7. NUTRIENTS

Students research on the following:

 Micro nutrients

 Macronutrients

50
References
Burrough, S., Thomas, D., Bailey, R. and Davies, L. 2012. From landform to process:
morphology and formation of lake-bed barchan dunes, Makgadikgadi, Botswana.
Geomorphology 161/162: 1-14.
Ge, J., Qi, J., & Torbick, N. (2005, July 25-29). Biophysical Evaluation of Five Land Covers.
Proceedings at the 25th International Geoscience and Remote Sensing. Symposium, IEEE,
Seoul, Korea.
Hession, S., & Moore, N. (forthcoming). A Spatial Regression Analysis of the Influence of
Topography on Monthly Rainfall in East Africa. International Journal of Climatology.
Holmes, P. and Meadows, M (eds) 2012. Southern African Geomorphology: recent trends and
new directions, Sun Press, Bloemfontein.
S. Stein and M. Wysession, 2003. An introduction to seismology, earthquakes and earth
structure, Blackwell Publishing,

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