LWT - Food Science and Technology 62 (2015) 764e770

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

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Physical and structural properties of extra-virgin olive oil based

mayonnaise
Carla Di Mattia a, *, Federica Balestra b, Giampiero Sacchetti a, Lilia Neri a,
Dino Mastrocola a, Paola Pittia a
a
Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Via C.R. Lerici 1, 64023, Mosciano S. Angelo, Teramo,
Italy
b
CIRI Interdepartmental Centre for Agri-Food Industrial Research, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Campus of Food Science, Piazza Goidanich
60, 47521, Cesena, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The purpose of this work was to study the physical and structural properties of mayonnaises made with
Received 25 February 2014 extra virgin olive oils (EVOO). To this aim, different EVOOs were selected according to their phenolic
Received in revised form content along with other vegetable oils, peanut and sunflower, taken as reference. Mayonnaises were
12 September 2014
characterized by droplet size distribution, microstructure, textural, rheological and sensory properties.
Accepted 30 September 2014
The droplet size distribution and microstructural properties of the mayonnaises resulted significantly
Available online 16 October 2014
affected by the type of oil used. Samples produced with EVOO showed lower dispersion level, a more
coarse and irregular structure and the lowest consistency and firmness when compared to sunflower or
Keywords:
Olive oil
peanut oils. The elastic and viscous modulus G0 and G00 , evaluated by rheological measurements, resulted
Mayonnaise inversely related to the content of polyphenolic compounds.
Microstructure © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Texture
Rheological properties

1. Introduction 1983; Langton, Jordansson, Altsk€ ar, Sørensen, & Hermansson,

Mayonnaise is a semi-solid, formulated sauce prepared by
mixing vegetable oil, egg yolk, vinegar and salt (Depree & Savage,
2001). Its structure, creaminess, appearance and rheological
behaviour are of outstanding importance for the sensory properties
and perceived texture as well as for the physical stability, param-
eters which represent key factors for determining consumers'
choice and satisfaction.
From the colloidal point of view, mayonnaise is a low-pH O/W
emulsion characterized by a very high oil content, ranging from 65
up to 85% depending on the formulation.
The distribution of the fat phase, the size of the droplets as well
as their interaction affect the texture and stability of the product.
The stabilization of the oilewater interface in mayonnaise is mainly
due to the granular micro-particles formed from the phosphopro-
tein and coalesced low-density lipoprotein constituents of egg
yolk; in this high-lipid product, the granules keep the oil droplets
well separated and prevent coalescence (Kiosseoglou & Sherman,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ39 0861 266912; fax: þ39 0861 266915.
E-mail address: cdimattia@unite.it (C. Di Mattia).
1999).
As far as mayonnaise formulation is concerned, low cost and
worldwide distributed vegetable oils (e.g. soybean, sunflower, corn
and rapeseed oils) are mainly used. Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO)
represents one of the most important dietary lipid obtained from
olive trees crops in Italy as well as in other south Europe countries
(e.g. Greece, Spain) (Zampounis, 2006). This vegetable oil has
nutritional and sensory characteristics (Bendini et al., 2007, Boskou,
Blekas, & Tsimidou, 2006), that make it unique and a basic
component of the Mediterranean diet being used as seasoning for
the preparation of traditional formulated sauces and dishes.
Despite its high nutritional and health value, quite limited is the
use of EVOO oils as ingredient in complex formulated foods,
especially in the most industrialised ones, partly because of its
peculiar sensory properties and partly for its relatively high cost in
respect to other vegetable oils.
Nevertheless, the use of olive oil in complex formulated systems
could arise some issues related to the dispersion degree and the
physical stability of the emulsified system that originates during
food manufacturing which, in turn, may affect the quality of the
final product and its stability during storage.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.09.065
0023-6438/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 C. Di Mattia et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 62 (2015) 764e770
The colloidal properties of an emulsion and its thermodynamic
and kinetic instability are indeed highly dependent on the intrinsic
chracteristics of the system and in particular on the presence of
components that may either positively or negatively affect the
chemical and physico-chemical properties of the dispersed and
dispersing phases and of the interfaces as well.
Olive oil, especially the extra virgin one, is a lipid source natu-
rally rich in bioactive molecules of various nature and chemical
properties including phenolic compounds which are known to
exert a powerful antioxidant activity (Bendini et al., 2007; Del Carlo
et al., 2004). However, recent studies have been carried out to
exploit also the technological properties of EVOO in emulsified
model systems and the role of its complex composition (e.g. free
fatty acids, phospholipids and polyphenols) on the physical prop-
erties of the systems and their stability (Di Mattia, Sacchetti,
Mastrocola, & Pittia, 2009; Di Mattia, Sacchetti, Mastrocola,
Sarker, & Pittia, 2010; Di Mattia, Sacchetti, & Pittia, 2011). Results
of these investigations have shown that some surface active
endogenous amphiphylic molecules may affect the formation of oil/
water interfaces and the physical and chemical stability of
dispersed emulsified systems.
To the authors' knowledge, however, no studies have been car-
ried out to study the effect of polyphenols on the structure of real
emulsified matrices (e.g. mayonnaise, sauces, etc.), likely due to the
complexity of their formulation that could hinder the under-
standing of the role of relatively low concentrations of surface
active bioactive compounds.
The aim of this work was, thus, to study the physical and
structural properties of mayonnaise made with extra virgin olive
oils (EVOO). To this purpose, different EVOOs were selected ac-
cording to their polyphenolic content and, to compare the tech-
nological performances, peanut and sunflower oils were also
considered. Mayonnaise samples were produced by using a single
recipe and a standardized homogenization procedure and then
characterized by droplets size distribution, colour, microstructure,
mechanical, rheological and sensory properties. The mayonnaise
sample prepared with sunflower oil was used as reference.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Materials
The following vegetable oils were used: sunflower (SO), peanut
(PO), refined olive oil (RO), olive oil (OO) and four extra virgin olive
oils according to the EU regulation (EVOO1-EVOO4). The EVOOs were
chosen and ranked according to their polyphenolic contents which
were as following: 233.26 ± 5.88 for EVOO1, 321.00 ± 7.64 for EVOO2,
389.05 ± 5.36 for EVOO3 and 764.24 ± 7.33 mg/L Gallic Acid Equiv-
alents (GAE) for EVOO4. For SO, PO and RO oils it was not possible to
quantify the total content of polyphenols since it was below the limit
of detection of the method used. For the determination of the total
polyphenols contents, the oils were extracted according to the pro-
cedure described by Pirisi, Cabras, Falqui Cao, Migliorini, and
Muggelli (2000). The total polyphenol content of the methanol ex-
tracts was evaluated colourimetrically using the Folin-Ciocalteau
reagent, with a method adapted from Singleton and Rossi (1965).
Sunflower and peanut oils were purchased from a local super-
market; the refined olive oil was gently provided by Adriaoli
(Mosciano S. Angelo, Italy) and used without any further purifica-
tion. The EVOO oils were supplied by a local olive oil mill (Frantoio
Montecchia, Morro d'Oro, Italy).
A commercial food-grade olive fruit extract (OE) rich in phenolic
compounds was kindly provided by Indena (Milan, Italy). The olive
dry purified polyphenolic extract was 90% (w/w); other compo-
nents were represented by dehydrated corn syrup (10%). The total
765
content of polyphenolic compounds, as measured by the Folin-
Ciocalteau assay, was 0.52 ± 0.03 g GAE/g extract.
2.2. Mayonnaise preparation
A reference recipe was used throughout the study based on the
following formulation: oil (500 g), 2 eggs (120 g), vinegar (30 g), salt
(1 g). Mayonnaise samples were prepared using a lab-scale mixer
(Bimby TM31, Vorwerk, Wuppertal, Germany) in a two-steps stan-
dardized process: eggs, vinegar and salt were preliminary mixed
(100 rpm, 3 min) and then oil was slowly added under vigorous
mixing rate (from 3200 rpm up to 6000 rpm in 5 min).
Mayonnaise samples made with refined olive oil (RO) and
enriched with the polyphenol-rich olive fruit extract (OE) were also
prepared; different amounts were added and solubilised during the
first step of the homogenization procedure. The amounts of OE
added were calculated as percentages on the basis of the oil con-
tent; RO1, RO3 and RO6 mayonnaise samples were thus obtained
and the phenolic contents, calculated on the amount added, were of
120, 350 and 700 mg/L respectively.
Mayonnaise was prepared in 500 g of oil each time and for each
formulation three batches were considered.
2.3. Particle size distribution
Particle size distribution was measured as described by
Santipanichwong and Suphantharika (2007) with some modifica-
tion. Mayonnaise samples (1 g) were diluted with 200 mL 0.2 g/
100 mL sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) solution and gently stirred
with a spatula until completely dispersed. Samples were analysed
by a particle size analyser (Mastersizer 3000, Malvern Instruments
Ltd, Worcestshire, UK). The sample solution was dispersed in
distilled water at 2000 rpm until an obscuration rate of 12% was
reached. Optical properties were defined as following: refractive
index 1.46 and absorption 0.00. Droplet size measurements are
reported as the volume-weighted mean diameter D4,3.
2.4. Measurement of rheological properties
Mayonnaise rheological measurements were performed by a
controlled stress-strain rheometer (MCR 300, Physica/Anton Paar,
Ostfildern GermanyeEurope) connected to a circulating water bath
for the temperature control. The viscoelastic behaviour of the
samples was evaluated at 25  C by using a parallel plate (diameter:
50 mm) and a gap distance of 2 mm. Excess sample protruding from
the edge of the sensor was trimmed off carefully with a thin blade.
Firstly, the extent of the linear viscoelastic region was determined
by performing a strain sweep (0.1e100%) at a fixed frequency of
1 Hz. Subsequently, a dynamic frequency sweep was conducted by
applying a constant strain of 0.5% within the linear viscoelastic
region, over a frequency range between 0.1 and 100 Hz (Mancini,
Montanari, Peressini, & Fantozzi, 2002). Before starting the mea-
surements, all samples were allowed to rest for 5 min after loading
to allow temperature equilibration and induced stress to relax.
The rheological parameters used for this study were the storage
(G0 ), the loss (G00 ) and the complex (G*) moduli. The experimental
data of all frequency sweep tests were correlated according to the
following power law (Gabriele, de Cindio, & D'Antona, 2001):
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
G* ðuÞ ¼ G0 ðuÞ2 þ G ðuÞ2 ¼ Au1=z
00
(1)
where G* is the complex modulus in Pa, u is the frequency in Hz, z
(dimensionless) is the coordination number and A (G* in Pa at 1 Hz)
is the proportional coefficient.
766 C. Di Mattia et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 62 (2015) 764e770

2.5. Back extrusion test

Measurements were carried out according to Liu, Xu, and Guo

(2007) with some modification, by using a Dynamometer Instron
Mod. 5542 (Instron Universal Testing Machine, Royal Street Canton
Ma, USA). A back extrusion cell with 35 mm diameter compression
disc was used. Samples were carefully scooped into glass cylindrical
containers (i.d.: 50 mm, h: 75 mm) to a depth of 40 mm. One cycle
was applied at a constant crosshead rate of 1 mm/s to a sample
deformation of 50% of the initial height. From the resulting force-
etime curve, the maximum force and the area of the curve up to
this point were obtained as indices of firmness and consistency,
respectively.

2.6. Optical microscope observation

The glassy flat was coated with mayonnaise sample and placed
on the stage of a light microscope (Olympus Microscope BX53,
Tokyo, Japan); pictures of mayonnaise microstructure were ob-
tained at a 40 magnification by a digital camera (Qimaging Fast
1394, Surrey, BC, Canada) connected to the microscope.

2.7. Sensory analysis

Sensory evaluation was carried out by quantitative descriptive

analysis by a trained panel consisting of 8 assessors (3 males, 5
femals; age range: 25e55). Panelists were preliminarily trained in
sessions to develop a common language for descriptors and range
of scores. The attributes taken into consideration were sour and
freshly-cut grass for smell; sweetness, bitterness, spicy and
astringent for flavour and taste; spreadability, creaminess and
thickness for texture and mouthfeel. The ranking was as following:
1 ¼ the least, the lowest; 10 ¼ the most, the highest. Samples (10 g)
were served at 20  C in red plastic cups with lids. Judges were asked
to first take a deep sniff and evaluate smell and then appearance;
after recovering smell sensitivity, they were asked to take a
teaspoon mayonnaise (z5 mL) into the mouth and evaluate
flavour, taste and texture attributes. Water and neutral wafer were
used for cleaning the palate between samples.
2.8. Statistical analyses
Three batches of mayonnaise were prepared from a unique lot of
oil. All measurements were made in triplicate on samples from
each batch (n ¼ 9) and results are expressed as mean and standard
deviation. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey's test
were used to establish the significance of differences among the
mean value at the 0.05 significance level.
Non-linear regression analysis was performed with Equation (1)
as the model function, using the algorithm “Rosenbrock pattern
search” supplied by the STATISTICA (StatSoft^TM Tulsa, Oklahoma)
package.
3. Results & discussion
3.1. Droplet size distribution
The properties and stability of mayonnaise are generally linked,
as for other emulsified foods, to the droplet size and to the uni-
formity of the oil droplets. Fig. 1a shows the mean droplet size of
the mayonnaise samples as expressed by the D4,3 value (mm). The
RO- and PO-mayonnaise samples did not show any significant
droplet size difference if compared to the control sample SO. The
smallest droplet size was exhibited by the mayonnaise made with
olive oil (OO) which thus showed higher emulsifying properties in
Fig. 1. Particle size (a) and distribution profiles (b) of the different samples of
▵
mayonnaise. In Fig. 1b: sunflower oil SO (A), peanut oil PO ( ), Refined oil ( ), Olive
oil OO (B), Extra-virgin olive oils EVOO1 (-), EVOO2 (✕), EVOO3 (þ), EVOO4 (C).
comparison with the other vegetable oils; on the contrary, the
biggest droplets size was observed when EVOO was used. More-
over, the droplet size of the EVOO based mayonnaises increased
from EVOO1 up to EVOO4, which corrisponded to an increasing
phenolic contents of the oils.
Besides droplet size, interesting information on the colloidal
state of the different systems could be achieved by considering the
profiles of the droplet size distribution (Fig. 1b).
The particle size range of the mayonnaises under investigation
(1e300 mm) resulted close to that reported by Liu et al. (2007) but
markedly higher than those obtained by Worrasinchai,
Suphantharika, Pinjai, and Jamnong (2006); Laca, Sa enz, Paredes,
and Diaz (2010) and Nikzade, Mazaheri Tehrani, and Saadatmand-
Tarzjan (2012). However, while the SO-mayonnaise was charac-
terized by a monomodal distribution centred at around 20 mm, the
use of PO, RO and OO led to the samples with a bimodal distribution
of the oil globules particularly evident in the OO-based mayonnaise
where the presence of larger droplets characterized by a mean
volume-surface diameter of around 80 mm was detected. Moreover,
the use of EVOO determined the formation of broader distribution
within a size range of 1e300 mm in contrast to the 1e150 mm range
of the non-EVOO samples; the droplet size distribution of the latter
systems was also characterized by the appearance of a third pop-
ulation of bigger particles whose amount increased with the
increasing of the polyphenolic content of the EVOO oils.
3.2. Optical microscope observation
Microstructural properties of the mayonnaise samples were
investigated by optical microscopy and the microphotographs
 C. Di Mattia et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 62 (2015) 764e770 767

show the market effect of the use of different oils with the for-
mation of a wide variety of microstructures (Fig. 2).
SO-mayonnaise showed a fine and well dispersed oil-in-
water structure in which fat globules resulted spherical and
highly packed together; similar packing structure could be
observed for PO-, RO-, and OO-based mayonnaise samples even
though with same differences related to the polydispersity of
the droplets.
On the other hand, the use of EVOOs determined a more coarse
distribution of the oil particles in the macromolecular network
(Fig. 2, eeh). The presence of polyphenols as well as of other
amphyphylic compounds present in the EVOOs seems to affect the
development of the emulsified system and/or the three-
dimensional egg protein network. From EVOO1 to EVOO4, thus at
increasing content in phenolic compounds, a more open and coarse
structure could be observed suggesting that these compounds may

Fig. 2. Optical micrographs of the mayonnaises produced with different oils: sunflower SO (a), peanut PO (b), refined RO (c), olive OO (d), EVOO1 (e), EVOO2 (f), EVOO3 (g) and
EVOO4 (h).
768 C. Di Mattia et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 62 (2015) 764e770

also affect, under the experimental condition used in this study, the mayonnaise. However, contrary to the results obtained from the
formation of the gelled pH-induced structure of the egg protein artificially enriched maionnayses, the decrease of firmness and
network. consistency occurred also in the products obtained with EVOOs
containing lower phenolic concentrations (Table 1), and this may
suggest that factors other than total polyphenols content are
3.3. Textural properties worthwile to be further investigated: the phenolic pattern of the
oils and the content of other minor compounds, which may inter-
The values of Fmax and Etot parameters, corresponding to the first fere with the formation of the emulsified and partly gelled
peak extrusion force and the total work obtained by the back structure.
extrusion test, are shown in Table 1. Fmax was taken as an index of
firmness whilst Etot as a measure of consistency (Liu et al., 2007;
3.4. Rheological properties
Nikzade et al., 2012; Santipanichwong & Suphantharika, 2007;
Worrasinchai et al., 2006). The highest firmness was found in the
Dynamic oscillatory shear tests were carried out to characterize
reference sample, the SO-mayonnaise, in agreement with results
the viscoelastic properties of the mayonnaises samples made by
previously observed for mayonnaise having similar fat content (Liu
using different oils. Data of the elastic modulus (G0 ) and loss
et al., 2007; Nikzade et al., 2012).
modulus (G00 ) are shown Fig. 3 (a, b). At small strains mayonnaise
The substitution of sunflower oil with other oils caused a gen-
samples showed a linear visco-elastic response. The magnitude of
eral reduction of the Fmax which was significantly (p < 0.05) higher
storage modulus G0 (Fig. 3a) was greater than loss modulus G00
when EVOO was used with a negative relationship between the
(Fig. 3b) for all samples. This behaviour is typical of concentrated
firmness of the samples and the polyphenolic content. For these
emulsion as previously reported for commercial or model mayon-
products the decrease in firmness ranges from 42% up to 70%. A
naise (Laca et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2007; Mun et al., 2009;
similar trend was observed also for the consistency with higher Etot
Worrasinchai et al., 2006). The experimental linearity of the
values obtained in the case of the mayonnaises made with SO, PA,
moduli suggests that mayonnaise may be considered as gel-like
RO and OO. The use of EVOOs generally caused, again, a lower Etot of
network in the frequency range of 0.1e100 Hz (Mancini et al.,
the correspondent emulsified products with a similar negative
2002). In general, G0 values showed a slight increase at increasing
correlation between the total polyphenolic content and the
frequency and this could be related to the strong interactions
consistency.
among the droplets that contributes to the elastic modulus and
These results could be attributed to some microstructural
need a longer time to relax. This further supports the gel-like
properties and, in particular, to the bigger size of the fat globules in
the EVOOs made-maionnaises, which led to a lower surface area
contact between droplets and, consequently, a lower degree of
interaction, as well as to the droplet size distribution, both related,
in turn, to the amount of phenolic compounds of the oils.
Since the olive oils used to formulate the systems may be
characterized by very different phenolic pattern, the influence of
the sole phenolic content on the mechanical properties was further
studied by the investigation of RO-mayonnaise samples added with
increasing amounts of a commercial olive fruit extract (OE) with a
standardised phenolic pattern (RO1, RO3 and RO6) whose results
are reported in Table 1. This approach permitted to modify the
phenolic content without any influence on the phenolic composi-
tion of the systems.
Both the textural parameters Fmax and Etot showed a similar
trend: small addition of phenolic compounds had little effect on
Fmax and Etot whilst a significant decrease of the firmness and
consistency occurred when the OE was added at the highest con-
centration (1360 mg L1).
This result further supports the hypothesis that olive oil
phenolic compounds could impair the textural attributes of

Table 1
Textural parameters of the mayonnaise samples as measured by the Fmax (N) and Etot
(mJ). Data were averaged from n ¼ 9 measurements made on three different batches
(three repeats for each batch).

Samples Fmax (N) Etot (mJ)

SO 2.09 ± 0.14 32.6 ± 2.0

PO 1.79 ± 0.41 26.8 ± 2.7
RO 1.59 ± 0.18 26.5 ± 2.1
OO 1.27 ± 0.11 20.5 ± 2.8
EVOO1 1.06 ± 0.16 17.8 ± 2.0
EVOO2 1.04 ± 0.11 18.4 ± 2.1
EVOO3 0.91 ± 0.09 16.3 ± 2.1
EVOO4 0.60 ± 0.10 11.3 ± 1.6
RO1 1.58 ± 0.20 28.7 ± 3.2
Fig. 3. Dynamic oscillatory response G0 (a) and G00 (b) of the mayonnaise samples
RO3 1.52 ± 0.15 28.5 ± 5.3
RO6 0.70 ± 0.09 11.1 ± 2.5 ▵
(sunflower oil SO (A), peanut oil PO ( ), Refined oil ( ), Olive oil OO (B), Extra-virgin
olive oils EVOO1 (-), EVOO2 (✕), EVOO3 (þ), EVOO4 (C)).
 C. Di Mattia et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 62 (2015) 764e770 769

structure predominant in this kind of emulsified systems (Hayati,
Man, Tan, & Aini, 2007). The EVOOs samples showed in general
lower elastic moduli (G0 ), if compared to the mayonnaises made
with SO, PO, RO and OO. This result could be due to the lower
dispersion levels of the EVOO samples, as already observed in
literature and, therefore, to a lower degree of interactions among
the droplets (Langton et al., 1999). In general low storage modulus
implies that low stresses are necessary for the emulsion to flow,
reflecting a less compact structure and a more liquid-like behav-
iour, confirming thus the results obtained from the mechanical
measurements and the microscopy observations.
According to the weak gel model proposed by Gabriele et al.
(2001), as a general predictive model applicable to many food
systems, the rheological structure of mayonnaise can be considered
as a three-dimensional network in which droplet particles and
similar units are linked by weak and strong interactions. The weak
gel is made by strong topological points connected by weak strands
constituted by a sort of necklace of flow units with a coordination
degree of z (Gabriele et al., 2001). The coordination number z is the
number of rheological units correlated with one another in the
three-dimensional structure, while the parameter A (Equation (1))
is the strength of the interaction between those units. A rheological
characterization based on the coordination number z and the co-
efficient A was useful for distinguishing rather well the structural
properties of mayonnaise made with different formulations (Laca
et al., 2010; Peressini, Sensidoni, & de Cindio, 1998).
The values of z and A for all the samples analysed, including the
RO1- RO3 and RO6-mayonnaises added with OE, are reported in
Table 2.
The z parameter ranged from 8.62 ± 0.22 to 10.96 ± 0.32, values
close to those found in literature (Laca et al., 2010; Mancini et al.,
2002; Peressini et al., 1998). The SO-mayonnaise (reference), pre-
sented the highest coordination number and gel strength, corre-
sponding to the most complex structure and high physical stability
(Mancini et al., 2002). Slight differences were observed in the z
values of the mayonnaises made with different EVOO which were
lower if compared to the reference but without a significant cor-
relation due to the phenolic content of the initial oils.
On the other hand, a significantly lower A value and in the range
of 440 ± 5 to 687 ± 6 kPa was shown by the EVOOs-mayonnaises
compared to the reference sample (1337 ± 29 kPa) to indicate a
reduced gel strength. However, also in this case, no clear relation-
ships were observed between the polyphenolic content and the gel
strength of EVOOs mayonnaise.
Thus, on the basis of the coordination number and the gel
strength, it could be concluded that the gel network of the
mayonnaise samples prepared with EVOO oils resulted to be
characterised by a smaller number of units linked by weaker
interactions.
The Gabrieli model was applied also to the rheological results of
the RO-mayonnaise samples added with OE (Table 2) (RO1-RO6). At
increasing phenolic extract addition a decrease of both coordina-
tion number z and gel strength A occurred, showing a zero and first
order relationship with OE concentration respectively (R2 ¼ 0.9928;
0.9865). On the basis of these results, the RO6 sample, characterised
by the lowest values of z and A, is supposed to be the most exposed
to physical instability due to coalescence phenomena when the
system undergoes mechanical stress, as observed in other works
(Peressini et al., 1998). Even though this is a main issue in the study
of the stability of emulsified systems, stability issues over time
were not considered in this work.
Phenolic compounds were thus proven to interfere with the
stabilization of the emulsified systems and to impair the structure
properties and stability. This behaviour is rather clear in the OE
added mayonnaises whilst a more complicated mechanism should
be hypothesised when considering the EVOOs samples, due to the
complex composition of the oils.
A correlation matrix was finally tested in order to find signifi-
cant correlations among the parameters taken into consideration:
the gel strength A resulted significantly related to both the textural
indices Fmax and Etot (p < 0.05); this represents an important result
since textural measurements could provide important informations
on the strength of a gel network.
3.5. Sensory evaluation
Results of the sensory analyses are presented in the form of a
spider web plot which show the profiles of the mayonnaise sam-
ples prepared with the different oils (Fig. 4). The standard error of
the mean values of the various sensory attributes varied between
0.10 and 0.44, in accordance to other studies in the literature for
similar matrices (Wendin, Risberg Ellekjaer, & Solheim, 1999).
The results obtained allow the classification of the samples into
two groups: in the first one are included mayonnaises prepared
with EVO oils and in the second those made with the other ones.
The SO reference sample, along with the samples prepared with
peanut, refined and olive oils, showed very similar sensory profiles,
as described by a rather sweet taste, low spicy and astringent
properties and high scores of the attributes related to texture.
In the EVOOs samples are in general characterised by a freshly-
cut grass smell due to the peculiar aroma of the oils. However, main
difference was found in the mean values given to odour and taste

Table 2
Power-law parameters describing frequency sweeps for the mayonnaise samples
prepared with the different oils and the samples added with OE [z: coordination
coefficient A: proportionality coefficient (G* at 1 Hz)].

Samples A (kPa) z () R2

SO 1337 ± 29 10.92 ± 0.68 0.999

PO 1136 ± 73 10.96 ± 0.32 0.999
RO 1050 ± 29 10.59 ± 0.24 0.995
OO 1024 ± 20 10.54 ± 0.52 0.999
EVOO1 580 ± 28 10.35 ± 0.86 0.997
EVOO2 687 ± 6 10.31 ± 0.17 0.996
EVOO3 440 ± 5 9.67 ± 0.76 0.993
EVOO4 514 ± 15 10.60 ± 0.70 0.995
RO1 876 ± 37 10.29 ± 0.46 0.998
Fig. 4. The sensory profiles of mean values for the mayonnaise samples produced with
RO3 587 ± 34 9.73 ± 0.06 0.954
RO6 404 ± 24 8.62 ± 0.22 0.962 ▵
different vegetables oils (sunflower oil SO (A), peanut oil PO ( ), Refined oil ( ), Olive
oil OO (B), Extra-virgin olive oils EVOO1 (-), EVOO2 (✕), EVOO3 (þ), EVOO4 (C)).
770 C. Di Mattia et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 62 (2015) 764e770
attributes. In particular, the EVOO-mayonnaise was also perceived
as bitter, spicy and astringent, with the EVOO4-product the ones
judged as the most bitter while the EVOO3 the most spicy and
astringent. Such properties might be related to the content and
qualitative profile of the phenolic compounds present in the oil
which is known can deeply affect the sensory response (Bendini
et al., 2007).
From a textural viewpoint, the assessors were not able to
discriminate the EVOOs based mayonnaise for their creaminess and
thickness whilst differences were observed in their spreadability
resulting higher in the EVOO1-mayonnaise. Moreover, the EVOO4-
mayonnaise, characterised by the highest total phenolic content,
showed the lowest scores for all the textural properties.
No significant correlations were found among textural attri-
butes as perceived by the sensory test and rheological and textural
measurements, as observed in other studies (Liu et al., 2007; Laca
et al., 2010; Worrasinchai et al., 2006).
4. Conclusions
The use of polyphenols-rich EVOOs for the preparation of
mayonnaise generally resulted in complex dispersed systems
characterized by a lower dispersion degree, lower firmness and
consistency, and a lower elastic behaviour, when compared to the
control.
Based also on the results obtained from the samples made with
olive oils artificially added with phenolic oil extracts, the changes of
the physical and structural properties seem to be related to the
presence and content of polyphenolic compounds, which are then
confirmed to play a crucial role both in the formation and in the
stabilization of emulsified and gel-like products. Further in-
vestigations are needed to understand the specific technological
functionality of olive polyphenols as well as of the other amphy-
phylic EVOO compounds in complex emulsified structures.
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