Valves Piping and Pipelines Handbook PDF

Valves, Piping and
Pipelines Handbook
3rd Edition
UK Elsevier Science Ltd, The Boulevard, Langford Lane.
Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK
USA Elsevier Science Inc .. 665 Avenue of the Americas, New York,
NY 10010, USA
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Copyright ©1999 Elsevier Science Ltd.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by
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photocopying, recording or otherwise, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Third eclition 1999
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Dickenson , T. Christopher.
Valves, piping. and pipelines handbook IT. Christopher
Dickenson.- 3rd ed.
p.cm
ISBN 1-85617-252-X (he)
1. Valves Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Piping Handbooks,
manuals, etc. 3. Pipelines Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title.
TS277.D53 1999 99-26575
621.8'4-dc21 CIP
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.
ISBN 1 85617 252X
No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or

damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods ,
products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein.
Published by
Elsevier Advanced Technology,
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK
Tel.: +44(0) 1865 843000
Fax: +44(0) 1865 843971
Printed and bound in Great Britain by

Cambridge University Press
Preface
11
A Vital Contribution to Modern Industry"
Over recent years, a number of significant developments in the application

of valves have taken place: the increasing use of actuator devices, the
introduction of more valve designs capable of reliable operation in difficult
fluid handling situations; low noise technology and most importantly, the
increasing attention being paid to product safety and reliability. Digital
technology is making an impact on this market with manufacturers developing
intelligent (smart) control valves incorporating control functions and interfaces.
Computer Integrated Processing is now a fact of life.
New metallic materials and coatings available make it possible to improve
application ranges and reliability. New and improved polymers, plastic composite
materials and ceramics are all playing their part.
Fibre-reinforced plastic pipe systems, glass-reinforced epoxy pipe systems
and the traditional low-cost polyester pipe systems have all undergone
sophisticated design and manufacturing technology changes. The potential
for growth and expansion of the industry is huge.
The 3rd Edition of the Valves, Pipirzo and Pipelines Handbook salutes these
developments and provides the engineer with a timely first source of reference
for the selection and application of valves and pipes.
It would not have been possible to provide so much information and data
in this Handbook without the co-operation given by the individuals and
companies listed overleaf, as well as the manufacturers who supplied
information and data. Their contribution is graterully acknowledged.
This is the decade of the customer, and the Valves, Piping and Pipelines
Handbook 3rd Edition is intended to provide essential, practical product
information and reference data where and when they are needed most.
T. Christopher Dickenson F.I.Mgt.

September 1999
vii
CONTENTS
Section 1. Fundamentals
Classification of Valves 3
Basic Valve Nomenclature 11
Valve Selection Guides 14
Pipes and Pipelines-Definitions and Explanations 27
Section 2. Valve Types Design and Construction

Plug Valves (Cocks) 41
Ball Valves 47
Ball Float Valves 63
Butterfly Valves 67
Rotary Disc/ Rotor Valves 85
Globe Valves 91
Gate Valves 98
Needle Valves 107
Pinch Valves 110
Diaphragm Valves 118
Slide Valves 127
Screw-down Valves 133
Spool Valves 138
Solenoid Valves 146
Swing Check (Flap) Valves 164
Penstocks 168
Miscellaneous Valves 172
Section 3. Pressure Valves and Services

Check Valves 185
Safety and Relief Valves 200
Self-Acting Reducing Valves 225
Air Relief Valves 236
Foot Valves 243
O V ER A HUNDR ED YEAR S' EXP ERI ENCE HJ
GONE INTO PERFEC TI NG A PRODUCT RAt\
A N D SERVICE TH AT IS WAY OUT IN FRO N .
.....J With over I00 years of manufacturing experience, Hattersley know that the differenc
0 between success and failure can be a fine balancing act. It's knowing business trends can
change at any time, that has helped Hattersley to stay at the forefront of the valve
industry, by developing and manufacturing hundreds of
different valves for a multitude of industrial and HEVAC
r- applications. So for a combination of experience and the latest

in technical know-how, rely on Hattersley to deliver every time.
z Hattersley have the largest selection of quality vJives available: • Bronze Gate Valves • Cast Iron and Ductile Iron Gate Valves • Knife Gat
• Bronze. Cast Iron. Ductile Iron and Steel Globe Valves • Bronze. Cast Iron and Ductile Iron Check Valves • Bronze Rad1ator Vatvcs - Drain Taps -1
• Bronze Ball Valves • Bronze Plug and Gland Cocks • Commissioning Valves • Autoflow Bronze and Ductile Iron Automatic Balan em
0 • Cast Iron Lubricated Plug Valves • Eccentric Plug Valves • Cast Iron Non-lub1·icated J-way PlugValves • Butterfly Valves • Pop Safety Valves - Reli1
• Diaphragm Valves • Equilibrium Ball Valves • GroovEnd Ductile Iron Valves
u FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CALL OUR

SALES TEAM ON THE NUMBER BELOW
Hatters ley Newman Hender Ltd Ormskirk Lancashire L39 2XG Telephone: 01695 577199 Facsimile: 01695
QuALITY RELIABILITY & SERVI CE Ass
Em a iI: u ksa Ies@hattersley-valves.co. uk export@ hatters Iey-va lves .co.uk Web site: http://www. ha ttersley-val ve'
ix
Section 4. Control and Automation

Valve Actuators 249
Control Valves 280
Float Control Valves 301
Temperature Control Valves 306
Regulators 314
Section 5. Pipes
Iron and Steel Pipes 325
Fibre-Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Pipe 339
Thermoplastic Pipe 356
Pipe Joints and Couplings 396
Expansion and Con traction Joints 427
Corrosion and Cathodic Protection 443
Corrosion of Stainless Steel 457
Valve Corrosion 462
Protective Coatings and Linings 465
Section 6. Pipelines/Pipework
Pipeline Cleaning 479
Pipe Cutting and Bending 497
Pipeline Inspection and Evaluation 511
Jacketing and Dual Containment 522
Section 7. Performance and Calculations

Flow of Liquids through Pipes 533
Flow of Mixtures through Pipes 556
Compressible Flow in Pipes 572
Losses in Bends and Fittings 584
Strength ofPipes (Calculations) 601
Buried Pipes 610
Collapsing Pressure for Pipes and Tubes 628
Boiler-Feed Calculations 637
Steam Flow Calculations 645
Cavitation 658
Noise Control 667
Balancing ofHydronic Systems 682
Section 8. Duties and Services

Water Services 693
Hygienic Services 718
Steam Services 728
Fire-Safe Valves 743
Fire Hydrant Valves 754
X
Marine Services 759

Vacuum Services 763
Cryogenic Valves 768
Nuclear Services 775
High Pressure Services 784
Section 9. Engineering Data

Glossary 793
Standards and Designations 800
Section 10. Author's Acknowledgements 851
Section 11. Buyers' Guide to Valves and Pipes

Classified Index by Product Category 855
Alphabetical List of Manufacturers 863
Trade Names Index 865
Editorial Index 867
Advertisers Index 872
Acknowledgements-
Illustrations and Tables
Page Number Company Page Number Company
3 Neles-Jamesbury 74 Figure 6 Neles-Jamesbury

8 top Neles-)amesbury 75 Guest and Chrimes
8 bottom Neles-Jamesbury 76 Figure 7 Tyco Valves nnd Controls
28 B F Goodrich 77 Figure 8 Posi-Flate
29 Biwater Industries 77 Figure 9 Posi-Flate
42 top Serck Audco Valves 79 Figure 10 Neles-Jamesbury
45 Johnson Valves 81 top Tyco Valves and Controls
46 Figure ()(a and b) Serck Audco Valves 81 bottom Tyco Valves and Controls
47 International H wash en 82 Figure 12 Charles Winn (Valves) Ltd
Corporation 8 7 Figure 5 Quality Controls Inc
48 Figure 1 Fortune Manufacturing Co 88 Figure 6 Quality Controls Inc
49 top Worcester Controls 89 top Quality Controls Inc
49 bottom Worcester Controls 89 Figure 7 Nu-Con Equipment
50 top Neles-Jamesbury 93 bottom left OMBSpA
50 Figure 2 Orbit-Harwin Vi:!lves 93 bottom right ASAHl/America
52 top Flow Safe. Inc 94 Figure 3 Hitachi Valve
52 bottom Tyco Valves and Controls 95 top OMBSpA
53 Figure 4 Argus 95 Figure 4 KSB Armaturen GmbH
54 Argus 95 Figure 5 KSB Armaturen GmbH
55 figureS Neles-Jamesbu.ry 98 Brooksbank Valves Ltd
55 Figure 6 Neles-jamesbury 99 bottom KSB Armaturen GmbH
56Figurc7 Neles-Jamesbury 102 top KSB Armaturen GmbH
56 Figure 8 Argus I 02 bottom johnson Valves
57 top Worcester Controls 103 bottom Guest and Chrimes
57 Figure 9 Argus I 04 Figure 5 OMBSpA
59 Figure 10 Neles-jamesbury I 04 Figure 6 OMBSpA
60Figure 11 Argus l 04 Figure 7 m..mspA
63 Guest and Chrimes lOS OMBSpA
64 Guest and Chrimes 108 bottom Johnson Valves
64 Figure 1 Guest: and Chrimes lll Figure 2 Red Valve Company inc
67 KSB Armaturen GmbH 112 Figure 4 Red Valve Company Inc
68 KSB Armaturen GmbH 115 Figure 10 Crane •u Resistoflex
69 Figure 1 Neles-Jamesbury 116 Figure 11 Crane·'~ Resistoflex
70 top KSB Armaturen GmbH 116Figure 12 Crane •"!> Resistoflex
70 Figure 2 Neles-Jamesbury 122 Figure 3 Humphrey Products
71 Figure 3 Neles-)amesbury 124 Figure 6 Kemutcc Powder Technology
71 Figure 4 l3aronshire Engineering Ltd l25Figure7 Kemutec Powder Technology
72 KSB Armaturen GmbH 129Figure3 Hopkinsons Ltd
73 Figure 5 Wouter Witzel GmbH 130 Figure 5 Hopkinsons Ltd
xii
131 Figure 6 Bush-Wilton 192 Durabla Fluid Technology

134 Grasso Jnc
135 Spir<lx Sarco 193 Durabla Pluid Technology
136 Spir<lx Sarco Joe
137 jo hnson Valves 1 94 Figure 10 Dur<~b la Pluid Techno logy
146 Asco Joucom<ttic Ltd Inc
147 figure l Asco joucomatic Ltd 195 Figure ll Abocus Valves
148 Figure 2 Asco Joucomotic Ltd Manufacturing Ltd
149 Figure 3 Asco Joucomatic Ltd 19 5 top Ba rons hire Engineer ing Ltd
150 Figure 4 Asco joucomatic Ltd 19 6 Figure 12 Spimx Sa reo
151 Figure 5 Asco Joucomatic Ltd 19 7 Durabla Fluid Tech nology Inc
152 Figure (i (a and b) Automatic Switch Co 19 8 Figurel3 Kepner Products Compnny
1 52top Asco )o ucom a tic Ltd 19 8 Pigure 14 Kepner Products Company
15 3 Figure 7 (a and b) AutomCJtic Switch Co 2 01 Figure 1 Spirax Sarco
1 53 FigureR (a and b) Automatic Switch Co 202 Figure 2 IMI Bai ley Birkett Ltd
154 Figure 9 Asco Joucomatic Ltd 202 Figure 3 Realm
154 Figure 10 Asco joucomatic Ltd 2 0 2 figure4 !MI Bailey Birkett Ltd
155 Asco joucomatic Ltd 204-206 Table 1 Crosby Va lve Inc
156 Figure J 1 Asco joucomatiC Ltd 207 Figure 5 !Ml Bailey Birkett Lld
156 Figure 12 Asco Joucoma tic Ltd 208 Figure 6 Crosby Valve Inc
158 top left Asco joucomatic Ltd 209 Figure 7 Crosby Valve Inc
15 8 top right Asco Joucomatic Ltd 210 Figure 8 Crosby Valve Inc
164 Figure I SOC LA Dan foss Water Valves 211 Figure 9 IMt Bailey Birkett Ltd
165 bottom Simon Ha rtley Ltd 212 Figure 10 !MI Bailey Birkett Ltd
16n figure 3 Abacus Valves 2 1 2Figure ll IMI Bailey Birkett Ltd
Manufacturing Ltd 213 Figure 12 Plast-0-Malic VCJ lves Inc
167Fip,ure4 K. Controls Ltd 213 Pigure 13 Port Valve Inc.
1 70 Figure 3 Sim on Hartley Ltd 214 Figure 14 Circle Seal Co nt rols Inc
171 Figure 4 Simon Hartley Ltd 2 14 Figure IS Circle Sea l Controls Inc
171 Figure 5 Simon Ha rtley Ltd 2 1 5 Figure 16 Crosby Va lve Inc
172 Figure 1 Crosby Valve Inc 2 1 nFig ure 17 Crosby Valve Inc
174 Figure 2 ltalvalvole/Zella 217 top Flow Sofe Inc.
175 Figure 3 Apporecchi e Macchine 2 1 7 bottom Spirax Sarco
Idrauliche Speciali 2 18 Figure 18 Anderson. Greenwood-Co
176 Figure 5 Apporecchi e Macchine 2 18figure 1 9 Crosby Va lve Inc
Idr<~uli c he Speciali 2 18 Figure 20 Spir<1x Sa reo
177 Figure 6 Dezurik. a division ofSPX 2 1 9 Figure 2 1 IMt Bailey 13irkett Ltd
1 78 Figure 8 Banjo Corp 22fi Figure 1 Spirax Sa reo
1 78 Figure 9 Banjo Corp 227 Figure 2 Spirax Sarco
179 Figure 10 Worcester Controls 227Figu re3 Spirax Sarco
179 Figure 1 1 SchuF Armatu ren & 233 Figure 5 Spirax Sa reo
Apparatebau GmbH 233 Figure 6 Spirax Sa reo
1 79 Figure 1 2 Schur Annatureo & 235 figure 8 Spirax Sarco
Apparatebau GmbH 238 top left Guest and Chrimes
180 Figure l2 Schuf Armaturen & 238toprighl Guest a nd Cbrimes
Apparatebau GmbH 24 0 Guest and Chrimes
180 Figure 13 SchuF Armatu ren & 243 Figure 3 SOCLA Dan foss Water Va lves
Apparatcbau GmbH 244 to p SOCLA Dan foss Water Valves
185 K. Controls Ltd 244 Figurt' 2 SOCLA Dan foss Water Valves
186 top Johnson Valves 245 Figu re 3 SOCLA Dan foss \Vater Valves
186 figure 1 Delta Pacific Valves 24 5 figure 4 SOCLA Dan foss Water Valves
188 Figure 3 SOCLA Danfoss Water Valves 245 Figure 5 SOCLA Dan foss Water Valves
188 bottom left SOC LA Danfoss Water Valves 246 Figure 6 SOCLA Dan foss Water Valves
188 bottom righ t Johnson Valves 249 Sounders Va lve Co
189figure5 SOCLA Dan foss Water Va lves 2.52 Neles-jamcsbury
190 Figure 6 SOCLA Danfoss Water Valves 25 3 Neles-jamesbu ry
190 Figure 7 SOCLA Dan foss Wa te r Valves 2.54 KSB Armaturen Gm bH
191 Figu re 8 SOCLA Dan foss Water Valves 255 KSB Arm a ture n Gm bH
19 1 Figure 9 DurablCJ Fluid Technology 256 Neles-Jamesbury
Inc 257 Rotork Controls Ltd
xiii
258 Shafer Valve Co 31 5 top left Oycon Oyna m ic Con trois

260 Figure J KSB Armaturen GmbH 315 top right Dycon Dynamic Controls
260 Figure 2 KSB Armaturen GmbH 316 Figure 3 Apco Controls
261 Figure 3 Neles-jamesbury 316 figure 3 Fisher Rosemount.
262 figure . 4 Shafer Valve Co 317Figure4 Fisher Rosemount
263 Figure 5 Shafer Valve Co 317 bottom Fisher Rosemount
264 Figure 6 Bel Valves 318 Figure 6 Circle Seal Controls Inc
265 KSB Armaturen GmbH 319 figure 7 Circle Seal Con trois Inc
267 Figure 7 Rotork Controls Ltd 325 Griffin Pipe Products Co.
268 Figure 8 Hitachi Valve 326 Hitachi Valve
268 Figure 9 Rotork Controls Ltd 327 Biwater Industries
2o9 figure 10 Rotork Controls Ltd 328 Griffin Pipe Products Co.
2 70 Figure 11 Rotork Con trois Ltd 329Tablel Biwater Industries
271 Figure 12 Rotork Controls Ltd 330 l:igure 1 Biwat:er Industries
27 3 Figure 1 3 Rotork Controls Ltd 3 30 [:'ig ure 2 Biwaler lodustries
274 Figure 14 Dreamo Electro-Mechanik 330Table2 Biwater Industries
GmbH 331 Table 3 Biwater Industries
275 Figure 14 Dream9 Electro-Mechanik 3 31 Table 5 Biwater fndustries
GmbH 333 Figure 3 Griffin Pipe Products Co.
276 Rotork Controls Ltd 334 Rath Manu[acturing
277 Figure 16 El-0-Matic International Company Inc
2 77 top Tyco Valves and Controls 335 Table 7 Special Metals
278l:igurel7 Exeeco Ltd Corporation
280 Figure 1 Spirax Sarco 336 Dow Chemical Co
281 top Spirax Sarco 337 Dow Chemical Co
281 bottom Dewrik. a division ofSPX 338 Figure 4 Crane
282 bottom right Plast-0-Matic Valves Inc 339 Figure J George Fischer
282 top left Severn Glocon 340 Figure 2 George Pischer
282 top right Guest and Chrimes 341 George l:ischer
284 Figure 2 Spirax Sarco 3 56 Table 1 George Fischer
284 Figure 3 Spirax Sarco 357 George Fischer
285 figure4 Dezurik. a division ofSPX 3 58 Figure 1 George Fischer
286 Figure 5 Spirax Sarco 359 top Harvel Plastics
287 Figure 6 Spirax Sarco 360 George l:ischer
287Pigure7 Spirax Sarco 361 Upnor Ltd
288 Figure 8 Spirax Sarco 368 Agru Company
288 Figure 9 Spirax Sarco 369 George Fischer
288 Figure 10 Spirax Sarco 3 70 top George Fischer
289 Figure 11 APV / In vensys 3 70 bottom ASAHI/ America
2 90 Figure 12 APV /Iovensys 371 ASAHI/ America
291 Figure 13 APV /lnvensys 372 ASAH!/America
292 Figure 14 K. Controls Ltd 3 74 Figure 4 Wiik and Hoeglund
293 Figure 15 Realm 378 George Fischer
294 top Osmonics 379 George fischer
294 Figure 16 Gemi.i Valves Ltd 380 George Fischer
295 SOCLA Dan foss Water Valves 384Table 6 George Fischer
296 SOCLA Daofoss Water Valves 391 top George Fischer
297 Figure 17 Emile Egger-Co. AG 393 Table 7 George Fischer
297 Figure 18 Emile Egger-Co. AG 395 Harvel Plastics
298 l:igure 19 Asco Joucomatic Ltd 396 Griffin Pipe Products Co.
298 Figure 20 Asco joucomatic Ltd 400-401 Figure 1 Griffin Pipe Products Co.
299Figure21 Asco joucomatic Ltd 402 Griffin Pipe Products Co.
299 Figure 22 Cmtis Wright Control Flow 403 Figure 2 Biwater Industries
Corporation 403 figure 3 Victualic
304 Figure (i Spirax Sarco 404 Figure 4 Victualic
305 Figure 7 Spirax Sa reo 405 Figure 5 Victualic
307 Figure 2 Spirax Sarco 405 bottom Victualic
308 Figure 3 Spirax Si'lrco 406 Figure 6 Harvel Plastics
310 Figure 5 Spirax S<~rco 407 Griffin Pipe Products Co.
310 Figure 6 Spirax Sarco 408 Figure 8 Biwater Industries
XV
754 Brooksbank Valves Ltd 771 Figure 2 Tyco Valves and Controls
755 Figure 1 Guest and Cbrimes 772 Figure 3 Neles-Jamesbury
75 5 top Brooksbank Valves Ltd 773 top IMf Bailey Birkett Ltd
756 Table 1 Guest and Chrimes 773 Figure 4 Circle Seal Controls Inc
757 Figure 2 IMI Bailey Birkett Ltd 775 Worcester Controls
759 Brooksbank Valves Ltd 776 Vanatome
761 bottom KSB Armaturen GmbH 777 Figure 2 CraneQ!) Resistoflex
761 top Blakeborough Valves 778 Figure 3 EDF
764 bottom Neles-Jnmcsbury 782 Mannesmannrohren-Werke
764 Figure 2 Neles-Jamcsbury AG
765 Figure 1 Neles-Ja mcsbu ry 784 Neles-Jamesbury
766 Figure 4 Circle Seal Controls Inc 786 GSR Ventiltechnik GmbH
768 Reiss Engineering Co. Ltd 788 Figure 6 Adams
769 Solvent+ Pratt 788 middle Kepner Products Company
770 Figure l Tyco Valws and Controls 789 Adams
Note:
Figures from T . D. Williamson. Inc. 0'; :
Reproduced with the permission ofT. D. Williamson. Inc.\!<'' Registered Trademarks ofT. D. Williamson. Inc. in
the United State~ and in foreign countries.
SECTION 1
Fundamentals
Classification of Valves
Basic Valve Nomenclature
Valve Selection Guides
Pipes and Pipelines-Definitions and Explanations
Classi-fication of Valves
Valves may be classified in a number of ways, e.g. by category (general type),

specHic type, purpose or name: or by flow characteristics (e.g. straight-through,
full-flow or throttled-flow). Descriptions can also differ slightly in different
countries although the main type names are established internationally (with
some exceptions).
Classification of valves by category is given in Table 1. This follows British
Standards and general practice adopted by British manufacturers. but is also
generally applicable to American practice. One major difference in this respect
is that the important class of ball valves is considered as a type of plug valve in
the tabular summary, whereas American practice would favour regarding it
as a separate category. The baH valve is, in fact, a major type in its own right.
Modular ball valve based on standardised components.

4 Fundame11tals
Table 1. Classification of valves

------------.-------------------~--------------------------
Category Patterns Types of construction Remarks
Cock 1. Plug Tapered plug Also parallel plug.

2. Gland Plug retained by gland
3. Packed cock or packing
4. Compound gland Packing between plug
face and body seat
Stuffing box in cover
Plug l. Plain 1. Taper plug Passage through port in rotatable.

valve 2. Lubricated 2. Parallel plug plug supported or mounted to
3. Ball plug reduce friction.
---- - -
Screw- 1. Inside screw 1. Globe vnlve Spherical body.
down 2. Outside screw 2. Angle Spherical body with ends at righl
stop valve angles.
3. Oblique Spherical body. stem axis oblique.
4. Others Usually described by type
(e.g. needle valve)
or geometry of body
(e.g. tee valve).
-------
Gate VCIIve 1. Inside screw .l. Wedge (gate) Closure effected by wedge action .
(wedge 2. Outside screw
gate valve) 3. Lever
(a) Sliding stem (a} Solid wedge or
(b) Rotary stem 2. Sluice (valve) (b) Split wedge.
3. Double disc Solid wedge gate valve.
Gate valve Gate composed of parallel sliding
(slide valve) discs or slides.
-----------------
Check l. Horizontal l. Swing (check) Hinged flap check mechanism.
valve 2. Vertical 2. Lift
3. Angle (a) Disc Disc check mechanism.
(b) Piston Disc plus piston check mechanism.
(c) Ball Ball check.
3. Foot (valve) Check valve fitted to bottom of a
suction pipe.
----f- l--
Butterfly l. Double flanged Each flange is Based on rotatable disc valve.
valve 2. Water individually bolted.
(a) Single Oange Primarily designed for
(b) Flangeless insertion between pipe
flanges
------~-------------------4-----------------------
Diaphragm Flexible diaphragm
valve mounted over a weir.
Ball 1. Single beat 1. Direct (lever)- Single beCJt--flow through single

(float valve) operated seating ring.
2. Pressure-operated Double beat-flow through two
2. Double beat 3. Droptight seating rings.
4. Non-droptigbt
Table 1 (ronlinued)
-
Category Patterns Types of construction Remarks
-
Safety I. Direct spring-loaded Also designated by:
valve 2. Direct weight-loaded l . High-lift valve.
~.Lever and 2. Pnll-lift va lve.
spring-loaded
4.Leverand 3. Pilot-ope rated valve.
weight-loaded
5. Ten sion 4. Electrically-assisted va lve.
spr ing-loaded
6. Torsion ba r
Relief I. Direct spring-loaded Also designated by:

valve 2. Direct weight-loaded 1. High-lift (reliel) valve.
2. Pilot-operated (relieO valve.
--
Pressure 1. Self-contained 1. Pressure-reducing
control 2. Spring-loaded 2. Pressure-retaining
valve 3. Weight-loaded 3. Indirect
4. Pressure-loaded
5. Externally-piped
6. Tight-closing
7. Non-tight-closi ng
8. Relay-operated
- - - -
Air relief 1. Single-orifice LP
valve 2. Single-orifice HP
3. Single-orifice with
integral isolating
va lve
4. Double-orifice with
integral isolating
valve
- --
Turbine 1. Regulating
valve 2. Quick-closing
3. Starting
4. Exhaust
5. Guarding
-
Free 1. Needle-type
disch a rge 2. Hollow jet-type
valve 3. Sleeve-type
I
Valves are classified and described by specific type in Section 2, which also
include a number of individual designs best categorised as miscellaneous.
Some other valve types are given in Table 2.
Descriptions of various valve types may also differ and Table 3 lists some
other descriptions, standard terminology in this case being based on that adopted
for Table 1. This is by no means complete, but is offered as a general guide.
6 Fundamentals
Table 2. Some other valve types
Category Description
Flow-regulating valve For controlling rate of flow in a system.

Temperature-regulating valve For controlling fluid temperature level in a system.
Automatic process-control valve For controlling rate of flow relative to value of a command
system.
Anti-vacuum valve An automatic type of air valve for the prevention of the
formation of vacuum or the release of vacuum in large bore
pipelines.
Blow-down valve A valve which is used for cleaning sludge and other foreign
matter from a boiler.
Bulkhead valve A gate valve.
Free-ball valve A valve in which a ball, free to rotate in any direction. is
moved at 90° to the flow stream from a position removed
from the flow stream until finally rolling into a circular
orifice for shut off.
Fusible-link or fire valve A fire prevention valve which has a weighted lever held open
by a wire and fusibl e link which melts at an increase in room
temperature.
Hydraulic valve A control valve for either water, oil. or hydraulic systems.
Jet-dispersal valve A valve incorporating an element by virtue of which the
energy within the emitting jet: is dissipated.
Penstock A single-faced type of valve consisting of an open lrame and
door. and used in terminal positions only: usually located in
tanks or channels as a means of controlling flow into a pipe.
Plate valve A gate valve incorporating a sluicing effect.
Radiator valve A valve for controlling the flow of water through a radiator.
Rotary-slide valve A valve in which rotation of internal parts regulates flovv by
opening or closing a series of segmental ports.
Rotary valve A spherical-plug valve in which the plug, which rotates
through 90°, is provided with a circular waterway to match
the body and ports.
Solenoid valve A valve operated by an electrical solenoid.
Spectacle-eye valve A type of parallel slide valve in which the 'spectacle gate' has
one 'lens' of circular waterway and the other of solid section.
Thermostatic mixing valve A valve which combines temperature selection and flow
control in the same body.
Throttle valve A non-tight-closing butterfly valve with a centrally-hinged
!lap which can be locked in any desired position.
Classification of valves by function yields the following general list where

any individual type of valve may be capable of performing one or more of these
functions. Excluded from this list are specific functions or specialised services
for which special designs of valves are normally employed.
(i) On-off service.

(ii) Throttling or flow control.
(iii) Preventing of reverse flow.
Table 3. Terminology
General or 'popular' description Standard terminology
Back-pressure valve Check valve

Block and bleed valve Gate valve
Clack valve Check valve
Conduit valve Gate valve with full-bore aperture
Controllable check valve Screw-down stop and check valve
Controllable non-return valve Screw-down stop and check valve
Dash pot valve Check valve (piston-check disc-type)
Excess-flow valve Flow-regulating valve
Excess- or minimum-pressure valve Flow-regulating valve
Flap valve Check valve (swing-type)
Follower-ring valve Gate valve
FuJI way valve Gate valve
Governor valve Pressure-control valve
Non-return self-closing valve Check valve
Parallel-gate valve Safety valve (direct spring-loaded)
Proportional-flow valve Flow-regulating valve
Reflux valve Check valve
Retention valve Check valve
Screw-down non-return and flood valve Screw-down stop and check valve
Wheel valve Screw-down stop valve
Y-type valve Oblique valve
-- - - - - - - - - - - -
(iv) Pressure control.

(v) Directional flow control.
(vi) Sampling.
(vii) Flow limiting.
Valves classified by duty or the service they are intended to perform are
described in Section 3. Necessarily these embrace types already described
under specific types and the relevant chapters can be studied together where
appropriate. A further source of reference and information in this respect is
the chapter on Valve Selection Guides.
Industrial valves operate under many different situations and temperatures
which range from the cryogenic to high-temperature applications and with
different materials including grit, sludge, corrosive chemicals, gases and
liquids. In general, valve technology is mature.
There are two main divisions in the industry: control valves giving precise
control of flow and on/off valves which may be further subdivided into linear
(multi-turn) and rotary (quarter-turn). Actuators which control the movement
of a valve can be manual or automatic and are a major ancillary item for valves.
Valves can be purchased as standard products (commodity valves) or as
engineered units, purpose-built for a specific application. The emphasis today
is on providing solutions to problems and automation wherever possible.
8 Fundamentals
High-performance butterfly valve with sectioned spring-diaphragm actuator for modulaLi11g control.
Rotary segrnent-control valve with noisl'-control trinr .

Processes are required to be more economical and run uninterrupted for

longer periods.
The intervals between production shut-downs for plant maintenance are
growing longer and environmental protection legislation is becoming more
stringent.
Intelligent valves, based on digital control technology and incorporating
control functions and communication interfaces are already making an impact
and computer integrated processing (CIP) is a reality. The most striking changes
in valve technology appear to be in the field of materials of constructions with
new metals, ceramics and composites being explored.
Valve connections
Valves are normally designed to take either threaded pipe ends, or with flanges
for flanged connection. Threaded connections are simpler and cheaper to
produce and more easily installed. However, it can prove difficult to remove
valves so mounted without dismantling a considerable portion of the piping
unless a number of extra fittings. such as unions, are incorporated.
db db
9P 9[? etaill fac e Ruised fuce
l.ar~ c
nude and ./t'lllllle
Small / . IIIX('
/11(1/(' ond ( £'111111£' 1011g11e und groo t "l '
dq
Small Ring joint
!OIIg_lll' 1111d g r o O t "t'
Fig uri' I. Flangl'd ends.

10 Fundamentals
Flanged ends make a stronger. tighter and more leak-proof connection.

Where heavy viscous media are to be controlled, as in refineries. process and
chemical plants. etc., flanged-end valves are normally used. The initial cost is
higher, not only because of the extra metal but because the flanges must be
carefully and accurately machined. Also the installation cost is greater
because companion flanges, to which the valve-end flanges are bolted, as well
as gaskets, bolts and nuts must be provided.
All flat faces are commonly termed plain faces. Bronze and iron flat faces
can have a machined finish. Cast iron raised faces may be smooth finished or
have a serrated finish (preferably with no fewer than 16 serrations per inch)
which may be spiral or concentric. Steel flat faces and raised faces should have
a serrated finish of approximately 32 serrations per inch. The serrations may
be either spiral or concentric.
Steel male and female and tongue-and-grooved faces should have a smooth
finish. Steel ring-joint faces should have smooth finished grooves. If spiral-
wound gaskets are used on flange faces, the flanges should have a smooth
finish. Examples of flanged ends are shown in Figure l.
Socket or butt-welded ends are used on all-welded pipeline systems. For
specific services valves are also to permit connection to pipes by soldering or
brazing. In the latter case the valve may be supplied with integral preformed
brazing-material inserts.
Basic Valve Nomenclature
Most valves consist of a body containing a flow control element (discs, plug,
gate, etc.) attached to and operated by rotation of a stem. (There are exceptions:
e.g. swing check and pinch valves have no stem.) The stem, together with any
stem seals. is enclosed within a bonnet. The top of the stem is fitted with a
hand wheel (or lever) for rotation of the stem (although some stems may have
a sliding operation for quick action).
With threaded stems (giving a screw-down, screw-up motion) the threaded
portion may be fully enclosed by the bonnet, known as inside screw; or
exposed beyond the bonnet, known as outside screw. The former obviously
provides maximum protection for the screw thread. Outside screws have the
advantage of being easier to lubricate.
With rising-stem valves the handwheel and stem move together, giving a
visual indication of the degree of valve opening. With a non-rising stem the
handwheel does not rise (or fall) with the turning movement. The advantage
of this type is that it can be installed in situations providing only minimum
headroom above the hand wheel.
Various types of bonnet may be used, e.g. screw-in, screw-on, union-style
and bolted or flanged bonnet. Screw-in or screw-on bonnets are the simplest
and cheapest, but largely limited to smaller valves used on low-pressure services.
Union bonnets generally provide tighter sealing and are particularly suitable
for valves which are dismantled frequently for servicing. Plain (flat) flange and
male- and female-flanged bonnets are generally preferred for high-temperature
or high-pressure valves, and also larger sizes of valves. An alternative type for
high-pressure and/or high-temperature services is the breech-lock bonnet.
Valve trim
Trim is the term used to describe the parts of a valve which are replaceable, i.e.
normally those parts likely to be subject to wear or degradation. The following
parts are considered as trim:
Gate valves-stem, seat ring, wedge. back-seat bushing.

Globe and angle valves-stem, seat ring, disc. disc nut, back-seat bushing.
12 Fundamentals
Screwed bonne!. Union bonner. Bolted flanged

bonnet.
Disc valve-disc, disc nut, back-seat bushing.

Swing-check valves-disc, disc holder, disc nut, side plug. carrier pin.
disc-holder pin, disc-nut pin. seat rings.
Lift-check valves-disc, disc guide. seat rings .
Stem seals and other internal seals (tl\rhere fitted) are arguably included under
the definition of trim. but are not normally used in describing trim materials.
Standard abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used to describe or designate valve parts.

features, etc.:
All iron all parts of iron construction.

All bronze all parts of bronze construction.
BB bolted (flanged) bonnet.
CWp cold working pressure.
DD double disc.
DW double wedge.
FE flanged end (connection).
FF flat flange .
IBBM iron body bronze-mounted.
IPS iron pipe size.
ISNRS inside screw non-rising stem.
ISRS inside screw rising-stem.
NRS non-rising stem.
RP raised flange.
RS rising stem.
SIB screwed bonnet.
Basic Valve Nomenclature 13
sw solid wedge.
SintorintS internal seat.
S ren or ren S renewable seat.
OS&Y outside screw and yoke.
WOG water. oil. gas pressure rating.
Nomenclature covering the individual parts of various different types of

valves is included in Section 2 .
Valve Selec-tion Guides
The main parameters concerned in selecting a valve or valves for a typical

general service are:
(i) Fluid to be handled-this will affect both type of valve and material
choice for valve construction.
(ii) Functional requirements-mainly affecting choice of type of valve.
(iii) Operating conditions-affecting both choice of valve type and
constructional materials.
(iv) Flow characteristics and frictional loss-where not already covered by
(ii), or setting additional specific or desirable requirements.
(v) Size of valve-this again can affect choice of type of valve (e.g. very
large sizes are only available in a limited range of types): and avaiJability
(matching sizes may not be available as standard production in a
particular type).
(vi) Any special requirements- e.g. quick-opening. free-draining, etc.
In the case of specific services, choice of valve type may be somewhat

simplified, e.g. by following established practice or selecting from valves
specifically produced for that particular service.
On a broad basis, Table 1 summarises the applications of the main types of
general purpose valves. It has only limited use as a selection guide, i.e. can be
regarded as a starting point. Table 2 carries general selection a stage further
in listing valve types normally used for specific services. Table 3 is a particularly
useful expansion of the same theme relating the suitability of different valve
types to specific functional requirements.
Normally, for general services (and for many specific services), several valve
types may appear as possible choices. These may then need evaluating
individually, and comparing on the basis of the flow characteristics they offer.
Even more important, calculations may be necessary to establish a suitable
size of valve to meet a specific performance requirement, e.g. a maximum
acceptance pressure drop or head loss through the valve.
Table 1. Valve types-typical applications
Vu lve cutq:ory Gen(•ral app lication(~) c:tuatinn Rt'marks

- --
Screw-down Shut-otT or regulation ofllow of liquids! } Handwheel (a) Limited application for low-
stop valve and gases (e .g. steam). ( i) Electric motor pressure/low-volume systems
( ii) hydrau lic systems actuat r becilusc of relatively high cost.
( v) Hydraulic actuator (b) Limited suitability for handling
( •) Air motor viscous or contaminated fluids.
-
Cock Low-prt'sst 1re service on cle<Jn. cold l sually manual Limited application for steam services.
fluids (e.~.'vilter. oils. etc. ).
Gi!te valve Normally u sed eit her fully open or () Handwheel (a) Not recommended for use as
fully closed for on-on· regulati on ( i) Electric motor throttling valve.
on wnt.er. o il. gas. steam and other ( ii) hydruulic systems aetna or (b) Solid wedge gale is free from
1
fluid services. ( v) Hydraulic actuator 'chatkr' and jamming.
( ) Air motor
Parallel-slide Regulation of flow. purtic ulrtrly in (a) OtTers unrestricted bore at full
vulve m~in servk:·es in process industries opening.
andsteilm power pla nt. (b) Can incorporate venturi bore to
reduce operating torque.
Butt·rrny \'alve Shu t-off an d regulation in large () Hand wheel (il)Relatively simple construction.
pipelines in waterworks. process ( i)
Electric motor (b) Readily produced in very large sizes
Industries. petrochemical industries. ( ii ) hydraulic systems actua or (e.g. up to 18ft or more).
hydroclectrir power stat ions and ( v) H ydrmwc actuator
thermal po wer stiltions. ( ) Air motor
-
Diaphragm Wide range of applications in all () Handwbeel (a) Can handle all types of fluids.
valve services for flow regul<Jtiou. ( i) Electric motor including slurries. sludges. etc ..
( ii} hydraulic systems aclu u or and con taminated nuids.
( v) Hydraulic actuator (b) Limited for steilm services by
( l Air motor temperature and pressure rating
of diaphragm .
-
Bill! valve Wide range of applications for all () Hand wheel (a) Unrestricted bore at full opening.
sizes.lnclu dlng very large sizc.s in ( i) Electric motor (b) Can handle all types of fluids.
oil pipelines. etc. ( ii) hydraulic systems actua <Jr (c) Low operating torque.
( v) Hydraulic actuator (d) Not normally used as a throttling
valve.
Piuch valve Particular! y suitable for handling () Mechanical (a) Unrestricted bore at full opening.
corrosive 10 cdia. solids in suspemion ( i) Electric motor (b) Com handle all typesofnui ds.
slurries. etc ( ii) hydraulic systems actua o r (c) Simple serv icing.
( v) Hydraulic actuator (d) Limited maximum pressu re rating.
( • ) l'luid pressure
(modified design)
Automatic Desi);ned to meet pnrticular '1 o m eet particular Mos t commonly of single or double
process- service con dition~. s ~rvice cooditions beat-globe valve con figuration.
control
valve
Air-relief valve t:se<l in wa ter works. etc .. to release t utomatic-rcsponding

en trapped a ir and prevent formation t ~changes in now
OfV(IC\lUtn 'pockets' ~ ressure
Turbine valve Desi!lncd to m cc.t requirements of 'I o m~ct parUrular Provides guaranteed control over
steam and water turbines in s ·rvice conditions maximum and minimum turbine
mdustrial. mari ne and power speeds and power in ilSsociation
16 Fundamentals
Table 2. Valve types for specific services
Service Main Secondary

- --
Gases Butterfly valves Pressure-control valves
Check valves Pressure-relief valves
Diaphragm valves Pressure-reducing valves
Lubricated plug valves Safety valves
Screw-down stop valves Relief valves
Liquids, clear up to Butterfly valves

sludges and sewage Screw-down stop valves
Gate valves
Lubricated plug valves
Diaphragm valves
Pinch valves
Slurries and liquids Butterfly valves

heavily contaminated Pinch valves
with solids Gate valves
Screw-down stop valves
Lubricated plug valves
-
Steam Butterfly valves Check valves
Gate valves Pressure-control valves
Screw-down stop valves Pre-superheated valves
Turbine valves Safety and relief valves
-
Valve coefficients and flow values
The valve coefficient is a convenient method of relating flow rates to pressure

drop through valves and, in fact. is sometimes called a flow value. This coefiicient
can only be determined empirically for a specific type of valve as it will be
influenced by detail design and construction. It will also vary with the physical
size of the valve and the degree of opening in the valve. Valve coefficient
values are normally quoted for 100% opening (full open), with individual valves
for each size.
Some confusion can arise from the fact that the coefficient quoted for a
valve can have three different values depending on the basic units on which it
was computed. Normally these are apparent from the designation of the valve
coefficient, viz:
in units of US gal/min, lbf/in 2
in units of l/min, bar
in Imperial units oflmp gal/min. 1 bf/ in 2
The following conversions apply:
Kv Cv f
Kv 14.28 17.0t)
Cv 0.07 1.1 t)6()
f 0.0589 0.83 57
Table 3. Typical valve suitability chart
Valve type Service or function
-
0..
0
0.... .... 1.1)
~ ..... '"0
'-
cOil -:9c:
v-~....
0 Oil <!)
c;:l t:: 0.... t:: .... -o._
o
Oil
t:: Oil
<!)
!:3
0
u .....
t::
t::
<!) ·a ::::l
"'
1.1) "'"'
o.oc
t:: <!)
.... <!)
.... 0.. ·~ <!) t:: <!)
a:: -;:::
..... ·;:::; <!)
:> ::::l u
0
::I
0 .... .... ·- 0..
0 .... <!) 1.1) 1.1) ...!.<: '"0 0..
::0"'
I 0
.... ~ .... 1.1)
~ 1.1)
.~ <!)
~ c ::I
cc
t:: ....
<!)
0 <!)
.... ::I <!)
.... 1.1)
~
...t:: 0
0 E-< i5 0.. ~ 0... 0 t:.t.. .....J tr:: .=:
-
Ball s M s - - - - s - s LS
Butterfly s s - - - s - s s s s
-- - -
Diaphragm s M - - - - - M M - s
- --·,. -
Gate s - - - - - - s s s -
Globe s M - - - M - - - - -
-
Plug s M s - - M - s s s LS
Oblique (Y) s M - - - M - - - - -
-
Pinch s s - - - s - - s s s
f--
SliM - M - - - M - M s s s
- -
Swing-check - - - s - - - - - s -
Tilting-disc - - - s - - - - ·- s -
Lift-check - - - s - - - - - - -
Piston -check - - - s - - - - - - -
Butterfly-check - - - s - - - - - - -
Pressure-relief s - - - - - s - - - -
Pressure-reducing - - - - s - - - - - -
Sampling s - - - - - - - - - -
Needle - s - - - - - - - - -
Key:
S = Suitable choice
M =May be suitable in modified form
LS = Limited suitabi lity
18 Fundamentals
Typical flow coefficient equations can be shown as follows:
For liquids
Q= Cv {M
v~
where
Q = flow, gallons per minute
Cv = flow coefficient
~p = pressure drop, psi
s.g. = specific gravity (water=1)
For gases (non-critical flow):
Z(Pi - P~)
Q = 16.07 Cv
T x (s.g.)
where
Q = flow, SCFM
Cv = flow coefficient
P 1 = upstream pressure. psia
P 2 = downstream pressure, psi a
Z = compressibility factor
T = absolute temperature (°F+460)
s.g. = specific gravity (air= 1)
For gases (critical flow):
P2/P1 = R, and
Q = 16.07 CvP1J ;-z-()

VTXTsi:J
where Rand Jare functions of the specific heat ratio 'r' as follows :
-
r R J r R J
- -
1.20 0.564 0.825 1.36 0.535 0.845
1.22 0.561 0.828 1.38 0.532 0.847
1.24 0.557 0.831 1.40 0.528 0.849
1.26 0.553 0.833 1.42 0.524 0.851
1.28 0.549 0.836 1.44 0.521 0.853
1.30 0.546 0.838 1.46 0.528 0.855
1.32 0.542 0.840 1.48 0.515 0.857
1.34 0.539 0.843 1.50 0.512 0.859
-
Combining flow coefficients
(1) Flow in parallel: Cv=Cvl +Cv2+Cv3+ ...
(2) Flow in series: ( ~y = ( c~ J' c\) \ (c~J \

+(
Flow characteristics of valves
Where the flow characteristics through the valve are of significance, the
following notes can be useful.
Plug valves (Figure 1) offer a straightway passage through the ports with a
minimum of turbulence. Flow can be in either direction and a quarter-turn
will fully open or fully close the valve. Similar comment applies to ball valves.
Gate valves (Figure 2) present a substantially straightway flow through the
ports in the full-open position since the wedge or 'gate' is lifted clear of the flow
passage. Turbulence and pressure drop are low. Again flow can be in either
direction.
Globe valves (Figure 3) are normally installed so that pressure is under the
disc, assisting operation and eliminating a certain amount of erosive action.
Turbulence and pressure drop are higher than with straightway valves.
Angle valves (Figure 4) have similar characteristics to globe valves, with
flow directed through 90°. Again flow is normally directed under the disc.
Reverse flow may be used in the case of high-temperature steam. Ball, globe
and angle valves are suitable for throttling.
Figure 1. Plug valve. Figure 2. Gate valve.

22 Fundamentals
Nominal
100
90
, ...... Nominal
Kv)OO
100
90
v
Size KviOO
1/ Soze 'I'
8 8
80
v ,_ - 1
80
1/
41
95
180
1
0
#. 50
70
80
,
/
-
3fs
'h
49
77
0
#. 60
70
60 ,
I
327 :G 40 ~ 40 /
3;4 146
484 0 30 J - 0 - 30 f-
725 u
~ 20
:L60 ~ 20 - ~, -I-
1130
1700 ?; 1() I 1V. 437 ~ 10
0 I 0 ~
u:: 0 10 20 30 40 50 80 70 80 90 100
u:: 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100
%open %open
Gate Lubricated plug
·oo Nominal
100
90
,.
Nomonal •I-- c--- I Size
Kv lOO ,/
KviOO 8 80
Size
8
I l
81
' 70
I
'Is 22 > "' 1
63 'Q GO
-"
0 fil )
l _ /2
~
I
'14 32 3;. 121
&0
3fe 71 ?/?. 'lC' "'"' 40
'12 185 "'

"' 40
I 187 ~
su 30
II
§ 11/4 332
3;~ 350 u
30
v-- ,...- 1'h 416
~
~
20
I
1 700 ~ ~0
1- 1- - " 10
-
~ ·~
u:: ~
1'Ia 1000 ~ 2 704
~ r-
'0 0 10 lO 30 40 60 60 70 80 90 tOO
1'1:! 1600 u:: 3 1700
:w " %open
2 3100
0 10 ?0 >O 0
' 4 2700
%open
3 6500
4 11000
Ball Diaphragm
'
/
Nominal
Size Kv l OO ·- - : - I--
2~ 1500
0
0
.'
II
3
4
3000
5000
'
·- ,_
-
r-
1-- ~ 1--
-
-
I 1-- -
5 8000 " lj
J
6 12000 / -
-
r-
~
"
8 17000
~ ;::;:; ;>""
-----'---~ " lr 1' ! 1,1 ., .. "
% open
Butterfly
Figure 8. Examples offlow values Kv.
The Kv table for angle-seat valves gives a Kv 100 factor of 3 2 7 for size 1 in,
484 for size 1 1 I 4 in and 72 5 for size 1 1 h in.
In this example the correct size to use is 1 1 I 4 in (See also Table 5 ).
Example 2 (Figures 9 and 10)

(i) What is the Kv factor for a 1 1 I 4 in water pipeline with a flow of 300
I/min, an inlet pressure of 0. 5 bar and an outlet pressure of 0 bar?
(ii) If a valve has to be fitted and the minimum acceptable flow rate in the
pipeline is 250 llmin, which type of valve should be used?
Table 4. Typicai'K' values and pressure drops for various 150 mm (6 in) bore valves
Pressure drop*
Service K value bar lbf/in 2

-
Globe
-txJ- 5.0 0.59 8.5
Swing-check -{* 3.5 0.40 5.9
Y-pattern
M 2.9 0.34 4.9
Angle (globe)
~ 2.2 0.25 3.7
Venturi parallel-slide (witb eyepiece)

~ 1.1 0.13 1.9
Butterfly
1><1- 1.0 0.12 1.7
Parallel-slide without eyepiece {X}- 0.15 0.021 0.3
Parallel-slide with eyepiece 0.05 0.007 0.1
Ball (full bore)

M 0.05 0.007 0.1
Straight pipe (the length of an average 0.045 0.005 0.075

6 in bore valve)
*Flow 40 m/s (140 ft/s) at 24 bar (350 lbf/ in 2 ) saturated steam.
Solution to (i) (Figure 9)
Calculate the Kv for the pipeline (Kvp)·
Figure 9.
Given:
Q 300 1/min
y 1 kg/dm 3
~p P 1 -P 2 =0.5-0=0.5 bar
24 Fundamentals
Then:
Kvp
of£
-- 300a
Kvp = 424
Table 5. Typical sizes and operating ranges of valves
Valve Size Pressure range Temperature range
Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.

mm(in) bar (lbl in 2 ) "' C (oF)
Ball 6 1220 A 525 -55 300

erd (48) (7500) (-65) (575)
Butterfly 50 1830 v 84 -30 538
(2) (72) (1200) ( -20) (1000)
Butterfly-check 25 1830 A 84 -18 260
(1) (72) (1200) (0) ( 500)
Gate 3 1220 v 700 -277 675
e ls ) (48) (10.000) (-455) (1250)
Globe 3 760 v 700 -272 540
(1 I sl (30) (10.000) (-455) (1000)
Plug, lubricated 6 760 A 350 -40 315
(114) (30) (5000) (-40) (600)
Plug. non-lubricated 6 406 A 210 -75 220
e14) (16) (3000) ( - 100) (425)
Swing-check 6 610 A 175 -18 540
(114) (24) (2 500) (0) (1200)
Swing-check. Y-type 6 150 A 175 - 18 540
e 14) (6) (2500) (0) (1200)
Lift-check 6 250 A 175 - 18 540
( t I 4) (10) (2500) (0) (1200)
Tilting-disc 50 760 A 84 -260 590
(2) (30) (1200) (-450) (1100)
Diaphragm 3 610 v 21 -50 230
el/3) (24) ( 3 ()()) (-60) (450)
Y (oblique) 3 760 v 175 -272 540
1
( I sl (30) (2500) ( 45 5) (1000)
Slide 50 1900 A 28 -18 650
(2) ( 7 5) (400) (0) (1200)
Pinch 25 305 v 21 -75 260
( 1) ( 12) (300) ( -100) (500)
Needle 3 25 v 700 -78 260
( 1 1~;) (1) (10.000) ( -100) (500)
Key:
A = Atmospheric
V =Vacuum.
Solution to (iiJ (Figure 10)
First it is necessary to calculate the Kv factor for the total system (Kvt) .
Figure IO.
Given:
Q -- 2 50 1/ min
y -- 1 kg/dm 3
~p -- P 1 - P 2 = 0.5-0 = 0 .5 bar
Then:
Kvt --
oflp
-- 250/ls
-- 354
Kvl
The Kv factor for the valve (Kvv) can now be established by subtracting the
Kv factor for the pipeline (Kvp) from the kv factor for the total system (Kvt). For
this purpose, the formula for calculating the flow factors in series should be
used, which is:
1 1 1 1
- 2- = - 2- +- 2- + ... -2-
Kvx Kv 1 Kv2 Kvn
thus:
1 1 1
26 Fundamentals
1 1 1
Kvv
2 - 354 2 -424 2
= 7.98 X 10- 6 - 5.56 X 10- 6
= 2.42 X 10- 6
K, = J 2.42 ~ 10-'
= 643
The calculation shows that the valve used must be one with a minimum Kv 100
factor of 640.
From the Kv tables it can be seen that a 1 1 I 4 in ball valve has a Kv too factor
of 1000 and a 1 1 I 4 in diaphragm valve has a Kv 100 factor of 3 32.
Therefore only the 1 1 I 4 in ball valve can be used .
Pipes and Pipelines-De·finitions
and Explanations
According to the Oxford Dictionary, a pipe is a tube whereas a tube is a long,

hollow cylinder. Neither is of any help in establishing true definitions, for
there are recognised differences between pipes and tubes-but not those the
dictionary gives. The more obvious distinction is that 'a pipe is a big tube, and
a tube is a small pipe'-which is not far from the truth in application. But we are
also concerned with differences in usage of terms in different industries-and
in different countries.
Taking the big tube/small pipe premise as substantially correct, we can
further comment that pipes which may run up to several metres or feet in
diameter are cast, spun, welded up or otherwise fabricated, depending on the
materials and sizes involved. Nobody could logically visualise producing very
small sizes of pipes-e.g. under 25 mm (1 in) diameter-by such time
consuming methods. It is much quicker and cheaper to produce them by
extrusion. Hence tubes are basically (but not exclusively) extruded products,
involving reduction in size during manufacture in the case of metal tubes, and
a moulding process in the case of plastic tubes.
Just to confuse the issue, some tubes are produced by rolling to shape and
seam welding or seam jointing; and large-size plastic tubes, which then become
pipes. are produced by the same methods as small plastic tubes. But ignore
that for the moment. A main difference does emerge from the two different
methods of manufacture. Inherently, tubes have a smooth bore as manufactured.
Pipes will have a varying degree of bore roughness, depending both on the
material involved and the actual fabrication method. Once you extend tube-
manufacturing process to pipe production, then these pipes also have a
smooth bore (e.g. plastic pipes). Pipes produced by pipe-manufacturing methods
normally require specific after-treatment to render them smooth bore.
With this difference (and there are exceptions to the rule), we can further
differentiate between the two by size ranges and terminology adopted by
different industries. One of the main users of smooth-bore small-diameter tubes
is the hydraulic industry where line sizes may range from 3 mm (1 / 8 in) bore
up to 3 2 mm ( 13 in) bore, or larger in low-pressure hydraulic systems-and
28 Fundamentals
CPVC pipes and tubes.

we have called them lines, not pipes or tubes. The industry itself may call them
hydraulic pipes. hydraulic tubes or hydraulic lines; and larger hydraulic tubes
(pipe sizes!) are produced for cylinder tubes.
Industries and applications concerned with the conveyance of fluid
products almost invariably refer to their tubular products as pipes or piping.
Again. sizes may range dov,rn into tube sizes (and even be drawn or extruded
products or true tubes)-e.g. gas pipes and small-bore water service pipes. But
they are still pipes or piping. And the system they provide is a pipeline.
Hopefully this has established a satisfactory definition and explanation of
\•Vhy the title of this handbook is specifically concerned with pipes and pipelines,
for these are the areas mainly covered. And those who work in these areas call
Ductile iron pipe for drinking water applications.

30 Fundamentals
Summary of pipe materials-metallic

Manufacturing
Material process Size range Typica l applicalioos Remarks
Aluminium Drawing or rolling Cryo~cnir and chemical Low weight and good
(seamless tube) pipelines: lightweight hydraulic corrosion resistance.
pipes.
Copper Drawing or rolling Mainly smaU bore Marine application s. Resistant to corrosion
(seamless tubing) tubes Hot water services (domestic). but costly.
Ductile iron Spi nning Up to600mm Gas and water distribution Stronger than cast iron.
(24 in} systems.
Grey cast iron Casting Up to 1200 mm Gas. water and drainage Brittle matcri;~l .
(48 in} syste1ns.
Malleable iron Heat-treated casting 1\•lainly u sed for small fittings. l ess brittle than cast iron.
Steel Vadous Upto4000mm Gas and oi l pipelines. Available io a witle range
(l60in) of tensile st.renglhs.
Stainless steel Va rious Cryogenic anrl chemical pipelin es. Corros i o n -rc·s i ~lunt. but
Stainless steel tubing for d omestic high cost.
water supplies. plumbing and
healiog.
Tungsten Extrusion Mainly small Marine applications. Corrosion-resistant.
bore tubes Specialised hydra ulic systems. n on-sparki ug mulcrial.
their tubular products pipes, but tubes are mentioned and described where
appropriate.
There remains one distinction between British and American practice to
clarify. In the UK the handling and installation of pipes, performance
calculations, etc., embracing the complete system are commonly referred to as
pipework, e.g. pipework installations, pipework calculations, etc. In the USA
the word 'pipework' does not appear to be accepted and is seldom. if ever.
used. In the interest of rationalisation, this handbook uses the single
description pipeline. It means the same as pipework.
It is to be regretted that similar rationalisation is not possible between
British and American and metric units and standards. This leads to differences
in values of 'flow loss· coefficients for pipe bends, valves, etc .. the British/
American coefficient being based on m 3 /hat 1 bar pressure loss.
Equally, pipe sizes are standard in both millimetre and inch sizes, together
with match fittings and valves. There are no exact equivalents. You work in
standard manufactured sizes, either in millimetres or inches. To give
equivalent sizes in tabular data for either would be meaningless. With rare
exceptions. the exact equivalent size is just not obtainable.
That is a problem, too, which complicates the presentation of working
formulae. We have attempted, within reason. to cover most possibilities in the
case of the main formulae for flow-performance calculation in other forms
embracing all the units most likely to be used, both in metric and Imperial
units. Here. in fact. Imperial units are often less rational than their metric
equivalents, with volumes expressed in cubic inches, US gallons. Imperial
Sum mary of pipe materia Is-non-meta II ic

Corrosion
Mnteri a l size range rcslst~ncc Typical applications Remarks
-
Asbestos 50 t o lOSOmm Very good in most l3uricd water pipelines and Brittle material.
cement 12 to 42 in) soils. drainnge system~ .
Clay Very good. Drainage pipelines <~nd ducts. Brittle mnterial.
Normally salt-glazed.
Concrete ISO to1950mm Very good in most DraJnage pipelines. Produced in unreinforced
(6 to 76 io) soil s. and rein forced forms.
Spun concrete Good resistance to Sewerage. drainage. etc. Smooth. conce ntric bore.
sulphate auack and Smooth external fioisb.
sewer gas. High-density, steel-
reinforced.
Prc-str<'~sed Up t o 3000 m.m Ver)' good in most Large water and dr~inage Suitable for very la rge
concrete (12!liol soils. pipelines. diameters.
Pitcb/fibre 50 to 225 mm Very good in most Small drainnge pipelines.
(2to 9inJ soils.
Plastic pipes
ABS l2t o 150mm Corrosion-free but Alternative to PVC where better Suitable [or solvent
(lh to(> in) lower chemical mechanical pipelines required. jointing.
resistance than PVC.
GRP Upt o4800mm Corrosion-frce. Large water and drainage Thermoset material. Also
( 190 in) pipelines. available In other
reinforced-plastic miltrix.
(RPM) construct.ions.
Disadvantage: high cost.
Polyvinyl llpt o 1050 m.m Corro sion-free. General pu rpose pipelines suitable Unplasticised PVC.
chloride (42 iol for n wide variety of exterior nnd Suitable for solvent
UPVC interior applications. welding.
Widely avnilablc.
Polyvinyl Upto 360mm Corrosion-free. Cold and hot water services. Rigid PVC.
chloride ()4 inl domestic plumbing. etc.
CPVC
Polypropylene Upt o )000nun Similar toPE. but Applications requiring good Subject to embrittlement
(PPl (40 inl superior for combined temperature/pressure at low temperatu res.
[UK sizes up to resista J1Ce to pipelines. e.g. efiJuent. pulp
tnt n] detergents. mills. etc.
Polypropylene Uplo300mm Copolymer ofPP with
(12 in) bett.er resistance.
Polypropylene Jligh chemical- Specialised applications: higher Fusion-jointed.
(PVDFl resistance. including: St!rvice temperatures thao possible
<Jcids. alkalis aod with. other thermoplastic pipes.
hydrocarbons.
Polybutylcnc Upt o f>OOmm Hot-water applications- suititble Cheaper than PEX. better
(PBl (24 in) for temperatures up to llO"C abrasion resistance than
(230°F). PEH (particularly at
elevated temperatures).
Cannot be solvent-welded.
Polytheoc (PEJ Up t o 200mm Corrosion-free. Agriculture and irri gation. Low-density polythene:
(PELl (8 iJ u l?ressures to 6 bar.
Polythene (PEMJ lip t o '500 mm Corrosion-free. Gas distribution. Gener11l purpose Medium-density
(20 In) pipelines for exterior and polythene: fusion -jointed
ioterior applications. or mechanit·<ll joint~.
Polythenc Up to t800 mm Corrosion-free. Water distribution. sewilge. High-density polyth~nc :
(PEHl (70 in) industrial eftluent. etc. fusion-jointed (socket.
Gas distribution. butt or saddle); also
mecbanical forms.
Polythcne {Jp t o 1200mm Corrosion-free. High molecular weight
(H,\IIW-PEHJ (48 in) PEH: limited availnbility
in pipe forms and
expensive.
PEX llot water applications. Cross-linked PE.
Fluoroc;Jrbon Outstanding. Used as liners bonded to GRP
(FEP. PFA. or metallic pipes for complete
I'TI'E) corrosion rl'~i stance.
Limited availability in tube
form (PEP and PFA).
w
N
"Tj
1::
§.
3
<:">
::s
s
~
Equivalent specifications for stainless and high-resistant steels
I I Swedish French I German
Description BS970 AISI Avesta Fagersta Nyby Sandvikan Uddeholm Government Ugine Krupps
EN no. type
I
12/1 4% chromium
Low carbon
12/ 14% chromium

331S42
(56A)
420S29
I 410
410
393
393H
R.R.J.10
R.R.J.l1
l 1410
1415
2.C.27
4.C.27
S/S.1
S/ S.31
Z.12.C.13 FIA/ FIB
FIU12
Vl3F
VSM
15% carbon (568)
12/ 14% chromium 420 739H R.R.S.72 1435 7.C.27 S/S.6 Z.36.C.13 S12 V3M
35%carbon (560)
18/ 20% chromium 431S29 431 249EH 4N2C36 S/S.22 Z.15.CN VIM
2°/,, nickel (57) 18-02
18% chromium 430 249 R.R.M.20 1710 I.C. 36 S/S.2 F17 Vl7F
I I
2.C.34 Extra
26% chromium 453E R.R.V.62 27-4 I.R.8 S/S.45 V.2.A.

5% nickel Supra
I
Special
I
260.<. chromium I 453S R.R.V.64 27-SMO I.R.lO S/S.44 V.8.A.
5% nickel
1.5% molybdenum
I
I Supra
Special
12%chromium
12% nickel (58 0) I 832P R.R.N.J.39 14-12 2.R.l. SjS.33 Inoxargent V. l2.A .
Supra
18% chromium 301Sl5 304 832M R.l.M.291 18-8EL O.R.2 S/S.3.M.M. Z.S.CN. N.S.22.S. V.2.A.
8 % nickel 18-08 Supra
0.08% carbon (58 3 /~J I
I I I
18%chromium 320S25 302 832 R.R.N.J.32
I 18- 08 2.R.2. S/ $.3
I
I Z.lO.CN. V.2.A
8% nickel (58A) 18- 08 Norma l
18% chromium 303S21 303 832C T 2.R.2.A. S/ S.43 ~

8% nickel (58M) I
Free machining ~
I '
O.R.3 S/ S.4.M.M.
18% chromium
10% nickel
I 315$16
(58H)
832SV R.R.N.J.41 18- 8EMO
I
1.5% molybdenum I
18%chromiu m I 31SS16 832S R.R.N.j.40 1 8- 8 1MO 2.R.3 S/S.4 V.8.A.
8 % nickel
1.5% molybdenum
(58H)
I I Normal
18% chromium I 321S12 321 8321' R.R.N.J.51 1 8-81' I.R.4 S/ S. 53 Z. 10 .CNT. N.S.2 0C V.2.A.
8/10% nickel (58 B) 18-08 Extra 'i:)
1.5% molybdenum l -s·
<'>
18% chromium 347S17 347 8321' I.R.41 "'

!:)
I
~
10/12% nickel (58 G) s::...
1 % niobium 'i;l
17% chromium 254 R.R.T.80 20-20 2.R .6. S/ S.l5 ~

20% nickel
I ~
"'"'
I
25% chromium
20% nickel
310 254E R.R.T.83 25- 20 I 3.R.9. S/ S.2 5 Z.20.CNS
25/ 20
N.$ .30 N.C.T. 3 t::J
~
~
~
18% chromium 304Sl5 316 832SK R.R.N.J.44 18-20MO O.R. ll S/ S.24 Z. 8 .CND. N.S.M.C. V.4 .A. c;·
10% nickel (SSE) 18-08 Supra ~
2.5% molybdenum
I I "'
!:)
::s
s::...
lt'l
;..:
~
;::;-
:::
!:)
.....
c;·
::s
"'
w
w
34 Fundamentals
gallons or barrels, for example, depending on the industry or application

involved.
In other more specialised cases, solutions and formulae are presented in one
set of units only, being those most generally used. or in which the original
solutions were derived. In that case conversion tables will be necessary if you
want to use these with different units entered. As a final comment here, do
remember that g or gravitational acceleration is the same in Imperial or
metric units-32 .2ft/s 2 = 9.81 m/s 2 =g.
The following table lists ASTM (American) pipe specifications and grades
with British Standard equivalents and basic material descriptions.
Pipe specifications: American and British Standards
ASTM Material BS equivalent
A120 Carbon steel 1387

A53 Gr.A Carbon steel 3601 / 23
A53Gr.B Carbon steel 3601127
Al06 Gr.A Carbon steel 3602/ 23
AP[ SL Gr. A Carbon steel 3602/ 27
A106 Gr.B Carbon steel 3602127
API SLGr.B Carbon steel 3602/ 27
A333 Gr.l Killed carbon steel 3603/ LTSO
A333Gr.3 3.5%nickel 3603/ 503LT100
A335 Gr.Pl 1
/.~ %molybdenum 36041240
A335 Gr.Pl2 l%Cr 1I 1 %Mo 3604/ 620
A335 Gr.Pll 1 1 I 4 %Cr 1 /2 'Jfo Mo 3604/621
A335 Gr.P22 2 1I 4 %Cr 1% Mo 3604/ 622
A33 5 Gr.PS So/oCr 112 % Mo 36041625
A335 Gr.P7 7%Cr 1h %Mo 3604/ 62 7
A335 Gr.P9 9%Crl%Mo 3604/ 629
A312 Gr.Tp304 Austenitic chromium nickel 3605/304Sl8 (ENS8E)
A312 Gr.Tp304L Austenitic chromium nickel 3605/304 Sl4
(extra low carbon)
A312 Gr.Tp316 Austenitic chromium nickel 3605/316 Sl8 (EN58J)
molybdenum bearing
A312 Gr.Tp316L Austenitic chromium nickel 3605/ 316Sl4
molybdenum bearing
(extra low carbon)
A312 Gr.Tp321 Austenitic chromium nickel 36051321 Sl8 (EN58B)
titanium stabilised
A312 Gr.Tp347 Austenitic chromium nickel 3605/347 Sl8 (EN SSG)
niobium stabilised
British. American and German equivalent steel specifications
BS 970 Type or steel SAE AIS! Werkstoff DIN

- - -
070 M 20 '20' C steel (hot rolled or 1020 Cl020 0402 C22
normalised)
080 M 30 '30'Cstcel 1030 Cl030 OS01 C3S

-· 1-
Bright C steel l03S Cl035 OS03 C4S
- - f- -- -
080 A40 '40" C steel 1040 Cl040 0503 C45
-
070M 55 '55' C steel 10S5 ClOSS 0601 C60
- - --
S26 M 60 '60' C- Cr steel 5160 51f>O 8161 58 Cr-V4
150M 28 C- Mn steel 1027 Cl027 5066 30Mn 4

1330 1330
530A40 1% Cr steel 5140 5140 7035 41 Cr 4
530 A 32 1% Cr steel 5132 5132 7035 34 Cr4
530 A 36 1'Yo Cr steel Sl35 5135 7034 37 Cr4
5301\40 1% Cr steel 5140 5140 703S 41 Cr4
709 fv140 1% Cr-Mo steel 4140 4140 7220 34 Cr- Mo 4
708 M 40 Cr-Mo steel 4140 4140 7225 42 Cr-Mo 4
708 A 42 J% Cr-Mo steel 4140 4140 7225 42 Cr- Mo4
---
653M3! 3% Ni-Cr steel 5755 22 (31 ) Ni-Cr41
- - 1- -
817 M 40 1.5% Ni- Cr- Mo steel 4340 4340 6582 34 Cr-Ni-Mo 6
-
410 s 21 Cr-rust-resisting steel Sl410 410 4006 x 10 Cr 13
-- - - - -
420 s 29 Cr-rust-resisli ng steel 51410 410 4021 x 20Crn
420S37 Cr-rust-resisti ng steel 51420 420 4021 C 20 Cr 13

- -
420545 Cr-rust-resisting steel ')1420 420 4034 x 40 Cr l3
- -- - - f- -- - - --
420S2l Cr-rust-resisting steel 5141 (~ 416 4024 x 20 Cr 1 ~
- f-
51416 Se 416Se
(Sl416 Se)
- --
816 M 40 Low Ni-Cr Mo steel 6582 34 Cr- Ni- Mo 6
- -- - - -
Colour codes for pipeline identification
Originally pipes or sections of pipes were painted in colours for identification.

Identification colours are now more commonly applied with bands of self
adhesive tapes, with colour-fast resistance to washing down, heat, etc.
Colour coding employed in UK practice is based on BS 1710: 1960, BS
1710: 1971 and BS 1710: 1975. British Standard colours are shown with
colour specifications in accordance with BS 4800.
36 Fundamentals
BS 1710: 1984 Optional colour code indications for general building services
Pipe contents Basic colour Colour code indication
Water
Drinking Green Auxiliary blue
Cooling (primary) Green White
Boiler feed Green Crimson/ white/ crimson
Condensate Green Crimson/ emerald green/crimson
Chilled Green White/ emerald green/white
Central heating (Ioooc Green Blue/ crimson/blue
Central heating <100°C Green Crimson/blue/crimson
Cold down services Green White/blue/white
Hot-water supply Green White/crimson/ white
Hydraulic power Green Salmon pink
Sea. river, untreated Green
Fire extinguishing Green Red
Oils
Diesel fuel Brown White
Furnace fuel Brown
Lubricating Brown Emerald green
Hydraulic power Brown Salmon pink
Transformer Brown Crimson
Other suggestions
Natural gas Yellow ochre Yellow
Compressed air Light blue
Vacuum Light blue White
Steam Silver grey
Drainage Black
Electrical conduits and
ventilation ducts Orange
Acid and alkalis Violet
Standard service codes

Letter symbols are also used to identify pipes and pipelines. fittings. etc. The following summarises
British practice.
Water (various) Fittings

Cooling water CLW Bath b
Hot (domestic) water HWS Bidet bt
Steam s Wash basin wb
Treated water TvV Shower sh
Wastewater ww Urinal u
Boiler-feed water BFW Flushing cistern fc
Brine B Sink s
Drinking fountain df
Cold water
Water closet we
Mains MWS
Down service cws Manholes, etc.
Drinking DWS
Back drop BD
Flushing FWS
Invert lNV
Pressurised PWS
Cold-water down supply CWDS
Inspection chamber rc
Manhole MH
Chilled water CHW
Fresh air inlet FAI
Fire fighting
Pire extinguisher PE Position
Fire hydrant FH High level HL
Gases Low level LL
Town G Prom below FB
Oxygen 02 To below TB
Nitrous oxide Prom above FA
N20
To above TA
Heating Flow F
Low-pressure water LPHW Return R
Medium-pressure water MPHW
High-pressure water HPHW Gullies
Valves Access AG
Air-release ARV Back inlet. BIG
Air AV Grease trap GT
Auto air AAV Road RG
Ball BV Sealed SG
Gate GV Yard YG
Lockshield LSV
Non-return NRV Miscellaneous
Pressure-reduction PRY Half-round channel HRC
Safety sv Rainwater head RWH
Sluice sv Condensate c
Wheel wv Fuel F
Vacuum v
Sewers Cold feed CF
Foul water FWS
Feed and expansion F&E
Surface water sws Plug cock PC
Drains
Foul water FWD Access points
Surface water SWD Access cover A/C
Cleaning eye CE
Pipes
Dry-weather flow DWF
Discharge pipe DP
Pire hydrant FH
Rainwater pip<:: RWP
Compressed air CA
Vent pipe VP
Refrigerants Ro
Effiuents (identified by symbol
Foul water FW for particular gas)
Radio-active water RAW Draw-off point DO
Rainwater RW Open vent ov
Surface water sw Stop cock sc
38 Fundamentals
Basic identification colours BS 1710: 1984
Pipe contents Basic colour names BS identification colour

reference BS 4800
Water Green 12D45

Steam Silver grey lOA03
Oils-mineral. vegetable Brown 06 c 39
or animal;
combustible liquids
Gases in either gaseous or Yellow ochre 08 c 3.5
liquefied condition
(except air)
Acids and alkalis Violet 22 c 37
Air Light blue 20 E 51
Other liquids Black 00£53
Electrical services and Orange 06 E 51
ventilation ducts
Safety colours
Red 04 E 53
Yellow 08 E 51
Auxiliary blue 18 E 53
Reference colours (if other than s••fety colours)
Crimson 04D45
Emerald green 14E.53
Salmon pink 04C 33
Yellow 10 E 53
Blue 18 E 51
SECTION 2
Valve Types Design and Construction
Plug Valves (Cocks)
Ball Valves
Ball Float Valves
Butterfly Valves
Rotary Disc/ Rotor Valves
Globe Valves
Gate Valves
Needle Valves
Pinch Valves
Diaphragm Valves
Slide Valves
Screw-down Valves
Spool Valves
Solenoid Valves
Swing-Check (Flap) Valves
Penstocks
Miscellaneous Valves
Plug Valves (Cocks)
The description 'plug valve' or 'cock valve' is given to the simplest form of
valve comprising a body with a tapered or, less frequently, a parallel seating
into which a plug fits. The plug is formed with a through-port. the relative
position of the port controlling the amount of opening through the valve
(Figure 1). A 90° rotation of the plug fully opens or closes the fluid tlow .
Greek and Roman periods saw the development of the plug cock valve and it
remained virtually unchanged until the 19th century.
The development of the steam engine from the early l Rth century led to
further valve improvements including the introduction by Timothy Hackworth
of adjustable springs instead of weights to the steam safety valve.
The groove-packed plug cock was introduced by Dewarance & Co in 18 7 5,
making a valve ·which was easier to operate and more suitable for steam. In
1886, Joseph Hopkinson introduced the parallel slide valve where the sealing
of the valve was produced by line pressure on the disc.
This system is still manufactured today . Plug cock valves are not as efficient
as ball valves and can only operate fully open or closed.
Figure I.
42 Valve Types Design arzd Construction
High-performance pressure-balanced plug valve.
The simple plug valve is generally suitable for low-pressure, low-temperature

applications, and can be made in quite large sizes: 250 to 300 mm (10 to 12 in)
bore is quite common in some applications. Its main limitation is that if wide
variations in fluid temperature are involved, differential expansion is inevitable,
leading either to undue stiffness of operation or loss of pressure-tightness.
This can be overcome to some extent by employing a packed gland on
which the plug rides (Figure 2). The packing is commonly graphited asbestos.
In the smaller range, the sleeve-packed cock represents a distinct step forward
in cock design (Figure 3 ). Not only does this have a perfectly cylindrical plug,
more economical to p~oduce than a tapered one, but the resilience afforded by
the asbestos fabric sleeve longitudinally compressed by the two plugs screwed
Figure 2.
Plug Valves(Cocks) 43
Handle Nut
Handle
Neck Bush
Plug
_"rl-- Body
Eyelet
Packing Sleeve
Tightening Nut
Figure 3.
into both top and bottom of the body provides for temperature variations and
thereby prevents binding.
In the UK, the description ' plug valve' is specifically given to a cock which
incorporates special design features to reduce the friction between the plug face
and the body seat. The plug itself may be tapered or parallel and the movement
plain or lubricated (Figure 4). There is also a further variation known as a
ball-plug valve. where the plug element is spherical. with circular ports rotating
between circular seats of concave section (Figure 5 ).
A Ground-plug cock with nut and washer base.

B Ground-plug cock gland packed.
C Groove-packed plug cock with gland and holding-dovm plate.
D Lubricated-plug cock gland packed.
Figure 4.
Figure S.
44 Valve Types Design and Construction
Plug valves may be further categorised by pattern:
(i) Round opening-with rull-bore round ports in both plug and body.
(ii) Rectangular (rectangular opening) with rectangular or similar
shaped ports of substantially full-bore section.
(iii) Standard opening-where the area through the valve is less than the
area of standard pipe.
(i v) Diamond port-where the opening through the valve is diamond-
shaped. Such valves are also normally of venturi design.
(v) Multi-port-with three or more pipe connections. used mainly for
transfer or diverting services.
(vi) Venturi design-with reduced-area porting (down to 40%) and
featuring venturi flow through the body.
(vii) Short-with reduced-area ports and/or reduced face-to-face dimensions.
(viii) Vertical-with reduced-area seating ports and the plug passages
reduced in section to form a throat.
·l· Pon T PORT
2 Positions 4 Posrtions
Position 1
Pon 'A' feeds both Pons ·s· and ·c·
Posrtron 2
,; A I
Pon "A' feeds Pon

t~
·c·
'l
only
Position 2 Posllion 3 Position 4

Pon "A' feeds Pon ·c· Pon ·s· closed Pon ·c· fe~s Pon ·s· or vice versa Pon 'A ' feeds Pon ·s· only
Port 'A' closed Pori ·c· closed
Operation of three-way cocks with 'L' and "f' ports.
3-way2-port 3-way 3-port 4-way 4-port Transflo plug
Examples of nw/ti-porl. arrangemrnts.

Plug Vnlves(Cocks) 45
Taper-plug vnll'e (lubricated) Parallel-plug valve Ball-plug valve

1. Body 1. Body 1. Body
2. Plug 2. Bottom cover 2. Ball
3. Lubricant grains 3. Plug port 3. Seal
4. Cover 4. Plug 4. Bonnet
5. Lubricant check valve 5. Lubricant grains 5. Spundle
6. Gland follo\·ver 6. Lubricantscrew 6. Handle
Materials
Cocks and plug valves are produced in a variety of metals and plastics and also
include lined types. Metals most commonly used are brass, bronze, steel and
stainless steel.
Basic design proportions
A rectangular- or trapezoid-section port is commonly preferred as this can be

accommodated in a plug of smaller diameter than that required for a circular
port of the same area. The width of the port is then often made less than half or
the bore to provide an effective positive lap for sealing. The length of port is
then given by d/2, where dis the pipe diameter. In practice a small addition is
usually made to this length to allow for radiusing the corners of the opening.
In the case of multi-port cocks or plug valves, negative lap may be called for
to ensure that there is no complete shut-off during the transition of ports. This
applies particularly when connected to a positive displacement pump (i.e. to
prevent the pump pumping against a closed outlet).
See also the chapter on Ball Valves.
Pressure-balanced taper-plug valves
In larger taper-plug valves. pressure-balanced plugs are fitted for pressure

pulsing or very high static pressure applications. \.Vith a non-pressure
Figure 6( a). Non-pressure balanced taper plug. Figure 6( b). Pressure-balanced taper plug.
balanced plug. line pressure in an open valve can find its way into the large
end chamber which exists below the plug. Under these conditions a resultant
force exists tending to push the plug into its tapered seat with the danger or
taper locking causing a seized valve, as shown in Figure 6(a) . This resultant
force persists whether the line pressure subsequently remains high or is
reduced.
The development of an out-of-balance force on the plug is not an inevitable
event with ordinary taper-plug valves. as there is normally sealant pressure
acting on the small end of the plug. Nevertheless it can occur and can cause
valve seizure.
With a pressure-balanced valve, the live-line pressure is used to replace
sealant pressure by allowing the line to pressurize the small end chamber. A
balancing force is produced which prevents taper lock without the need for
sealant pressure. Figure 6(b) shows how a more balanced position is reached
when line pressure is allowed to equalise the pressure acting on the end of the
plug.
The pressure-balance system consists of two holes in the plug connecting
chambers at each end of the plug with the line pressure. The hole in the small
end of the plug contains a non-return valve. This enables sealant pressure to
be built up if necessary, while allowing access of the line pressure to the small
end chamber. Thus the pressure in the large end chamber always equals line
pressure and the pressure in the small end chamber is always equal to. or
greater than, the line pressure.
Ball Valves
The ball valve, or spherical-plug valve as it is sometimes known. was developed

around 19 3 6. although the idea of a ball valve dates back to ancient times.
Modern ball valves, depending on type and pressure class, should be designed
in conformity with international standards, e.g. BS 53 51. API 60 and AN SIB
16.34. Normally, ball valves have polymer-based seals.
Ball valves are among the least expensive but most widely used of all valve
types, as well as being available in an extremely wide range of sizes. Basic
geometry involves a spherical ball located by two resilient sealing rings in a
simple body form (Figure 1 ).
The ball has a hole through one axis, connecting inlet to outlet with full-bore
flow when aligned with the axis of the valve. Rotating the ball through 90°
A Lypicnl range of ball vnlves.

£
1----- --
Materials list:
No. Part Specification Quantity
1 Body ASTM A351-CF8M(3J 6) ]
2 In screwed seat retainer ASTM A351-CF8l\11(316) l
3 Seat: R.TFE 2
4 Ball ASTM A351-CF8M(316) 1
5 Stem ASTM A276-316 ]
6 Stem packing PTFE 1
7 Thrust washer PTFE 1
8 Gland AISI 304 1
9 Stem was her AISI 304 1
10 Handle nut AISI 304 l
11 Handle AISI 304 1
12 Handle cover Plastic 1
13 Gasket PTFE 1
Figure 1. Standard ball valvt>.
completely closes the flow passage with positive sealing via the sealing rings .
Sealing is equally effective in both directions.
Body forms and matching ball hole may provide straight-through (full-bore
parallel), reduced flow, or venturi flow. Ends can be flanged or threaded .
The ball itself may be free floating. in which case the squared oif or splined
end of the stem fits into a matching recess in the top of the ball. On larger
valves the ball may be trunnion-mounted. Trunnion mounting reduces operating
torque to about two-thirds that of the floating ball (Figure 2).
Ball valves are produced in top-entry and split-body forms for assembly and
for renewal of the seals and ball. They are also produced in multi-port
configurations. thus normally requiring a larger size of ball to accommodate
multi-port drillings. These ports can be proportioned to give positive lap or
negative lap as required (see also Figure 3 ).
Ball Valves 49
Cut-away section ofa rnulti-port valve.
Section view clearly illustrating how a characterised 'V' seat allows for precise flow coni rol in a rnodu/ating
ball valve.
Plangedfull-bore ball valve.
Figure 2. Trunnion-mounted ball valve.
Full operating movement is 90° rotation of the ba] I. Steps may be incorporated
to limit movement of the operating lever. or continuous rotation may be
possible. In either case the lever position is in line with the axis of the valve in
the open position and at right angles to it in the closed position. Larger ball
valves may be operated by handwheels through reduction gearing, or by
powered actuators. In all cases opening/ closing torque is low because the only
friction forces involved are those of the ball rotating against its seals and the
friction offered by the stem gland. The latter can range from 0-rings to glands
Ball Valves 51
3way L-PORT
~ ~~i~ ~
Form- / Form -] /-'(11111 -.l ........_ 0 Form-..J
3way T-PORT
~ ~~L~ ~
0
Form - / Form-2 ,..orm -3 '----- Form -..J
Figure 3. Three-way ball valve.
Combination of Oval Handle

Flexible and Braided with Locking Device
Graphite Packing
for Flresafe Predrllled
Applications
and Tapped
Mounting Pads
Double-Sealed
End Plug
Blowout-
Proof Stem Low-Friction Positive-Stop
Engineered End Piece
Seat Design
One-piece ( unibody) ball valve.
fitted with die-formed packing rings. In some ball valves the ball is held
against the seat by the cam action of a specially shaped stem. By turning the
valve hand wheel the ball is pulled away from th e seat before being rotated . A
precision spira l groove turns the stem and ball 90°, without ball-to-seat
friction. to full-straight through-flow when open. The reverse action lowers the
stem, turning the ball to the closed position, and the final hand·w heel turn tilts
the ball and mechani cally wedges it against the seat to seal the valve closed.
52 Valve Types Design and Constmction
Predrilled
and Tapped
Mounting Pads
Split-Body
Construction
Full-Bore
Design
Low-Friction
Engineered
Seat Design
Graded Body Bolts
and Nuts
Two-piece (split body) jla11ged ball valve.
Full-port iligh-prc>ssure ball valve.
Historically. ball valves have been produced with soft, not metal seats
because generally soft seats have covered most applications satisfactorily.
Many valves of this type have seals made from PTFE, compounded with
graphite, glass or steel powder to improve the material properties. However,
abrasive media, high pressures and high temperatures can severely stress the
polymeric seals normally used and lead to damage (Figure 4).
Ball Valves 53
Figure 4. Tllis ball was taken from a valve that had seen 3 years service in a ce111ent works. The polymer
sea/in{] rings /rave been destroyed. tire /mil and the body srverely da111aged. Nletal/ic seals can prevent such
problen1s.
For nominal diameters of# DN 50 PTFE. seals can only be loaded to a full
pressure ofPNl 00 up to a temperature of approximately 1 00°C; with nominal
diameters above DN80. the operating pressure is limited to 50 bar. Only gradual
improvements can be made if highly resistant polymers such as POM are used.
Upper temperature limits are 2 50°C with huge restrictions on pressure/ load
capacity.
Metal-seated ball valves
Metal-seated ball valves first came to prominence in the 1960s. They offer a
number of advantages including: tight shut-off, smooth control, no jamming,
low torque, wide temperature range, good corrosion and wear resistance and
stability under pressure. The greatest risk to metal-seated ball valves is posed
by corrosion through pitting, fretting corrosion. intercrysta lline corrosion
and stress corrosion cracking. Media that contain even low quantities of
aggressive substances are capable of causing corrosion.
Metal seals do not bed in as easily as soft seals under pressure. It is therefore
important for the ball and sealing rings to be machined precisely and have
both hard- and low-friction coatings appJied to the base material.
Ball valves with metallic seals are suitable for use in high-solids abrasive media. for /Jigh nnd low
temperatures,for extreme operating pressures. and for frequent operation. Even with critical media. they
can be used for flow regulation. This pneumatically-activatPCI ball valve is an ideal con1ponent for
increasing plant safety. In the event offailure of the compressed-air supply Llze spring-loaded. pnwmatic
drive closes the valve autonzatical/y, rapidly and reliably.
Metallic seats tend to employ both nickel- and cobalt-based alloys and elements
such as chrome and tungsten. However, the trend appears to be towards
the use of different surface coatings for ball and sealing rings and choosing
between them to suit the various circumstances.
With the seat-supported ball valve (Figure 5). the valve seals on the
downstream side. The upstream pressure pushes the ball against the downstream
seat. closing it tightly.
In the trunnion-mounted ball valve with a bellows seat (Figure 6), the valve
seals on the upstream side. The internal pressure expands the bellows axially ,
pushing the seat against the ball. The seat is pressure-assisted and spring-
energised. The bellows seat acts as the seating component. This type of ball
valve is suitable for the most demanding on-off services.
The special control seat shown in Figure 7 works like a normal pressure-
assisted seat in trunnion-mounted ball valves. The upstream pressure is led
through the hole behind the seat, pushing it against the ball.
The seat is spring-energised to ensure low-pressure tightness. In control.
the high-velocity flow passes through the restriction point of the partly open
Ball Valves 55
Back
Ball seal
Valve body .
+-------_J
Figure S. The metal seating principle in a typical seat-supported ball valve.
I Ball
I
+---1- __ _ _ 1-----· _ _ va_lv_e_b_od: _ _ _ --t-
Seat ring Bellows
Figure 6. Th e !Jellows seat for a typical trunnion-mounted ball valve.
valve. The high velocity creates low pressure, which is led behind the ball seat
through the hole located in the vena contracta. The seat will thus be unloaded.
The sealing principle of the floating-ball valve example shown in Figure 8 is
effected at the downstream seat where the baH is pressed against the opposite
seat by the medium pressure. In doing so the seat rings have a double
function. They seal off and at the same time serve as a bearing. The seal at the
upstream seat can be relieved in order to avoid a build-up of pressure.
The sealing principle of the fixed-ball valve example shown in Figure 9 is
one where the sealing is effected at the upstream seat where the spring-
supported seat is pressed against the fixed ball by the medium pressure.
The ball itself can be fixed by bearing pads in the body, by trunnions or by
bearing stems. A pressure build-up is prevented by the spring-supported seats
in connection with the fixed ball . To summarise, effective sealing depends on:
• the contact pressure

• the contact surface or the seat
• the accuracy of the surrace finish on the ball and ball seat
• the sealing design and the sealing material
\
- - - .L.:-- ....._____ _ _
In control
~ ---
Pvc< P2
P1 Back seal Seat nrtg Body cavity
Flow
r, port __P
- =2 l_
T1ght shut-off
Figure 7. The special control sent.
clown-stre;"n up-stre<J n>
Figure 8. The sealing principle of tile floating ball.

Ba//Valves 57
Gland plate loaded by

Lantern Ring self-compensating
...------- disc springs
Stacked chevron
packing stem
Purg-¥roonitoring port ---~
Diagram showing tire dual-stem sealing arrangement in a high-integrity ball valve.
down-stream up-stream
Figure 9. Tl1e sraling principle of thefixed ball.
Generally, ball valves are sealed by applying a load to a soft seating material
between the valve body and ball to create localised yielding.
Seals of plastic material usually depend on localised yield to achieve bubble-
tight sealing. The problem with a jam seat is that increasing the shut-off
pressure can increase plastic deformation. As long as pressure remains at a
high level this is not a problem; leakage may occur if the shut-off pressure
is decreased. A jam seat has no pressure compensation. Another area to
consider about jam seats is temperature swings.
With increasing temperatures, metallic ball and valve casings expand.
PTFE valve seats expand at a much higher rate and if the temperature change
is high enough, the jam seat will tend to generate a 'self stress' above its yield
strength and deform plastically beyond its initial state. When the valve is
cooled, shrinkage of the additionaJly deformed seat may result in leakage.
A possible way of overcoming this is to employ valves with flexible lip seats
(Figure 1 0) or seats that incorporate a separate double block and bleed design.
Another aspect to consider with soft-seated ball valves is built-in body-cavity
pressure relief. Ordinary water trapped in a valve cavity without air will increase
in pressure by about 100 lb/ in 2 . The pressure/ temperature relationships of most
common liquids are in the orderof90-110 lb/in2 per°F (11.2-13 . 7 bar per °C).
The cavity area created by the two soft seats of a ball valve is a typical area
for pressure increases. While the valve is open, any pressure in the cavity zone
created by the ball. seat and body can be vented via a hole from the bottom of
the stem slot to the ball waterway.
In the closed position, relieving cavity pressure is more difficult. Some
valves have a vent hole in the ball.
Cavity-pressure increases derive from the differential thermal expansion
rates of incompressible fluids and typically a venting of one hundredth of a cc
of trapped liquid will bring cavity pressure back to normal.
The key to ball-valve performance is the sealing (seating) structure. regardless
of whether the seats are metal or plastic.
Pressure-temperature ratings
The pressure-temperature ratings of soft-seated ball valves are determined

not only by the valve body materials, but also by the sealing material used for
ball seats. Sealing materials for seats may be PTFE, lS'.Yo or 25% glass-filled
PTFE, FPM, Celastic, N.R.G., POM, Lyton and steel.
New and improved polymers are being developed all the time for coating
and sealing and the use of ceramics is becoming widespread.
It is very difficult to pre-determine exact pressure-temperature ratings for
all kinds of media under all imaginable conditions. The chart shown in Figure 11
gives a typical general overview.
Pressure-temperature seat ratings indicated by the solid lines on the chart
are based on differential pressure with the ball in fully-closed position and
refer only to seats. The dotted lines indicate the maximum working pressures
for carbon-steel valve bodies made from TstE 3 5 SN (equal to ASTM A3 50
LF2). For ratings of other body materials refer to ANSI B 16.34.
Pressure-temperature seat ratings for metal-seated valves are the same as
the body ratings.
Ball Valves 59
16
9
15
16
~50
®-
e- 70
2
g.- 18
~ 7 (SOCKET WELD 0~
~- · , 0 :25 BUTTWELD ONLY)
6
2
Standard parts list
Item no. Part name Body material

Carbon steel Stainless steel
1 Body ASTM Al05N. ASTM A216 WCB ASTM A812 F 3 16.
(0.25 % C Max) or BS970 070 M20 ASTM A351 CP8M
orBS970S316
2 Body cap ASTM A105N. ASTM A216 WCB ASTMA812F316L
(0.2 5% C Mac) or BS970 070 M20 ASTM t\351 CF8M/CF3 M
orBS970S316
3 Ba ll 316 stainless steel
4 Stem 316 stainless steel or 17-4 PH stainless steel
5 Seat PTFE (1'). filled PTFE (M) or acetal resin (R) (Delrio"')
6 Body seal Spiral-wound 316 sta inless steel and graphite
7 Gland packing PTFE
8 Stem-thrust bearing Cnrbon-filled PTFE or acetal resin
9 Stem-tab washer Stainles~ steel
13 Stem-thrust seal Graphite
15 Handle Stainless steel with PVC sleeve
16 Stem nut 316 stain less steel
18 Gland 316 stai nless steel
19 Nut ASTM A 194 grade 2!-l ASTM Al94 grade 8B. 8Cb. 8TB
or ASTM Al94 grade 2HM. 7M or ASTM A453 grade 660
20 Body bolt/stud ASTM A 193 grade B7 ASTM A 19 3 grade B8 . B8 C. B8T
or ASTM A 193 grade B7M. L7M class 2 o r ASTM A45 3 grade 660
25 Weld warning tag
29 ldenlification plate Sta in less steel
30 Drive pin Stainless steel
50 Stem-tab washer Stainle~s steel
70 Anti-static spring Stainless steel
Figure 10. Soft-seated ball valve, exploded view.

3600
psi
250
bar
-----
ANSI C L 1500 body rating
-- -- -- --
2880 200
POM
w
a:
::J
(/)
- - - -
(/)
w ANSI CL 900 body rat1ng
2160 a:
Q. 150
_j
~
i=
z
LU
----
a:
w
u. ANSI CL 600 body rating
u.
1440 i5 100
ON 50
720
275
50
20
-- - -
ANSI CL 300 body ra11ng
ANSI CL 150 body rilt,ng
-50 0 50 100 ' 150 200 :?!iO C

- 58 32 120 21?. 302 392 <1fl2 f·
I CMPERATURE
Figure 11. Pressure-temperature ratings.
Flow data
Typical flow data is shown in Table l. The flow rates were determined for ball
valves in fully-open position and a water temperature of l5 °C (59 °F).
Typical major application areas for ball valves include:
Refineries
• shut-off and isolation valves for tower bottom lines and thermal-cracking
units with coke problems
• gas/oil separation
• gas distribution includin g measuring, metering and pressure regulation
stations
• controlling oil loading
• pumping and compressor stations
• emergency shut-down
• refining units
Bn/IValves 61
Table 1. Flow data
Full bore
Nominal flow rate
Nominal size Kv Cv
m 3/ h US gallons
mm in per min
15x15x 15 l / 2 x l /2x l /2 19.4 22.6

20 x 20 x 20 ~ / 4 x 3/4x 3/4 45 .6 53.2
25 x 25x25 lxl x l 71.5 83.4
40 x 40 x 40 ll / 2 x ll/2xl1/2 170 198
50x50x50 2x2 x 2 275 321
80x80x80 3x3x3 905 1056
lOO x lOO x lOO 4 x 4 x4 1414 1650
150 x 150 x l50 6x 6x6 3674 4288
200 x 200 x200 8x8 x S 7155 8350
250 x 250 x 250 lO x lO x 10 12,500 14,590
300 x 300 x 300 12 x 12x 12 20.780 24,250
400 x 400x400 16x1ox16 3 7.000 43.100
SOOxSOOxSOO 20 x 20x20 70.700 82.500
Reduced bore
Nominal flow rate
Nominal size Kv Cv
m 3 /h US gallons
mm in per min
20 x l 5x 20 3/4 X l/2 X 3/4 14.3 16.7

25 x20x25 1x3/4xl 40.1 46.8
40 x 32 x 40 11/2x11/ 4 x 11/ 2 89.8 105
50x40 x 50 2 x 11/ 2 x 2 146 170
80x65 x 80 3 x 2 l / 2x3 484 564
100 x 80 x 100 4 x 3x4 800 934
150 x l00 x l50 6x4 x 6 728 850
200 x 150 x 200 8x6x8 3.5 77 4175
250 x 200 x 250 10 x 8 x l0 6933 8090
300x250 x 300 12 x l0 x12 11.392 ] 3,294
4()() X 3()() X 4()0 16x12 x l6 1600 1.8.672
S00x400x 500 20xl6 x20 33 ,333 38.900
--
Kv value is the full-capacity flow rate through the ball valve in cubic metres per hour (m 3/ h) with a
pressure drop ofl bar.
Cv value is the full-capacity flow rate through the ball valve in US gallons/min of water at 60°F with a
pressure drop ofl psi.
Chemical and petrochemical complexes

• low differential pressure control
• emission control
• handling highly viscous fluids. abrasive slurries or corrosives as well as
non-corrosives in processes and storing facilities
Power industry
• boiler feed water control
• control and shut-off for steam
• burner trip valves
• sluicing valves for feeding coal into pressurised combustors and for
extracting fly ash
Gas and oil production

• subsea isolation and shut-down
• well-head isolation
• pipeline surge control
• secondary and enhanced oil recovery
• processing separation
• transmission and distribution
• storage
Pulp and paper industry

• pulp mill digesters
• shut-off valves
• batch-digester blow service
• liquor fill and circulation
• lime mud (slurry) flow control
• dilution water control
Other common areas for the application of ball valves include: food industry.
water supply and transport, marine and solids transport.
Ball Float Valves
The typical ball float valve consists of a control valve of the piston and disc-type
operated by a floating ball and lever mechanism adjusted to open the valve at
a predetermined liquid level. It is thus essentially a level-control valve and is
used mainly for controlling the supply of make-up water (e.g. in cisterns.
\1\rater tanks, etc.)
The most effective type is the equilibrium ball float valve (Figure 1). so
called because the upward and downward pressure forces are nearly balanced
out (leaving just enough unbalance to eliminate hunting). The basic type finds
widespread application. The body is usually of angle pattern with the inlet flanged
and bolted to the inlet pipe flange with the tank wall sandwiched between.
Design geometry calculation
Design geometry calculations for ball float valves can be tedious. As far as fluid
forces are concerned there is an upward force at the valve position due to
mains pressure tending to force the float downwards, which will normally be
resisted by the displacement force generated by the float under equilibrium
conditions (Figure 2 ). These equilibrium conditions correspond to the valve
being held closed by a surplus of 'displacement' force. (In the event of the
water level falling , of course, the valve will open to allow inflow of water until
equilibrium conditions are restored.)
A typical ball float valve.

140
130 I
I
120 I
I
110 I
I
100 I
1
90 1 900
I
L 80 800
.c:::. 1 I
~ 70 I 700 l
I I
(l)
E' 60 I 600 .,../

ro
.c. I
.~ 50 500 /
0 / /
40 / 400 /
/ /
~ 300 r
30
~~
/
200 ~
,/
20
/ ~
10 100
0 50 65 80 100 12 5 150 (7) 200 (9") 250 300

Valve inlet bore
Headloss approximately l. 5 m angular and 4. 5 m straight t·hrough.

Typical ballfloat valve capacity chart.
Specifically, the valve force (V F) effective at the ball is given by:
Vr = 0.7854 PN x d 2 2 -
d
1
2
L
where
P = supply water pressure
N = fulcrum, distance from valve
L = fulcrum, distance from ball float
d1 = outside diameter of valve-sealing face
d2 = diameter of valve piston.
The displacement force (Of) is governed by the volume of the ball float (or
diameter in the usual case of a circular float) and its depth of immersion. It is
usual in the case of spherical-ball floats to design for socyo immersion, when :
Dp = 0.01 D3 (to a close approximation)

where Dis the float diameter.
Ball Float Valves 65
F
dia H x L length
G To top w~t~ \~vel ~

TWL
K Approx float trav•l
C B
A
ftem description
l Body (beaded outlet)

2 Body (flanged outlet)
3 Cover
4 Fulcrum and retaining r ing
5 Valve
6 Keep plate
7 Split pins and washers
8 Nut
9 Pins to links
10 Pins to fulcrum
ll Spindle
12 Links
l3 Liner
14 Winged-valve plate
15 Seat ring
16 Keep ring
17 Lever
18 Studsandnuts
19 Cup washers
20 Cover joint
21 Body joint
22 Seat \-\'as her
23 Float
Figure I. Angular-pattem ballfloat valve.
Thus the basic relationship is modified by:
(i) The necessity of maintaining a positive closing force on the valve for fluid
tightness. An empirical figure here is to make Dp equal to 1.2 5 x VF·
(ii) Additional movements introduced by the weight of the lever on both
sides of the fulcrum or pivot point and the weight of the float. These
can be calculated or eliminated by counterbalancing.
N L
Figure 2. Ball float valve displacement force generated by the float.
(iii) Frictional resistance of the pivot and rising part(s) of the valve. This
will call for an additional increase in displacement force. i.e. float size.
It is difficult to establish required values except on empirical lines as
frictional forces may be subject to change with age.
It may be further necessary to evaluate the displacement force with the float
fully submerged (when OF= 0.02 D3 ) and the resulting loading on the fulcrum
pin. Design should allow adequate sheer strength on the pin to allow for this
contingency, particularly in ball float systems used with level controls in large
tanks and/ or inaccessible positions.
Butterfly Valves
Since it was first introduced well over one hundred years ago, the butterfly
valve has come through many development stages to become one of the most
successful high-performance valves in use today.
The first butterfly valve was used by James Watt, the Scottish engineer, for
his steam engine. It was also used in the Mercedes motor car in 1901 for the
fuel intake linked to the accelerator pedal.
Initially, butterfly valves were limited to low pressure drop applications and
sizes that were about six inches or more. They also tended not to seal too well.
Butterfly valves for ir1dustrial applications.

68 Valve Types Df.sign and Construction
In basic terms, a butterfly valve uses a flat disc in which the closure device
rotates about an axis regulating the flm.v of liquids with off-centre or in-line
sealing. Smaller sizes usually have manual operation, but much larger devices
such as penstock control valves are usually motorised.
Butterfly valves can offer attractive cost savings and operating benefits over
conventional globe valves. With high flow capacities, butterfly valves enable
the use of smaller units ·which reduces cost, weight and space requirements.
With only two wetted parts and a range of valve linings, butterfly valves
isolate the body from the media, thus eliminating the need for expensive exotic
materials.
The smooth contoured, crevice-free disc produces lower torques. while the
butterfly valve design makes it easy to install, maintain and service.
The two main groupings are general purpose butterfly valves and high-
performance butterfly valves. Butterfly valves have the disadvantage that they
restrict the flow through the pipe and solids catching on the disc can cause
a blockage or prevent the valve from closing. Butterfly valves are used in
high-temperature, high-pressure applications or those involving toxic or
corrosive fluids. Modern butterfly valves are normally of wafer design , fitting
Butterfly valvef or the che111ical industry .

Butterfly Valves 69
directly between pipeline flanges. Double-eccentric (offset) design butterfly

valves have the sealing plane of the disc offset from the axis of rotation to
create an interrupted sealing surface and the axis of the disc is laterally displaced
from the true centre of the disc so that the disc will 'cam' away from the seat as
the valve is cycled open.
Butterfly valve movement is simple and straightforward . requiring only 90°
rotation of the butterfly for full movement (or somewhat less in most designs) .
The main technologically significant features of a butterfly valve are the
designs of the disc and the seat. Nearly all modern high-performance butterfly
valves incorporate some form of double-offset design as previously described.
The two offsets in a typical butterfly disc are shown in Figure 1.
Body construction is normally cast iron, ductile iron, cast steel, bronze and
epoxy. Various other materials may be used depending on size and application.
vVelded materials (e.g. steel, stainless steel and titanium) may be used for certain
valves and in particular where percolation of gases through cast components
is to be prevented.
Discs are also usually of cast iron, although again alternative materials may
be specified for particular services. Profile shapes vary, most having some form
of convex streamline shape to minimise head loss.
Valve seats
The seat (closure member) of the butterfly valve is an area where there are as
many designs as there are manufacturers of butterfly valves. A single-piece
First o ffset Second offset
Sealing plane
Shaft
cente rline
Figure 1. The two offsets in a butterfly disc.

Butterfly valve for tile water industry.
Pressure
Insert
Disc
Seat
Body
C learance for flex1bility
Figure 2. Wafer-sphere sealing principle with tlzr disc downstremn of the seat.
Butterfly Valves 71
Insert
Clearance for flexibility
Disc
L - - - 1 ' - - -- Seat suppor1ed by insert
Body
t t t t
Pressure
Figure 3. Wafer-sphere sealing principle with tfle seat downstream of the disc.
o-9
9-s
I Body cartridges 8 Plus

2 Top adaptor 9 '0-ring'
3 Seat 10 Body securing screws
4 Disc/Stem 11 Top adaptor securing screws
5 Centre bush 12 Notch plate
6 Top bush 13 Lever
7 Bottom bush 14 Notch plate fixings
Figure4. A wafer-type butterfly valve.

flexible PTFE seat has proved to be a popular choice, with thick cross-sections
throughout the seat. pre-compression of the seat for low-pressure sealing and
clearances surrounding the seat to allow flexibility .
The significance of the single-piece seat is that there are no 0-rings or
metallic springs to limit the temperature or corrosive conditions that the PTFE
seat can be exposed to.
A typical example of PTFE seat design is shown in Figure 2 where the disc is
downstream of the seat.
As line pressure is applied. the full cross-section of the seat is pressurised .
which causes the seat to follow the natural deflections of the disc under pressure.
Pressure activation of the seat enhances sealing with increasing line pressure.
despite the fact that the disc is moving away from the seat due to the same
pressure.
With the flow in the opposite direction, with the seat downstream of
the disc, the seat is supported by the seat retainer (Figure 3). The disc is
deflected by pressure into the seat. enhancing the sealing as the pressure
increases.
A wafer-type butterfly valve is shown in Figure 4 . Typically the valve consists
of a stainless steel disc/ stem in a polymer seat. fastened by two half-body
cartridges. This particular valve has three side thrust-absorbing bushes, one
top and bottom and one directly above the seat with a secondary 0-ring sea t
adjacent.
Elastomer-lined centred-disc buttrr!ly valvP for water supply.

Buue~{ly Valves 73
Fully rubber-lined butterfly valves , similar to the type shown in Figure 5,

incorporate a rubber lining that is bonded and integral with the valve body.
The main advantage here is that there is little or no deformation of the lining
or corrosion to the body.
Ebonite-lined butterfly valves are designed for use in systems which carry
seawater and other moderately aggressive liquids. Ebonite is a hard natural or
synthetic rubber.
Ceramic- and fluoropolymer-lined valves are gaining in popularity for
controlling highly corrosive and abrasive liquids, gases, slurries and powders.
Another basic arrangement is a corrosion-resistant seat (e.g. bronze or
stainless steel), into which a continuous rubber-ring seal is fitted. Others
include flexible metal-seal rings (for high-temperature services) (Figure 6).
Detail design may provide automatic adjustment to any eccentric motion of
the disc and/ or automatic compensation for seal wear. Drop-tight closure of
Shof1 SQuiJre
Topflongc ISO 52 11
Shah (ccnccn1uc)
C:enHtC
Vi)iVO diSC
VnlvR
Figure 5. Fully rubber-lined butterfly valve.

any butterfly valve is normal and can be retained for a considerable time
before seal replacement is necessary.
Metal seats in butterfly valves have particular advantages and should
incorporate the following:
• good tightness-to ANSI B 16.104 Class V and higher

• nojamming
• smooth control-low- and constant-friction load in the control position
• low torque
• high cycle service
• wide temperature range
• good corrosion resistance
• low cavity relief
The metal-to-metal seated valve shown in Figure 7 is designed for bi-directional

zero-leakage service. A double-offset (eccentric) shaft together with an offset
conical seat achieves the 'camming' action of the disc into the seat. This keeps
the sealing ring clear of the seat except in the final shut-off position and
provides for non-rubbing rotation.
SEATING PRINCIPLE
The d1s~ of the valve IS rnach1ned to close tolerances to (.reate an
elhpt•cal shapr ~lm~<ar lo an oblique slice ldken ffom a sol;d metal
conc. \Nhen the v~lve s closed, the elhpt1cal d1sc at the maJOr ax1s d S·
places the sea: nng outwdrd. causu1~ trc seal nng to ronldct the disc
at the minor ax1s. \J\Ihen the v;<lv•: ·s opened, the contact s rclcaseJ
dnd tnc !.eat nng retums to 1ts ong1nal c1rcular 5hc1pc.
Figure 6. Metal-seated wafer-type lmtLcrfly valve.

Butterfly Valves 75
ENLARGED VIEW OF SEAT RING AREA
TOP OF OIS(
PATH Of DOOR
STAINUII ITHL
\(AIRING
/
/
ITAIHUIIITEH
Uii'I<R~ ·
Stainless steel-seated butterfly valve.
The cone angle allows the seal ring to touch the seat ·with a contact angle
that is uniform and allows a slight amount of wedging.
This type of valve is particularly suited for process and steam duties from
cryogenic to high-temperature applications.
Another novel butterfly valve is shown in Figure 8. This valve is designed
specifically for dry solids processing. The valve has an inflatable seat that has
only 'casual' contact with the valve disc during opening and closing. In
operation. air and electric controls operate the valve. They automatically inflate
and deflate the seat. allowing a single control input to operate the valve.
When supplied with air, the control assembly moves the disc to the closed
position and then automatically inflates the seat. When the control signal is
received, the seat is instantly deflated and the valve disc moves to the open
position. When the control signal is dropped, the assembly returns the disc to
the closed position and automatically inflates the seat (Figure 9).
Actuation
All types of control mechanisms can be used to operate butterfly valves-

manual by lever or handwheel with reduction gear, electrical by actuator or
reduction gear. hydraulic actuator or pneumatic actuator. Choice largely
Offset 1
Achu:ved by placlJJg the >haft
bchrnd the ccntnlinc of the >o.:a.lrng
surface
Offset 2
Achieved by placing the shaft off.<et 10
on<..: side of tht: pipe :Lnd valve cenrerline
('he purpose of theM: offsets is to reduce
ruhbing bctwn:n scat ~mel ~cal during
vai\'C travel.
Offset 3
Pro,•itk~ the ~cornetry to disengage the scJt

ami seJ l U>Olpk:tcly upon any valve: travel.
The unique combination of these: offsets
allows caroming, and completely eliminates
ruhhing. An)' chances of associated wear and
lca.k:lge bet wecn thc scat and disc-mounted
seal ring during tr:wcl are non-existent
Figure 7. Triple-offset metal-seat butterfly valve.

Butterfly Valves 77
depends on the size of the valve and the specific application. Special control
systems can also be used for automatic closing, e.g. see Table 1.
Fieldbus control
Butterfly valves have now become a viable alternative to conventional control

valves due to development in sophisticated controls instrumentation and
communications technology.
A major milestone in flow control is the introduction of fi.eldbus control
systems.
Fieldbus systems take advantage of developments in low-cost microchip
technology, allowing intelligence to be built into each device in the loop. Each
device communicates via a protocol developed for rapid control information,
with the ability to adjust a valve's position and enable the speed of the valve
stroke to be altered using programmable, menu-driven communications
devices.
Closed
Closed, inflated
Open, deflated
Figure 8. Figure 9.
The diagnostic role of a field bus system means it can give advance warning
of potential problem areas so that corrective action can be taken. This
instrumentation technology has resulted in a new breed of valve controls
instrumentation.
See also the chapter on Valve Actuators.
Inherent flow characteristic
The inherent flow characteristic of a valve has been defined so as to keep the
differential pressure across the valve constant. When the differential pressure
across the valve is constant, the flow rate (q) through the valve is proportional
to the valve flow coefficient (Cv). Because the valve flow coefficient (Cv) reflects
the effective flow cross-section of the valve, the valve inherent flow characteristic
Table 1. Selection table for automatic-closing butterfly valves
No Yes
Is power available? 1- -
... During emergency closing? ·---
... Any voluntary remote control?
-- ~ '--
__i l -~-- i
--
Electrically motorised valve
-- - - -- --
•
Hydraulic jack • •
---- • • • • - - --
Counterweight • • •- • -
Oleopneumatic •
<1)
u accumulator
·:;
<1)
'"0 Mechanical locking
0!-.<
....,
c
Manual resetting • •
0
u
Automatic resetting •
Automatic leakage recovery • •
Motorised pump • • • • •
Hand pump •
Defect transmission
o..... -roc
!-.<
COil
Mechanica L •
u0 ·-rn Electrical • •
Optional • • • -• -
Electrical remote control • • • • •
Butterfly Valves 79
shows how the effective flow cross-section changes as a function of the

relative travel (h).
Figure 10 shows the most common valve inherent flow characteristics as a
function of the relative flow coefficient (N) and the relative travel (h).
Valve sizing
The size of butterfly valves to be used for control purposes should not be
dictated by the nominal diameter of the pipe, but should be calculated on the
basis of the operating characteristics in order to achieve the correct control
characteristics.
To determine the size of a control valve, the opening angle characteristics
need to be considered. Typically, some butterfly valves are designed with
approximately equal percentage characteristics over an opening of 60°.
The example in Figure 11 shows how to calculate the Kv (flow coefficient)
from liquids and gases.
Pressure/temperature ratings
The maximum working capability of a valve is either the body rating or the
seat shut-off capability, whichever is the lower.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
-&
c 0.6 2
/]
<V
0
;..=
Qj 0.5
0
v
3
_g 0.4
<V
>
"_.3
"'
Qi
0:::
0.3
0.2
/ 4
0.1
0 ~~=-~~~~~~~----~----~
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 04 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Relative travel h
1 quick opening 3 equal percentage (~= 4>o • exp (c*h))

2 linear(~= h) 4 hyperbolic
Figure 10. Valve inherent flow characteristics.

1 ... METHOD I
co
0
Calculate the Kv ( flow coefficient) from: Where
-
<G
;::,
Kv = Flow coeffic ient (Metric Units) ~

'-3
Cv = Flow co eff icient (Imperial Units)
I
t!::
">::::
= Max. Flow volume in m3/ h
"'""\::l
Q
a) Liquids Kv = a y y = Specific weight in Kg/dm3
F = Cross sec tion of pipe in cm2 "'""
~·
6p 6p = Pressure drop in bar ;::,
:::
Vn = Max flow volume in Nm3/h J::l..
Liquid sizing formula is o nly applicable for subcritica l f low (J
G = Specific weight in Kg/Nm3 0
:::
T = Absolute Temperature in oK "':;;::..........,
=
Kv=Vn_~
P1 Absolute pressure upstream in bar
b) Gases P2 =
Absolute pressure downstream in bar "'c;·......
51';) ~ p.P2 Having calculated the Kv, the figure obtained
:::!
should be compared with these below and the

Gas formul a o nly applicable 1f the r atiO :\p to P 1 (ups tream normal diameter determined.
pressure absolute) is less than 0. 10
I
Cross- sec[ion O pening Ang le
ON of pipe 90' so• 75' 70' 60' 50' 40' 30' 25'
in <m2 Kv Cv Kv Cv Kv Cv Kv Cv Kv Cv Kv Cv Kv Cv Kv Cv Kv Cv
50 19.6 111 130 89 10lo 76 89 59 69 45 53 23 27 1lo 16 7 8 s 6

65 33.2 170 19 8 136 159 111 130 89 104 I 70 82 35 41 22 26 12 14 8 9
!
80 50. 3 256 299 205 239 175 20Lo 136 159 106 12lo 53 62 32 37 18 21 12 14
100 78.5 470 548 405 473 34 1 398 260 303 200 233 102 119 62 72 35 lol 23 27
125 123 96 1 112 1 854 996 709 an 534 623 418 488 213 249 132 15lo 75 88 51 60
150 177 1666 1944 141 0 16lo5 11 53 13'•5 880 1027 683 797 350 408 2 13 249 123 144 83 97
200 31'- 2777 32L.O .2329 2718 1880 2194 1495 1744 1111 1296 598 698 358 1< 18 213 249 145 169
250 491 4273 4986 3675 4288 3076 3589 2350 2742 183 7 21 44 982 11 46 572 667 333 389 222 259
300 707 6L.l0 7Lo80 5170 6033 4273 4986 3L.61 4039 2649 3091 1367 1595 854 996 470 S lo B 324 378
350 962 85lo7 9973 6923 8078 5726 6681 4358 5085 3504 4089 1880 2194 1111 1296 6-41 748 lo27 498
400 1257 10 683 12466 9230 10770 7692 8975 5555 6482 43 58 5085 2264 2642 1452 1694 769 897 555 6lo8
4 50 1590 14957 17453 11965 13961 10256 11967 7863 91 75 6068 708 1 3162 3690 1965 2293 1068 1246 769 897
500 1963 18803 21940 14957 17453 12820 14959 9829 11469 74 35 8676 3931 458 7 2393 2792 1367 1595 961 11 21
6~ '-- ~2_7 - ]_2 393 1 27924 20512 28955 17521 204lo5 14 102 16455 1 100L.2 16455 5213 6083 3247 3789 1880 2194 1282 1496
Figw·e 11. Example methodjor calcu latingflow coefficients Kv!Cv.

Butterfly Valves 81
Ceramic-lined butterfly valves have provided a long-term, low-maintenance solution to controlling

abrasive and acidic titanium dioxide slurry flows.
High-performance butterfly valve.

In Figure 12 the seat ratings shown are based on data from API 609 and the
body ratings shown are from ANSI B16.5/BS 1560 part 2.
Butterfly check valves
Butterfly check valves differ from conventional butterfly valves in employing a

hinged instead of a pivoted disc, with a sealing ring around the edge of the disc
(Figure 13). With forward flow, the two halves of the disc are swung together
to trail downstream. With reverse flow, the two halves open to approximately
45° each, sealing the bore.
With this mode of working, a butterfly check valve is, in fact, another form
of flap valve. It has the advantage of rapid action with a resilient seal.
Butterfly check valves (Figure 14) require only a short length of body which
can virtually be a length of standard pipe flanged at both ends (or threaded or
plain ends in smaller sizes). It is also produced in wafer form for clamping
between two pipe flanges . In this case the body length only needs to be
sufficient to accommodate the hinge post and the two valve plates in their
closed position.
ANSI 300, CARBON STEEL
ANSI 300.3 16 SS
SOOPSI
a
V3
c..
"-'
<1)
..... 400PSI
:::1
"'"'.....
<1)
c..
_Body and Metal
300PSI
Seat Rat1ngs
-Soft Seat Rat1ngs
200PSI
lOOPS!
300°F 400"F SOOoF 600"F 700oF 800"F

tsooc 200°C 260°C 315°C 370°C 400°C
Temperature Of oc
Figure 12. Typicalpressure/temperature ratings.
Butterfly Valves 83
Figure 13 . Butterfly check valve.
Figure 14. Butterfly check valve.
Advantages of butterfly valves
• Butterfly valves are compact, require less space, less weight, less raw
materia] and are generally less costly than other valve types.
• Butterfly valves are quarter-turn valves, easy to operate by lever, gearbox
or actuator. They have excellent gland integrity.
• Butterfly valves have few parts and are generally easy to maintain .
• Butterfly valves are suitable for control purposes with linear flow
characteristics between 30° and 70° of opening.
• Butterfly valves offer excellent rangeability from 30:1 to 100:1.
Typical major areas of application for butterfly valves include: liquids,

gases, steam, cryogenics, pulpstocks both on control and shut-off services in
chemical processing, waterworks duties. oil and gas processing, pulp and
paper manufacture, the power industry, refineries and food and beverage
processing.
Properly selected and integrated with the latest controls and communications
technology, butterfly valves can provide an economical, long-term solution to
flow control in large process plants.
Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves
The rotary valve is an obvious configuration, although not widely used . It

can be classified as a type of spool valve where the ports run axially instead of
circumferentially (Figure 1 ). Sealing in the closed position, valves are a close
fit over a restricted area only. Also friction can be high. In these respects , it is
inferior to a conventional spool valve or even a plug valve.
A somewhat better configuration is to employ a 'solid spool' with drilled-
through ports (Figure 2); or the rotary plate valve (see the chapter on Spool
Valves).
Geometric design is simplified to a degree with these latter types of valves ,
and both can readily be produced with overlap or underlap as required, e.g.
by enlarging the circumferential length of the rotation or stationary port,
respectively. This type of valve is known as a disc valve or rotary disc valve.
A third basic configuration is shown in Figure 3. where a spindle or shaft
rotates in a stationary housing. The shart is drilled axially and also vertically
at the blind end to form a port whose position matches the inlet port in the
Pressure
Exhaust
~
Pressure
Figure 1.
Ro tating disc
Fi.qure 2.
Figure 3.
stationary member. Again, the port opening(s) can be modified in length to

provide overlap or underlap as required.
A feature of both rotary valve types shown in Figures 2 and 3 is that they
are capable of providing exact timing of port opening with continuous rotation
of the rotary element.
The design of rotary valve shown in Figure 4 overcomes the problem of
friction and leakage by using shear seal rings in each port and a thrust bearing
between rotor and housing. The shear seal rings are grooved to retain 0-ring
seals and are spring-loaded onto the smooth rotor face by individual disc
springs. The flow passages through the valve are made as clear as possible to
reduce the pressure drop through the valve.
Rotor valves
This type of valve differs from the typical rotary valve in that the valve design
allows for transitional flow to occur when changing valve positions . Transitional
flow eliminates dead-heading problems associated with positive displacement
pumps .
Typically the rotor valve (Figure 5) consists of four flow types with many
flow-pattern combinations and 'piggable' versions. The stem and rotor are
Rotary Disc/ Rotor Valves 87
Mmirnum turbulence =
Minimum pressure drop
Figure 4.
2-Way
Tri-Ciamp
3-Way
CherryBurrell Carbon Steel
1-Line 4-Way 150# Flange
Figurr 5. Examples of rotor valves.

usually of a one-piece construction that can eliminate the source of wear and
repair common to the typical ball valve design . Full-port diameter reduces the
pressure drop across the valve, thereby increasing the flow. An independent
leaf seal design eliminates the large cavities common to the ball valve and also
the need for cavity fillers, which still create stagnant seams for product to
enter.
VALVE FLOW PATTERN COMBINATIONS

2-WAY 3-WAY 4-WAY
PORTING
S- L- T- LL ··s- **L- ..T-
Position 1
0 ~ ~~~~~ c C B C B c
Position 2
~ ~ ~~~~~ **
c 8
Position 3
0 ~ ~~~~~ c c c 8 C B C B
·~
Position 4
~ ~~~~~ c B C B
5-WAY
PORTING 8- (with special porting)
B- BS BL BT
A,B,C&E A,C&E A,B&E
Position 1
~~~~
c® 8 C
~
B c 8 c
E
~ j Ci;
c
Position 2
~ ICIAJ cf}. ~
c
®
8 ~ C
®
B C B
~ 'I ~
Position 3
~ lj~ ljJ ~
C B ~ C B
~ ~ ~
c
Position 4
~~~~
c
~
8 ~ C
~
B c
~
8
C B fJ I ~;
Figure 6. Valve flow-pattern combinations.
Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves 89
Rotor valves of this type are favoured by a number of industries including:

food and beverage. pharmaceutical. chemical, petrochemical. refining, paper
and paint and particularly where quick-couple fittings for sanitary systems
are preferred.
Typical flow-pattern combinations are shown in Figure 6.
Typical Parts
120• Ported "Piggable"
3-way Valve
(2'h " Valve Size Shown)
l Valve body
2. Roto r
3 Top co ver
4. Hat1dk
5. Washer
6. Hex nut
7 Hex head bo lt
8 Ported seal
9. Bod y o-ring
10. Stem o-nng
Bono m roto r washer
ll (not shown)
12. To p rotor washer
13. Co ver o-ring
14 . Sea l o-nng
15. Solid seal
0 (no t shown)
19. Bo ttom co ver
120° ported piggable 3 -way valve.
Fiaure 7. De-matmtaiJ/e rotary valve.

90 Valve Types Design a11d Construction
De-mountable rotary valves (Figure 7) are mainly used Cor sanitary duties
in dairy, food, pharmaceutical and chemical applications with powder or
granular product. This type of valve is usually produced in 316 stainless steel
with the rotor end-plate and shaft seals easily disassembled without tools and
the unit capable of being cleaned in place (CIP). Capacities up to 1500 cubic
ft/ hr in either drop-through or convey-through configurations are common.
[C.:.:~~~~JI ISO-~~OlQualityAssurance
([@~~)~ STAINLESS STEEUCARBON STEEL VALVES
.. . - -~ Certifted Factory
& FITTINGS MANUFACTURE
FIRE SAFE
API&o7
VALVES
AUTOMAnON VALVES MOUNT DIRECT VALVE
JOHN-VALVE MFG. FACTORY CO., LTD.

1149-11, Bee San Rd., Tsao Tun Town, Nan-Tou Hsien, Taiwan.
Office/Tel: 886-4-3780078 (6 Lines) Fax: 886-4-3754978
E-mail: johnvalv@msl3. hine t.ne t http://johnvalve .com .tw
Globe Valves
Over the last 60 years, globe valves have been re-appraised in the light of new
materials available for use. They are popular as industrial valves because they
have fine adjustment and permit unobstructed opening through pipelines.
The globe valve is characterised by a baffle or partition separating the two
halves of the body. with an interconnecting part at the centre opened and
closed by a screw-down/screw-up disc or plug mounted at right angles to the
body (Figure l ). The name derives from the fact that original body shapes
were spherical, the more usual modern form being semi-spherical or even
substantially parallel-sided.
The globe valve offers good regulation characteristics but high resistance
because of the tortuous flow path. This can be reduced to some extent by making
the throat area equivalent to that of the pipe (calling for a more bulbous body),
~--2
l. Body.
2. Bonnet
3.Cover.
4.Giand packing.
5.Stem.
6. Handwheel.
I I
u
Figure I. Screw-down globe valve.
Bronze globe valve.
rounding the partition to smooth flow or inclining it to the flow (Figure 2) .

Reduction of head loss by such treatment is generally minimal and so right-
angled partitions are commonly used.
Globe valves are produced with a variety of discs or plugs and seals. Discs
provide line contact with the seat which can be broken by solid deposits forming
on the seat. They are thus mainly suited only for clean fluids . Disc valves. too.
are not as effective as plugs for throttling duties and so are normally used only
on shut-off valves. Another limitation of the disc is that it does not provide
positive shut-off for air and gases, unless made of a resilient material.
Plugs are used in a variety of configurations, ranging from needle shapes to
semi-discs. The plug contour also governs the throttling characteristics, e.g.
equal-percentage plugs (percentage flow proportional to valve lift), etc.
Needle plugs provide the finest flow control. Globe valves fitted with this latter
type of plug are normally referred to as needle valves. Needle valves are
normally made only in small sizes.
Figure 2.
Globe Valves 93
Cutaway ofglobe valve.
For{Jed-steelgloiJe valve. Plastic globe valves.

Seats
Globe valve seats may be cast integral with the body or take the form of
screwed-in, pressed-in, or spot-welded rings. A variety of materials may be
used for seats, depending on the application, including coated seat rings with
plastic inserts. Normally only screwed-in seat rings are replaceable.
Stems
Possible stem assemblies include inside screw and outside screw (both rising
stem) and sliding stem. Inside stem rising screw is usual. A stem seal (stem
gland) is necessary to eliminate leakage. This is normally a gland-type packing
or gland rings. A diaphragm bonnet seal or bellows bonnet seal may also be
used on globe valves, the former isolating the working parts of the valve from
the fluid as well as preventing leakage to the atmosphere. Metallic bellows
seals are often used on valves intended for high-vacuum duties.
The valve shown in Figure 3 is manufactured from malleable iron. This
valve is widely used on standard pipelines for steam, oil and water.
No. PART NAME MATERIAL
l BODY Malleable Iron

2 BONNET Malleable Iron
--------------------------
3 BODY SEAT RING 13 Cr Stainless Steel
2 1 I /' "'4" Carbon Steel
4 DISC Carbon Steel
5 DISC STEM RING 13 Cr Stainless Steel
6 BONNET BUSH 13 Cr Stainless Steel+
H350
7 PACKING BUSH 13 Cr Stainless Steel
8 STEM 13 Cr Stainless Steel
9 BONNET BOLT Carbon Steel
lO NUT Carbon Steel
11 GLAND BOLT Carbon Steel
12 NUT Carbon Steel
L Hard Facing Part No.@@
- --i
Spot Weld Nom mal Size 4 ·· Above
l3 GLAND FLANGE Malleable Iron
14 YOKE SLEEVE High Tension Brass
15 SET PIN Brass
Figure 3. Malleable-iron glob(• valve.

Globe Valves 95
'Y '-pattern globe valve: bellows seal. inside screw and yoke.
---- Adjustable Jilt stop

• AIIHI dOSing. disc can reach 11s 1ni1ia1
DOSfft()(l
Locking device
• Protecho:l !(Qm W11r\lent100al
acluat•on
- ·- Vibration-damped
thronle disc
• LOW-flOiSO UO'N f:GiliWI
pos.s•ble
Cone " ·,th Pl Fl ·<;p sket, ON 15·2m RQiil:i cone I rom ON 200 onwards Lead - s~alabte C.:l P
Figure 4 . Globe valve with metallic seat.

Malleable iron provides a high yield point, a more important property than
tensile strength for valve materials. It is also stable against temperature
change. Low-pressure valves of this type generally have PTFE seats. Valves
for use at higher pressures have the valve disc and body seat ring made
from hard-faced stainless steel. The hard face is an alloy containing cobalt,
chromium and tungsten. Valves of this type can also be fitted with replaceable
PTFE discs when used with liquefied petroleum gases. The gland packings are
usually of a synthetic rubber of butadiene-acryl-nitrile polymer V packing
design to provide for good oil and wear resistance. Over time, the V packing
will harden: tell-tale signs are: a friction sound when the valve is opened and
Non-rising handwheel of glass-

fibre reinforced polyamide
• tdeal in confined spaces
• Reduced handwheel temperature
Cap with position indicator
outside the Insulation
• Position of valve can be checked
any time
Non-rotating stem, pro-

tected external thread
• High operational reliability
Pressure retaining body in

one piece
• Hermetically sealed
• No cover bolts to re-tighten
• No spare part costs for bolts and
cover gasket
• Suitable tor full and easy insula-
tion in compliance with the Ger-
man heat1ng systems regulations
Low weight body with short

face-to-face length Body of favourable hydraulic
• Saves transport costs design
• Easy to install • Minimal pressure loss
• Space-saving • Lower investment and operating
costs
Figure 5. Globe valve with high-temperature soft seat.

Globe Valves 97
Figure 6. Oblique or 'Y' valve.
closed; the opening and closing operation becomes difficult to operate; and the
gland actually leaking. The packing must then be replaced.
An example of a standard globe valve for use in hot- and warm-water
heating and boiler installations is shown in Figure 4. This particular valve has
a metallic seat. The temperature range is from -1 ooc up to + 3 50°C, with
pressures up top= 2 5 bar.
The valve illustrated in Figure 5 is fitted with a soft seat for high-temperature
operation from -1 ooc to + 200°C. Typical applications included hot-water
heating systems, district heating plants and low-pressure steam plants. The
valve has a short face-to-face length which makes it particularly compact.
Globe valves are a traditional standard solution for many control applications
because of the ability to modify the trim design for different throttling purposes.
Oblique valves
The oblique valve or Y-valve is a hybrid globe valve characterised by the stem
being angled (Figure 6 ). As a consequence the flow path is less tortuous, with
reduced pressure drop compared with a conventional globe valve. It retains
the same good throttling characteristics as a globe valve and can be fitted with
similar types of plugs.
Construction is basically the same as globe valves with the option of integral
or fitted seat rings, stem options and stem seal gland treatment.
Gate Valves
The main feature that distinguishes a gate valve is the flat face or vertical disc
or wedge that slides in a track or seat which can be lifted in a direction at right
angles to the valve until clear of the flow path. Generally gate valves are used
for on- off non throttling service, i.e. they are intended to be either fully open.
when they offer little resistance to flow, or fully closed . For this reason , they
are the principal valves used in bulk pumping practice.
Large gate valves tend to be power operated. Throughout the water industry.
for example, automation with actuated valves has been introduced in response
to the requirement for lower manning levels.
Gate valves are divided into a number of classes, depending on the design of
the 'gate' and its seating faces.
Gate vnlves.
Gate Valves 99
6
IH-7'' ---- 5 I. Body . ! .Body.
2.Bonnct. 2. Di sc.
}. Wedge. J .Spring.
4.Scat ring. 4.Bonnet.
S.G iand packing. 5.Giand.
o.G iand follower . 6.Stem.
~~~L3
7.Stem. 7. Y okc.
3 ~. H r.~ n d wh eel. 8. H andwheel.
. -t -- -+- 2
4
~wJ)~~L1
Solid wedge gate valve. Parallel slide gate valve.
r--- Non-rising handwheel

• Favourable in confined
spaces
Threaded bush with cylindrical

thrust roller bearings
• Easy actuatton
....________ Sturdy yoke head
• Easy retrolitting ol actuators
without dismantling pressure
retainmg parts
Pressure seal bonnet
Movable wedges
• Precise adaptation
body seats
• Wedges are easy to replace • Htgh reltability
• Long life
Wedge holder guide

(lorged in the body)
rail~/ \~""~I,_'j Sl=~~- ~ 1
\ t•
1
~
• Serves as anti-twist lock '- - - - •_ _ .•
• Reduces bendmg forces
acttng on the stem
Gate val vi' with press ure seal bonnet.

Wedge~gate valves
The gate is wedge-shaped and seals on corresponding faces in the faces of the
valve body. Wedges and seats can be made of, or coated with, resistant
material or faced with plastic such as PTFE. The plastic is often contained in a
groove to prevent it spreading. Figure 1 shows a wedge-gate valve with
external screw, and Figure 2 one with internal screw.
Flexible-wedge valves and split-wedge valves are similar to the aforementioned .
but with provision for slight seat misalignment.
Wedge-gate valves can be further described as inside-screw or outside-screw
patterns (see Figure 3). They are widely used for oil, gas and air services. and
also for handling slurries, etc.
Double-disc valves
In these valves the gate is in the form of two discs which a re forced apart
against parallel seats by a spring. This provides tight sealing without relying
on fluid pressure, making this type of valve particularly suitable for steam
duties as well as handling gases and light oils.
Parallel-slide valves
In 18 8 6, Joseph Hopkinson introduced the parallel-slide valve where sealing
of the valve relies on the upstream pressure acting on a flat parallel gate valve.
H a nJwhecl
Thrust rlate
"'-llo.o:-~"'"" Sea ting)

W edge ga te
Figure 1. External scre w. Figure 2. lnternal screw.

Gate Valves 101
Wedge gate sluice Wedge gate sluice

va lve valve
inside screw outside screw
pattern pattern
Figure 3.
HANDWHl( L
STUFFING BOX
BONNET
GASKET
W EDGE NUl
SEATS
WE OG (
Inside-screw gate valve.

F fanged and butt-welded gnt.e valves.
Bronze dol.l/Jle-disc lever gnte vnlve.
The system is still popular today and the simplest (and probably most effective)
layout employs two discs as valve members initially separated by a spring (see
Figure 4). The function of the spring is to prevent the discs from rattling and to
encourage a wiping action on the downstream disc when under pressure and
on both discs when there is virtually no pressure in the line.
This is to avoid-as far as is possible-grit or scale becoming trapped
between the vulnerable seating faces which might impair their sealing properties.
Parallel-slide valves are used extensively in the pulp and paper industry.
Sluice valves
This is a name applied to solid-wedge valves for waterworks.

GateValves 103
Parallel slide Parallel slide

valve valve
inside <;crew outside screw
pattern pattern
Figure4.
Metnl-sentecl gate valve.

Bellows seal-gate valves
Environmental protection is a major concern and the bellows seal valve is

designed to minimise exposure to dangerous or harmful substances through
valve-stem leakage.
_____L
r
-~'"1-
. --r-~---
Figure 5. Figure 6.
Figure 7. Construction details.

Gate Valves 105
The bellows is a metallic device capable of sealing between the valve stem and
the bonnet to prevent escape of the system fluid to the atmosphere. The bellows
take the form of convolutions that can move linearly. A hermetic seal is
achieved by welding the bellows to the valve stem at one end and to the
BELLOWS SEAL VALVES
r
....---~~ GATE, CLASS 800, 1f2''
GLOBE, CLASS 800, 3/4"
GATE, CLASS 1500, 2"
Bellows seal valves.

bonnet at the other end (Figure 5). The structural shape of the bellows provides
resistance to high pressure, even with thin wall thicknesses (Figure 6 ).
In operation, the bellows eliminates a leak path to atmosphere. The stem/
packing area is sealed from the medium being processed and the bellows
becomes the primary seal since the bellows assembly is welded to the stem and
to the bonnet as shown in Figure 7.
Replaceable bellows are gaining popularity with valve users in process
plants.
In replaceable bellows valves, the bellows is not welded to the bonnet;
instead, it is welded to a transition piece that is clamped between the body
with standard gaskets to seal the joint. The lower end of the bellows assembly
is welded to the disc which is attached to the stem by a threaded connection .
The gasket on the media side is generally a spiral-wound gasket. The gasket at
the top of the bellows assembly only comes into operation if the belJows fails.
Where maintenance is difficult, the welded bonnet valve may be the better
choice.
Gate valves are used mainly in general industry. power stations, process
engineering, pulp and paper and marine engineering for water. steam, gas, oil
and non-aggressive media.
Actuation
Manual actuation of gate valves is invariably by screw and handwheel.

The screw mechanism may be exposed or protected and the screw 'rising' or
'non-rising'. A variety of materials for the working parts is offered by some
makers.
Power actuators are very often fitted, especially where valves are difficult to
access and are operated frequently . Automation and semi-automation control
schemes also make extensive use of actuators.
See also the chapter on Slide Valves.
Needle Valves
Small sizes of globe valves fitted with a finely tapered plug are known as needle
valves. This description also applies to any type of valve incorporating a
tapered needle having axial movement relative to the axis of a concentric
orifice and thus controlling the effective opening of the orifice.
Three basic configurations are shown in Figure 1: (A) is a simple screw-
down valve; (B) is an oblique version, offering a more direct flow path: (C) is
another form where the controlled outlet flow is at right angles to the main
flow (and may be distributed through one or more passages). In these basic
d l
I
[
c D
A
Figure I.
NeedlP valve with interchangeable stlm!.

Oblique and 'T'-type needle valves typically used for process duties.
Pan BS A STM
H a ndwheel N ut Cou bon Steel 1760
'"i ilnd w h eel Malleable hon 309
Sterr" Stau1lcss Sl~t!l 1506 713 A l82 G R F6
Gl ond Nul Carbon Srecl 1506 I ll
Gl and Caroon Steel 1506·1 11
P ackmg V al v .1~ .. ~a nd Piastr e

N o 1: M c r.,ILt
Stecf P ac:..rnq Rrng Mdd S1ecl 970 ENIA
Bonne( Carbo n S1e c1 150() 11 1
U·1 · 1et Gasket Am'K O Iro n
Bo d y Caf bon Steer Forqrng 1501 161 G R J2 At 05 G A 2
Typical needle-type meter valve.

Needle Valves 109
versions a threaded needle is shown, the thread itself acting as a seal to eliminate
leakage past the needle. This is normally quite satisfactory in very small sizes
or needle, although a more leak-tight arrangement is to mount the needle in
an externally threaded end piece [Figure 1 (D)]. This end piece can also act as
a grip for adjustment of the needle. Sealing in this case can be further
improved if necessary by incorporating an internal seal. such as an 0-ring.
The other common form of needle valve is the float-controlled, carburettor-type
valve.
See also the chapter on Globe Valves.
Pinch Valves
The 'working' element of a pinch valve, also known as a clamp valve, is an

elastomeric tube or sleeve which can be squeezed at its mid-section by some
mechanical system until ultimately the tube walls are pinched or clamped
together producing full closure of the flow path.
In its simplest form it can consist merely of a length of elastomeric tube
fitted with a pinch bar mechanism incorporating a closure stop to prevent
over-pinching of the tube. More usually the moulded rubber tube is housed in
a metal body which also incorporates the pinching mechanism (Figure 1 ).
This can be a simple scre\r\r-operated mechanism. where the pinch is applied
only to one side of the tube, or a differential scre·w controlling two pinching
mechanisms working in vertical opposition . The latter produces lower-stress
working of the tube.
Other types of pinch valves dispose with mechanical mechanisms entirely,
the tube being squeezed shut by air or hydraulic pressure injected directly into
the body of the valve (Figure 2). With a regulated fluid pressure the valve may
I .Bouy . 4. Lowe r pinch oar

2 Flexible tulle . S. Spimlk .
3. U ppe r pinch bar 6. H andwhc c l.
Figr.tre I. Pinch vnlw-bnsiccompolli'nls.

Pinch Valves l.ll
capability of sealing
with entrapped solids.
Figure 2. Hydraulic prpssure-operated pinch valve.
be used for throttling as well as shut-off (full closure) (Figure 3 ). The particular
advantage of the fluid-operated pinch valve is that it will still close tight over
entrapped solids (making it particularly suitable for handling products with
solids in suspension). Also, because the tube is flexed under uniformly
distributed pressure, its life should be much longer than that or a similar tube
working with a mechanical pinching system.
In common with the diaphragm valve, the operating mechanism is not in
contact with the working fluid at any time, and nor is the body. In this respect,
pinch valves have the advantage over diaphragm valves, unless the latter are
ru bber-lined or otherwise surface-protected. This exclusion of the working
fl uid from all parts excepting the sleeve itself makes it ideal for the handling of
aggressive fluids and those which readily attack metal; and its straight-through
characteristics mean it is suitable for the handling of slurries, pastes and
semi-fluids generally, even those containing sizeable solid lumps in suspension.
J A1r lnlel ~ Aor lnlel
OPEN THROTTLING CLOSED
Fig1u·e 3.
Pinch valves with mechanical pinching mechanisms are normally operated

by a handwheel and screw mechanism. but may equally well be driven by a
powered actuator in larger sizes. Bodies are normally split horizontally to
facilitate changing the tube when necessary without removing the complete
valve from the pipeline.
Flow pattern
The flow pattern of a pinch valve is streamline and laminar. The non
turbulent flow pattern even in the wide-open position means that wear on the
valve sleeve is minimised.
The linear characteristics of some control pinch valves result in flow rates
which are directly proportional to the amount of sleeve travel throughout the
stroke of the valve while under constant-pressure and pressure-drop conditions.
Typical valve sleeves are shown in Figure 4. These include standard, double
wall for very abrasive conditions, cone sleeve for throttling control and
variable orifice sleeve for improved flow characteristics where a high pressure
drop is required.
Another form of pinch valve is shown in Figure 5. In addition to a resilient
sleeve this also incorporates a streamlined core on to which the sleeve closes
to seal. This valve can be operated in a variety of modes. In mode 1, the valve
Standard Sleeve Double Wall

Sleeve
Cone Sleeve Variable Orifice

Sleeve
Figure 4 . Typical control pinch valve sleeves.

Pinch Valves 113
Control port
Control space
V c\IVC housing
Supporting beam
Core
Resilient sleeve
FigureS. Figure 6.
remains closed when no pressure is present, due to the resilience of the sleeve
(Figure 6 ). In the presence of pressure in the pipeline, the valve opens and
remains open (Figure 7). It closes again in the absence of flow pressure. Line
pressure of about 1 bar (14 lbf/ in 2 ) is sufficient to hold the valve in the fully
open position.
In mode 2, inlet pressure is tapped and fed to the control space between the
sleeve and body, closing the valve. The valve opens when the operating
pressure is relieved from the control space (Figure 8). At extremely low line
pressures, circa 0.5 bar (7 lbf/in 2 ), the valve remains closed and drop-tight,
even when operating pressure is relieved from the control space.
In mode 3, the operating principle is the same. except that the control space is
pressurised from an independent source, e.g. compressed air or a hydraulic supply.
In mode 4, the flow is tapped to feed the control space which is only partially
filled and then isolated, holding the sleeve in a partially closed position (Figure 9).
In this mode the valve operates as a throttling valve or pressure-regulation valve.
Various low-hardness, high-tensile elastomeric compounds are used for the
tubes, choice being made on chemical resistance and/ or abrasion resistance
required and service temperature. Typical materials used are:
Figure 7.
Figure 8.
Figure 9.
GRS exce1lent abrasion resistance.

Bun aN good resistance to solvents and hydrocarbons.
Neoprene* good chemical and hydrocarbon resistance; in white
compound also suitable for fast and dry application.
Butyl good combination of chemical and temperature resistance:
in white compound has good resistance to animal and
vegetable oils.
Hypalon* excellent chemical and temperature resistance.
PTFE outstanding chemical and high-temperature resistance.
Silicone good combination of high- and [ow-temperature
resistance.
FDA excellent abrasion resistance; suitable for many foods and
dairy applications.
EPDM excellent heat and chemical resistance.
*Neoprene and Hypalon are registered trademarks of DuPont Dow Elastomers.

Pinch Valves 115
Fluid performance
A pinch valve presents full-bore flow in the open position, with a straight,
uninterrupted flow passage. Pressure drop or head loss under such conditions
is thus minimal, related only to flow velocity and tube length. for a given fluid.
There is no slamming when the valve closes against back pressure and the
elastic nature of the tube tends to eliminate hammer (although this feature is
absent in a hydraulically-operated pinch valve).
Vacuum services
Pinch valves tend to have limited suitability for vacuum services because of
the tendency for the tube to collapse inwards. This is particularly true in the
case of pinch valves with simple exposed tubes. Where the tube is enclosed in a
body it is possible to adapt the valve for vacuum duties by applying a vacuum
within the casing to balance the internal (vacuum) pressure.
Sizes and ratings
Sizes commonly available range up to 300 mm (12 in), with standard bodies
suitable for pressures up to 14 bar (200 lbf/ in 2 ), or steel or stainless-steel
HANDWHEEL
POSITION INDICATOR
Slatnless Steel
SHEAR PIN Sta1nlcss Steel

POSITI VE STOP COLLAR
Stain less Steel BO DY Duclile Iron
STEM Sta•nless Steel
YOKE Ductile Iron
A NSI CLASS 150

FLANC.f S
COMPRESSOR Ductile Iron
TFE TUBE LIFT FO RK STUD

Stainless Steel
LINK S
Stamless Steel
TFE REINFO RCING JACKET
RADIU S CLAMP
Stamless Steel
Figure 10. Clamp valve.

116 Valve Types Design and Consiructiorr
bodies for pressures up to 28 bar (400 lbf/in 2 ). Larger sizes are also available,
those over 600 mm (24 in) diameter usually being individually made with
fabricated steel bodies.
Clamp valves
This type of pinch valve (Figure 10) consists of a flexible tube and clamp. The
flexible tube has a heat-shrunk reinforcing jacket with both made from virgin
TFE fluorocarbon resin. The clamping mechanism consists of a compressor
which travels down a stem with rotation of a handwheel or power operator.
and a yoke which travels up the stem at the same time.
Lift forks pull open •
Lrnkage
system
pulls
inward
• •
Actions of valve mechanisms when ope ning
Figure I 1.
Compressor clamps
closed
Linkage
system
pushes
outward
• Yoke clamps closed
Actions of valve mechanisms when closmg
F i[fure 12.
Pinch Valves 117
Radius clamps are connected to the yoke and to the compressor by means of
links and pins. Working together, they provide a 'scissor-jack' action which
pushes the tube element inward during the opening cycle and pulls it outward
during closing. The actions of the valve mechanism are shown in Figures 11
and 12.
Pinch valves are ideal for use in many industrial applications including:
• Chemical plants- where there are corrosive chemicals and for pump
isolation.
• Power industry-FGD systems, ash handling and wet lime scrubbers.
• Mining industry-centrifuge control, solids separation, tailings systems.
coal washing.
• Waste water treatment-flow equalisation, polymer feed systems,
sludge control, grit systems, carbon slurry and raw sewage.
Diaphragm Valves
The distinguishing feature of a diaphragm valve is the closure device. This is

usually an elastomeric diaphragm or tube which acts as a flexible seal when
compressed against a ridge in the valve body. The diaphragm valve handles
corrosive and erosive materials.
Diaphragm valves fall into two main types-weir valves and straight-
through valves. In the former geometry (Figure 1 ). the body has a dividing
weir, above which is mounted an elastomeric diaphragm. In the closed position
the diaphragm sits on the weir. In the open position, it is fitted to provide a
streamlined flow through the valve body. The amount of lifting is variable, so
the valve can act both as a flow controller or a stop valve.
The straight-through diaphragm valve (Figure 2) may have a parallel.
top-tapered or venturi-pattern body with closure provided by a wedge-shaped
projection of the diaphragm. Because of the full-bore opening. it offers
minimum resistance to flow in the open position. can pass suspended solids,
and is capable of being rodded through for clearing any blockage.
Because the diaphragm isolates the moving parts. these valves are
particularly suitable for handling aggressive ~uids, as well as for 'clean fluid '
1. Body
2. Weir
3. Diaphragm
4. Diaphragm movement
5. Bonnet
6. Spindle
7. Handwheel
Figure 1. Weir-type diaphragm valve.

Figure 2. Straight-through diaphragm valve.
2. Operating mechanism,
protected from line fluid
Flexi ble, reinforced dia- corrosion; permanently
phragm supported in all lubricated bonnet neck
positions. (With a rubber
diaphragm, any small
solids present in the fluid 3. Compressor guide fingers
in the bonnet of finger
and trapped on closure
plate. (Finger plate in
between the valve weir
and diaphragm, just DN 40-50 only). Fully
embed themselves in the support d iaphragm in all
pliable material of the positions to give long
latter until the valve is diaphragm life.
opened, when they are 4. Weir or seat on which
released). the diaphragm beds
down.
5. Clean, streamline passage

without pockets.
Sta11dard diaphragm valve.
applications, the type of elastomer being chosen accordingly. The body itself
can also be lined for corrosive duties.
Particular advantages of the diaphragm valve are the glandless construction
and absence of seating problems. Its main limitation is that the maximum
service temperature and pressure are limited by the temperature/ pressure
rating of the elastomeric material.
Typical body materials are cast iron, malleable iron, bronze, gun-metal and
stainless steel. Lined diaphragm valves normally have cast-iron bodies lined with
rubber, neoprene, polypropylene, PTFE or glass. Typical diaphragm materials and
their main uses are summarised in Table 1. Reinforced diaphragm materials may
be used for more arduous duties and are virtually standard for vacuum services.
Typical flow coefficients for weir-type and straight-through diaphragm
valves are given in Tables 2A and 2B.
Table 1. Diaphragm materials
Material Size Temperature Main uses
mm in
Butyl rubber 15 to 350 0.6 to 14 -30 to 90 -22 to 134 Acids and alkalis
Nitrile rubber 1 5 to 3 50 0. 6 to 14 -1 0 to 9 0 + l4 to 134 Oils. fats and fuel s
Neoprene 1 5 to 3 50 0. 6 to 14 - 2 0 to 9 0 -4 to 134 Oils. greases. air and
radioactive fluids
Natural/ 15to350 0.6to14 -40to90 -40 to 134 Abrasives. brewing and
synthetic rubber dilute minera l acids
White natural 15tol25 0.6to5 -3 5to90 -3ltol34 Foodsaodpharmacenticals
rubber White diaphr<Jgm
White butyl 15to150 0.6to6 -30tol00 -22to212 Naturalcolour.foodstuffs
plasticisers and
pharmaceuticals
Vi ton* 15 to 350 0.6 to 14 +5 to 140 +41 to 284 Hydrocarbon acids.
sulphuric and chlorine
applications
Hypalon* l 5 to 3 50 0. 6 to 14 0 to 9 0 +32to 134 Acid-andozone-resistant
Butyl rubber 15 to 350 0.6 to l4 -20 to 120 -4 to 248 Hot water and
intermittent steam services.
sugar refining
*Du Pont Dow Elastomers Registered Trademark.
Operation
Of the standard forms of manual operation available, the handwheel is

preferred for most purposes. The design of handwheel and operating
mechanism (spindle, compressor, bush or nut) varies according to the size and
type of valve. Various-shaped handwheels are also available. This facility. for
instance, greatly assists the operator in identification in dark conditions or
where the handwheel becomes slippery.
Various bonnets are applicable to handwheel-operated valves. Extended
spindle valves are readily available but existing valves can be simply converted
by use of adaptor and extension. Other variants of bonnet assembly can be
substituted for the hand wheel-operated design.
Normal bonnet assembly material is cast iron but alternative materials are
offered by most manufacturers, e.g.:
(i) All iron and steel construction (for handling acetylene, ammonia and
other similar fluids).
(ii) All stainless steel (where there is severe atmospheric-corrosion conditions).
(iii) Gun-metal (for medical oxygen, turbine oils and certain water services).
(iv) Cast steel with rising spindle fitting (mainly used in oil refineries) .
Table 2A. Typical flow coefficients for weir-type valves
Valve size Cast iron Rubber-lined Halav / glass-lined
ON C,. Kv Cv Kv Cv Kv
15 5.8 1.6 1.3 4.4 6 1.7
20 11.5 3.2 9.4 2.6 12 3.4
25 17.4 5 14.5 4 18 5.6
32 26.5 7.5 22 6 28 8
40 4.3 12.2 35 9.8 45.5 12.8
50 84 21.4 70 17 88 22.5
65 126 30.5 102 24.4 132 32
80 180 44.4 147 35.5 185 46.6
100 320 77.7 264 62 336 81.6
125 420 108 348 86.4 444 113
150 600 147 504 117.6 630 154
200 1260 305 996 244 1320 320
225 1630 388 1320 .310 1680 407
250 1990 500 1620 400 2076 525
300 2580 625 2088 500 2700 656
350 3840 833 3060 666 4020 875 .7
Table 2B. Flow coefficients for typical stra.lght-through valves
Valve size Cast iron Rubber-lined Halav / glass-lined
ON Cv Kv Cv Kv Cv Kv
15 8.6 1.8 9 1.9

20
25 3 7.8 7.9 30.6 6.5 39 8.2
32 55.8 12.5 45.6 10.1 58.2 12.9
40 75 20 66 18 79 21
50 128 34 107 28 138 36
65 238 68 195 55 254 72
80 330 90 264 73 342 92
100 588 150 480 123 618 158
125 924 235 720 184 960 274
ISO 1680 385 1260 293 1800 545
200 2580 789 2196 665 2724 825
250 4020 1050 3420 900 4296 1100
300 6060 1510 4884 1221 6204 1550
350 .10.300 2800 9950 2360
(v) Silicon aluminium (for lightness and low temperature).

(vi) A variety of plastic materials (for general corrosion resistance).
(vii) Epoxy-coated cast iron (for corrosion resistance, attractive appearance).
For quick closure and/ or opening, lever-action valves can be used. A

quarter-turn movement is preferred when the liner can also act as a valve
12 2 Valve Types Design and Construction
position indicator, e.g. parallel with the pipeline in the fully open position and
at right angles to the pipeline in the fully closed position.
Diaphragm valves are particularly suited for rapid closure/ opening because the
cushioning action of the flexible diaphragm minimizes the shock throughout the
pipeline, compared with equally rapid but less resilient types of valve movement.
Double-diaphragm valves
A double-diaphragm valve is a basically simple design consisting of two flexing

diaphragms on an axial stem. There is no metal-to-metal contact. 0-rings or
sliding seals, making lubrication unnecessary, as shown in Figure 3. The
valve requires no special filtration and is tolerant to dirt-laden media as well
as scrubbed instrument air.
Designed for compressed air and inert gases. the self-purging non-lubricated
design is also suitable for vacuum applications. A cartridge-insert version is
manufactured for direct integration into finished products. Typical areas of
application include food processing and medical equipment. In fact. a double-
diaphragm air valve has performed over two billion cumulative cycles. an
equivalent of 50 years of human life, in various heart systems. The valves are
located in the mechanical control system. which is attached to the patient by
plastic tubes, and control the flow of compressed air through the tubes to the
artificial heart, causing it to pump.
Figure 3 . Double-diaphragm air valve.

Plastic diaphragm valves (Figure 3) are becoming increasingly popular.

Manufactured from PVC-U, PVC-C. ABS, PP and PVDF plastics, the main
advantages are lightweight and compact construction, corrosion resistance
and a long maintenance-free working life.
Typical pressure-temperature charts are shown in Figures 4 and 5. Miniature
air-operated diaphragm valves are designed for pressure applications for
PVC-U, PVC-C, ABS
16
15
14
- - 1-
1-
<
- -
I --
,-·r
IJ 1--
12 --r-·
t -~-
II
MSrNlOJ' f'I.C C ~ IOf
-1--~ - -
10
9 f'I.C-lJ f'N 101 \ K - 1--- -
~
8
P\C-Uf"'l7)1 \
I'\
\\
\ "~~~ -
r~ f
-- -
f'l.< U L)
0..~- ~ PIIC
Area of application 1-
'\' \ r\_ l
- --f- --
I~ ~
J.I'
PVC.U, PVC C. ABS.
DK1phrour" vulvPS ON 15 100
PVC-U
DJC•phroum volv<-'s DN 150 0 h
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
:t60 70 80 90 100
-
110
-
120
I
I
I.JO 140
Tempero lure in oc
Figure 4. and 5. Typical pressure-temperature diagrams for diaphragm valves.
PVC-U, PVC-C, ABS
16 - -+- 1
IS ~
-- -
14 - - t - _I_
13 -
12 -
11 t- -:-
- ABSJ'N 1ol 1 -
PIIC-ca"' '01
10
i
9
-
I
- 1-
PIIC-U.fN ~~
PIICU~Il' '\(
" I"
~
\\
--· -
1- - I
r\ \.
I"
\
1\\ ABS --- - =-r
~~
f'I.< U£\ ~ PIIC
Area of application
~
r
~-
PVC-U. PVC -C. ABS -
r
I
'
Doopnrogm valves DN I 5-100
~ PVCU
Doaphrogm valves DN 150 0 ). -
I
-•o~r
-30 -20 -10 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 10 so 90 100 no 120 1JO 140
Tempero ture in oc
Fiqun: 4. and 5. Typical pressure- temperature diagrams for diaphragm valves.
Figur£' 6. Iris-type dinp!lrngm valve.

Dinpf!ragm V nlves 12 5
highly corrosive or ultra-pure liquids, when space is critical. This type of valve
has numerous applications in the electronics/semiconductor industry for use
with concentrated etchants and ultra-pure water.
Generally, the valves open with air pressure and close with a return spring.
Diaphragm valves play a significant role in air-pulse jet-dust control equipment
and valve performance has a great influence on the cleaning efficiency of the
generated air pulse.
Air-pulse diaphragm valves need to open and close very rapidly at high
flows. Fluttering of the diaphragm during opening and closing increases air
consumption and will affect valve performance. The opening time of the pulse
valve must be as short as possible, i.e. between 8 and 14 ms to achieve best
performance. Long closing times increase air consumption.
Iris-type diaphragm valves
The diaphragm valve shown in Figure 6 is designed specifically to control the

flow of dry bulk solids and is used for food, chemical pharmaceutical and general
processes. Essentially the valve consists or a tube of flexible material, fixed
rigidly at each end . This tube is held in a mechanism which rotates one end
through 180° relative to the other. vVhen twisted in this way, the tube closes
completely, creating a diaphragm visually resembling the iris of a camera.
Iris-type diaphragm valves have a variable area concentric orifice so that
the flow can be accurately controlled. They can open or close irrespective of
size to the smallest of orifice sizes, regulating the flow of even the finest of powders.
Power-operated models can open or close to pre-set "dribble-feed" positions.
Fig11re 7. lris-type diaphragm valve m embranes.

Central to the performance of the iris-type diaphragm valve is the correct

selection of diaphragms.
The diaphragms are usually made from either (i) elastomers~natural and
synthetic, (ii) fabrics and (iii) coated fabrics (Figure 7).
Typical applications include discharge valve to cake-mix mixer, discharge
valve for rail tankers carrying bulk sugar, packing herbs and spices, controlling
the flow of finished tablets and capsules, general purpose flow-control valves
for silos and hoppers, filling fertilizers into 1 tonne bags, gland around
telephone cable to remove excess grease. valve on salt silo for motorway gritting,
weighing out of abrasive ingredients, and controlling the flow of pigments.
Slide Valves
Slide valves are one of the many variations of the gate-type valve and were
originally designed for use in the pulp and paper industry to overcome the
problems in handling wet and dry fluidized solids in pipelines.
The slide valve, or knife or plate valve as it is sometimes called, in its original
form was a simple rattle-fit plate in a fabricated body. Opening or closing was
achieved by pushing or pulling the plate to give a crude shut-off. Although
design improvements have been made, this simple form of valve is still commonly
used as a diverter or hopper outlet valve on dry powders or solids where a
pressure seal is not required. In such applic ations the body of the valve will
probably be of square or rectangular bore to suit the hopper outlet or duct on
which it is fitted .
The logical advancement from this design was the fitting of resilient seals
and an operating screw and handwheel to open and close the slide. With the
improvement in sealing that this gives, the slide valve is suitable for a much
wider range of services and can handle solids suspended in liquids or gases.
Although they are simple valves, there are a variety of designs on the market
all sharing, to a greater or lesser degree. the following advantages:
(a) short overa II length
(b} no wedging action
(c) thin closing member to cut through solids in the line
(d) substantially full-round bore
(e) lightweight
(f) easy to power-operate
(g) stem/slide connection not in contact with line fluid
(h) slide exposed for visual inspection when valve is open
(i) good regulating characteristics when fitted with specia lly-shaped slide
and/or body bore
The resilient seals. which can be fitted in the body or on the slide depending
on individual design, are available in various materials to suit the fluid being
handled. For most applications they will be in rubber, e.g. Nitrile or Vi ton*.
*Dupont Dow Elas tomers registered Trade Ma rk.

but for higher temperatures or in the food and chemical industries it may be
necessary to specify PTFE or other special elastomers.
There are many individual designs of slide valve on the market. In some
ways, this is advantageous as it gives the valve user more scope for finding a
valve specifically designed to overcome a unique problem. Generally speaking,
slide valves are used on services such as:
(i) viscous media

(ii) dry powder
(iii) dry solids of small and large particle size
(iv) slurries and sludges
These applications are commonly found in the waterworks, sewage, mining,

chemical. power generation. food, cement, brewing and other process industries
as well as the pulp and paper industry for which the valve was originally
designed. But this does not necessarily mean that slide valves are only used on
difficult applications. They are equally successful when put on less arduous
duties where the benefits of leak-tightness, space-saving, price, etc., need to be
considered.
Figure 1 shows a typical design of slide valve. It will be noted that the bore is
clear of obstructions and that there are no pockets in which solids can collect,
!.Stainless ~tecl stem.

2.Cast body .
5 J.Gate guides and jams.
4. Raised face nanges.
S. Handwheel.
6. Yoke.
7. Pa<:k in g.
l'\.Full round port.
9.Stainless steel gate.
Ill. Welded on steel flanges .
'------10
Fig uri' 1. Knife-edge slid!' valve.

Slide Valves 129
in addition to which the seal is housed in the body of the valve and shrouded
by the body to avoid damage from solids in the line. [n this design the seal seats
on the edges of the slide, which means that the valve will seal equally well
with flow in either direction and the slide has a chamfered leading edge which
enables it to slice through any obstruction and seat effectively against the
body seal (Figure 2). These features ensure bubble-tight shut-off against
pressure or vacuum.
Figure 2. Features of the slide vnlve shown in Figure l. l. Built-in horizontal seal; 2. internal seal
located in vahw body; 3. valve slide with chmnfered end: 4. intl'rnal contours designed to ensure that
deposits arefhtshed into tlwflow.
0:
Bearing~ in bridge -
for ease of operation. Bonnet
pressure sealed
Stop ( crosshead) (as shown) on valves
e xternal to pressure ----- • to Class 900/PN 150
envelope, limits travel and above . Bolted on
a nd gives position Class 600/PN 100 valve~
indication Back scat
Spindle and ~eating , / Belt eye
components are free j Seat
to adjust dimensionally pressed-in (as shown)
in response to thermal ---_ on carbon steel valve~
changes within the ---- welded-in on alloy
pressure envelope steel valves
.~--=JJ
Figure 3. Venturi pnrnllel-slide valve.
Unlike conventional gate valves, the slide passes through the body and a
standard gland packing cannot therefore be used . In the design shown here.
profiled transverse seals are employed. These comprise two lengths ofV-section
rubber with the open sides of the V facing each other. During assembly, the
diamond-shaped opening is filled with an oiled-fibre packing which is forced
Valve closed Valve open

Fluid pressure (indicated by Gives unobstructed flow.
arrows) holds disc on outlet side 'Eye-piece' bridges gap to
in contact with seat. complete venturi form passage
and protect seat faces.
Figure 4 . Parallel-slide action .
Figure> S. Para/Id-s/ide valve>.

Slide Valves 131
in and pushes the lips of the transverse seals into contact with the body and
the slide. In this way. leakage to atmosphere is prevented. Also. by removing
the screws on the sides of the body, more packing can be inserted at a later
date to maintain a tight seal even if the valve is on-stream and under pressure
or vacuum. An optional extra on this design of valve is a set of scraper blades
set below the transverse seals. During the opening phase, this enables the slide
faces to be scraped clean over their whole width before they are drawn
through the transverse seals, and damage to the seals is thereby prevented.
This is particularly important when handling sugar, sticky media such as
honey, chocolate compound. glues, tenacious powders. etc.
A venturi parallel-slide valve is shown in sectioned form in Figure 3. This
valve incorporates a pressure-sealed bonnet design and is used as a general
purpose stop valve for main steam and feedwater isolation on power sta tion
boiler plant. The parallel-slide action is shown in Figure 4.
A cutaway view of the internal cross-section of the valve is shown in
Figure 5.
When power operation is required, slide valves are particularly easy to
operate pneumatically as the pneumatic cylinder can be mounted directly on
Figurf 6. Slide valves used in (top left ) brewi11g. ( top right ) food processing rmd (bottom) dust control.
the valve pillars and the end of the piston rod connected direct to the valve
slide. Electric actuation is also widely used on slide valves and, to a lesser
extent, hydraulic actuation. In addition, a very useful alternative to hand wheel
operation is the lever-operated slide valve which gives a very quick open/ close
operation.
When powders and granular materials are stored in silos or conveyed by
belt and screw conveyors, actuated rectangular valves are often required, as
shown in Figure 6. This is particularly true for pulverised fuels. ash and grain .
as well as brewing, food processing and dust control.
See also the chapter on Gate Valves.
Screw-down Valves
The general classification "screw-down valve" is taken to refer to all types of

valves sealing by a disc or p.lug. etc., and in which the sealing element is lifted
from and lowered on to the valve seat by rotation of a threaded stem, the axis
of which is perpendicular to the valve seat. Mainly this embraces various types
of stop valves , e.g. globe valves, oblique or Y-valves, gate valves, lift-type plug
valves and angle valves. Much of this has been covered in other chapters. It
also includes certain types of throttling valves, i.e. needle valves in particular.
Screw-down valves are also categorised as:
(i) Inside screw, where the threaded portion of the stem is fully enclosed
within the bonnet.
(ii) Outside screw, where the threaded portion of the stem is exterior to the
bonnet and (usually) carried in a yoke (see Figure 1).
Handwheel Handwheel
Bridge
Gland
Bonnet Yoke sleeve
Stem
Pillars
Bridge Gland
Stem
Gasket Bonnet
Gasket
Wedge nut
Seats Stem nut

Seats
Wedge
Body· - - --
lnside screw Outside screw
Figure I. Outside-and inside-screw gate valves.

A further distinction is made between:
(a) Rising-stem valves. where the stem moves in or out of the bonnet as
the stem is rotated by a hand wheel. lever or actuator.
(b) Non-rising stem valves, where there is no displacement of the stem
along its axis when rotated.
Both inside-screw and outside-screw valves can be of rising-stem or non-

rising-stem type.
Principal differences between these categories are:
(i) Inside-screw valves have the threaded length of the stem protected
from dirt, etc. However. the stem is fully exposed to the fluid being
handled. Also it is more difficult to provide lubrication for the thread
where the fluid handled is not itself a lubricant.
(ii) Outside-screw valves have the threaded length fully exposed to the
surroundings. hence they can readily collect dirt and/or be subject to
corrosion. Lubrication is easier because the threaded length is fully
Inside screw-down val vi'.

Screw-down Valves 135
10
9
8 No Part
7 1 Body
2 Valve Seat
5 3 Valve
4 Locknut
5 Bonnet
6 Stem Y2" - 1"
1 Jj.,"- 2"
4 7 Washer
8 Gland Packing
9 Gland
10 Packing Nut
3
11 Handwheel
12 Handwheel Nut
2
Operating range
u 260
0
~:; [;.;'{·:;.:,.:,;::=:. :i·)()";.:;
~
-
~
200 ~
ro ~
~team
(i)
0.
E 100
(j) Saturation
f-
r--- Curve
I
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Pressure bar g
~
L....___j The product must not be used in this region.
Typical industry standard stop vnlve.

136 ValvP Types Design and Construction
N0Part --·--- -
1 Body
2 Bonnet
3 Seat
4 Disc/Plug
5 Bellows
6 Stem
7 Handwheel
8 Stem Packing
9 Bonnet Studs
Bonnet Nuts
10 Body/
Bonnet Gasket
Operating range (ANSIJOO)
u
0
Q)
::>
E
Q;
i1l
a. 20o~hd--~q===mllfl
Steam
~ -f"C-----+---Saturation --+-----+-t----=~~
Curve
10 20 30
E:'.:~::(.'./] This product must not be used 1n this region .
ANSI bellows-sea.led stop vnlve.

Screw-down Valves 13 7
Outside-screw rising-stem stop valve.
accessible, but again lubricant will promote collection of dirt on the

threads. The threaded length of the stem is isolated from the fluid being
handled by the stem glands. hence this type is more suitable for
handling corrosive media , slurries, etc.
(a) Rising-stem valves provide a visual indication of the position of the

valve disc or gate and thus the degree of valve opening. On the other
hand. adequate clearance is needed above the valve to accommodate
the rising-stem movement.
(b) Non-rising-stem valves have the advantage that they can be installed
in positions where headroom is limited. Stem wear is also minimised,
although there may be increased wear on the threaded length which
lifts and lowers the valve disc or gate.
For corrosive duties, stem protection may be provided by a bellows seal

applied either to an inside screw (usually) or an outside screw.
Spool Valves
Spool valves embody two basic elements: a cylindrical barrel in which slides a
plunger or spool. Port blocking is provided by glands or full diameter sections
on the spool, with intervening waist sections which provide portinterconnection
through the barrel. This makes it easy to provide multi-way and multi-position
switching.
Sliding-spool valves are generally used in hydraulic and pneumatic fluid
power systems for directional and flow-control purposes. There must be an
annular clearance between the spool and the body, so there is always some
leakage flow across the spool and this must be taken into consideration.
Spool valves are relatively simple and economic to manufacture, although for
adequate sealing a fine surface finish is required on both the spool and the barrel
bore. with close tolerances to ensure practical minimum clearances. Glandless
spool valves thus normally require a lapped fit between spool and body.
Pneumatic-spool valves with static seals offer simpler construction in this
respect and also rather more flexibility in design with seals positioned between
valve spaces so that a seal is situated between each subsequent port and one
seal on the outside of each of the two outer ports (see Figure 1).
Spool valves operate on a sliding principle, so design normally follows the
basic requirement of all slide valves, i.e.:
(i) Pressure-balanced ports are required so that there is no net pressure

force acting axially on the spool.
(ii) The valve diameter should be a minimum consistent with suitable
stiffness.
2
2
3 1 4 5
3-way valve 4-way va lve
Figure I. 3-way and 4-way spool valves.

Spool Valves 139
(iii) The valve body or sleeve must have adequate rigidity.

(iv) Friction forces must be minimised and are largely controlled by material
selection for rubbing/ sliding parts.
(v) Annular flow should be symmetricalin order to avoid radial unbalanced
forces which could increase friction .
(vi) Bernoulli forces. arising from changes in fluid momentum. must be
minimised.
Parameters (v) and (vi) are largely controlled by the detail design of the
spool.
Spool-cushioning passages can be built into the valve as shown in Figure 2.
These equalise hydraulic forces on the ends of the spool and cushion the spool
shift. v\lhen the spool is shifted. the fluid displaced from one end of the spool is
transferred to the other end through the passage which is designed to provide
a cushioning effect and balance the spool.
Forces may also be set up due to the changes in fluid momentum through
the valve, generally described as Bernoulli forces. Thus, typically, there may
be a reduction in pressure on the valve spool at the controlling edge, leading to
a force being generated producing unbalance or tending to close the valve. At
the same time, if backlash is also present in the system, Bernoulli forces may
produce high frequency 'chatter' of the valve spool.
The hydraulic unbalancing effects of fluid momentum between the cylinder
and tank ports of a vale can be minimised by contouring the spool shape as
shown in Figure 3. Flow forces that are developed at the conventional square
land orifice lP to B) are partially compensated for by the force-balancing contour
on the outer spool lands (A toT).
Accurate sequencing of land opening and closing also provides maximum
axial stability. as shown in Figure 4. In this example, it is important that flow
path A toT is opened before the path P to B to prevent pressure intensification
which could upset axial balance and limit valve function.
The spool can be moved manually, mechanically, by pilot pressure or by an
electric solenoid. Directional-control valves usually have finite spool positioning
to change the direction of flow from one port to another.
...
Figure 2.
Figure3 . Pigure 4.
Proportional-control valves and servo-valves have infinitely controllable

spool positioning so that the flow rate of the fluid as well as the direction of
flow is controlled.
Servo-valves
A servo-valve is capable of providing continuously variable flow with changing
input signal. The latter is normally a n electric signal to a torque motor. but
feedback signals may also be derived hydraulically or mechanically.
The simplest form of spool valve to control both the direction of flow and
flow rate is the three-way valve, but this will control the flow to only one side
of the load and a differential-area spool must be used . A more common design.
shown in Figure 5, is the four-way valve whose symmetry results in improved
linearity. However, there are three critical axial dimensions of the spool and
the sleeve. To reduce some of the manufacturing difficulties , designers have
used the following different designs.
I .Surply.
2. Ex hilust .
1 .T orque moto r .
C l il nd C2 to load.
Fiyure 5. Spool-type valve.

Spool Valves 141
Split-spool valves
To reduce the number of critical axial dimensions of the four-way valve, two
separate three-way valves may be linked together, as shown in Figure 6, and a
means of zero adjustment can be provided in the links. Although manufacturing
problems associated with porting are reduced, further difficulties are introduced
in that two parallel bores have to be made, and there may be additional backlash
in the linkage. Furthermore, its weight is usually more than that of the simple
four-way valve .
A design in which manufacturing difficulties associated with axial tolerances
are eliminated is the Elliott adjustable lap valve. This is a split, three-way
valve in which the two spools are mounted back-to-back and are actuated by a
central ram against restraint. The correct valve lap is obtained after assembly
by axial adjustment or the sleeves.
Sliding-plate valves
This design . shown in Figure 7. may be likened to an unwrapped spool (that is,
two-dimensional). or even to the original D-type steam valve. It overcomes the
difficulties associated with the manufacture of the bores in spool valves, and
hole-and-plug porting techniques may be used. However, some manufacturers
consider. the difficulties associated with the production of flat and parallel
plates greater than those or making spools and sleeves. Various methods are
used to reduce friction forces; in some valves the sliding member is suspended
on spring plates to prevent metallic contact, and others achieve hydrostatic
pressure balance.
Rotary-plate va lves
An alternative form of the plate valve is the rotary type shown in Figure 8.
Reaction-force compensation may be fairly easily introduced by the use of
deflector vanes which have the added advantage of being adjustable.
!. Supply .
2. Exhau~t.
3.Torque motor
Cl and C2 to load .
Figure 6. Split-spool valve.

! .Input.
2.Exhamt.
3. Torque motor.
CI anJ ('2 to load.
Figure 7. Sliding-plate valve.
!.Input.
2. Exhaust.
3.Torquc motor.
C! and ('2 to load .
Figure 8. Rotary-plate valw.
Askania-type valves
The main advantages claimed for this type or valve, sho·wn in Figure 9. are
that it is less susceptible to contamination clogging, and the ease or rna n u facture .
Although it has been fairly extensively used [or control purposes in low-
pressure applications, its design for medium- and high-pressure systems
presents a far more difficult problem because it is based on empirical methods.
A comment has been made that large reaction forces leading to serious
instability can occur, although the reasons for this are not known. This
valve, whose action depends upon the conversion of kinetic energy of the jet
into static pressure at the spool or ram, is referred to in the United States as the
'jet-pipe' design. However, it is probably preferable to avoid this term to
prevent confusion with other nozzle or jet designs used in two-stage valves.
Two-stage valves
Two-stage valves were designed to overcome the practical limitations of

power and response of single-stage valves. Any of the previously mentioned
4 6
--oo-c- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----,
I
I
-----
~----------, II
I
I
I
I
I
!.Supply.
+I
2. [xhausl.
}.Torque motor
4. 1nput force.
5 First stage I
I
6 .SeconJ stage posit1on feedback. I
- - - __ j
7. SeconJ stage.
I( Restrict or
C I and C2 to loild.
2 C! C2
t t
~~--------------------~
Figure 11. Two-stage valve: IIOzzle-flapper spool.
6
4 ---------------------,
I
I
I
I
! .Supply .
•
I
I
I
2. Exhaust.
3.Torque motor
4.Jnput force.
I
I :'i. First stage.
__ JI 6.Sccond stage position feedback.
C! and C2 to load.
Figure 12. Two-stage valve: double rwzzlf-flapper spool.
causes an increase in the pressure in the chamber between the nozzle and the
restrictor which causes the second stage spool to move and thus deliver oil to
the load. Movement of the flapper in the other direction will reduce the chamber
pressure, causing the spool to move in the opposite direction and produce
reverse motion of the load. Thus the nozzle and flapper act as a variable
impedence, and a variable percentage of the supply pressure acts on the
right-hand end of the second stage spool.
Double nozzl~flapper spool valves
Representing a further development of the design previously described, this

valve is shown in Figure 12. The flapper and nozzle control the pressure at
Spool Valves 145
I. DLtncing roll .
2. Lever
3. Driver roll or in-winder.
4.Servo-valvc .
."i.Boost pump.
Figurl' 13. Corrtrolli11g weiJ tension wit/1 hydraulic servo-operated variable delivery pump and hydraulic
motor drive.
both ends of the second stage spool and thus the operation of the first stage
may be likened to that of the four-way valve. Although a fairly high quiescent
flow is inevitable with this design, the power loss is not significant for most
applications.
The introduction of the nozzle-flapper device as the first stage. with its low
inertia and short stroke, was a major contribution in the field of two-stage
valve design. The design shown in Figure 13 is basically one of the earliest of a
family of valves having nozzle- flapper as the first stage.
For more detailed information on spool valves, refer to the Pneumatic
Handbook also published by Elsevier Science Limited.
Solenoid Valves
A solenoid valve is basically a valve operated by a built-in actuator in the form of

an electrical coil (or solenoid) and a plunger. The valve is thus opened or closed
by an electrical signal. being returned to its original position (usually by a spring)
when the signal is removed. Solenoid valves are produced in two modes-normally-
open or normally-closed (referring to the state when the solenoid is not energised).
The solenoid itself may be operated by d.c. or a.c. A d.c. supply may be provided
by a battery, d.c. generator or through a rectifier. An a.c. supply is normally
taken from a.c. mains voltage, through a transformer if necessary.
Valve types and classifications
Basically there are nine different valve types to be distinguished, as shown in

Figure 1.
Solenoid valves are also classified by type as follows:
So /maid valves.
Solenoid Vnlves 14 7
SLIDE DISC
CORE DISC
FLAPPER DISC
IJ
FLOATING DIAPHRAGM
LEVER
HUNG DIAPHRAGM
POPPET
PISTON
SPOOL
Figure I. Solenoid vnlve types.

2/2 (2-way valves)
T·wo-way valves have one inlet and one outlet pipe connection (see Figure 2).
They are of either
• normally-closed construction-valve is closed when de-energised and
open when energised, or
• normally-open construction- valve is closed when energised and open
when de-energised.
Figure 2. 2 / 2 ( 2-way valves).

Solenoid Valves 149
3/2 (3-way valves)
Three-way solenoid vales have three pipe connections and two orifices
(when one is open the other is closed and vice versa). They are commonly used
alternately to apply pressure to and exhaust pressure from a diaphragm valve
or single acting cylinder (see Figure 3 ). Three modes of operation are available.
• Normally-closed construction-with the valve de-energised, the pressure

port is closed and the exhaust port is connected to the cylinder port.
With the valve energised, the pressure port is connected to the cylinder
port and the exhaust port is closed.
• Normally-open construction-when the valve is de-energised the pressure
port is connected to the cylinder port and the exhaust port is closed.
When the valve is energised, the pressure port is closed and the cylinder
port is connected to the exhaust port.
• Universal construction-this allows the valve to be connected in either
the normally-closed or normally-open position. In addition, the valve
may be connected to select one or two ports (selection) or to divert flow
from one port to another (diversion).
...
.. 3
Figure 3. 3/2 ( 3-way valves).

4/2 and 5/2 (4-way valves)
Four-way solenoid valves are generally used to operate double-acting cylinders.

These have four or five pipe connections-one pressure. two cylinder and one
or two exhausts (Figure 4). In one valve position, pressure is connected to one
cylinder port; the other is connected to the exhaust. In the other valve
position, pressure and exhaust are reversed at the cylinder connections.
Single-solenoid and dual-solenoid types are commonplace.
Manual reset valves
Manual reset valves must be manually latched into position and will return to
their original position only when the solenoid has been energised or de-energised
depending on construction (Figure 5 ). Four modes of operation are possible:
• electrically tripped-latched open

• electrically tripped-latched closed
• no voltage release-normally-closed
• no voltage release- normally-open
Valve classifications
• General purpose valve-a normally-open or normally-closed valve

intended to control the flow of a fluid but not depended upon to act as a
safety valve.
• Safety shut-off valve-a normally-closed valve of the 'on' or 'off' type.
intended to be actuated by a safety control or emergency device to
prevent unsafe fluid delivery. It may also be used as a general purpose
valve. A multiple-port valve may be designated as a safety shut-off valve
only with respect to its normally-closed port.
Figure4. 4/2 and 5/2 (4-way valves).

SolenoidValves 151
Figure 5. Ma~rual-resct valves.
• Process-control valve- an approved valve (FM) to control flammable

gases. but not to be relied upon as a safety shut-off valve.
Direct-acting valves
When the solenoid is energised in a direct-acting valve, the core directly opens
the orifice of a normally-closed valve or closes the orifice of a normally-open
valve (Figures 6a and 6b ).
The force needed to open the valves is proportional to the orifice size and
fluid pressure. As the orifice size increases, so does the force required. To open
large orifices while keeping the solenoid size small, internal pilots are used.
Pilot-operated valve
This type of solenoid valve is equipped with a pilot and (smaller) (bleed) orifice
and utilises the line pressure for operation. When the solenoid is energised.
the pilot orifice is opened and releases pressure from the top of the valve piston
or diaphragm to the outlet of the valve.
Solenoid coil
Bonnet
Hung spring
Body
Disc
Direct-acting i111ng-diap!Jragm solenoid valve component parts.
FLON . . FLON o+
Df·EIIERGIZED EIIERCliZfD
Figures 6a and 6b. Direct-acting solenoid valves.
This results in an unbalanced pressure which forces the line pressure to lift
the piston or diaphragm off the main orifice and open the va lve.
When the solenoid is de-energised, the pilot orifice is closed and full line
pressure is applied to the top of the piston or diaphragm through the bleed
orifice. producing a sealing force for tight closure. There are two common
types of construction:
Solenoid Valves 153
(i) floating diaphragm or piston which requires a minimum pressure drop

to remain in the open position (Figures 7a and 7b );
(ii) hung-type diaphragm or piston which is mechanically held open by
the solenoid core and operates from zero to the maximum pressure
rating (Figures Sa and 8b ).
Pressure-operated valve
This is a diaphragm- or piston-operated valve equipped with a 3- or 4-way

solenoid pilot which alternatively applies a separate operating pressure to or
from the diaphragm or piston to open or close the main valve (Figures 9 and 1 0).
OUTLET
DE·ENEROIZED ENERGIZED
Figures 7a and 7/J. lrrt('rrwl pilot-operntedfloaUng-diaphragm valve.
FLOW- FLOW-
DE-ENERGIZED ENERGIZED
Figures Sa and 8b. Internal pilot-operated hung-diaphragm valve.

Pressurr-opernted diaphragm solr11oid valws.
Air-operated solenoid valves
An-air operated solenoid valve has two basic functional units:
(i) an operator with a diaphragm or piston assembly which when pressurised

develops a force to operates:
(ii) a valve containing an orifice in ·w hich a disc or plug is positioned to
stop or allow Aow.
Low and instrument air-pressure range operators usually have a diaphragm

for operation and for pneumatic operation the operator is generally a piston.
Figure 9. Pressure-opPrated diaphragm valve. Figurr 10. Prcssure-operatl'd pist.on vaiw'.

Solenoid Valves 155
4 / 2. 5/ 2 direci pilot-operated solenoid valves.
In dual-acting valves the operator stem is moved by the diaphragm or piston

and directly opens or closes the orifice. In internal pilot-operated valves, the
valve is equipped with a pilot and bleed orifice and utilises the line pressure for
operation. Figure 11 shows a direct-acting valve flow diagram and Figure 12
an internal pilot-operated valve flow diagram.
Return-spring effect
vVith a two-way normally-closed valve, both the spring force and the fluid
inlet pressure act to close the valve. As a consequence, the return spring can
be made relatively weak, and in some designs eliminated entirely. The latter
would require mounting the valve so that the solenoid was vertical. return
action being by gravity plus fluid pressure.
\!\lith a two-way normally-open valve, the spring holds the valve open,
assisted by fluid pressure. The solenoid force must be sufficient to overcome
both spring pressure and inlet pressure to close the valve.
Three-way valves require an upper and a lower spring. The lower spring
presses the valve against its seal opened by inlet pressure. The upper spring
acts in a direction to force the valve open. The following are the combination
of spring strengths required:
Lower spring Upper spring
Three-way normally-closed Strong Weak
Three-way normally-open vVeak Strong
Mixer valve Medium Medium
Divider valve Strong Weak
Operator
Operator
Exhausted
Exhausted Normally
Normally
Closed
e;;;;E~~~ Closed
Operator
Operator
Pressurized
Pressurized
Figure II. Flowdiagram:direct-acting valve. Figure I2. Flow diagram: pilot-operoteri valve.
Solenoid enclosures
Various types of enclosures may be used for solenoid coils, ranging from
general purpose enclosures to protect from indirect splashing and dust. through
dust and watertight enclosures to full explosion-proof enclosures. Requirements
in this respect are specific to the application and selected accordingly.
Glandless solenoid valves
By arranging the solenoid armature to work in a sealed tube with the solenoid
coil enveloping it, the sealing glands can be dispensed with, so simp lifying the
construction and eliminating one possible point ofleakage.
This principle has been applied extensively to smaller valves. A typical type
is shown in Figure 13.
This valve is T-shaped with two ports opposite each other. while the third is
at right angles to them. The plunger, usually of a corrosion-resistant ferrous
material, is spring-biased so that when unenergised it closes the lower orifice
while leaving the other open . When energised. the plunger is pulled up so that
the lower orifice is opened and the upper closed. rr desired. the spring can be
arranged to bias the plunger in one direction.
The plunger is provided with plastic valve discs, usually of synthetic rubber
or nylon. Because the plunger is unbalanced. the force due to the pressure
must be limited and the size of orifice, and therefore the flow and pressure
drop, is usually related to the pressure.
Solenoid Valves 1 57
!.Plunger.
2.Synlhetic seats.
3.Sieeve .
4.Coil.
A. Cylinder.
B. Pressure.
T.Exhaust.
Figure 13. Glandless solenoid valve.
The maximum pressure is also related to the type of valve and may be as
high as 210 bar (3000 lbf/in 2 ) with an 0.85 mm e/-
32 in) orifice. Flow
depends on the allowable pressure drop and this in turn depends on the orifice
size and the fluid.
Sealing is normally 'bubble-tight' but this is to some extent dependent on
the cleanliness of the fluid . Lubrication is not essential but if used with air the
valve life is increased by air-line lubrication.
Glandless valves can be installed in any position and will withstand appreciable
shock loads. Response time is extremely short, 5 ms on a.c. and 10 to 15 ms on
d.c. and it is said that speeds of up to several hundred cycles per minute are
possible.
For hazardous atmospheres, most manufacturers supply explosion-proof
materials which are slightly heavier and bulkier than the standard type.
Although these valves were originally developed for aircraft and missile
application, there is no doubt that they have many uses in hydraulics, both as
main valves for low-power systems and as pilot valves.
Where pressures do not exceed 17.5 bar (2 50 lbf/ in 2 ), a 1. 6 mm e/
16 in)
diameter orifice is suitable and this gives a flow of 2.31l/min (0.50 gal/min)
for 3.5 bar (SO lbf/ in 2 ) pressure drop. On a 50.8 mm (2in) diameter cylinder,
this would give a piston speed of 760 mm (30 in) per minute, while when used
as a pilot valve for 2 5.4 mm (1 in) diameter spool with 12.7 mm (2 in) movement.
the operating time is about half a second.
When acting as pilot valve, the actual flow would almost certainly be
greater than that for a 3 .5 bar (50 lbf/ in 2 ) pressure drop, as for a large part of
the time the pressure drop will be nearer 14 bar (200 lbf/ in 2 ), until the
resistance to piston or spool builds up .
Spool-type solenoid control vnlves. Piston-type opl'rator solenoid control valvPs.
Most of the manufacturers of these valves also supply pilot-operated valves

incorporating the basic glandless valve; four-way valves, and two- and three-
way valves for larger flows, are made in this way.
These valves may prove useful in acting as pilots to larger valves when
the 'pressure release' principle is adopted. Figure 14 shows this applied to a
differential-area spool valve. Normally the larger area keeps the spool to the
right, with the solenoid valve SC closed. Opening the solenoid valve causes the
pressure to drop in the left-hand chamber and the spring, with the excess
pressure, causes the spool to move to the left. A two-position springless valve could
also be operated in the same way. with jets and solenoid valves at each end.
Glandless solenoid valves~pool type
The construction of a four-way spring-centred closed-centre double-solenoid

valve is shown in Figure 15. It has push solenoids with a spool movement of 1
mm (0.040 in) either side of the centre. It is suitable for pressures up to 140
A B
Figure 14. Small solenoid valve used as pilot. employing pr£'ssure-reiease prirtcip/P.
Solenoid Valves 159
Figure 1 S. Glandless solenoid spool valve.
1. \Vet solenoid.
2. Encapsulated units.
3. Plug a nd socket connectors.
4. Valve body.
5. Spoo l.
6. 0-ring sea ls.
7. Mounting s urfa ce.
Figure I 6. Wet-type solenoid valve.
bar (2000 lbf/ in 2 ) and has a flow of9ljmin (2 gal/min) for a pressure drop of 2
bar (30 lbf/ in 2 ) on light hydraulic oil at 2 7 to 38°C (80 to 100°F). It is gasket-
mounted and when used as a pilot valve is bolted on top of the main valve.
Another example of a glandless valve with a 'wet' armature is shown in
Figure 16. All seals are static 0-rings.
Selection
A number or operating and physic a1 parameters must be considered when

selecting a solenoid valve. The operating parameters include:
• Pressures
Maximum operating pressure differential (MOPD). i.e. the pressure the
electrical solenoid has to overcome to open the valve and allow flow to
occur.
Minimum operating-pressure differential (MinOPD) , i.e. the minimum pressure

drop that will exist across the valve when it is flowing.
Safe static pressure, i.e. the maximum pressure the valve can be subjected to
in normal service.
Proof pressure, i.e. 5 times the safe working pressure.
• Temperatures
Normal ambient temperature
Maximum ambient temperature
Minimum ambient temperature
Maximum fluid temperature
• Viscosity
Viscosity is greatly dependent on temperature and to know the actual
viscosity of a fluid, the real temperature of the fluid must be considered.
Oil grades-both hydraulic and fuel oils are classified relative to
viscosity and are roughly distinguished in heavy and light oils.
• Response time
This is the time lapse after energising (or de-energising) a solenoid
valve and depends on the valve size and operating mode, the kind of
electrical supply, a.c. or d.c., fluids handled by the valve, temperature,
inlet pressure and pressure drop.
Approximate values for a.c. valves on air service under average conditions are:
Small direct-acting valves: 5-10 ms
Large direct-acting valves: 20-40 ms
Internal pilot-operated valves:
(a) small diaphragm-type 15-60 ms

(b) large diaphragm-type 40-120 ms
(c) small piston-type 75-100 ms
(d) large piston-type 100-1000 ms
Operation on liquid media generally has little effect, i.e.
(a) small direct-acting valves: 20-30% higher

(b) large direct-acting valves: 50-150% higher
Response time on d.c. valves is approximately 50-60% higher than on a.c.

operation.
• Valve seat tightness

Valve-seat tightness or leakage depends on the type of valve used.
sealing materials, trim and medium.
Solenoid Valves 161
Valve sizing
It is essential to size a valve properly because both undersizing and oversizing

have undesirable effects.
Undersizing may result in:
(1) Inability to pass desired flow requirements

(2) Flashing of liquids to vapours on the outlet side of the valve
(3) Lowering the outlet pressure
(4) Creating a substantial pressure loss in a piping system
Oversizing may result in:
(1) Unnecessary cost in oversized equipment

(2) Variable flow through the valve or erratic control of the flow
(3) Shorter life of some valve designs through oscillating of internal parts
(4) Erratic operation of some designs such as failure to shift position due to
lack of required flow in 3- and 4-way valves
(5) Erosion of wire drawing of seats in some designs because they operate at
nearly-closed position
The Kv (Cv) method of valve sizing reduces all variables to a common

denominator called flow coefficient. Most, if not all. manufacturers provide
extensive information and reference data for estimating Kv (Cv) and accurate
sizing of solenoid valves. To summarise, the basic factors in valve sizing
include:
• Maximum and minimum flows to be controlled

• Maximum and minimum pressure differentials across the valve
• Specific gravity. temperature and viscosity of fluids being controlled
Table 1 gives details of problems, possible causes and solutions in relation to

the operation of solenoid valves.
It is recommended that manufacturers' data is referred to and followed carefully
when problems occur. It is advisable that the manufacturer is consulted in
cases of difficulty.
......
0\
Table 1. Troubleshooting guide N
Problem Possible cause Probable solution <:::l

=:..
<::;
Valve will not operate Low voltage or no voltage to solenoid coil Check voltage at coil: for most valves. voltage should be at "'
~
when valve circuit is least 8 5% of name plate rating. ~
energised (direct-acting
valve) Burned out coil See ·coil failure· below. "''""
CJ
Excessive foreign matter jamming core in core tube Clean valve: install strainer close to val\·e inlet.
"'"'
~
::;
Binding core or damaged core tube Replace parts. ~
0
c
Excessive fluid pressure Reduce pressure to valve nameplate pressure rating or ::::
install suitable valve.
....
"'....
~
....
Valve will not operate when Same causes and solution as for direct-acting \'alve. plus: c;·
:::
valve circuit is energised
(pilot-operated valve) Low pressure drop across valve Valve might be oversized: replace valve with one having a
smaller orifice. lncrease pressure if possible.
Ruptured diaphragm or piston ring Replace damaged parts.
Plugged or restricted pilot orifice Clean valve and pilot orifice.
Valve will not close or shift Coil not de-energised Check electrical control circuit.
when valve circuit is
de-energised (direct-acting Excessive foreign matter jamming core in core tube Clean valve: install strainer close to valve inlet.
valve)
Damaged disc or seat causing internal leakage Replace with nevv parts.
Binding core or damaged core tube
Damaged spring Replace with new spring. Never elongate or shorten.
Valve will not close or shift Same ca uses and solution as for direct-acting valve. plus:
when valve circuit is
de-energised (pilot-operated Plugged bleed orifice Clean orifice.
valve)
Damaged pilot seat or pilot disc Replace with new parts.
Damaged diaphragm or piston Replace with n ew parts.

Damaged pilot spring Replace with new spring. Never elongate or shorten spring.
Insufficient pressure drop across the valve Valve might be oversized: replace valve with one having a
smaller orifice. Increase pressure if possible.
Wire drawing Dirt or foreign matter is lodged on seat Replace valve body or install new valve; install suitable
strainer close to inlet or valve.
Coil failure Overvoltage Check voltage at coil: voltage must conform to nameplate
rating.
Damaged core or core tube causing inrush current to be Check for damaged core and core tube. or damaged spring.
drawn continuously Check for scale or foreign matter on the core or inside the
core tube. Clean thoroughly. and replace any damaged
parts.
Excessive foreign matter jamming core in core tube and Check for damaged core and core tube. or damaged spring.
causing inrush current to be drawn continuously Check for scale or foreign matter on the core or inside the
core tube. Clean thoroughly. and replace any damaged
parts.
Excessive fluid pressure causing inrush current to be Reduce pressure or install suitable valve.
drawn continuously
Excessive ambient or fluid temperature Class A coils are limited to ambient temperatures of 77°F.
For temperatures up to 16JOF. use Class F coils: for
temperatures up to 2l2°F. use Class H.
Missing solenoid parts Install missing solenoid housing and other metal parts or
properly install incorrectly assembled metal parts. The
housing and other metal parts form part of the magnetic
circuit and are required to provide the impedance needed to
limit current draw.
V:J
Moisture inside solenoid enclosure Waterproof the entrance conduit to prevent entry of 0
moisture. If va lve is mounted outdoors. check to see that ~
:::;
enclosure is weatherproof and that gaskets are in good 0
~
condition: use appropriate sealant where required .
If general purpose enclosure is used in a damp or humid ~
~
atmosphere. use watertight. moulded coils. ~
' [n explosion-proof solenoids. a binding core. high-input voltage. or excessive ambient or fluid temperature may cause the solenoid's non-resettable thermal fuse to open. I-'
0'
If this occurs. the solenoid must be replaced. w
Swing Check (Flap) Valves
'Swing check' valves is the preferred description for non-return valves consisting
of a hinged disc, although they are also commonly called flap valves because
of their geometric action. Their mode of working is obvious. With flow in one
direction the disc hinges upwards to permit flow through the valve. With
reverse flow the disc is held closed. Equally, spring pressure or mass effect
normally holds the disc closed in the absence of flow. In some cases closure is
also assisted by the use of a weighted lever.
Small-size swing check valves for low-pressure services may use an elastomeric
disc with a square end clamped in position, eliminating any need for a
separate hinge. A back-up plate is added to assist closure and also provide
rigidity to the unsupported area of elastomer when the valve is closed. Without
this the disc would tend to collapse and extrude through the port. Larger versions
of flexible (elastomeric) flap valves are made in sizes up to 1500 mm ( 60 in).
Larger swing check valves are more usually made with discs or flaps of
metal or composite materials, hinged at the top and sealing on a metal seal.
The sealing surface is inclined at a small angle to the vertical to assist opening.
provide more positive sealing under back pressure and reduce shock when
closing under high pressure. A typical valve design is shown in Figure 1. In
1. Body in ductile iron FGS 500-7 epoxy coating 250 microns

inside/outside
2. Cover in ductile iron FGS 500·7 epoxy coating
250 microns inside/outside.
3. Bolts in dip galvanised steel.
4. Closing disc: ON 65 mm to 150 mm: ducti le iron FGS 500-7
DN 200 m m: steel.
5. Drain plug : dip galvanised steel.
6. Disc coating : NBR {Nitrile).
7. Gasket: NBR (Nitrile).
8. Disc shaft: brass BS.2874 NBR coated.
Figure 1. 1'ypical standard swing check valve.

Swing Check ( Plap) \1a.lves 16 5
larger valves the disc or flap may be double hung. Flap shapes are normally
(but not necessarily) circular.
Swing check valves present relatively high resistance to flow in the open
position as well as creating turbulence , because the flap 'floats' in the fluid
stream. They may also tend to chatter in systems having frequent flow reversals.
Swing check valves are normally used in horizontal pipelines. They can also
be used in sectional pipelines with upward flow. They are not suitable for
use in systems with pulsating flows. However, weight added to the flap or disc
Standard series swing check valve.
Door hinge
bracket
Door
Anchor bolt
Lifting handle
Flexible seal
Large flexible-flap valve.

(or spring-loading) can control the opening pressure as well as assisting

closure under back pressure.
Commonly the body shape incorporates a 'dead' volume in which fluid can
be trapped downstream of the flap once the valve is closed . If necessary, a
drain can be incorporated at this point, e.g. when it is desirable to drain a system
completely on shut-down.
The double-plate check valve shown in Figure 2 is particularly suitable for
pumping and general industry applications such as water treatment, irrigation,
general circuits and indus trial processes.
FigurP 2. Double-plate swing check val vi'.
01
Fiyure 3. Sprung swing check valve.

Swing Check (Flap) Valves 16 7
Figure 4. Tl1reP-piece construction swing check valve.
The valve is mounted between flanges and is suited to installations where

space is limited. The swing check valve shown in Figure 3 has only one
moving part and is of the sprung type. It has a tight shut-off and is capable of
working in temperatures up to 600°C and pressures up to 100 bar. The spring
mechanism is usually made from Iconel-X. titanium or Hastelloy.
Swing check (flap) valves are also produced in a three-piece construction
similar to that used in ball valve design (Figure 4) . The straight-through flow
makes it particularly suitable for hydrocarbon and chemical process lines. For
maintenance purposes, the valve body swings outward to allo·w access to the
check and seats.
Materials
Body materials used for swing check valves include cast iron. bronze. cast
steel, forged steel, stainless steel. high-duty alloys and also plastics . Valve
discs may be in similar materials or composites.
Applications
Main application areas for swing check valves are the water industry, including
pumping and water treatment, irrigation, and the petrochemical industry
including hydrocarbons and industrial processes. Other applications can be
found in air conditioning and general industry.
Penstocks
A penstock is a single-faced valve consisting of an open frame and a door. This

form of valve is normally located in tanks or channels as a means of controlling
flow into a pipe. Many types are available to suit particular requirements and
operating conditions. The main ones are:
(i) Penstocks for operating against pressure , i.e. pressure forcing the door
onto the frame.
(ii) Penstocks for operating against off-seating pressure, i.e. pressure
forcing the door away from the frame.
(iii) Penstocks designed to accommodate both seating and off-sea ting
pressures.
Seating pressure can be accommodated by the use of side wedges only.

Off-seating pressure requires the use of bottom wedges or top and bottom
wedges (see Figure 1). Penstocks subject to sealing pressure normally seal
tighter than penstocks for off-sealing pressure duties. Both types can be made
virtually drop-tight with correct installation, distortion of the gate frame at
-
I
DO•
Ill
...
•
t-
'== F=
~
=·
Sid e Wedg es Sid e. Bo tt o m an d To p W edges
Figure I . Penstocks showing tile location of wedges.

Penstocks 169
IM---+11------ SEALING
FACES
Figure 2 . Typical penstock.
the time of installa tion being the determining factor as far as leakage is
concerned .
Penstock frames may be circular or rectangular. In the latter case a preferred
proportion of width to depth is 2:3 for vertical form, and 4 :3 for horizontal
form. Frames and gates are commonly made of cast iron, although plastic
materials (usually reinforced steel) are also used for gates operating in
aluminium. stainless steel or epoxy-coated frames for corrosive applications.
Frames may be for channel or wall-mounted application (Figure 3 ). Sealing
faces in suitable materials are embedded into both the frame and door
surfaces.
Handwheel operation of the gate is normal, using a rising stem supported
by a suitable headstock or bracket. The advantage of a rising stem is that
the screw thread at the bottom of the stem is not usually immersed and is
readily accessible for lubrication. A non-rising stem eliminates the need for a
headstock and merely rotates through a nut in the penstock door (see Figure
2). The threaded portion at the bottom is then usually immersed in the
product being handled . Different systems for raising and lowerin g the gate
may be employed on modulating penstocks used for flow-control purposes
(Figures 4 and 5).
Spindle
/ Gusset
Door
lifting
bracket Chased-Invert
Adjustable
Type.
/ seal
Fixed
/ top seal
Door wedge
Frame
Concreto
wall
Anchor
bolt
Reinforcing
gusset
/ Spindle
/ __. Gusset
/' Door
lifting
bracket
fiKed
top seal
Door
Flush-Invert Frome
Type.
Figure 3. Wall-mounted penstocks.
Discharge through penstocks
A penstock when opened represents a partial obstruction in an open channel

over which liquid accelerates with a free liquid surface. Its performance is
thus essentially similar to that of a weir where !low rate Q is proportional to
width and velocity head. Working formulae are:
Q (Imp gal/min) 0.13 x area (ft 2 ) x J2 g x head (ft)

Q (US gal/min) 0.158 x area (ft 2
) x J2 g x head (ft)
3
Q (m /s) 0.7xarea(m 2 ) x J2 g x head (m)
Penstocks 171
Fixed seal
pindle
Adjustable seal
Anchor bolt
/
Concrete wall
Figure 4. Weir pwstock.
Door
lifting
bracket
Adjustable
seal
Frame
End cap
Fixed
vertical
seal
/ Door
/ Shroud
/ angle
Flexible
/ seal
Figure 5. Chnnnelpenstock.
Miscellaneous Valves
Where processes or storage applications require continuous safety. the three-way

changeover valve allows the user to cross over from one relief-valve system to
another. The design permits two valves on a single riser. This arrangement
protects the system with one active valve while the other valve is either in
reserve or being serviced. Construction details are shown in Figure 1.
The valve works with many general and specialised applications and can
incorporate an interlock system that allows either valve to be discharged into
Vent valve (not shown)

• Vents cavity between
rsolated crossover
valve seat and
relief valve
• Provides port(s)
lor in situ testing
Stop plate
Provides posrlion adjust-
ment and posrtive stop
lockrng locatron
Integral handle
• No tools Balance valve
• Fast operation For balancing pressure
• Short operatrng stroke (76°) i!c.ross closed seat to
• Rotary motion provide low actuation
• Highly vrsible posrtron torque
indicator
• Green ·safety indicator"
shows operator proper
alignment
Locking arrangement
• Cannot be locked until
all components are
transferrea and properly
aligned
• Tamper-proof handle
and locking mechanism
Closure member Spool seats
Load ring • Partrally sphencal closure member • Spnng-loaded. floatrng seats provrde
• Three-ported/two-way ball easy marntenance, and are pressure-
Provides controlled seat
• Flow path never completely closes actuated for rn srtu testrng
loading at assembly
• High Cv values • Cannot be overloaded by operator
• Overpressure protection at all times • Seats protected from media
Figure 1. Til reP-way changeover valve.

Miscellaneous Valves 1 73
Quick cross three-way changeover valve.
a single header. One valve mounts on the riser, the other on the outlets of
the relief valves. The valves are operated simultaneously through a simple
linkage. This type of valve can also be adapted for remote actuation, still
maintaining the single movement rotary change-over action.
Typical areas where the valve is used include chemical plants, fertilizer
plants, offshore platforms, refineries, pulp and paper mills, gas distribution
systems, toxic service, environmental protection. chlorine storage tanks,
refrigeration, dual filtration and process systems.
Pneumatic piston controlled on-off valve
Typically, this type of valve is best suited for controlling the flow of fluids ,
gases, steam and other substances apart from explosive substances (Figure 2).
The valve is equipped with a position indicator. Generally the material
of construction is either AISI 316, bronze or brass. Although the valve can be
fitted in almost any position, it must be fitted so that the direction of flow is
opposite to the plunger-closing position, otherwise water hammer can result.
Tunnel diverter valve
This valve is designed for use in pressure or vacuum systems to divert or converge
pellets: granules, fine powders or abrasive materials. Two types of sea ls are
Figure 2. Piston-controlled Oil-off valve.
used: 0-ring seals for applications conveying pellets and granular materials.
and air-assisted seals for conveying powdered or abrasive materials ·where
three air inlets introduce compressed air into the diverter-valve housing.
An unusual design of check valve is shown in Figure 3 . This features a lipped
elastomeric membrane as the working element, offering virtually unrestricted
flow in the open position with a capability of passing suspended solids up to
the full bore diameter. The membrane itself is held open to a full circular form
by the flow. the circumference of the membrane in this condition being D. Loss
of head is thus minimal (e.g. directly comparable with that of a swing check
valve).
With reverse flow. the membrane assumes a closed position ·with the lips in
mating contact (Figure 4), i.e. the natural 'unloaded' form of the membrane.
Closure is further assisted and maintained by the reverse flow impinging on
the sides of the now wedge-shaped membrane. The length of seal in this case is
rc.D/2, or substantially half that of a conventional check valve (i.e. the
potential leakage path is reduced by half).
The membrane itself is not subject to elastic deformation. merely flexure.
and thus has a long life. particularly if the fluid does not contain abrasive
solids in suspension. When servicing is required, replacement of the membrane
Miscellaneous Valves 1 75
Fig 11rr 3. Membrane check valve.
1TD
~I
I
I
I
I
OPEN POSITION CLOSED POSITION
Figurr4.
176 Valve Types Design and Construct.ion
is a simple operation. No other servicing is necessary. The membrane elastomer

is selected according to the product to be handled.
Because of the elastic nature of the closure, this type of check valve cannot
water hammer and is also noiseless in that it has no hinge or spring which can
be excited into vibration in either the open or closed position.
Currently this valve is made in threaded form for water pipes up to 50 mm
(2 in) diameter and flanged for water pipes from 50 to 400 mm ( 2 to 16 in)
diameter. Valve sizes up to 12 5 mm ( 5 in) have a single passage. Larger valves
have several passages, each with its individual membrane (Figure 5 ). This
solution of dividing the total flow into partial flows with smaller flow rates
which never open or close strictly eliminates water hammer in these larger
valve sizes with higher flow rates.
Eccentric valves
The description 'eccentric valve' is applied to plug valves having an eccentric

motion against a resilient facing. i.e. as the eccentric plug rotates 90° from
open to closed, it moves into a raised eccentric seat. The complete action can
be followed from Figure 6.
In the open position, the segmented plug is out of the flow path. Flow is
straight-through, flow capacity is high. As the plug closes, it moves towards
the seat without scraping the seat or body walls so there is no plug binding or
wear. Flow is still straight-through.
In the closed position, the plug makes contact with the seat. When furnished
with a resilient facing, the plug is pressed firmly into the seat for dead-tight
shut-off. The eccentric plug and seat provide lasting shut-off because the plug
continues to be pressed against the seat until firm contact is made.
Figure 5.
Figure 6. Eccentric valve: complete action.
Throttling characteristics of a valve of this type are generally excellent

(Figure 7), and shut-off in the closed position is positive with air and gases as
weH as liquids.
The valve shown in Figures 8 and 9 has been specifically intended for
applications such as tanker truck loading, portable tanks, intermediate bulk
containers (IBCs) bulk transfer stations, and agricultural and aviation duties.
The unit is designed to avoid accidental spills and cannot be disconnected
in the 'open' position. A handle prevents this and poppets automatically stop
the flow from both directions when the unit is disconnected. Maximum
working pressure is 150 lb/in 2 . The valve must not be opened or closed when
the pressure is in excess of 60 lb/ in 2 .
100
80
3:
0_.J
......
2
:::>
~
x<X:
~
......
0
~
20 60 80 100
VALVE% OPEN
Figure 7. Throttling characteristics.

Open Position
Figure 8. Dry disco11nect valv~: cutaway view.
Figurl' 9. Dry disconnect valve.
Polymer valves
Polymer valves are used to drain feed, changeover, sample, inject. distribute
and control polyester (including PET), nylon, PVC, PP, PU, HOPE. LDPE and
related polymers.
The difi'erent types of valves used in the polymer processes include:
• Feeding valves-disc valves are better suited than ram valves for feeding
low viscosity feedstocks into reactors (Figure 10). Typical feeding valves
are used to regulate the flow of polyester into esterification and
polymerization reactors. For vacuum service. bellows are generally
used. These should be of the external type due to the possibility of failure
in a crystallising environment.
• Discharge valves-ram and disc-type bottom outlet valves are used to
drain reactors or control access to the transfer lines between reactors
and crystallisers (Figure 11).
Figure 10 . Feeding valve.
• Injection and stripping (deodourising) valve-in many processes,

unwanted impurities or remnants, such as unpolymerized monomers in
PVC and polyurethanes or solvents in paints and coating suspensions,
are stripped from the batch at the end of the process by the injection of
saturated steam. The ram tip of the valve is adapted to each vessel as
well as the required flow conditions to optimise the spray pattern and
prevent product reflux during the operating cycle and in the closed
position.
Rather than emptying the reactor when an exothermic reaction goes out of
control, the injection and stripping valve (Figure 12) injects a stopper.
Another injection valve injects protective colloids. This type of valve is a lso
used to inject steam to heat a reactor.
Figure 11 . Discharge valve.

Figure 12. Injection anc/ stripping ( desodorising) valves.
• Spray rinse valves-typically used to rinse polymer reactors. especially

in the production of PVC where the dome and bottom pad are the parts
most in need of cleaning. Valves can be used with water or steam at up to
40 bar.
• Sampling valves- for drain and sampling and flush or purge.
• Polymer additives injection valve-these valves allow small amounts of
additives and catalysts such as titanium dioxide to be injected into the
line and distributed evenly through the polymer (Figure 13 ). Different
types are available.
Figure 13 . Polymer additives injectio11 valve.

Miscellan eolts Valves 181
• Multipart diverter valves-these eliminate multiple in-line valves with

associated distributor 'T' pieces and piping. Main lines can be divided up
to six lines with the valves having up to seven inlets and outlets.
• Filter switching valves-usually two valves are involved for switching
duplex filters in high-viscosity polymer plants. The inlet valve diverts
the flow to one of the duplex filters and the outlet valve guides the flow
back to the main line. Piston diverter valves and rotating disc valves are
used for this process. Both types of valves can also incorporate particular
features and modes of operation.
• In-line valves- these are used to control and shut off the flow of polymer
through the piping system. Ball valves and globe vaJves are not suitable
for this duty. Y-globe valves are used in both manual on/ off and automatic
control versions with polyester. As an alternative, gate valves are used
in low pressure and vacuum applications.
• Dye head valves-these valves combine a bottom outlet piston or an end
of line Y-globe valve with a stranding dye head, the one used in polyester
and nylon polymerization plants.
SECTION 3
Pressure Valves and Services
Check Valves
Safety and Relief Valves
Self-Acting Reducing Valves
Air Relief Valves
Foot Valves
Check Valves
In general terms. check valves are intended to prevent reverse flow in a line
e.g. after a pump has stopped and to prevent water hammer. They are also
known as non-return valves. reflux valves, flap valves. retention valves and
foot valves in different services. The basic principle of the valve is to only allow
flow in one direction only and with non-return valves, the check valve is self
actuating when flow is reversed. Discs, wafers or membrane diaphragms are
used in this type of valve.
There are numerous types of closing systems in check valves but basically
the check valve can be categorised as follows :
(i) S·wing- or plate-type valves (swing/ plate check valves)-Figure 1,

where the check mechanism is a hinged plate or flap, or disc-see
chapter on Flap Valves, Section 2. The butterfly check valve is a variant
on this principle-see chapter on Butterfly Valves, Section 2.
Q{-1o
2
2
!.Body.
2.Body connector
3.Seat housing.
4.Retaining plate .
5.Ciack.
6.Seat.
7.Bodyseal.
8.0rientation pin.
9. Body connector bolt.
IO.Body connector nut.
Swing check valve,
ll.Optional clock spring .
(exploded view). 12. Body label.
13. Identification label.
18 6 Pressure Falves and Services
Swing check valves.
Buttweldmg End
Figure 1. Bolted cover swing check valvr.

CheckValves 187
(ii) Tilting disc check valves, similar to swing-type check valves but with a
profiled disc.
(iii) Guided or lift-type valves where the check mechanism incorporates an
element which lifts along an axis in line with the axis of the body seat.
These may be further sub-divided into:
(a) disc check valves.
(b) piston check valves.
(c) ball check valves.
(iv) Foot valves: specifically check valves fitted to the bottom of a suction
pipe.
(v) Spring-loaded check valves.
(vi) \t\lafer check valves: includes swing-type, sprung disc twin plate.
(vii) Check and surge-suppressor valves: including multi-door check valves
for larger pipelines. and electrically- and pneumatically-operated
surge-suppressor valves.
(viii) Hydraulic and pneumatic check valves.
Tilting disc check valves
The basis of the tilting disc check valve is a 'lifting' section disc. pivoted in
front of its centre of pressure and counterweighted and/ or spring-loaded to assume
a normal closed position. With flow in one direction the disc lifts and 'floats' in
the stream. offering minimum resistance to flow. The balance of the disc is such
that as flow decreases the disc will pivot towards its closed position, reaching
this before flow has actually ceased, sealing before reverse flow commences.
With reverse-flow, reverse-flow pressure and the counterweight system hold
the disc closed (Figure 2). Operation is smooth and silent under all conditions.
Valves of this type normally have resilient sealing rings mounted on a metal
face. Metal seals may be used for high-temperature applications.
Guided or lift-type disc valves
Lift-type disc valves are similar in configuration to globe valves except that the
disc or plug is automatically operated, i.e. is capable of floating in its seat. The
Full flow Low flow Reverse flow
Figure 2. Ti!Ungdisccheck valve.

18 8 Pressure Valws and Services
Figure 3. Standard guided 11011-retrm1 check valve.
disc or plug is lifted by flow in one direction, permitting through flow. With
reverse flow the disc or plug is held on its seat by reverse-flow pressure. giving
shut-off. A typical standard check valve is shown in Figure 3.
Valves of this type are further categorised by geometric configuration, i.e.
horizontal. angle (oblique) and vertical.
Piston check valves
The piston-type lift check valve incorporates a dashpot applied to the check
mechanism (Figure 4), otherwise it is basically similar to a lift-type disc valve. The
advantage of the dash pot is that it provides a damping effect during operation.
Lift-type piston check valves are commonly used in conjunction with globe
and angle valves on piping systems subject to surge pressures or frequent
changes in flow direction.
Check valve for high-duty pressure wat.er systems. Horizorrta/lift check valve.
CheckValves 189
lit-~+---.- 2 l.Body.
""'*~~ 2. Disc.
3.Disc holder .
4.Cover.
Figr.trf 4. Piston check valve.
Ball check valves
The check element in a lift-type ball valve is a spherical ball, suitably

restrained but capable of floating off and onto a seat. With forward flow the
ball is forced away from the seat. opening the valve. With reverse .flow the ball
is forced onto the seat to produce a seal and shut-off. A particular advantage of
ball check valves is that they can prove more suitable for use with viscous
fluids than other types (Figure 5).
Ball check valves may be of all-metal construction, metal ball with resilient
seat. mixed construction (metal or plastic ball), or all-plastic construction.
Foot valves
Foot valves, which often include a strainer, are fitted to the end of a suction pipe
and prevent a pump emptying when it stops and therefore not needing priming
when restarting. They should have a minimum resistance to flow, with the
Figrtre 5. Ball rlrl'ck valve. The closing system is a ball lifted up by thefluid and guided ton lateral housing.
190 Pressure Valves and Services
Figure 6. Foot valve for p11mping installations Figure 7. Menrbrane foot valve for irrigation
with substantia/flow. and drainage pumps.
actual valve element or flap as light as possible if the risk of cavitation is to be

avoided. The valves may be of the single flap (Figures 6 and 7) or multiple
flat-type , membrane, guided or ball-operating systems. See chapter on Foot
Valves.
Spring~loaded check valves
Lift-type check valves may be spring-loaded for more positive shut-off action,
particularly as regards more rapid-response cessation of flow. i.e. they can be
adjusted to close before flow has fully ceased rather than having to rely on
reverse-flow pressure. They can be of disc, plug or ball-type and can work in
any position. i.e. horizontal, inclined, upward or downward flow (Figure 8 ).
Spring-loaded check valves can be made in the widest variety of materials
with stainless steel or high-duty alloy springs as necessary. Opening
characteristics are governed by the spring rate.
In-line spring assisted valves
The advantages of valves of this type are that they can be installed in the line
in any orientation and typically they do not rely on gravity or reverse flow to
close. Instead, as the forward velocity of the fluid slows, the spring assist starts
to close the disc.
Due to the spring assist and short travel distance of the disc, by the time
forward velocity has decreased to zero, the valve disk has reached the seat and
the valve is closed. With reverse flow eliminated, the forces necessary to
produce water hammer on both upstream and downstream sides of the valve
are substantially reduced.
CheckValves 191
Figure 8. Spring-loaded check valve for protecting drinking water nPtworks.
In-line check valves of this type are probably among the most popular types
and are used in many industries including chemical, food and beverage. mining,
oil and gas. pulp and paper, building services and general industry duties .
A basic in-line check valve is shown in Figure 9.
A list of typical applications for spring-assisted in-line check valves is
shown in Table 1 .
Water hammer
This is the generation and effect of high-pressure shock waves (transients) in

relatively incompressible fluids. \.Vater hammer is caused by the shock waves
that are generated when a liquid is stopped abruptly in a pipe by an object
such as a valve disc. Symptoms include noise. vibration and hammering pipe
DISC
BODY SEAL
"O"AING
Figure 9. Spring-assisted in-lim' check valve.

19 2 Pressure Valves and Services
In-line check valves.
sounds which can result in flange breakage, equipment damage, ruptured

piping and damage to pipe supports. vVhenever incompressible fluids exist in a
piping system, the potential exists for water hammer. The risks or water hammer
developing are particularly high when the velocity of the fluid is high, there is
a large mass of fluid moving and/ or when there are large elevation changes
within the piping systems. The check valve shown in Figure 10 is specially
designed for use on the discharge side of reciprocating air or gas compressors.
It includes a pulse damping chamber to maintain the disc in the open position
during the momentary reductions in flow associated with each cycle of a
reciprocating compressor and to protect against premature seat wear.
Restrictor check valves are generally used for applications that require
higher cracking pressures to open the check valve. They should not be
considered a substitute for a pressure-relief valve.
A general check valve trouble shooting guide is given in Table 2.
The operation of in-line check valves is not normally affected by their
proximity to elbows, 'Ts' control valves, etc. It is not good practice to install
CileckValves 193
Table 1. In-line check valves
Applications
Building maintenance Petroleum production and refining

Compressor discharge Pump discharge
Condensate lines Steam lines
Pump discharge Vacuum lines and breakers
Steam lines Water treatment
Water lines
Power generation
Chemical processing Boiler feed and discharge
Boiler feed and discharge Compressor discharge
Compressor discharge Cooling towers
Condensate lines Evaporators
Cooling towers Fly ash system
Cryogenics Pump discharge
Evaporators Steam lines
Metering pumps Vacuum system
Mineral dewatering Water lines
Nitrogen purge
Process lines Primary metals
Pump discharge Chemical lines
Steam lines Compressor discharge
Vacuum lines and breakers Condensate lines
Water treatment Evaporators
Extrusion equipment
Food, beverage and drug Hydraulic lines
Autoclaves Presses- water inlet and outlet
Boiler feed and discharge Pump discharge
Chemical lines Steam lines
Compressor discharge Water lines
Condensate lines Water treatment
Cookers
Evaporators Pulp and paper
Metering pumps Boiler feed and discharge
Pump discharge Chemica\ lines
Refrigeration (hot gas defrost} Condensate lines
Steam lines Generator inlet and discharge
Vacuum lines and breakers Metering pumps
Pump discharge
Mining Steam lines
Boiler feed and discharge (digester and paper machines)
Mine dewatering Water treatment
Petroleum production and refining Textiles

Boiler feed and discharge Boiler feed and discharge
Compressor discharge Chemical dye lines
Condensate lines Compressor discharge
Cooling towers Condensate lines
Crude and refined product lines Metering pumps
Evaporators Pump discharge
Generator iolet and discharge Steam lines
SPA ING ___,~_-f,:.q2::::;:......_.~

RETAINER
NUT
Fig11re I 0. Check valve for reciprocating compressors.
in-line check valves directly to the outlet of such devices as it can result in
decreased life due to turbulence caused by the fitting. Some manufacturers
recommend that in-line check valves be installed a minimum of five pipe-
diameters downstream of any fitting that would cause turbulence. The flow
arrow on the body casing, if shown, must be pointed in the direction of the flow .
Wafer check valves
Typically wafer-style-design check valves are used as an effective solution for

the prevention of reverse flow in pipes carrying most types of liquids, steam
gases, and vapours. They are usually designed to fit between two pipeline
flanges .
The valves are opened by the flow pressure of the fluid and closed by a spring
when flow ceases and before reverse flow can occur (Figure 11 ).
Typical applications include:
• Steam boiler flooding protection

• Pipeline fitting protection
• Prevention of reverse flow
• Vacuum breaker
A typical wafer check valve with its pressure-loss diagram is shown in

Figure 12.
Check Valves 19 5
Water-type cfll'ck valve.
01 DO
Fig11re 1 7. Spring disc wafrr clzeck valve.
Hydraulic and pneumatic check valves
Check valves employed in hydraulic and pneumatic applications are more

comprehensively covered in the Hydraulic Handbook and the Pneumatic
Handbook both published by Elsevier Science Limited. These valves are
generally used where high pressures (up to 10,000 lb/ in 2 ) in standard form
where positive leak-tight sealing is required.
196 PressureValvesandServices
Pressure loss diagram

200 50
100 ~ 30
70 ~ \<JIJ 20
~ 50 2.-- ...... ~
</)
........
E
~ 30 ~~ ~co<J I"' 10 s
·= 20
/ ~ v v 1--" =
Q)
~v v ~
Q)
~ ... I' 5
~ I--' 3:
3: .L' ~~:;..;- .... 3 2.....
0
c;:
10
..... 2 Q)
2 7
5 ..... ~~~ ..t!.
-<;;;
:s::
3"' I if" L--' L--'
, j_ ~~~ ........ ~
3
2
/
lLr"
~
~
v ,;'"",..
~\':>
v--
...-'
-- 0.5
1
0.7 0.2
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5
Pressure loss rn bar
Pressure loss diagram with open valve at 20'C
The values indicated are applicable to spring loaded valves with
horizontal flow. With vertical flow, insignificant deviations occur only
within the range of partial opening.
The curves given in the chart are valid for water at 20'C. To determine
the pressure drop for other fluids the equivalent water volume flowrate
must be calculated and used in the graph.
Vw-~ xV
Vw = Equivalent water volume flow in 1/s or m3/h

Q = Density of fluid kg/m 3
V = Volume of fluid 1/s or rn3/h
Figure 12. Typical wrifer-type check valve and pressure loss diagra111.
CileckValves 197
Table 2. Check valve trouble-shooting guide
Symptom Cause Solutions
Water hammer. loud noise, Slow-closing check valve. In-line spring assisted
vibration, ruptured piping. check valve.
equipment damage.
-
Steam wear (pointed stem). Low flow. pulsating flow, Custom sizing of the check
elongated seat guide. bushing wear. improper sizing. valve intervals.
PDC for reciproca ting air or
gas medium.
-
Excessive seat leakage Dirt. trash. foreign Clean out the valve. Install
(greater than MSS-SP61). substance in the valve. strainers if it is a
recurring problem.
Install a soft seat if bubble
tightshut-offis required.
Noise. clicking. tapping. Low flow . pulsating flow , Custom sizing of the check
improper sizing. valve internals.
PDC fo r reciprocating air or
gas medium.
- - -
Reverse flow. Slow-closing check valve. In-line spring-assisted
check valve.
Component breakage. valve failure. Reciprocating compressor. PDC for reciprocating air
or gas medium.
--
Missing internals. Valve not full open. pulsing Custom sizing of the check
flow, improper sizing. valve internals.
PDC for reciprocating air or
gas medium.
Various types of hydraulic and pneumatic check valves are shown in Figure
13. The distinguishing feature of these valves is their zero leakage achieved by
a flexible seal seat (Figure 14).
The flexible seal seat design allows the poppet in the check valve to impact
only slightly on the '0' ring in the closed position. The metal-to-metal contact
between the poppet and the end cap serves as a mechanical seat. Under
reverse pressure, the '0' ring flexes only as much as is needed to seal around
the nose of the poppet and to expel any foreign particles. As a result the '0'
rings are protected from excessive wear.
Five flow holes drilled into the poppet core are positioned to provide a
streamlined flow path through the valve. The combined area of these holes is
greater than the area of either the inlet or outlet parts. The flow is directed
through the centre of the spring.
Typically, hydraulic and pneumatic check valves incorporate ball-type,
poppet, cartridge shuttle and split-flange designs and are used in a wide variety
198 Pressure Valves a.nd Services
ZERO PRESSURE HIGH PRESSURE HIGH PRESSURE

NO FLOW FULL FLOW REVERS E FLOW CH EC KE D
Relaxed seal rong an d gentle seal-to· Seal flexes to close ott all external Seal Still hold1ng external leakage now
poppet contact guarantees low pres· leakage around end cap Enclosure cJiso tlexC's arouno poppet. H 1gner
su re sea1 1ng and ellm 1nates va l ve protects seal ring. prevents s.:a l dis- PI<)SSurcs t1ghten th e seal. l eakage
c ha tter. placement. Zero.
Figure 13. Hydraulic and pneumatic check valve 1vithjlexiblP spa [ seat. design.* Flexible sC'al sl'at.
Figure I 4. Hydrau lic and pnertmn.tic check and relief valvrs. *Flexible seal seat.
Check Valves 199
of industries including agriculture, aerospace, road equipment, robotics.

industrial machinery. medical equipment instrumentation and controls, chemical
processing and handling.
Check valves are commonly used in combination with flow control valves.
the type and operating characteristics of which can influence the choice of
check valve type.
Suitable combinations are:
Swing check valve-used with ball. plug, gate or diaphragm control valves.
Lift check valve-used with globe or angle valves.
Piston check valve-used with globe or angle valves.
Butterfly check valve-used with ball. plug, butterfly, diaphragm or pinch
valves.
Spring-loaded check valves-used with globe or angle valves.
The exception is the foot valve, normally associated with a pump (i.e. there
is no other valve positioned between the foot valve and the pump).
See also chapters on Swing check/Flap valves, Non-return valves , Water
services.
Valves that are vital for the protection of people and plant are termed Safety
and Relief Valves. These valves operate automatically when a predetermined
pressure level is exceeded by releasing an adjustable spring which holds a
valve disc against a valve seat.
There are. however, distinctions between safety valves and relief valves
that lead to the following definitions and terminology.
• Safety Valve-A valve which automatically discharges gases and
vapours so as to prevent a pre-determined safe pressure being exceeded .
It is characterised by a rapid full-opening action and used for steam,
gases or vapour service (Figure 1 ).
Safety valves can be further categorised as follows:
(i) Low-Lift Safety Valve-A low-lift valve in which the disc lifts
automatically such that the actual discharge area is determined by the
position of the disc.
(ii) Full-Lift Safety Valve--A valve in which the disc lifts automatically
such that the actual discharge area is not determined by the position of
the disc.
(iii) Pilot-Operated Safety Valve-A safety valve, the operation of which is
initiated and controlled by the fluid discharged from a pilot valve
which is itself a direct loaded safety valve.
• Relief Valve-A valve which automatically discharges fluid, usually

liquid when a pre-determined upstream pressure is exceeded (Figure 2).
It may be provided with an enclosed spring housing suitable for closed
discharge system application.
• Pressure Relief Valve-A safety device designed to protect a pressurised
vessel or system during an overpressure event, by relieving excess pressure,
and to reclose and prevent the further flow of fluid after normal
conditions have been restored. It is characterised by a rapid opening pop
action or by opening generally proportional to the increase in pressure
over the opening pressure (Figure 3 ).
Materials of construction
Item Component Ma1enat · SV 57 7 SV54
I S00y________________G
~G~G_·_40~t~~~G7S~C~·25
-?-- Seat 1.4507-
3 Bonnet GG G-4 0.~GS-C25
4 Cap GGG-40.3
5 DISC _________________::_ I 4SOi
6 ----...
D~ ISC:-:9::-:U:-:;I
d: .. : : - - - - - - -
GGG-40 3
7 Sk1rt t.4031
s----~
sp~~n~d~
te----------------------,~.4~0~
34
9 Body Botts DIN-931 5.6 ZNIOIN-933 CK-35
10 _ sgnng washers CK 45
-1-t - Retatner ung t 4034
t2 Guide steeve t .403 t
13 Sprtng adjustment screw 1.4034
--:1-i-
4- - - -, L'-'-
oc =k--"n'--
u·t Carbon steel DIN 1651 95 Mn 36 -Zp
15 Sprtng Carbon Steel DIN 17225 so crv4-
--:1i-
6 ------7c<':::a~
p .::
bolt OIN-931 5.6 ZN
17 Collar Carbon steel Zlnc
18 Lever GGG 40.3
19 Ptn Carbon steel Zmc
~ ciiCiip DIN-4 71 Carbon steel
-21 P1n OIN-7343
22 Dra1n Role l'l SSP-
23 Sp1ndle Bail 1.4034
~ ldeniiilcatton plate Alum1mum
25 Cock1ng Screw OIN-913 A~
26 Rmg ptn OIN-t48t
v- Lever stem 1.4034
28 Cam GGG-40.3
29 l'ack1ng Grapfitte
30 Gland 1.4305
31 Nut i51N-t471
32 0 - 1'\mg relatner 1.4031
33 O - l'i1ng Accordmg 10 SeiVICC
9 34 Gland nut C. steel
35 Gasket ! rellel only ) Asbestos lree
-36 Gasket ( rehel o~ Asbestos lree
34 30 29 28 27
Packed easing Gas light

lever cap
32
33 -
31 --~=-~~~--~
0-rlng seal
Figure I . Safety valve suitable for steam, gas and liquid service.
• Pilot-Operated Pressure Relief Valve--A second type of pressure relief

valve in which the major relieving device is combined with and is
controlled by a self-actuated auxiliary pressure relief valve.
• Safety Relief Valve--A valve which will automatically discharge gases,
vapours or liquids so as to prevent a pre-determined safe pressure
being exceeded. It is characterised by a rapid full-opening action or by
opening in proportion to the increase in pressure over the opening
pressure, depending on the application, and may be used either for liquid
or compressible fluid (Figure 4).
I toOY
T ~ o~
J GUIDE
-.~-- ---·-
o· ~
5
- -SPIIING
- PIAU
SPIIING
COVlR
S"NOU
ADJU$11NG SCRIW
- - IOCKHUI-
OOMt
12 NAMEPLAU
13 RlNEWAIU SEAl
VALVE INLET
•
Figure 2. Liquid relief valve.
Figure 3. Pressure rdiefvnlvl'. Figure 4 . Filii-lift. safety reliljvalve.

A safety relief valve can be further categorised as:

(i) A Conventional Safety Relief Valve-A valve which has a spring housing
vented to the discharge side of the valve. The operational characteristics
(open and closing pressure and relieving capacity) are directly affected
by changes of the back pressure on the valve.
(ii) A Balanced Safety Relief Valve-A valve which incorporates means of
minimising the effect of back pressure on the operational characteristics
(opening and closing pressure and relieving capacity).
Since all of these types of valves are safety devices, there are many codes and
standards throughout the world written to control their design and application.
Some of these codes and standards are shown in Table 1. Among the most
widely used is the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, commonly referred
to as the ASME Code.
More specific information may be found by referring to this code, various
published standards and by consulting literature published by safety and relief
valve manufacturers.
Safety Valves
Typical operating parameters for safety valves are given in Table 2. Safety
valve set pressure and temperature limits are governed by a number of factors
and may not always coincide with manufacturers' published limits for the
applicable materials and flange ratings. Particular limits may be based on
spring limitations. specific material selection or other design considerations.
With boiler applications, for example, set pressures and total capacity
requirements for safety valves are usually established by the design agent or
boiler manufacturer.
Safety valves are intended to open and close within a narrow pressure
range; therefore, valve installations require careful and accurate design, both
as to inlet and discharge piping. The higher the operating pressure and the
greater the valve capacity. the more critical becomes the need for proper
design of the installation.
Safety valves should always be mounted in a vertical position directly on
nozzles having a well rounded approach that provides smooth, unobstructed
flow from the vessel or line to the valve.
A safety valve should never be installed on a nozzle having an inside
diameter smaller than the inlet connection to the valve, or on excessively long
nozzles. The pressure drop occurring in the inlet piping should be calculated
at actual flow of the valve. Where safety valves are installed to protect
piping systems, as on the low pressure side of a reducing valve or on a turbine
by-pass, the pipe or header must be or sufficient size to maintain flow under the
safety valve while it is discharging . A typical design of a pop-type safety valve
is shown in Figure 5.
Table 1. Codes and standards
Regulatory body Codes and standards
All ami Energerhkai es Safety Valves 22/1969/Vl.l2 (mod)

Energiabiztonsagtechnikai 29/1960/VI. 7 (orig)
Felugyelet (AEEF)
(State Authority for Energy.
Management and Safety)
Budapest VIII
Koztarsasag ter 7. Hungary
American National Standards Institute 816.34 Steel Valves. Flanged and Buttwelded
1430 Broadway Ends
New York, NY 10018. USA 816.5 Steel Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
B3l.l Power Piping
831.3 Chemica IPlant and Petroleum Refinery
Piping
B31.4 Liquid Petroleum Transportation
Piping Systems
89 5.1 Terminology lor Pressure ReliefDevices
ANS[/ ASME PTC 25.3 Performance Test Code.
-
American Petroleum Institute API RP 510 Pressure Vessel Inspection Code
2101 LStreetNorthwest API RP 520 Recommended Practice for
Washington, DC 2003 7. USA the Design and Installation of
Pressure Relieving Systems in
Refineries: Part 1- Design;
Part II- Installation
API RP 521 Guide for Pressure Relief and
Depressuring Systems
API Standard 526 Flanged Steel Safety Relief
Valves
API Standard 52 7 Commercial Seat Tightness
of Safety Relief Valves with Metal to Meta l
Seats
API 2000 Venting Atmospheric and Low
Pressure Storage Tanks
API Guide for Inspection of Refinery
Equipment Chapter XVI-Pressure
Relieving Devices
The American Society of Mechanical Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

Engineers Section 1- Power Boilers
United Engineering Center Section li- Materials
34 5 East 47th Street Section IV- Heating Boilers
New York . NY 10017, USA Section VII- Care ofPower Boilers
Section VIII-Pressure Vessels
Section IX- Welding and Brazing
Qualification s
Safety and Relief Valves 20 5
Table 1 (co11Unued)
- - -----~ -,---
-~-- ---------------------------
Association Francaise de Normalisation NFE 2 9-410 to 420
Tour Europe
Cedex 7
F-9 2049 Paris La Defence. France
Australian Standards Association AS12 71 Safety Valves, Other Valves. Liquid

No. 1 The Crescent Home bush Level Gages and Other Fittings for Boilers
New South Wales 2140. Australia and Unfired Pressure Vessels 1990 Edition
AS121 0 Unfired Pressure Vessels (EAA Unfired
Pressure Vessel Code) 1989 Edition
AS1200 Pressure Equipment 1994 Edition
British Standards Institute BS6759 Parts l. 2 and 3 Safety Valves

389 Cbiswick High Road
London W4 4AL. England
Canadian Standards Association CSA 2299.2.85 (Rl991)-Quality Assurance

178 Rexdale Boulevard Program-Category 1
Toronto. Ontario M9W 1R3, CSA 2299.3.85 (Rl991 )-Quality Assurance
Canada Program-Category 3
CSA 2299.4.85 (R1991)-Quality Assurance
Program-Category 4
Chlorine Institute lnc. Pamphlet Type 1-1/2" JQ

2001 L Street. NW Pamphlet41 Type4" JQ
Washington. DC 20036, USA
CCNASTHOL GOST R Certification System

Shenogina Street
123007 Moscow, Russia
Deutsche lnstitut Fur Normung DIN 50049 Materials Testing Certificates

Burggrafenstrasse 6
D-10787 Berlin. Germany
Comite Europeen de Normalisation CEN Standards for Safety Valves

(European Committee de Standardisation) Pressure Equipment Directive
rue de Stassart 3 6
B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
Heal Exchange Institute. [nc. HEI Standards for Closed Feed water Heaters
1300 Sumner Avenue
Cleveland. OH 44115. USA
International Organisation for fS0-900 Quality System

Standardisation IS0-4126 Safety Valves--General Requirements
Case Posta le 56
CH-1211
Geneve 20, Switzerland
Table 1 (continued)
I.S.C.I.R. Central Romanian Pressure Vessel Standard

Bucuresti
Frumoasa nr. 26. Romania
Japanese Industrial Standard Committee JIS 882 .l 0 Spring Loaded Safety Valves
Japanese Standards Association for Steam Boile rs and Pressure Vessels
1-24, Akasaka 4-chome. Minato-k u
Tokyo 107 Japan
Manufacturers' Standardization SP-6 Finishes ofContactfaces of Connecting

Society of the Valve and Fitting Industry End Flanges
1815 North Fort Myer Drive SP-9 MSS Spot Facing Standard
Arlington. VA 22209. USA SP-55 Quality Standa rd for Steel Castings
Ministerie Van Sociale Zaken Stoomwezen Specification Al301

En Werkgelegenheid
Direcl:oraat Generaal Van De Arbeid
Dienst Voor Het Stoomwezen
251 7 KLGravenhage
Bisenhowerlaan 102. The Netherlands
National Association of Corrosion NACEMR01 7 5

Engineers
P.O. Box 1499
Housto n, TX 77001. USA
------
National Board of Boiler and Pressure NB-25 National Boa rd In spectors Code
Vessel inspectors NB-65 National Board Authorization to Repair
1055 Crupper Avenue ASME and National Board Stamped
Columbus. OH 43229, USA Safety Valves and ReliefV a lves
National Fire Protection Association NFPA 10 FlammableandCombustibleLiquids

Batterymarc-Pa rk Code
Quincy. MA02269 . USA
Schweizerisher Verein fur Specifications 602- Safety Valves fo r Boilers

Druckbehalteruberwachung (SDVB) and Pressure Vessels
Postfach 35
8030 Zurich. Sw itzerland
Den Norske Trykkbe holderkomite (TBK) TBK General Rules for Pressure Vessels
Norsk Verkstedsindustris
Standardiseringssentral
Oscarsgate 20, Oslo. Norway
Verband derTechnischen TRD 421 AD-Merkblatt A2

Ubenvachungs-Vereine e. V (TlJV)
KurfurstenstraEe 56
4300 Essen 1. Germ any
Table 2. Safety valve operating parameters

--
Parameter Definition
Set pressure (also known as (i) Uquid services: iolet pressure at which valve starts
crack pressure) to discharge under serv ice conditions.
(ii) Gas or steam services: inlet pressure at which
the valve pops under service conditions.
Differeo tia I set pressure Difference between set pressure and back pressure
(where present).
Overpressure Pressure increase over the set pressure of the va lve or relief
device.
Blowdown Differen ce between the set pressure and resetting pressure

expressed either as a specific pressure or percentage of the
set pressure.
Back pressure Any pressure on the discharge side of a pressure-relief va lve .
Accumulation Pressure increase over maximum allowable working pressure

of a vessel or system during discharge throu gh the pressu re
relief va lve.
Operating pressure Normal allowable working pressure of the system or vessel.
No PART MATERIAL
1 SEAT GUN METAL
2 VALVE DISC GUN METAL
3 BODY GUN METAL
4 SPINDLE H.T.BRASS
5 SPRING END PLATE BRASS
6 SPRING STEEL·ZINC PLATED
7 ADJUSTING SCREW BRASS
8 LOCK NUT BRASS
9 LEVER BRONZE
10 DOME GUN METAL
11 SLOWDOWN RING GUN METAL
12 SETTING SCREW H.T.BRASS
13 BALL STAINLESS STEEL
Figure 5. Typica l pop-type safety valve.

The discharge piping from safety valves should be equal in size to, or larger
than, the nominal valve outlet and should be as simple and direct as possible.
Good practices must be observed with discharge manifold lines. All discharge
piping in the discharge system must be vented to a safe disposal area to prevent
personnel injury when the valve discharges.
The valve shown in Figure 6a is typically used for steam generators and
steam systems. It is a high capacity reaction-type valve designed specifically
for saturated steam service on boiler drums having design pressures above
103 bar(l500lb/in 2 ).
A typical valve operating cycle (Figure 6b) is as follows:
As pressure in, say, a boiler increases to the safety valve set point the valve
will pop open. After the valve opens steam passes through a series of annular
flow passages (A) and (B) which control the pressure developed in chambers
(C) and (D) . The excess steam is exhausted through guide ring openings (E) to
the valve body bowl (F).
As pressure in the boiler decays, the dynamic forces on the lower face of the
disc holder assembly are reduced and the safety valve disc begins to close.
Assisted by pressure in chambers (C) and {D), the valve at this point closes
sharply and tightly.
Figure 6A. Safet.y valve for

sat urated steam applications. Figure 6 B. Safety valve opera ling pri11ciple.
Figure 7 shows a safety valve frequently used in process applications. The

valve has a closed bonnet that contains the process fluid within the safety
valve preventing any release to atmosphere.
In Figure 8. the safety valve incorporates a balanced bellows to provide
satisfactory safety valve performance when the developed back pressure
becomes excessive. Balanced bellows ensure that safety valve characteristics
such as lift and relieving capacity, opening and closing pressure and stability
are not unduly influenced by static pressure in the discharge manifold.
Balanced safety valves must be installed when the percentage build-up
back pressure in the exhaust system is allowed to exceed the percentage
overpressure applicable to the safety valve. Valves that vent to the atmosphere,
either directly or through short vent stacks. are not subjected to elevated back
pressure conditions. Valves installed in a closed system, i.e. on corrosive, toxic
or valuable recoverable fluids, or when a long vent pipe is used. may develop
high back pressure. Back pressure which may occur in the downstream
system while the safety valve is closed is called superimposed back pressure.
Back pressure which may occur after the valve is open and flowing is called
dynamic or built-up back pressure.
Figure 9 shows a double-spring high-lift sarety valve that combines a top
guided design to provide an unobstructed seat bore with a floating disc.
Figure 7. Basic safety valve for process applications (closed bonnet type).
Figure 8. Safety valve for process applications ( /Jalanced /Jdlows type).
Relief Valve
A basic difference between the design of spring-loaded safety valves and relief
valves is that, in safety valves. the poppet or disc overhangs the seat to
promote faster lift whereas, in a relief valve, the area exposed to overpressure
is the same whether the valve is open or closed. As a consequence, a safety
valve pops open while a relief valve lifts gradually with increasing pressure
until it reaches its fully open position.
The relief valve shown in Figure 10 is a standard type suitable for relieving
excess pressures of water oil, air, gases or steam where high discharge rates
are not required. Duties include the protection of pipelines against overpressure
and protection against thermal expansion. It is filtered in the upright position.
A spring-loaded side-discharge version is shown in Figure 11.
Other spring relief valves have cartridge-type assemblies for easy cleaning.
They are usually suitable for use with positive displacement pumps of the rotary
or reciprocating type. They can also be used as combined relief and by-pass valves.
The relief valve (Figure 12) is manufactured from plastic -PVC, PVDF and
CPVC with solid Teflon'!{)* shaft, intended as a chemical-resistant relief valve for
corrosive and pure liquids . The relieving pressures can be adjusted by screwing
the adjusting bolt up or down to decrease or increase the pressure setting.
This type of valve is not a pop safety-type valve.
"'Dupont registered trade mark.

Safety and ReliefValves 211
1 Body 11 Spindle Ball 21 Body Gasget

2 Cover 12 Spring Steel 2 2 Locking Pin
3 Valve Disc Holder 13 Easing Lever 23 SeatSecurring Pin
4 V<:~lve Disc 14 Dome 2 5 Padlock
5 Seat Ring l4a Screwed Dome 26 Body Stud
6 Guide 15 Dome Cap 2 7 Body Stud Nut
7 Spindle 16 Adjusting Screw 28 Nameplate
S Blow Do1.-vn Ring 17 Locknut 29 Nameplate Screw
9 Setting Screw 18/19 Spring Plate 30 Locknut
10 Valve Disc Ball 20 Disc Retaining Clip
Figltre 9. Double-spring high-lift safety valve.
Emergency relief valves of the type shown in Figure 13 are designed to meet
the stringent conditions of container, rail, road and static tanks for emergency
venting under total fire engulfment conditions. Usually manufactured from
316 stainless steel, these types of valves can incorporate a manually operated
vacuum vent button.
The type of relief valves shown in Figure 14 is ideally suited for air, acetylene,
ammonia, freon 12 and 22. hydrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen, aromatic
fuels, synthetic oils, tetrachloride and toluene, at operating pressures up to
2400 lb/in 2 . It can be mounted in horizontal and vertical positions.
In closed operation, the spring load is carried by a metal-to-metal seat. An
0-ring provides a tight seal and the sealing efficiency increases as the pressure
increases up to cracking pressure. At cracking pressure the ports in the poppet
open fully and eliminate the rapid increase in pressure. Flow is throttled
between the poppet shoulder and seat and a regularly increasing flow area is
Figure 10. Standard spring-operated relief valve.
/
/
'
1 Seat Gun metal

2 Valve Disc Gun metal
[1] 3 Body Gun metal
4 Spindle H.T. Brass
5 Spring End Plate Brass
6 Spring
Sheradized
7 Adjusting Screw Brass
8 Lock Nut Brass
9 Lever Bronze
10 Lever Dome Plastic
lOa Leak ProorDome Gun metal
Figure 11. Spring-loaded side-discharge relief valve.

provided with increasing flow rates. When fully open, the inline construction
and full flow ports permit maximum flow with minimum increase in system
pressure (see Figure 15).
High pressure variants operate at pressures up to 10,500 lb/ in 2 .
ADJUSTING ADJUSTING
DOLT~ ..,..-- BOLT
----
LOCK NUT
PLUNGER__ ( .
~-
SPRING ~
PLUNGER r -- § VENT
"U" CUP
SEALS (3)
VALVE TEFLON SHAFT
SEAT RESILIENT
SEAT
INLET VALVE SEAT
FigHre 12. Chemical-resistant relief valves.
Figure I 3. Emerging relief valves.

Pressure Relief Valves
The basic spring-loaded pressure relief valve (Figure 16) has been developed
to provide overpressure protection.
• Overpressure may be defined as a pressure increase over the set pressure of
a pressure relief valve, usually expressed as a percentage of set pressure.
• Set pressure is the pressure measured at the valve inlet at which a
pressure relief valve should commence to lift under service conditions.
• Popping pressure is the value of increasing static pressure at which the
disc moves in the opening direction at a faster rate as compared with
corresponding movement at higher or lower pressures.
Figure 14. High-pressure relief valve.
CLOSED
CRACKING
OPEN
Figure l S. High-pressure relief valve method of operatio11.
The valve shown in Figure 16 consists of a valve inlet or nozzle mounted on

the pressurised system, a disc held against the nozzle to prevent flow under
normal system operating conditions, a spring to hold the disc closed. and a
body or bonnet to contain the operating elements. The spring load is adjustable
to vary the pressure at which the valve will open.
The sole source of power for the pressure relief valve is the process fluid.
The pressure relief valve must open at a pre-determined set pressure and
close when the system pressure has returned to a single safe level. Pressure
relief valves must be designed with materials compatible with many process
fluids from simple air and water to the most corrosive media. This type of valve
is required to remain on systems for long periods of time and must have the
ability to maintain tight shut-off. Most manufacturers recommend that system
operating pressures not exceed 9 5% of set pressure to achieve and maintain
proper seat tightness integrity.
Examples of spring-loaded pressure relief valves are given in Figure 17.
A rupture disk device (Figure 18) is a non-reclosing pressure relief device
actuated by inlet static pressure and designed to function by the bursting of a
pressure containing disk. A rupture disk is the pressure containing and pressure
sensitive element of a rupture disk device. These products provide full opening
with instantaneous pressure relief in the event of system upset. Application of
rupture disk devices to liquid service should be carefully evaluated, especially
if used in combination with a safety or safety relief valve.
;:s::GPS~- SPRING
~~ ~- BONNET VENT
PLUGGED
DISC
Figure 16. Standard spring-loaded pressure relief valve.

r ..1
Figure I 7. Pressure relief valves: top left- standard valve: top right- screwed valve with single tr im:
lower-sanitary valve for foodst.uffs and plumnnceuticnls.
Pilot-Operated Pressure Relief Valve
This type of valve consists of a main valve with a piston- or diaphragm-

operated disc and a pilot. Under normal conditions the pilot allows system
pressure into the piston chamber. Since the piston area is greater than the disc
seat seal area, the disc is held closed. \1\lhen the set pressure is reached. the
pilot actuates to shut off system fluid to the piston chamber and simultaneously
vents the piston chamber. This causes the disc to open (Figure 19).
Another version of a pilot-operated pressure reducing valve is shown in
Figure 20. Other constructions have integral porting, eliminating the need for
tubing to activate the valve and relieve the system pressure, as all pressurisation
is performed through porting machined into the main valve and the mating
pilot valves.
Higil-pressurepilot-operated safety reliefvalve.
Two pilots combined on the nwin body of a pressure-reducil1fJ valve.
Pilot-operated relief valves have several advantages. As the system pressure

increases, the force holding the disc in the closed position increases. This allows
the system operating pressure to be increased to values within 5% of set pressure
·w ithout danger of increased leakage in the main valve. Valves can be set fully
open at the set pressure and closed with a very short blowdown. A reducing
valve will modulate from its maximum capacity down to zero load when it will
shut. However, if the valve is to work under low load conditions for much of its
life. there may be a good case for fitting two smaller valves in parallel.
218 Pressure llalves and Services
PILOT
MAIN VALVE
Figure 18. Rupture disk device. Figure 19. Snap-acting pilot-operated pressure relief valve.
~ Control sp11ng
Pilot dtaphragm -/ Downstream

externa:
/ sensing p;pe
connection
Flow_.
Mam
~~._- diaphragm
Figure 20. Standard pilot-operated pressure-reducing valve(or steam. air and industrial gases.
Modulating pilot valve designs limit fluid loss and system shock. However.
this type of valve is generally only recommended for clean service and is found
in a broad range of applications and industries including steam. air and
industrial gases, petroleum-refining offshore applications, chemical processing,
pulp and paper mills and general manufacturing. There are numerous styles
and designs available from many manufacturers.
Safety and Rdie.fValves 219
Safety Relief Valve
The purpose of a safety relief valve is to discharge a given amount of vapour,

gas or liquid. whilst preventing the pressure increase exceeding a pre-determined
level. The safety relief valve should close with the smallest drop in pressure
consistent with tight closure, and it should remain pressure-tight up to the
time of the next response to an overpressure situation. A standard safety relief
valve is shown in Figure 21.
The valve must be reliable so that the action is always a repeat of the
previous action. A safety relief valve should be used on any closed vessel or
system in which the pressure can be other than atmospheric and where,
under any circumstances, the design pressure of the system can be exceeded.
In most instances the discharge pipework is direct to atmosphere, but when the
medium is toxic, inflammable or otherwise objectionable, complex-type discharge
pipe\1\rork systems are used and, frequently, more than one valve discharges
into the system, resulting in a variable back pressure at the safety relief valve.
~
[@]
@] @]
8 ~0
0 ~
[I] OJ]
OJ [I]~
~
[2]
.
r•~•••••· •-••• .. t '
...
; ' -...... .
'
....... ....... ........... . ··--....... ·---·· ·········-····· ...
l Body Gun metal 7 Adjusting Screw Brass

2 Seat Gun metal 8 Locking Ring Brass
3 ResiJJent Disc Brass-EPDM/ Viton 9 Dome Plastic
3a Disc Brass 10 Lever Brass
4 Spindle Brass 11 Ball Stainless Steel
5 Spring Cap Brass 12 Padlock Brass
6 Spring Chrome Vanadium or 13 Bush P.T.F.E
Stainless Steel 14 Pinning Screw Steel
Figure 21. Typical certified safety relief valve.

When such a discharge system is adopted, the safety relief valve must be
designed in such a way that the effects of the variable back pressure on the set
pressure are minimised. This requires the use of a balanced bellows valve.
The safety relief valve should be as maintenance-free as possible.
Sizing Safety and Relief Valves
Proper sizing and selection of safety and relief valves is critical. The first step in
applying overpressure protection to a vessel or system is to determine the type
of fluid, set pressure. back pressure, allowable overpressure and required
relieving capacity; the next step is to establish inlet temperature, compressibility
factor, gas constant or isentropic coefficient, molecular weight, specific weight,
specific gravity and viscosity.
Sizing equations are available from manufactures and regulatory bodies.
e.g. British Standards BS 6759. American Standards to ASME Code Section
VIII and European Standards A.D. Merkblatt A2. All capacities can be calculated
in accordance with the internationally accepted sizing equations using the
certified coefficients of discharge. Typical sizing equations in accordance with
specific standards are, for example:
In accordance with
BS 6759: 1984
Modified for the effects of set pressure below
[ 3.0 bar, back pressure and superheated steam
l
For steam:
A= E or E = 0.525 P.A.Kdr.Fp.Fb.FsH
0.52 5 P.Kdr.Fp.Fb.FsH
For compressed air:

A= [288
Ql
fi8s
or Ql = 0.193 P.A.Kdr.Fp.Fb .v T
0 .193 P.Kdr.Fp.Fb.y r
For gases:
A= ,{M
Q2 or Q2 = P.A.C.Kdr.Fp.F b.v ZT
P.C.Kdr.Fp.Fb.[f~
For liquids:
A= Q2 or Q2 = 1.61 A.Kdr.Fv.Fw.V{JM
1.61 Kdr.Fv.Fw ..JPXP
For hot water:

A= Q3 or Q3 = 0 .329 A.Kdr.P.Hws. V{JM
0.329 Kdr.P.Hws.
Key to equations
= Office area mm 2
= Required capacity of steam kg/hr
= Required capacity of compressed air ljs
= Required capacity of gas/liquid kg/hr
= Required capacity of hotwater kW
= Absolute inlet pressure (set pressure+ overpressure+ 1.013) bar abs
= Relieving pressure- Back pressure
(set pressure + overpressure- back pressure) bar gauge
T = Inletten1perature oK (°C + 2 73)
p = Liquid density kg/m 3
M = Molecular weight kg/kmol
z = Compressibility factor
z
= 10 5 P.V.M.
R.T.
where
R = Universal gas constant-8314 N.m./ krnol.k
V = Specific volume of gas at STP conditions
C = Gas constant
Use the following formula
K = rr
Isen tropic exponent at the relieving in let conditions. the value of K is not avai Iable at
these conditions the value at 1.013 5 bar abs and l5°Cshould be used
Capacity correction factors
rp = Capacity correction factor for the effects of low set pressure

Fb = Capacity correction factor for the effects of back pressure (balanced bellows valves only)
Fv = Capacity correction factor for the effects of viscosity (liquids only)
Fw = Capacity correction factor for the effects of back pressure (liquids only; balanced bellows
valves only)
Fsh = Capacity correction foetor for the effects of superheat
Fdr = De-rated coefficient of discharge. Select Kdr appropriate to the fluid
Hws = Hotwater correction for vented system (0. 5 if vented/ 1 if pressurised)
In accordance with Modified for the effects of set pressure below ]

A.S.M.E. Code Section [ 3.0 bar, back pressure and superheated steam
VIII and API RP 520
Note:- When sizing valves in accordance with ASME Code Section VII, the
certified capacity may only be calculated at 10% overpressure or 3 psig,
whichever is the greater and without the use of correction factors Fp, Fb, Fv,
Fw and Fsh. Set pressures below 15.0 psig may not be ASME stamped.
For steam:
w
or W = 51.5 Pg.A 1 .Kdr.Fp.Fb.FsH
51.5 Pg.Kdr.Fp.Fb.FsH
For air/ gases:

Q.JG.Tg.Z Q = 1.175 Pg.Cg.At.Kdr.Fp.Fb
Al = ~-------- or
1.17 5 Pg.Cg.Kdr.Fp.Fb JG.Tg.Z
For liquids:
38A 1 )PLKdr.Fv.Fw
or v," -- ---------==-- - -
JG
3 8v'3]\ Kdr.Fv.Fw
Key to equations
AI = Office area in 2
Q = Required capacity of air/gases SCFM
w = Required capacity of steam lb/ hr
VL = Required capacity of liquid usgpm
Pg = Absolute inlet pressure (set pressure+ overpressure+ 14. 7) psia
~pL = Relieving pressure- Back pressure
(set pressure+ overpressure - back pressure) psig
Tg = Tnlet temperature OR (° F + 460)
G = Specific gravity
z = Compressibility factor for the gas or vapour at PorT conditions
(if not given use Z = 1)
Cg = Imperial gas constant. Use the following formula
Cg = 2 )W
K( K+l
K = Isentropic exponent at the relieving inlet conditions. If the value of K is not available at
these conditions the value at 14.7 psi abs and 59°F should be used
Pp = Capacity correction factor for the effects of low set pressure

Fb = Capacity correction factor for the effects of back pressure (balanced bellows va Ives only)
F'w = Capacity correction factor for the effects of back pressure (liquids only: balanced bellows
valves only)
Fsh = Capacity correction factor for the effects of superheat
Kdr = De-rated coefficient of discharge. Select Kdr appropriate to the fluid
Safety and RPliefValves 223
In accordance with Modified for the effects of set pressure below ]

A.D. MERKBLATT A2 [ 3.0 bar, back pressure and superheated steam
For steam:
Qm.x
Ao = --------,-- or
Qm = Ao.Kdr.P.Fb.Fp
Kdr.P.Fb.Fp X
For air/ gases:
0.1791 Qm Ao.ljrKdr.P.If/r Fp.Fb

Ao = - - -- - - - - or Om = _ __ ____:___ __
- 0.1791
l/!Kdr.P.If/r Fp.Fb
For liquids:
0.6211 Qm Ao.Kdr.J/]XP Fv.Fw
Ao = -----===--- or Qm- - -- - - - - -
Kdr.J/]XP Fv.Fw 0 .6211
Key to equations
Ao = Office area mm 1
Qm = Required capacity of steam. air, gases or liquids kg/hr
P = Absolute set pressure (set pressure+ 1.013) bar abs
fl.P = Relieving pressure- Back pressure
(set pressure- back pressure) bar gauge
T = Inlettemperature °K(°C+273)
p = Liquid density kg/ m 3
M = Molecular vve ight kg/ kmol
K = Isentropic exponent at the relieving inlet conditions. If the value ofK is not available at
these conditions the value at 1.01 3 5 bar abs and l5°C should be used
1/1 = A.D. Merkblatt outtlow function for air and gases
x = A.D. Merkblatt pressure medium coefficient for steam
= O.fi2ll JPV
1/1
V =Specific volume in m 3 /kg for supercritical pressure relief
Fp = Capacity correction factor for the effects of low set press ure
Fb = Capacity correction factor for the effects of back pressure (balanced bellows valves only)
Fw = Capacity correction factor for the effects of back pressure (liquids only: balanced bellows
valves only)
Kdr = De-rated coefficient of discharge. Select Kdr appropriate to the tluid
Manufacturers' engineering support information and technical data are

essential if the correct valve is to be selected for the job. Some manufacturers
supply rull details on a computer program. Generally the program is easy to use
with many features including: quick and accurate calculations, user-selected
units, selection of valve size and style, valve data storage, printed reports,
specification sheets and dimensional drawings .
There is no substitute for qualified engineering analysis, and the application
of safety and relief valves of any type or make should be assigned only to fully
trained personnel and be in strict compliance with rules provided by the
governing codes and standards. Selection of safety and relief valves should not
be based on arbitrarily assumed conditions or incomplete information . Valve
selection and sizing is the responsibility of the system engineer and the user of
the equipment to be protected.
Testing Safety Valves
Safety valves should be tested regularly to ensure that they have retained
their capability of operating at design lift-off pressure. Two basic methods of
testing are:
On-line testing by deliberate overpressure of the system to determine the
actual pressure at which the valve lifts off its seat.
Off-line testing by removal of the valve from its line or position and
determination of active lift-offby hydraulic test.
It is also possible to apply a hydraulic test for on-line testing using a
portable hydraulic test pack.
Self-Acting Reducing Valves
Self-acting reducing valves generally fall into two main categories: (i) direct-
acting valves and (ii) relay- or pilot-operated types.
An example of a direct-acting pressure reducing valve for steam, compressed
air and other gases is shown in Figure 1. The valve is designed for point-of-use
installations. On start-up, the upstream pressure, aided by a return spring.
holds the valve head against the seat in the closed position. Downstream
pressure is set by rotating a handwheel in a clockwise direction which
compresses the control spring and extends the bello·ws. This downward
movement is transmitted via a push rod which causes the main valve to open .
Liquid then passes through the open valve into the downstream pipework and
also surrounds the bellows. As downstream pressure increases, it acts
through the bellows to counteract the spring force and closes the main valve
when the set pressure is reached. The main valve modulates to give constant
downstream_pressure.
Materials used for the bellows include phosphor bronze and stainless steel
with nitrile main valve. Other diaphragms used include rubber, synthetic
rubbers, stainless steel and phosphor bronze materials.
The direct-acting reducing valve shown in Figure 2 is designed for use with
liquids and incorporates a balanced piston design providing accura te control
of pressure under stable load conditions. The valve is installed in a horizontal
pipeline. Typical applications include laundry equipment and reducing pressure
at the point of use on Injection Moulding machines.
Pressure reduction in water systems aids both the efficient design of the piping
network and protects consumers from excessive noise from high velocity
within buildings. high-pressure discharge at taps and other outlets, and
climbing overnight pressures when the distribution network is lightly loaded.
The ability to control water-entry pressures ensures a balanced distribution
network and also limits the maximum supply volume and so reduces water
waste.
Cost-effective steam distribution depends on keeping pipe sizes to the minimum
and having the highest acceptable distribution pressure between the boilerhouse
and the areas of steam usage. then dropping pressure at the working area to
the levels for the highest heat transfer, efficiency and safety.
16- -
- 16
2 --
6
- 6
- 9
- 17
-10
- - - -12
- 11
- -13
- - - - t4
- - - - - - t5
No. Part Materoal

1 Spnng Housing Alumilllufll - Epoxy coattld LM 24
2 Adjustment Hand Wheel Mineral ReonlorCOld Nylon
3 Top Spring Plate Cast Iron DIN 1691 GG 20
4 Pressure Adjustment Srhcon Chrome BS 2603 685 ASS
Spnng Spnng Steel Range 2
5 Bellows Assembly Stainless Steel 3t6Ti/J16L
Option Phosphor Bronze/Brass
S Bellows AssemblyG asket Slainless Steel Reinforced
-=-..--c-----,-;----,----;;-;:-- - ,E ;;,cxlolia led Graphite
7 Spring Housing Bolts Steel- - Z,nc plated BS 3692 Gr 6.6
M6 x 25mm
8 Body Screwed SG Iron DIN t693 GGG 40 3
Flanged SG Iron DIN t 69J GGG 40.3
9 Guide Bush Graphite lilled PTFE
tO Pushrod Staonless Steel A STM A276 316L
11 Valve Seat Staonless Staal BS 9/0 431 529
12 Valve Seal Gasket - -Stamless Steel BS 1449 316 S1t
13 Valve Staontess Steel AISI420
14 Valve Return Sprmg Staontess Steel BS 20056 316 542
15 Straoner Screen Staonless Steel -BS 1449 316 SH
16 Spring Range
ldenlilicalion Disc Polypropylene
17 BulkheHd Plate Staonles"-: s'-;;
S':-:
to-=-
el; - - - - -316 L
18 Tamperproof Prn - --'M :,.I:;.:.
Id""Steel · Copper Plated
19~B;-
7. Iac.:n;:;
kir:.:119c.:,P~Iu:.:,g.:.__;__ _-cS;;:I=a,~ nl.ess Steel BS97()43 I S29
20 Compressoon Frt1on9_ Brass
Figure I. Direct-acting pressure reducing valve.
A relay- or pilot-operated reducing valve for steam services is shown in

Figure 3. It comprises:
(a) The valve body, which contains the main valve and seat piston assembly.
(b) The control head, which houses the pilot valve assembly with its associated
diaphragm and main adjusting spring.
This type of valve works by balancing the downstream pressure against a
control spring. This modulates a small valve plug over a seat (the pilot).
The flow through this seat is directed in turn to the main valve diaphragm
(phosphor bronze or stainless steel), where it modulates the main valve.
Sel(-AcLing Reducing Valves 22 7
Materials
No Par1 Mateml
1 Spnng housing --:-:-:-::--=-~~7
A;-
I~-=m:in
u ='"o~ um
=--"e:::p-::-ox:::y-:-c::o:::a::1ed
:-:;-;L--;M-.--;;-24
2 Ad1us1men1 Hand Wheel PlastiC - Polypropylene
3 Top Spring Plate Cast Iron DIN 1691 GG 20
4 Pressure Adjustment Silicon Chrome BS 2803 685 ASS
Spring Spnng Steel Range 2
5 Bellows Assembly Phosphor bronze/brass - - -
BS2872 CZt22
(Siainless Steel oplional 31 6Ti/
316L)
6 Bellows Assembly GaSket Reinforced Exloloated Graphofe
7 Sprong Housong Bolts Steel - Zone plated
BS 3692 Gr 8.8 MS x 2Smm
- 8- Body Gunme1a1 BS 1400 LG2
9 Guode 7-;B ;;;-u- s7h_ _ _ Graphite lolled PTF E
10 Pushrod ------;:S,.-ta~onless Sleel ASTM A276 3 1Gl
11 va·:-,v-o-;::
Sc:-,a - :t, - - - S1ainless Steel BS 970 43 I S29
12 Valve Seal Gasket Staonless Steel BS t449 3t6 S1 I
i3"Pi5ton Staonless Steel BS970 431529
14 Valve Ht>ad Notnle Rubber
tS Poston Retur-n--=s=-p_n_n_g __ S,.-te-e71--=B=-=s=-=20=s-=-6-::G:-::
Stainless-;; r302
S26
16 Straoner Screen Staonless Steel BS t449 304 Sttf
~Cap Brass BS 2872 Cf122
-;a-
Cap Gasket Reonforced Expholoaled Graphote
t9 Spnng Range 10 Plale Polypropylene
20 Bulkhead Plate ----sliiiniOSs Steel 316 L

21 Tamperproof Pin Mild Steel - Copper Plated _ _
Figure 2. Direct-acting pressure reducing valve for liquids.
Pressure adjustment - - -
-""",~......._
..... control spnng
Pilot diaphragm
Downstream
external sensing
_ p1pe connection
Pilot valve ------
Control
C+ - t- - port
Main
- diaphragm
~~-~-"'
Pi{Jltre 3. Pilot-opl'rated press lire reducing valve.

Under stable load conditions, the pressure under the pilot diaphragm
balances the force set on the adjustment spring. This settles the pilot valve,
allowing a constant flow across the main diaphragm. This ensures that the
main valve is also settled to give a stable downstream pressure. When the
downstream pressure rises, the pilot valve closes and pressure is released from
the main valve diaphragm through the control orifice, to close the main valve.
Any variations in load or pressure will immediately be sensed on the pilot
diaphragm which will act to adjust the position of the main valve. ensuring a
constant downstream pressure. In order to achieve the most stable operating
conditions an external pressure sensing pipe is used. This becomes more
important as the valve is used near its maximum capacity or under critical
flow conditions.
A solenoid will provide for remote on/off control and a fully adjustable set
point is possible using an air-driven pilot. The set point can then be adjusted
via a compressed air regulator situated away from the valve. For example, the
valve may be high up in a pipeline but adjustment can be made from an air
regulator at ground level.
The characteristics of both pilot-operated and direct-operated reducing
valves are shown in Figure 4. Both curves are shown for 25 mm (l in) valves
reducing from 10 to 3.5 bar (150 to 509lbf/ in 2 ).
It should be noted that in the case of the direct-acting valves (including
those with balance pistons) the outlet pressure falls as the flow through the
valve increases. Thus if the valve is set at a no-flow setting of 3. 5 bar (50 lbf/
in 2 ), the outlet pressure falls by about 0.35 to 3.15 bar (5 to 45 lbf/ in 2 ) when
Values given arc for I inch valves re ducing from 100 !o 50 lb/in'g
55
Dead en d
I
_Jlbflin pressure drop_. _
I
seuing .....
i"
50 PILOT-OPERATED VALVE
~ . , pressure
5 lbf/tn' I d rop !
~
I ' ...
5
f""o
I I '...
...
I D,l? I ! '
l
I ~0:-1 I I
I
i ~IJV, I i
Cv I
5
~- !'...
... ...
... ...
i
I
I
I
- r----
... I
Th1s corTc<ponds to the
average now through a
... I M axomum capaci1y o
1 in bore pipe at 100 lbflin2 1 • pil01 -opcrated valve
30 Lt
I
200 362 400 600 BOO 1000 1200 1400 1500 1600 1800
VALVE CAPACITY lbfhr
Figure4. Se{(-acting reducing valves.

passing an average flow for this type of valve. The direct-acting valve is
usually made equal in size to the inlet pipe.
In the case of the pilot-operated valve it will be seen that apart from an
initial pressure drop of 0.03 5 bar (2 lbf/ in 2 ) from the dead-end setting of 3. 5
bar (50 lbf/in 2 ) the outlet pressure remains constant until maximum-rated
capacity is reached.
It should also be noted that. in the examples shown, the 2 5 mm (1 in) pilot-
operated valve is capable of passing a flow of more than four times that of
the direct-acting valve, and with only 0.035 bar (2 lbf/in 2 ) pressure drop
as compared with a drop of0.35 bar (5 lbf/ in 2 ).
Applications of reducing valves
Reducing valves are used for reducing one pressure to another. control being
via throttling of the fluid through the valve and its seat. Reducing valves
should never be deliberately oversized as if the valve is too big then the lift of
the valve will be small and wire drawing or erosion of the valve and seat can
result. Additionally, small variations in valve opening cause large changes in
flow which at small flow demands can lead to pulsating pressure being generated
in the downstream flow.
The following notes designate the main fields of application of self-acting
reducing valves.
Air or gases
This application includes all compressed air systems for use with power
tools, pneumatic control systems, etc., and control valves for the storage and
distribution of industrial gases. etc.
Both direct-acting and pilot-operated reducing valves may be used for these
duties and are selected according to the accuracy of control required and whether
or not the valves are intended to give a dead tight shut-off under no-flow
conditions.
Water
Reducing valves are extensively used in industrial and domestic water

distribution, fire protection systems and the limitation of water pressures
in high buildings, etc. Direct-acting valves with piston valves are generally
used for these duties . As a general rule, reducing valves are used mainly as
pressure limiting devices in water-distribution systems.
Because of high peak demands at times of heavy industrial usage. water
authorities usually have great difficulty in maintaining pressures in the systems,
although high pressures are usually available at the source of distribution.
such as at reservoirs or main pumping stations. Very large pressure drops are
230 Pressure ValvesandServices
experienced in the system during high demands and as a result there is a

tendency for the pressure to be below normal at the point of usage.
However, when the total demand in the system drops, much higher
pressures are experienced in the distribution system and these are frequently
in excess of the normal pressure ratings for the equipment being used. This
can give rise to burst mains or excessively high discharge rates from domestic
fittings, such as water closets. wash basins. etc. or storage tanks.
It is therefore common practice to fit a reducing valve in the line which. under
high flow conditions, normally operates in the wide open position and presents
only a nominal resistance to flow (such as would be experienced with an ordinary
globe stop valve). However, at periods of low demand and high pressure, the
reducing valve becomes effective and reduces the pressure in the downstream
mains to an acceptable limit. It is important in such applications that the outlet
pressure is not affected by inlet pressure variations and for this reason the
direct-acting valves with piston balance are admirably suited to this application.
Other liquids
In this field, reducing valves are used for such applications as: controlling ram
pressures on hydraulic presses; bearing lubrication systems in rolling mills
and heavy industrial equipment; and for pressure control in fuel-oil systems.
Again valves are normally used for these applications. In many applications
the flow is relatively constant and the outlet pressure from the reducing valve
therefore remains constant.
In fuel-oil systems the flow variations are normally of the order of 50 to
100%, in which case the outlet pressure variation would probably be of the
order of0.14 to 0.21 bar (2 to 31bf/in 2 ), depending on the size of valve used.
The variation would be in the order of 0 .3 5 bar (5 lbf/ in 2 ) between full and
no-flow conditions.
Steam
This particular category covers by far the majority of reducing valve applications
and in general there are two broad sections.
Power
Reducing valves are only occasionally used on power installations involving

steam, i.e. direct steam supply, steam engines and turbines, etc. In these cases
the general principles of application still apply, although special problems do
sometimes arise in the case of reciprocating machinery which may give rise to
pulsations in the pipework system, and these can be amplified by the reducing
valve itself. This is normally overcome by providing adequate pipe volume both
upstream and downstream of the reducing valve to act as a 'steam accumulator'.
Self-Acting Reducing Valves 2 31
Process
\t\fith saturated steam, temperatures and pressures are strictly related and,
because of this, it is frequently found convenient to control temperature by
controlling the steam pressure. Applications in the process field includes space
heating, kitchen equipment, sterilizing equipment, curing processes in the
rubber and plastics industries, etc., industrial cooking equipment, etc. In fact,
anywhere steam is used as a heat-transfer medium, reducing valves will
invariably be installed.
In general. only low pressure steam. usually below 3. 5 bar (50 lbf/ in 2 ), is
used for process purposes. At such low pressures the latent heat content of the
steam is relatively high and is easily transferred from the steam to the product
being processed.
Size of pipes and fittings
The inlet and outlet pipes should be sized to suit the maximum steam demands
of the system, e.g. see Table 1. Pipe sizes should always be determined in terms
of pressure drop and not by such rules as arbitrary steam velocities.
Correct sizing ofpipework and fittings associated with all valves is extremely
important in order to obtain the best possible operation. Specifically:
(i) Strainers should always be equal in size to the inlet pipe.
(ii) When globe valves are used as inlet and outlet stop valves , these should
also be equal in size to the respective pipe, into which they are fitted.
(iii) When parallel slide valves are used as stop valves, these can be fitted
equal in size to the reducing valve for reduced pressures between 30
and 70% of the inlet pressure. They should be equal in size to the
respective pipe when the pressure difference between the inlet and
outlet is 2 bar (30 lbf/ in 2 ) or less. When they are connected directly to
the reducing valve the length of distance pieces between value and
fitting should not exceed three pipe diameters.
(iv) In order to provide a streamlined flow at the approach to the reducing
valve , a straight length of pipe equal to 10 pipe diameters should be
provided between the fitting and the reducing valve (this does not
apply to parallel slide valves) . Typical reducing valve layouts are
shown in Figures 5 and 6.
Reducing valves in parallel
As already mentioned, two reducing valves in parallel should be considered

when the minimum flow through the system is less than 10% of the maximum
capacity of a single reducing valve , or when the valves are expected to work
for long periods on 'no-flow' or 'dead-end' conditions. or working in partially
completed plant systems. A typical layout is shown in Figure 7.
Table 1. Steam pipe capacities (lb/hr dry saturated)
Pressure Pipe size in inches
lbf/in 2 ]h >;4 1 1 1 /4 1 1h 2 2 1 /2 3 4 5 6 8 10
bar
5 12 32 63 106 163 320 536 813 1560 2550 3820 6180 100.000
0.35 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3
10 15 40 79 113 206 404 676 1055 1962 3220 4810 8000 12.950
0.09 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0. 5 0. 5 0. 5 0.4 0.4
20 18 '54 107 182 300 586 980 1400 2680 4390 6550 11 .300 lS.nSO
1.38 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0. s
- - -
30 24 69 137 245 377 740 1240 1880 2600 5900 8810 14.700 22.300
2.07 0.8 0.9 0.90.9 I.() 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.7
50 35 98 203 357 582 11401910 2640 4880 8000 12.000 2] .450 33.400
3.45 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.3 7.3 1.3 1.2 1.1
75 47 136 284 495 780 149 3 2500 3800 7100 11.600 16.900 30.600 48.400
5. I 7 1.6 1.8 2.0 2. I 2.2 2.1 2. I 2.1 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.8 7.7
90 53 157 332 581 896 1755 2940 4460 8280 13,57019.450 35.400 54.500
6.21 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.5 2.5 2. 5 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.2 2.1 1.9
- -t-- -
100 59 173 362 615 984 1928 3220 4840 9040 14.820 21.800 38.900 fil. 500
6.90 2.0 2.3 2.6 2.6 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.3 2.2
-
120 68 204 431 75 5 1182 2320 3900 5710 10.920 17.910 26.000 46.900 73.000
8.27 2.3 2.8 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.7
ISO 83 252 539 945 1420 2900 4770 7100 13.600 22.300 32.500 59.100 93.000
10.34 2.8 3.5 4.1 4.4 4.5 4.4 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.0 3.8 3.6
- -- --
180 96 296 642 11311748 3440 5890 8750 16.680 27.300 40.000 71.500 112.000
12.41 3.3 4.2 5.0 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.7 5..5 5.4 5.4 5.2 4.8 4. 5
200 107 324 708 123 8 1942 3880 6530 9750 18.880 31,000 44.300 80,000 126.000
13.79 3.7 4.6 5.6 5.9 6. I 6.3 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.3 5.8 5.5 5.2
-
220 116 354 770 1350 2120 4200 7150 10.850 20.800 34.000 49.000 90.000 141.000
l5. I 7 4.0 5.0 6.0 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 6.5 6.3 5.9
250 133408 871 1525 238 5 4760 8100 12.360 23.800 39,000 57.000 105.000 J 68.000
17.24 4,5 5.7 6.7 7.1 7.3 7.6 7.8 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.6 7.8 7.0
300 15749610251798 2800 5160 955014,760 28.400 46.500 68,900125.900 202.000

20.69 5.3 7.2 7.8 8.3 8.5 8.9 9.2 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.4 9.1 8.9
Note: Figures in italic show pressure drops (lbf/ in 2) for equivalent lengths equal to 360 pipe
diameters.
When u sing this table. allowance should be made for the effects of bends and fittings in the pipeline.
Figurr 5. Control ofwalerdistrilmtion.
Figure 6. Control ofstenm distribution.
Reducing valve Relief valve

SCIat)() lb/in -' set at 57 lh!in 2
Reducing Valve Steam

set at 52 lb/in 1 trap
Fig11re 7. Parallel arrangement of reducing valves.

In order that the valves can deal effectively with minimum capacity variations
of less than 10%, two unequally sized reducing valves having a maximum
capacity equal to the required capacity should be connected in parallel with
the outlet pressure of the smaller valve set 0.14 to 0.21 bar (2 to 3 lbf/ in 2 ) higher
than that of the large valve. In this way the larger valve would shut at low
demands leaving the smaller valve to handle the low flows. As the demand
increases the larger valve will open automatically as the reduced pressure
falls. and share the load with the small valve. By this method capacity ratios of
up to 100:1 can be obtained.
Superheated steam
Superheated steam is less dense than saturated steam and, therefore, for the
same pressure drop the reducing valve will have slightly smaller capacity. The
reduction in capacity is dependent on the amount of superheat. Capacity
figures quoted in manufacturers' catalogues are normally for dry saturated
steam. vVhen steam is superheated above 2 8°C ( 50°F) before it enters the
reducing valve. dry steam capacities should be multiplied by the following
factors:
56 to 83°C (100 to 150°F) ofsuperheat-0 .8 9

83 to 111 oc (150 to 200°F) ofsuperheat-0.86
111 to 16 7°C (200 to 300°F) ofsuperheat-0.82
Steam traps
Whenever possible. pilot-operated reducing valves should be sited at some

point in the pipeline where they cannot become flooded with condensate
during periods of low flow or prolonged shutdown. If this is not possible then
steam traps (and, if possible, dirt pockets) should be fitted to both the inlet and
outlet pipework to remove any condensate which may accumulate in the vicinity
of the reducing valve.
Condensate can be trapped between the piston and pilot valve when the
steam flow is resumed and this prevents the main valve from closing as the
reduced pressure may continue to rise above the setting and eventually cause
the relief valve to blow.
The thermodynamic steam trap shown in Figure 8 is suitable for use in
condensate removal from high pressure steam mains and for turbine casing
drainage.
On start up, incoming pressure raises the disc and cooled condensate plus
air is immediately discharged (A). Hot condensate flowing through the trap
releases flash steam. High velocity creates a low pressure area under the disc
and draws it towards the seat (B). At the same time there is a pressure build-up
of flash steam in the chamber above the disc, which forces it down again st the
Self-Acting Reducing Valves 23 5
A B c D
Figure' H. Th ermodynamic steam trap-operating sequence.
pressure of the incoming condensate until it seats on the inner ring and closes
the inlet. The disc also seats on the outer ring and traps pressure in the chamber
(C). Pressure in the chamber is decreased by condensation of the flash steam
and the disc is raised by the incoming pressure. The cycle is then repeated (D).
Fitting of balance pipes
It is strongly recommended that a balance pipe should be fitted when the

reduced pressure is 10% or less of the inlet pressure. The purpose of this pipe is
to improve the performance of the reducing valve when working under
difficult downstream conditions. It will also help to counteract any pressure
drops in downstream pipework caused by undersized pipe fittings , etc., providing
they are not excessive.
A stop valve should be fitted in the balance pipe to allow complete isolation
of the reducing valve from the steam flow (particularly when a bypass line is
fitted).
The balance pipe should be arranged to fall to allow it to drain into the
downstream pipe. The tapping into the downstream pipe should be made at a
point where smooth flow occurs preferably downstream of the relief valve.
The downstream pressure gauge should be fitted as near to this point as possible.
Air Relief Valves
Air or gas trapped in a pipeline carrying a liquid can cause problems. e.g. reduce
the effective flow, aggravate the effects of surge. and cause pump cavitation.
Possible causes of air/ gas entrainment are:
(i) The pipeline was fully charged with air/ gas when empty.
(ii) Air is entrained at pump suction.
(iii) Air is drawn in through faulty joints or glands.
(iv) Air/gas is trapped in pockets during pipeline filling.
(v) Air/ gas in solution is released due to changes in pressure and temperature.
The problem of dealing with air/ gas entrainment is not usually a

demanding one. Entrained air/ gas will tend to collect at high points in the
system . It can then be removed by introducing air release valves at these
points. These may be simple, manually-operated valves (bleed valves), or fully
automatic. In the latter case the valve should perform the following functions :
(a) release of air/gas accumulating in pipeline during normal pressurised

operation, to prevent restriction to fluid flow
(b) retention of the fluid in the pipeline without loss under all operating
conditions
(c) release of air/gas during pipeline filling at a volume rate sufficient to
prevent back pressure restricting the fiHing rate
(d) admission of air to the pipeline during emptying at a rate sufficient to
prevent excessive vacuum pressure in the pipe.
Single orifice valves (Figure 1) are capable of performing functions (a) and
(b). They are normally used where only relatively small volumes of air/ gas are
to be released, or where it is desirable to provide additional ventilation at operating
pressures. Dual-orifice valves are capable of performing all four functions.
They can normally provide complete protection against air/gas entrainment
under all system-operating conditions.
The type of fluid product being handled also affects the design requirements or
the air release valve (especially automatic valves) . With sewage or industrial
Air Relief Valves 23 7
Cowl
Orifice
bracket
Sealing
face
Fulc
pin
Float and I
Figure I. Single-orifice air relief valve.
effluent. for example. the solids content may block the release passage(s)
periodically. causing unreliable operation . This can be overcome by using
large-volume auxiliary float chambers to contain the fluid under all operating
conditions so that it can never come into contact with the air valve elements.
An example of a dual-orifice air valve suitable for water systems is shown in
Figure 2.
The valve combines small and large orifices. The small-orifice valve comprises
a composite float a nd lever assembly sealing off a small-orifice vent. When the
Components
Large Oriflce
Sedhng Rmg
Small Onhc e
S:lldll O ri hcc LC'v t> r
Air Valve F'loJ t
T uppet
A!r Valve Unll
Ele v ato r
Guide Sleeve
Mam Cov e r
Float Chamb er
Opcrahng Float
Figure 2. Dual-orifice air relief valve.

Underpressure air reln rse valve. Dual-orificr air valve.
I
Air valve I
Tank
with VNRV
I
I
~
Point of Ouid separation ~
~----'*','
~~~
,'
Pump
house _, , , "
,," t
/'--'~ ,,_- ---- --------
.-
---•- --
... Transient pressure wave
Example of patented air relief valve

Vent
with vented non-return valve for
regulating Vented
performing additional function of valve non-return
surge suppression.
1 valve
Air relief valve.

float chamber is fiJling with water, the orifice is closed initially by the float
working through a lever ratio of 5:1.
When the chamber is filled with water under pressure. the orifice is held
closed by the combined upthrust of the float and the differential pressure over
the orifice area. On air accumulated in the system entering the chamber under
working pressure. the water level in the chamber is depressed until it reaches
a point \•vhen the weight of the float is sufficient to uncover the orifice and
exhaust air. Air is expelled until the water level rises again and causes the
float to close the orifice.
The large-orifice valve consists of a float sealing off a large-orifice vent to the
atmosphere. The float is held at a predetermined height in its casing by a
ribbed cage which also guides the float onto the seat. During the pipeline
filling or emptying, the 'aerokinetic' feature holds the float off the seat and
keeps it completely stable under all air outflow or inflO\v conditions. The valve
cannot close prematurely during outflow. It closes only when water enters the
casing and raises the float onto the seat.
An example of the working of dual-orifice air relief valves designed for
handling sewage and similar effluent is shown in Figure 3. When the pipeline
>I Sealing 5 Pressurisation 6 Re lteving
Figure ). Operational sequerrce of a dual-orifice air relief valve.

Double-acting sewage air valve.
is empty, the spherical operating float is suspended from the elevator within
the main chamber and the cylindrical float element of the air valve is
supported by the guide cage. The operating lever of the small-orifice valve is
held open by a tappet on the elevator. Air/gas having been inhaled or expelled
from the pipelines is able to flow freely through both orifices. the design of the
valve being such that the air flow creates a positive down force to hold the
cylindrical float element stable within the guide cage.
As the air/gas is exhausted from the pipeline, liquid enters the main
chamber and the operating float then rises with the liquid. The elevator.
raised by the float, releases the small-orifice valve and engages the base of the
cylindrical element, which rises until seated on the rubber face of the large
orifice.
At this point air/gas outflow ceases and further inflow of liquid to the main
chamber under pipeline pressure compresses the air/gas until maximum
working pressure is reached. The proportions of the main chamber are such
that the fluid level will not rise above the bottom face of the main chamber
cover.
When the pipeline is emptied and pressure falls. the valve main chamber
will drain into the pipeline and the operating float. following the liquid level.
releases the cylindrical float to allow the large orifice to open. As the pipeline
pressure falls to atmospheric, it opens the small-orifice valve. The pipeline is
then able to ventilate freely and sub-atmospheric pressure conditions are avoided.
During normal operating conditions. air/gas will be released from the liquid
and will collect under pressure in the main chamber, depressing the liquid
level. The operating float falls with the liquid but system pressure will hold
the cylindrical valve element on the large-orifice seat. As the operating
float approaches the limit of its travel, the tappet on the elevator opens the
small-orifice valve, releasing the accumulated air/gas under pressure. This in
turn allows the liquid level to rise again and the small-orifice valve to close.
thus completing a cycle.
Positioning of air relief valves
In systems handling water, air relief valves would normally be placed at all
high points, i.e. where a rising section changes to a falling section. In systems
handling sewage or industrial effluent, rather more extensive treatment is
necessary. as illustrated in Figure 4.
Where the fluid is pumped through the pipeline it is desirable that a dual-
orifice valve (valve A) be located just downstream of the pump-delivery valves.
Dual-orifice-type valves are also required at all peak points which are
defined relative to the hydraulic gradient and not necessarily to the horizontal.
In practice a peak may be considered as any pipe section which slopes up
towards the hydraulic gradient or runs parallel to it. In the latter case the
Rising section
--- ----
-~
----- Hydraulic
--- gradie nt
E
E
Datum line
Falling section
D a tum line
fi gure 4 . Typ iral sewage air valve location poin ts.

minimum requirement is a dual air valve at each end of the section (valve B);
any additional valves may be of a single-orifice type.
Positions where an increase in down slope occurs will require ventilation
by a small orifice valve which should also be installed at points of decrease in
up slopes (valve D) .
Pipeline sections of uniform profile also require ventilation and dual-orifice
units should be installed at about 800 m (2500 ft) intervals on these sections
(valves E).
I
Foot Valves
A foot valve is basically a check valve fitted to the end of a suction pipe leading
to a pump. Its purpose is to keep fluid trapped in the suction pipe when the
pump stops. thus maintaining a suitable prime for the pump. When the pump
restarts. the suction created opens the valve, giving full flow to the pump inlet.
(Foot valves are unnecessary on self-priming pumps.)
Foot valves may be of a simple flap-type, or more usually lift-check or ball-
check valves. They are commonly combined with an integral strainer. Some
examples follow.
Poppet lift foot valve
In the example shown in Figure 1, the poppet assembly consists of a plastic tripod
which can be displaced along a bore above the seat valve. The travel of the
poppet is controlled by a stop on the end of the poppet legs acting as supports
for the return spring shouldered onto a washer. This spring ensures that the
valve will work in any position. The main characteristics of this design are low
head losses with good sealing provided by a nitrile rubber 0-ring.
Figure 1. Foot valve with plastic tripod.

Figure 2 shows a design with the tripod in cast iron and with a cast-iron
poppet head with streamlined tripod hub. Sealing is provided by a flat gasket
shouldered by the poppet head and placed on a collar-type seat. This is a simple
and robust design suitable for general applications.
Poppet-tlJpefoot valve with strainer.
Figure 2 . Foot valve with tripod and poppet head in mst iron.
FooL Valves 245
Figure 3. Foot valve with all metal poppet and Figure 4. Ball foot va.lve.
profiled head.
Figure 3 shows a further design where the all-metal poppet with profiled
head is guided by three legs and restrained by a downstream stop. Sealing is by
a flat seal on a flat bearing surface. Valve travel is limited by the stop. A spring
can be added to ensure that the valve will operate in any position.
Ball foot valve
An example of this type is shown in Figure 4. This is a simple ball valve guided
by an inclined cylindrical chamber and seating on an 0-ring. Note that the
ball is displaced laterally along its chamber with inward flow , but it runs down
SUCTION FLOW STOPS
Figure 5. Membranefoot valve.

Fig11re 6. A selection of membrane foot valves.
the chamber onto its seat when the flow rate decreases. [t is particularly
suitable for use with contaminated waters or more viscous fluids.
All examples illustrated are of the type with integral strainer.
Membrane foot valves
Membrane foot valves consist of a cylindrical rubber membrane fitted inside a

steel strainer. When there is a suction developed at the strainer, the membrane
is displaced to allow fluid to flow through the valve. When back-flow conditions
exist, the cylindrical membrane closes the apertures in the valve strainer, thus
closing the valve, (see Figure 5 ).
A selection of membrane foot valves is shown in Figure 6. The lever fitted to
one valve enables the valve to be drained by physically displacing the membrane
when the lever is lifted.
See also the chapter on Check Va lves.
SECTION 4
Control and Automation
Valve Actuators
Control Valves
Float Control Valves
Temperature Control Valves
Regulators
Valve Actuators
Numerous types of devices exist for the remote operation of valves. These
range from simple gearboxes to highly sophisticated motorised valves with
automatic control. programmable logic controllers. microcomputers and field
communications networks.
In basic terms, an actuator can be described as ' A device supplying force
and motion to the closure member (ball. disc. plug, etc.) of a valve'.
There is a distinction between the actual requirements but, in general, the
vast majority of applications are concerned with the opening and closing of
Bushes inserted
t.r~m i'!S!C!~ cvJ.!'!.der
Standard-type pneumatic valve actuator.

2 50 Control and Automation
valves. Certain systems may call for continuous modulating control which
can set limits on the usefulness of both mechanical and energy systems.
In 1992, the world's first non-intrusive 'intelligent' enclosed actuator. that
could be commissioned and interrogated without removing electrical covers,
was launched.
All actuator settings and diagnostics are made through a sealed indication
window using an infra-red setting tool, avoiding the use of penetrating shafts.
Solid-state torque and limit measurement is used throughout, eliminating the
use of springs. switches or levers.
The separation of the setting tool from the actuator provides a most effective
method of security of the settings.
Multi-turn actuators-on-off duty

The general design principle of a multi-turn actuator is to turn a multiple of
3 60° at its output drive. The resulting rounds-by-stroke relationship can be
from 2 to more than 1450. Within this range, position-indicating devices,
such as limit switches, and electronic position transducers can be adjusted .
Initially, multi-turn actuators fitted to valves transform the cycle movement
of the output drive to linear movement according to the demands of the valve.
Multi-turn actuators for on- off duty (short-time operation 10-15 min) mostly
operate valves with only a few number of opening and closing periods a
month.
Part-turn actuators-on-off duty

There is another type of multi-turn actuator for operating ball or butterfly
valves or dampers, for example. with a movement of less than 3 60° for opening
and closing.
Normally. the internal gear of the part-turn actuator is designed for a turn
of 90°, although 120° and 180° are commonplace.
Thrust actuators-on-off duty

Thrust actuators may be fitted to valves requiring linear movement. They
transform the torque of a multi-turn actuator into an axial thrust force by
means of an attached thrust unit. Linear actuators are mainly used with globe
valves or similar and, when indirectly mounted, may be used to operate butterfly
valves, flap valves or dampers.
Multi-turn actuators-modulating duty
The requirements of modulating service (operation of control valves) on

actuators are different from the 'normal' on- off duty.
ValveActuators 251
Part-turn actuators-modulating duty
Typically, a part-turn actuator for operating a control valve consists of a

combination of a multi-turn actuator with a worm gear, the connection
between the two being achieved via the output drive.
It is probably more appropriate to deal with the overall subject of actuators
under three main headings:
(i) main types of valve actuators

(ii) choice of energy systems
(iii) electric/electronic controls
Main types of valve actuators
The main types of actuators used are:
(a) manual operators

(b) cylinder actuators (pneumatic or hydraulic)
(c) vane actuators
(d) electric solenoid
(e) diaphragm actuators
(f) electric motor actuators
All have their particular virtues and uses.
Manual operators
Apart from the obvious job of providing a means whereby a person can open
or close a valve. the requirements of a manual valve actuator may encompass
any or all of the following:
Convert motion from linear to rotar}'
Valves of the gate. globe, diaphragm and pinch type utilise linear motion of
the obturating members to achieve a seal. Handwheel operation implies
rotary motion, and conversion is generally by nut-and-screw, which may be
part of the valve or of a separate manual actuator.
Withstand thrust
When the threaded nut forms part of the manual actuator, it will have to
withstand the operating thrust developed and incorporate suitable thrust
bearings.
Lock the valve in position between operations
For valves operated by linear screw thread, position locking is achieved by use
of an irreversible, (i.e. low-efficiency) thread. Butterfly valves must also be
restrained against self-operation as a result of dynamic flow, and again this is
customarily ensured by using irreversible, low-efficiency, gearing such as
worm and wheel between valve stem and hand wheel.
In each case the efficiency must be Io·w enough so that the valve does not
move from an intermediate position if pressure is applied to the stationary
valve, and it will also stay in position if manually-operated with flow present.
There have been many occasions when valve slamming has occurred under
high-flow conditions with a gear ratio which was thought to be irreversible,
but proved not to be when the handwheel was started under heavy-flow
conditions and the valve took over.
This dynamic effect is less of a problem with plug and ball valves which have
a higher ratio of static friction to dynamic torque and, in any case, are not
suited in standard form to flow regulation.
Whatever manual means is adopted for the operation of valves, the main
constraint is always the human muscle power available. It is difficult for a
person to exert more than about 75 vV (1 / 10 hp) continuously for any length
of time by hand.
Size and type of valve. line pressure and other factors will determine the
power required. For larger valves, this will nearly always mean the introduction
of an intermediate gearbox with a handwheel capable of operating the
valve comfortably with a human's strength-i.e. with a rim pull below 2 7 kg
(60 lb).
The average male can exert up to three times this force momentarily. by
pulling his weight on a handwheel, so that the extra force required to seat
or unseat a valve is not a problem if the gearing is adequate. However. the
Manual gear actuators.

Valve Actuators 2 53
fundamental principle of gearing to reduce input torque inevitably means

that the number of turns required of the handwheel increases. For large
valves and pressures. the number of turns is such that manual operating time
may be measured in hours rather than minutes.
There is no way, therefore. that emergency manual operation can be quick.
The alternative philosophy is to accept that large valves are difficult to operate
and require at least two people, or a team in an emergency, operating a larger
handwheel with far fewer turns. There is no ready solution to this dilemma
other than power operation.
Another reason for utilising reduction gearing is to reduce the torque to be
transmitted via shafts and couplings to a remote operating point, e.g. spur
gearing of a gate valve to a pedestal, say, on a floor above.
A side handwheel is generally more convenient than one with a vertical
shaft. Bevel gear actuators are therefore widely used to reduce the operating
torque of gate valves and bring their handwheel to a particular side for access.
The use of worm gearboxes and equivalent nut-and-screw scotch yoke
actuators for quarter-turn valves automatically turns the drive through a
right-angle, which may therefore be oriented in the right direction. Additional
HANDWHEEL EXTENSION CHAIN SPROCKET
RIGHT-ANGLE DRIVE
Manual operators.
gearing for torque reduction is then usually provided by spur gears. although
a further change of direction via a bevel gear may sometimes be needed.
Hypocycloidal gear-train manual actuators have been especially developed
for the operation of centred-disc butterfly valves mainly used in the heating.
ventilation and air conditioning industry (HVAC).
Other manual actuators with worm wheel and screw kinematics are used
with 1 / 4 -turn valves including centred or double-eccentric disc butterfly
valves. ball valves, etc. They are designed to deliver a constant output torque.
Signalling
A problem with manually-operated valves- especially in plants with centralised

control-is the absence, usually, of any standard means of signalling the
valve status, or of confirming that a required operation has been carried out. If
this is necessary, special provision has to be made. Often this is done by
attaching some form of external limit-switching mechanism, using switch boxes
that meet environmental and safety requirements (see the section on Limit
switches below).
Handwheel drives for powered actuators
All the aforementioned points apply to auxiliary manual drives for power
actuators. However. the fact that the drive is auxiliary only and not the main
Handwheel in zinc-aluminium alloy Visual pointer protected

with open and clos1ng direction and by a tranparent cap
symbols
Gear casing 1n zinc·alumm1um alloy

with ISO 5211 mounting plate
Satellite gears
m steel
Driving dev1ce in
zinc-alumin1um alloy Interchangeable insert
Hupocycloidnl gear-train kinematics.

means of operation may make design compromises in the interests of economy

more acceptable than they would be if manual operation were the regular and
only means.
Cylinder actuators
This type has an actuator using a piston moving inside a cylinder by pneumatic
or hydraulic pressure. It can be single-acting, i.e. equipped with a return
spring, or double-acting, using air or oil pressure for movement in both
directions .
The piston and cylinder can be practically any length or diameter and readily
converts pneumatic or hydraulic pressure into linear force. This can be further
converted to part-turn operation by rack-and-pinion or linkage, i.e. scotch
yoke .
Pneumatic actuators for industrial valves are predominantly applied in
continuous processes. WhiJe one actuator may pass through hundreds of
cycles, 24 hours a day. another may open and close just once a month. Pneumatic
actuators can be applied to ball valves. plug valves and butterfly valves.
Vane actuators
A vane actuator is a pneumatically or hydraulically operated actuator used

with rotary valves. Typically. the actuator has a paddle-like vane in a sector-
shaped pressure casing giving a 90° rotary motion to the vane shaft connected
to the valve stem.
Vane actuators can be double-acting, i.e. operated in both directions by air
or gas pressure, or single-acting with a return spring.
Pneumatic spring-return actuator.

Electric solenoid
The electric solenoid tends to be limited to very small powers, i.e. to pilot duty
rather than actuation duties for other than the smallest valves.
Diaphragm actuators
This can be described as a pneumatically operated actuator where the air

chamber is sealed by a flexible diaphragm, with most of its flat area supported
by a plate at the end of an actuator stem. Variable air pressure flexes the
diaphragm and positions the stem with the assistance of a return spring.
Spring-diaphragm actuators are designed for both proportional and on-off
control of rotary valves. They may be operated by air, gas, water, oil or other
supply media compatible with the diaphragm and its case.
Other types of spring-diaphragm pneumatic linear actuators are designed
for operation with linear control valves. The action can be direct-acting,
where the stem extends with increased air pressure, or reverse-acting. where
the stem retracts with increased air pressure.
Electric-motor actuators
Stringent demands are made of electric actuators for industrial valves.

Extreme temperature fluctuations and aggressive media that affect the actuator's
resistance to chemicals are just two of them.
Microcomputers are being increasingly used to achieve more accurate and
finer controls and adjustments. They are installed not only in large facilities
but also in individual equipment. The trend will intensify with price reductions
Spring-diaphragm actuator.
in microcomputers and with the desire to trace system hazards quickly. These
factors have caused an acute need for automatic controls for entire piping systems.
Generally. electric-motor actuators are designed for use on baH valves. gate
valves. butterfly valves, plug valves and any mechanical equipment calling
for 90° rotational control. including dampers and ventilation grids. etc.
The development of the smart valve accessible by a digital communications
link means that commands can initiate a stroke check of the valve. recording
pressure versus valve travel as the valve is stroked. With an additional sensor
for stem and shaft position, the data can then be used to evaluate the
condition of the actuator and accessories under various parameters based on
an investigation of the valve's stored history. Digital communications to the
valve can measure input signal, pneumatic pressure and valve travel. comparing
the data with stored expected value's and recommending corrective action.
The electric motor will become a serious challenge to pneumatic power when
its inertia matches that of a piston or a diaphragm and when gears have zero
backlash. It must also rid itself of thermal overloads. limit switches, cams,
heaters and thermostats, duty-cycle limitations and explosion-proofhousings.
The trend. though. is definitely towards electronics and micro-electronics
and for the future there is the possibility of an actuator that emulates a
biological muscle-a fast. powerful mechanism that uses stored chemical
energy and is controlled by weak electrical pulses. This device might consist of
polymer strands that contract on signal and take their energy from a chemical
bath that is recharged electrically, as needed by a continuously connected
power source.
The electric-motor actuator is particularly suited where the stroke is long,
because a motor with gearbox has unlimited stroke. However, there are different
mechanical virtues between the electric motor and the piston and cylinder. As
Intelligent communication and control.

mentioned earlier, the piston can be kept continuously pressurised, whereas

the electric motor cannot; a piston can maintain its position, but the drive of a
motor must be mechanically self-locking in order to maintain its position
when switched off. The motor does, however, have the virtue of kinetic
energy-the ability to take a 'running jump' . Kinetic energy, however, places
mechanical constraints on the use of motor actuators as the energy must be
controlled and not misapplied.
In certain circumstances, electric-motor actuators are not very efficient.
For example, when driving through a worm gear and nut-and-screw, e.g. on a
gate valve, up to 90% of the motive power is trying to wear itself out and only
10% is useful. This is acceptable for intermittent valve operation, but it is one
of the reasons why geared motor actuators are not well suited to continuous
modulating or positioning control via stem nuts or self-locking gears. Multi-turn
electric modulating actuators with linear output drives may be a better solution.
Position indicator
with protective cover. ~
Isolation valve w1th ~

male quick disconnect
for purging actuator
with hydraulic fluid. '
Actuator purge
ports also serve
Isolation valves with
as secondary
male quick disconnects
hydraulic power
on primary open and
ports.
close hydraulic
power ports.
By-pass valve
for initial
commissioning
Isolation valve with and purging of
male quick disconnect the umbilical.
for filling and purging
spool cavity with -.. .
hydraulic fluid . '· Actuator body.
Isolation valve with

~l::=:Pf--r-1r----'-'~
.......... .
male quick disconnect - Upper mount1ng
for purging spool spool.
cavity . ~
Relief valve '--1'-------- --__J ............,

for spool cavity. Lower mounting
----~·l
spool.
Rotary-vane subsea act11ator.

Valve Act11ntors 2 59
Choice of energy system
Clearly the selection of the energy system for a particular valve-operating

duty is not something that can be made in isolation. Overall design considerations.
safety requirements, availability of supplies and total installed initial cost and
subsequent maintenance costs all need to be considered.
No single type of control valve actuator is best for all applications. Demands for
power, speed, stiffness and precision vary and cost considerations are always
present. For some applications, there is no actuator that performs adequately.
Sometimes practical valve or environmental needs dictate the use of a
specific type of actuator, in which case the energy source is predetermined.
Sometimes the non-availability of an energy source-or the prohibitive cost of
providing it-will rule out certain actuator options. What follows. therefore. is
only a brief resume of the basic systems available, and the practical and economic
pros and cons of each for various duties. This must, of course, be related to the
foregoing section on actuator types and their performance capabilities.
Advice is readily available from most actuator manufacturers on the choice,
sizing, adaption. installation and commissioning of valve-control systems. For
the unwary or inexperienced specifier, there may be some risk of bias in such
advice from manufacturers of particular types of actuator. This is rare among
leading suppliers whose own reputation must stand or fall on the soundness of
advice in terms of performance and reliability.
Pneumatic systems
[f the operation is to be within the confines of a plant where compressed air is

available, the cheapest method of valve actuation is a pneumatic piston and
cylinder. Pneumatic operation over a distance is, however. limited entirely
by the high cost or making adequate compressed air available over long
distances, ease of storage of compressed air facilities and fail-safe operation
under electric-power failure conditions. The major limitation of pneumatics
is available force due to practical pressure limitation-6 to 8 bar (80 to 100
lbf/in 2 ) being the normal maximum.
Ninety percent of modulating control valve actuators are still pneumatic.
There are many variations of pneumatic actuator available today with output
torques up to 12,000 Nm (9000 ft.lbs).
The actuator shown in Figure 1 is of the double-acting rack-and-pinion
type and is particularly suitable for the automation of a quarter-turn valves
(butterfly snd ball valves). This type of actuator may also be fitted with an
electronic integrated instrumentation unit to ensure the direct control and
supervisory functions encountered in all modern processes and, more
particularly. in communication by fieldbus.
The pneumatic actuator shown in Figure 2 is a double-acting type
incorporating scotch yoke drive.
260 Control and Automation
Figure 1. Double-acting rack-and-pinion prwwnatic actuator.
Figure 2. Double-acting pneumatic actuator with scotclr yoke drivr.

Valve Actuators 261
This actuator develops a variable torque and is well suited for the operation
of larger size quarter-turn valves (butterfly and ball valves) when a significant
torque is needed near the closed position or near the open position. A typical
standard type of double-acting and spring-return piston-type actuator is
shown in Figure 3.
This style of pneumatic actuator also employs a self-contained spring cartridge
to protect against failure in either the open or closed position. Actuators of
this type offer an extremely long cycle life and are well suited to operate almost
any rotary valve in both modulating control and on-off service. Most actuators
of this type are located in fully-closed housings, sealed against humidity and
dust, and should not need regular maintenance. Another versatile unit is the
positioner-actuator which consists of a double or single actuator, a pneumatic
or I/P positioner and conventional or inductive limit switches. This is mainly
used with small. segmented ball valves.
Normal operation of pneumatic actuators is generally accomplished by
pressurising the appropriate supply ports by means of an air-control valve.
Most solenoid and control valves perform better on lubricated air which may
be added with an air line lubricator. Clean, dry air extends the life of pneumatic
actuators and, if this is not available, an in-line filter should be used. Before
hook-up, air lines should be purged to remove scale and other particles which
could damage the control valve, positioner and actuator seals.
Figure 3. Standard-type double-acting and spring-return pneumatic actuator.

Vane systems
Rotary-vane valve actuators are used for quarter-turn valves in critical

applications, especially on natural gas pipelines where the actuators are typically
powered by natural gas using gas over oil tanks. Other applications include:
• quarter-turn valve control on crude-oil products pipelines with the

actuators powered hydraulically or by nitrogen-storage vessels
• high-vibration applications including slurry-pipeline valves, pumping
station valves and compressor-station valves
• offshore platform applications
• cryogenic or extremely low-temperature applications
• subsea-valve control
• high-speed applications with stroking times as fast as 250 ms
A typical rotary-vane actuator is shown in Figure 4.
The general principle of operation of this type of actuator is that opposite
chambers in the actuator are corrected by pressure-equalising passages in the
upper and lower heads. In this manner, the actuator produces a balanced
torque as hydraulic force simultaneously pushes both of the rotor valves away
from the stationary shoes.
Pressure equalizing
passages in the upper Carbon Steel
and lower heads. Upper Head
Vane Seal
Bronze Rotor
Bearing
Shoe Seal Bronze Wear

Pads
Cast Iron
Stationary Shoe ·
Adjustable Carbon Steel

Travel Stop ... Rotor/Vane
Module
Carbon Steel
Body
Carbon Steel
Lower Head
Figure 4. Rotary-vane actuator: schl.:'matic.

Valve Actuators 263
Torque output of the rotary-valve actuator remains constant throughout

the ru II rotation of the valve. Constant torque output is an especially important
feature in high-flow applications, plug-valve applications and for valves
which have rotating seats. Constant torque output insures that the specified
safety factor will not diminish at various positions during the valve stroke.
The rotary-vane actuator has often been described as the complete actuator
for high-pressure duties. Regulators, pressure-reducing valves or relief valves
SEQUENCE 1
The actuator may be powered by a hydraulic

power unit, stored gas pressure or by natural
gas pressure from a pipeline. In this
illustration, the actuator is fitted with gas
hydraulic tanks and is powered by gas
pressure. In the first sequence, the actuator
is in the open position. There is no pressure
in the actuator or tanks.
SEQUENCE 2
The actuator control system is used to admit

high pressure gas into the closing gas
hydraulic tank. The pressurized gas in the
tank forces hydraulic fluid into the actuators
closing port. Pressure equalizing passages
allow both closing quadrants to be
pressurized simultaneously providing
balanced torque as the vanes push away
from the stationary shoes. The actuator is
rotating clockwise.
SEQUENCE 3
When the actuator reaches the fully closed

position, the control system will allow all
remaining pressure in the tank to vent to
atmosphere, thus neutralizing the pressure
in the tank and actuator.
High Pressure Gas

• Pressurized Hydraulic Fluid
Non-Pressurized Hydraulic Fluid
Figure 5. Rotnry-vn}ve actuator: operating sequence.

264 ControlandAuwmation
are generally not required in the power supply circuit. The operating
sequence of a typical rotary-valve actuator is described in Figure 5.
Hydraulic systems
Hydraulic systems are the natural choice if an exceptional duty requires a

large amount of stored power (Figure 6 ). The forces available, and the speed
Figure6. 1 5.000 lv!in 2 COII(fuiL-gate valve with hydrarliu spring-return acwawr and emergency shut-
down control panel.
Valve Actuators 265
and control of the hydraulic actuator are virtually unlimited, i.e. the only
method of operating a large valve in seconds is to pump up a hydraulic
accumulator first. Unless these particular virtues are needed. the system is
uneconomical and. for this reason, is not commonplace.
Furthermore. the hydraulic system is very expensive for operation over
long distances. A pneumatically-operated valve is vented to atmosphere but,
with the hydraulic system. the hydraulic fluid has to be returned through a
line of greater suction to avoid pressure drop. For some special situations.
such as tanker-cargo valves, however, hydraulics provide the only acceptable
means of centralised control. Hydraulic systems are still used for fail-safe and
standby duties.
Combined pneumatic/hydraulic systems (air-oil cylinder)
There are some specialised applications where the combination of pneumatics

and hydraulics can meet particular operational, fail-safe and other needs.
Usually, the principle involved is to use a plant's existing compressed-air supply
to drive a hydraulic pump which, in turn, is used as the regular valve-actuator
energy source, but which also tops up an accumulator for standby emergency
use. Such systems can be devised to cater for virtually any supply-failure
conditions. A typical application is for self-powered actuators in gas pipelines
from which the live gas can pressurise a hydraulic accumulator system for
emergency isolating valves. Live gas is also used to operate the actuator
directly. as previously described.
Hydraulic actuntors will? output torque valves to 2000 Nm.

Electric systems
There are two main factors to be considered here: an electric motor as the
power source, and electricity for the control system. Undoubtedly , full electric
operation and control offers the greatest flexibility. and best suitability. to
centralised automatic control. Remote indication by electrical position feedback
and provision for stand-by manual operation are inherent if the system is
totally electric.
Electric control
Much of the development in industry today is in the direction of centralised

control, which in turn involves remote electrical control of valves, so a close
look at electric valve actuators and their control systems is justified.
Electric valve actuation continues to evolve with astonishing speed. Among
the leaders in the field, this evolution has resulted in very advanced, sophisticated
designs suitable for instant adaptation to practically any kind of valve, in any
environment, in any part of the world.
The weakness of electrical equipment is that electricity and water do not
mix. However, electric actuators are required to operate in a wide variety· of
environments: high temperatures, steamy atmospheres, adverse weather
conditions, mud, sand, flooding and so on. Thus the primary problem for the
designer is not the mechanical duty-that is negligible-but to keep the
environment out.
For example, a plant operating 5 days a week, 50 weeks a year, with a
motorised valve of 1 minute stroke time, opening in the morning and closing
in the evening, would demand a total actuator working life of only 7 days in
20 years. Thus. proper environmental sealing to enable an actuator to do
nothing with complete reliability is paramount. A minimum requirement is
that it should be watertight and flood-proof.
As a further safeguard to exclude the environment. the terminal area-
which has to be exposed for wiring on site- should be separately sealed from
the rest of the equipment, to prevent the ingress of dirt or water during
installation, the most vulnerable period in an actuator's life.
Single-phase, watertight electric actuators are a simple and cost effective
way of controlling small quarter-turn valves and dampers . They are suitable
for use in many areas where an IP68 (NEMA 6) enclosure is required .
The example shown in Figure 7 is suitable for simple open-close duties
where on-off control is required. This is achieved without the need for
reversing contactors. The structural components of a typical standard electric
valve actuator for use with cast-iron and stainless-steel ball valves and
butterfly valves, including also motor-operated control valves and rotary
control valves, are shown in Figure 8 .
One example ofhO\"-' solid-state technology is being applied to electric motor
controlled actuators is shown in Figure 9.
Valve Actuators 267
Figure 7. Single-phase Plectric actuator.
The actuator consists of a motor controlled by an integral solid-state control

assembly driving through two stages of worm and wheel gearing to a quarter-
turn output assembly giving clockwise-to-close output.
The solid-state assembly consists of two elements, the transformer rectifier
providing DC power via thyristors to the motor and the CMOS gate array
which controls and monitors the actuator functions and interfaces with
remote controls. The logic circuits are protected from high-voltage transients
which may appear at the actuator terminal by opto isolators. A schematic
(Figure 10) shows the circuitry.
Electrically operated/electronically controlled
Intelligent, non-intrusive, three-phase electric valve actuators incorporate

the latest electronic techniques and combine them with tried and tested motor
and gearing technology (Figure 11 ).
Figure 8. Electric valvPactuator: st rue lura/ co111ponerzts.
Figure 9. Elrctric quart.er-t11rn actuator for }itlly-modulat.irlg duty.

Vnlve Actuators 269
Thermostat
ConiJguration Monllor Motor The rmostat 1r1p
swuches relay runn1ng
AC illput
DC oower sup ply
n emcte Opto
inputs ISolators Translorrr<:r
Reversing l imit
Open A- Swilch,ng
conftgurauon
.,;
relays SWIIChes
Stop A- 0 CMOS
logiC
~
0
CtoSA A- 0 c rcut ~
0
A-
Local I t I I
Jnputs
Open A-
Close 6-
Torque lflp
Local/ ~
Soli star~-~
Stop/ cr o -
Remote Opllonal hm1t SVIIICh lflP
Figure 10. Circuitry of c>lcctric actuator shown in Figure 9.
Essentially, the non-intrusive actuator makes it unnecessary to remove

electrical covers during motorised valve commissioning by providing local
controls that do not penetrate the electrical enclosure.
The actuator consists of a self-contained unit for intermittent valve operation
and comprises a three-phase motor, reduction gearing, reversing contactor
starter with local controls and monitoring facilities, all based in a double-
sealed, watertight enclosure to IP68 NEMA 4 and 6.
All torque and turn settings and configuration of the indication contacts
are effected using a non-intrusive, handheld infra-red setting tool.
Infra-red setting
The infra-red programming and setting device is a handheld setting tool that
allows the valve actuator to be configured, interrogated and commissioned in
a completely non-intrusive way. This allows, for example. the possibility of
making adjustments to a 'live' actuator within hazardous and wet areas
(operational conditions permitting). A liquid crystal display on the actuator
shows its status digitally. LEDs also show, for example: green-fully closed,
yellow-any intermediate position and red-fully open. The handheld
infra-red setting tool can confirm torque settings and perform simple
diagnostic procedures to reveal why an actuator may not be functioning
correctly. Power-supply faults, interlocks and other interruptions can be
identified. Torque levels, limit settings and the configuration of the actuator
may also be changed. Each time the actuator is powered up, it automatically
tests its operational circuit's memory devices.
N
'l
0
(")
c
::s
~
-
cs
!::>
::
~
:;t.
3 phase ~
induction ~
a·
motor ::s
Set position
Position limits
limits
~ ....
I~
Flux
Torque
Current
Fig1.1re 11. Electrically-operated. electronicnlly-controlled intelligent actuator.

Va/veAcLuators 271
Handheld interrogation computers allow actuators to be assessed via an

infra-red link which is connected to the handheld computer and attached to
the actuator indication window (Figure 12 ).
This unit carries out all the functions previously described and downloads
them for analysis. Historical information such as operator actions and output
torque profiles can also be downloaded for analysis and to provide a view of
operating events that can be viewed in groups or as traces. Details of a valve's
last opening/closing cycle profile and its historical average opening/ closing
profile are also captured. From these, the latest profile could be compared with
the average, giving an idea of changes in the valve torque requirement.
Communication and supervisory control
The major milestone in flow-control development and technology has been

the introduction of field bus control systems.
Modern facilities require up-to-date communications right down to plant level.
Fieldbus systems take advantage or the latest developments in low-cost
micro-chip technology, allowing intelligence to be built into each device in
the loop.
This intelligence allows the rapid development of networks of intelligent
control devices. each communicating with each other over a common medium.
Figure 12. Handheld computer gives acress to valve-actuator diag11ostics and configuration.
The 'peer-to-peer' control allows operators accurately to position a valve and

thus achieve the optimum process parameters, including temperature levels.
pressure and other critical variables.
Each control device communicates via a protocol that has been specially
developed for the reliable and quick transmission or control information. with
guaranteed transmission times for high-priority messages.
Fieldbus systems promise greater process control coupled with increased
accuracy, efficiency, cost savings and plant reliability. The diagnostic role of
fieldbus means that it can also give advance warning of potential problem
areas, thus enabling preventative action to be taken.
Two-wire loop systems
Two-wire communication systems provide the link between valve actuator

and supervisory control. Systems generally have three essential elements-
field units, the 2-wire loop and a master station.
Field control units are typically mounted within the actuator's housing.
Variable parameters such as the field unit address and baud rate are set
non-intrusively using an infra-red communications link. Changes to the
parameters can usually only be made when the field unit is in 'loopback' mode.
An EEPROM holds the address and communication speed data, and a detector
senses the loop current. The field unit does not interfere with the actuator
local controls which remain operable in the event of field-unit rna \function.
The 2-wire loop carries a current loop signal which is modulated by a master
station to send and receive data from field control units. The cable is a single
twisted pair with an overall protective screen. The loop is capable of being
installed in an electrically hostile environment where large surge currents
can induce transient currents in the cables (i.e. lightning storms). The use of a
2-wire system greatly reduces the number of cable cores to transfer signals
from the actuator to the control centre.
The two wires are connected to, and taken from, each field control unit in
turn. They originate from and return to the master station to create a single
twisted-pair, 2-wire loop.
As each device may be accessed from either direction. a redundant
communications path is available. The integrity of the 2-wire cable is
continuously checked whilst the system is running. Should communication
fail, the master station ceases transmission and every field unit asserts its
'loopback' circuit. After a short period, the master station begins communication
to each field unit in turn, extending the current loop until the fault location is
revealed.
The master station is typically equipped with two processors, one to control
the loop data and the other to handle the host communications, screen display
and keypad. All messages passed over the network are under the control of the
master station. A field unit may not transmit any data unless it receives a
Valve Actuators 273
Figurt' 1 3. Advanced 2-wire loop-network communication system.

2 74 Control nnd Automation
request from the master station. The host system may be a DCS, PLC or SCAD A
system. The information is typically passed using a universally accepted
fieldbus communicator standard, e.g. Mod bus, HART, INTER BUS, etc., protocol.
Information is continuously gathered by the master station from the field
units, so ensuring that information requests by the host system are serviced
with an intermediate reply from the internal data base.
Command instructions from the host have priority and are processed
immediately by passing the message to the field unit concerned.
Advances in this technology also provide for high levels of system safety
and security, including hot standby, cable fault protection and field unit
failure protection, as well as logic and sequencing capabilities of a PLC. and
Direct Operator Panels where operatives require push buttons and indicators
for valve positions and graphical interfaces to the valves and plant using
mimic diagrams to show the plant layout.
Any valve may be controlled and navigation through the application is by
mouse control. Systems ofthis type can operate with a single network covering
240 devices over a 20 km loop length, without restriction on inter-node distances.
Some examples of layouts showing the control of actuators by Bus system
are shown in Figures 14 and 15 .
Electronic controllers have reached a high stage of development and sources
within industry consider that the Field bus specification may be too complex in
attempting an all-embracing standard. Problems are possible in migration
between Fieldbus variants and integration with distributed control systems.
DJ
1/)
(.)
ch.
:J 
....I llllii
~~
Q.
=t::::~
(_ ~
,_ ........J
....... . .. -
....,_.......,.II __________ ..........

3 ph AC power supply.
e.g . 400 V/50 Hz
-------....~::.....;.;........;.;;.._~----.
3 3 3
DREHMO-Mat•c I DREHMO-Mat1C I
Fig 1.1re 14. Controlling the actcw tors IJy BUS system: In terlms-S.
Distributor box
3 ph AC power SUPply. e.g. 400 Vi50 Hz
OREHMO-Malic I DREHMO-Mai1C!
PiyurP 15. Controlling the actuators by BUS system: Profilms.
This is important where a transparent interface between the intelligent

'smart' valve and the Distributed Control System is required.
There is also concern that lightning strikes could cause failure of the
microprocessors in the positioner. Manufacturers are actively working in this
area developing their own intelligent electronics systems such as Fieldview,
Starpak, Smart Valve Interface, Pakscan, ISMO, TZID, Keydig and Matic.
Valve positioning
There are two basic requirements in the opening and closing of valves: when
closing. to be sure that the valve is properly and tightly seated, yet without
excessive force being applied; when opening, to be certain that the valve is
fully opened without excessive overrun or strain on the backseating.
A positioner is a device for varying and maintaining an actuator position in
control valve applications. The positioner compares the actual actuator
position with respect to the given input signal and adjusts the pressure applied
on the actuator until the desired position is attained. Positioners can be
pneumatic or electropneumatic, single- or double-acting and capable of being
used on both rotary and linear actuators. Typically. a pneumatic positioner is
a single-stage, force-balance device that can regulate virtually any actuator
step less from 0 to 100%. In basic form it consists of a flapper and nozzle, spool
276 ControlandAutomation
pilot valve, an adjustable range and reversing mechanical feedback.

Generally, the electropneumatic positioner's action is based on the principle of
analogue electronic comparison. More advanced electropneumatic positioners
are low-powered high-flow switching devices.
Using menu-driven button control pads or remote communications devices,
the operator selects from a wide range of pre-set or automated control
characteristics. User configuration enables adjustments to be made manually
so that parameters can match specific process conditions. Certain systems
have the ability to adjust the valve's position using a static or dynamic option.
Static setting allows the fixed adjustment of the actuator's upper and lower
limits, while the dynamic option enables the valve position to be altered to
match the individual installation requirements.
The valve positioner shown in Figure 16 is an intelligent digital device that
combines micro-processor technology with a piezo-electric interface. The
instrument can be connected to 2-, 3- or 4-wire systems and checks to
establish what it is connected to and what is required of it, then calibrates the
basic settings accordingly. Some positioners incorporate or can accommodate
a gauge block directly onto the positioner for a continuous indication of the
input and output air pressure of the actuator and the positioner.
Electric modulating actuator for control valves a.nrl damper applicat.ions.

Valvulctuntors 277
Programmable positioner for quarter-turn actuators.
FigHre I 6. Electropneumatic valve positioner incorporating digital technology.

Limit switches
A limit switch is a device connected to an actuator or valve that transmits a

signal when the valve reaches a pre-established position.
A typical limit-switch box for pneumatic actuators is fitted with two
switches. These are activated by two adjustable cams mounted on the drive
shaft. A direct coupling with the actuator drive shaft provides an exact
indication of the valve 's position.
The switches can normally be set independently of each other to provide an
open/closed signal of the drive shaft and thus the position of the valve to the
control room.
Gear operators
There are three main types of gear operators. These are of worm gear. bevel
gear and spur gear design. Gear operators are generally suitable for both
manual and motorised use (Figure 17).
Input reducer
Motorised input flange
IW4 I IR1
(70:1 I 4:1)
280:1
Baseplate
Worm quadrant
Thrust bearing
Worm
Figure 17. Quarter-tum worm-gc:nr operator.

Va/veActuators 279
Worm-gear operators tend to be used with butterfly and ball valves and
dampers, as well as other applications where keyed shafts are used to operate
equipment.
Spur, bevel and multi-turn worm-gear operators are for use on gate. globe.
sluice and penstock valves, as well as other applications where screwed or
keyed shafts are used to operate equipment. Applications include low and
high temperatures. submersible duties, buried service, marinised duty, water
works specification and special indication.
Efficiency
It has been said already that some valve motor drives are mechanically
inefficient-giving only 10% useful energy when, for instance, they are
driving through a worm gear and the nut-and-screw of. say, a gate valve, and
not much higher when driving a butterfly valve through self-locking gears.
Wearing of inefficient gears or stem nuts is the primary limitation on
frequency and continuity of operation of such drives, and this also limits the
practical speed of operation of large screw-operated valves and penstocks.
Nevertheless, the many advantages of control, power source. interfacing with
supervisory control and instrumentation and so on compensate for the
mechanical inefficiency, provided the actuator duty is properly considered.
Portable valve actuators
Portable valve actuators or valve wrenches can be used to provide portable

turning power to replace manual effort in opening or closing valves on pipeline
systems not fitted with permanent valve actuators. For example, water
distribution piping systems generally have no permanent actuators installed,
opening and closing of valves, when required, being by manpower.
An advantage of portable valve actuators is that they permit implementation
of valve-exercising programmes designed to service and operate valves in
order to keep them in good condition, e.g. eliminate 'valve seizure' problems
·which can arise when valves are left in one position for long periods. This
applies particularly in water systems.
Portable valve actuators and valve wrenches may be designed for operation
by electricity (i.e. powered by electric motors), compressed air or hydraulic
power, and are normally adaptable for fitting a wide range of standard valves.
The best designs provide operation 'feel', as well as speed control, reversibility
and the ability to make instant stops and starts and reverses needed to free up
sluggish gate valves, hydrants and sluice gates, etc. Typically, speeds of up to
20 to 2 5 r/min may be provided. with operating torques up to 13 60 Nm
(1 000 lbf/ft)for handling valves in the size range 152 to 15 24 mm ( 6 to 60 in) .
The majority of such models are readily portable, i.e. weigh less than 18 to
23 kg (40 to 50 Ib). Larger. heavier models may be trolley- or truck-mounted.
Control Valves
In general terms, a control valve may be described as a power-actuated valve,

capable of throttling or modulating the flow, and used as a final control element
in a control loop. Control valves operate automatically, receiving signals from
an external controller. They may incorporate several different types of valve
including globe, butterfly. ball and diaphragm (Figure 1 ).
Their operation can be vacuum, pneumatic, electromagnetic and hydraulic.
Within the area of control valves, most developments have taken place with
the internal components such as the trim , which may well be or the cage type
(hollow cylindrical trim), with retained seat, instead of contoured plugs with
threaded seats.
Development in control valves has been driven by a demand for higher
temperatures and pressures within the chemical, oil and power industries.
Transcontinental pipelines, offshore oil and gas platforms and under-sea modules
have been important driving forces.
Developments for control valves point to electronic packages located on valves
which can be called up for remote interrogation. 'Smart valves' accessible by a
Butterfly
Ball
Cv
Segment ball
or rotary plug
Globe
Rating
Figure I. Control valve types.

Control Valves 281
Control valve.
Rotary control valve.

2 82 Control and A utornation
_____ ..,.
DIRECTION OF FLOW
Pressure control valve.
Severe-service control valve for oil and gas

duties. Flow control valve.
digital link receive and transmit commands that can indicate a stroke check of
the valve, recording pressure vs valve travel as the valve is stroked. With an
additional sensor for stem and shaft position, the data can be used to evaluate
the condition of the actuator and accessories under various parameters based
on an investigation of the valve's stored history. Digital communications to
the valve can measure input signal, pneumatic pressure and valve travel,
comparing the data with stored, expected values and recommending corrective
action.
Current difficulties arise over the fieldbus communications standard . While
the concept of valve intelligence does not depend on digital communications.
the reality is that some form of digita l field bus is essential.
Control valve sizing
A number of valve manufacturers have produced control valve sizing programs

that can be u sed to select a control valve with optimum controllability and
control accuracy for each process application. Typically. these programs are
based on the flow characteristic curve a nd gain curve of the installed valve.
Control Valves 28 3
Inherent and installed flow characteristics
The selection of a control valve of optimum size and type begins with the valve's
flow characteristic. This has been defined as the curve relating percentage of
flow to percentage of valve travel. i.e. rotation of the ball or the butterfly disc
or linear movement of the globe valve disc .
'Inherent flow characteristic' applies to situations when constant pressure
drop is maintained across the valve.
'Installed flow characteristic' takes into account the variations in the pressure
drop caused by conditions in the system where the valve is installed.
There are two common flow characteristics for control valves. In the equal
percentage characteristic, a given fraction of valve opening changes flow by a
certain percentage of previous flow. In the linear characteristic, a given
fraction of opening changes flow by the same fraction of maximum flow.
Figure 2 shows the most common valve inherent flow characteristics as a
function of the relative flow coefficient (¢)and the relative travel (h).
A typical installed flow characteristic curve for a butterfly valve in a process
application is illustrated in Figure 3.
Overshoot
An important function of control valve performance is 'overshoot'.
As the control valve responds to a step change in signal, overshoot is the
amount of travel beyond the final steady-state position. While in most systems
it is important that a control valve responds quickly to changes in signal, it is
equally important that this response does not destabilise the operation.
Excessive overshoot can contribute to loop nonlinearity. as well as increase
loop instability and affect control-loop performance.
With a signal of 5%, a control valve with zero overshoot will travel directly
to the required position. A valve with up to 20% overshoot will pass beyond
the proper position by 1% and require time for adjustment to the new position.
A control valve with the least amount of overshoot will provide the system
with the best opportunity to respond to changes in process demands.
Percentage overshoot should be less than or equal to 2 0 % of the step magnitude
for steps ranging from 10% of travel down to steps equal to the backlash /
stiction limit + 1%. Speed of response needs to be viewed in conjunction with
how accurately the control valve responds to a change in input signal and
the percentage of valve overshoot. Quick response by itself without a high level
of accuracy and with too much overshoot will destabilise system performance.
Control valve speed of response is typically determined by four major criteria:
• Dead time (Td)-the time it takes to respond after the signal is initiated.
It is measured in fractions of a second .
• T63-the time it takes the valve to reach 63% of its new position.
It is measured in seconds or fractions of a second.
284 Control and A11tomation
1.0
0.9
0.8
~
.....
0.7
I
c 0.6
<1) 2
u
~0 0.5
u
~
0
;:;::::
0.4
<1) 3
> ~
·~
0.3
"'
Q)
a::
0.2
4
0.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Relative travel h
1 quick opening 3 equal percentage (~= ~o ,.., exp (c->.:h))

2 linear(~= h) 4 hyperbolic
Figure 2. Valve inhenmtjlowcharact.eristics.
NELSIZE INSTALLED FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

Q = percent of fully open flow rate
100 %--.--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -------.,
0
0
Trim: S1C
Size: 150
0
Q 0
Fully open flow: 0

[m 3/h) 363.8
0
Specified Q
max. flow: 96 % 0
min. flow: 22 %
0
relative travel h 100 %
Figure 3. Typical installed ]low characteristic for a butterfly-control valve.

Contro/Valves 285
• T98-the time it takes the valve to reach 98% of its new position.
It is measured in seconds or fractions of a second.
• Band width-the frequency at which the plug position amplitude is
diminished by 6 dB (difficult to verify).
The control valve shown in Figure 4 has been designed for highly erosive
services and with simple maintenance procedures without special tools . The
valve can be used with sodium chlorate, wet chlorine, terepthalic and hot
acetic acid because it has a tiodyed titanium seat and plug, a ceramic-coated
titanium shaft and titanium bearings with Kalrez H•* seals.
The plug and seat are self-aligning and bi-directional flow capability helps
to prolong valve life. The valve operates over a 90° range of motion and can
Figure' 4. Rotary control valve for highly erosive services.
*Dupont registered trade mark.

286 Control and Automat.ion
withstand high pressure drops. Typical products being handled include digester
gas off, Kaolin slurry, Ely-ash slurry, titanium dioxide slurry and steam.
Segment control valve
This type of valve may be considered to be a special category of single-seated

control valve (Figure 5). Segment valves have a concentric V-shaped trim on
the side of a rotary baJl segment (Figure 6). They are typically designed as
high-capacity, general-purpose valves with equal percentage flow characteristic.
An almost linear characteristic can be obtained using the non-V-shaped
cheek of the ball.
The metal-seated butterfly control valve shown in Figure 7 is equipped with
a flow-balancing trim. The trim is located on the downstream side of the
valve body and is effectively a perforated plate partially covering the valve
outlet to reduce noise and cavitation, stabilise the flow pattern and reduce
dynamic torque on the disc. Valve sizes range from DN 150 to DN 100 ( 6 in to
40 in).
The concept of this design is to transfer fluid forces out of the disc to the body.
Figures 8 and 9 illustrate flow treatments with a concentric-type, conventional
butterfly valve compared with a valve fitted with a flow-balancing trim.
Figure 10 shows the seating principle of this butterfly control valve. The
disc of the valve is machined to close tolerances to create an elliptica l shape
similar to an oblique slice taken from a solid metal cone.
When the valve is closed, the elliptical disc at the major axis displaces the
seat ring outwards, causing the seat ring to contact the disc at the min or axis.
FigurP S. Segmented control valve .

ControlVnlvc>s 287
Fig ure 6. Conce11tric ·v'-slwperl trim on side of rotary ball segment.
Figure 7. ;'vlctal-senterl butterfly-control valve withflow-balnrzcing trim.

When the valve is opened. the contact is released and the seat ring returns to
its original circular shape.
Double-seat valves
This type of valve (Figure 11) employs two seats with an optimally dimensioned
leakage chamber between them so that any seal leakage drains directly to
atmosphere.
Figure 8. Conventional concentric-type valve flow treatment.
Figure 9. S-DJSCjlow treatment.
Figure 10. Seating principle.

Control Valves 289
The valve is pneumatically operated and suited for applications in brewing,

beverage, dairy, food, pharmaceutical and chemical plants.
The method of operation is shown in Figure 12. The valve is designed for
cleaning in place (CIP), as outlined in Figure 13. Double-seat valves typically
allow for the design of 'totally contained flow systems', eliminating the need
for manual swing bends for product and cleaning lines. thereby simplifying
the processes of flow automation.
Figure 11. Double-seat-type control valve.

Double Seat Valve Operation

lower valve stem
upper valve stem
upper seat
closed
VALVE IN Cl.OSED POSITION.

Upper and lower valve seats are closed and separated
by the leakage chamber open to atmosphere
In th ts positton, two flutd streams (pipeline A and
pipeline 8) may pass through the valve without a
chance of tntermixing.
upper valve stem
seal between upper

and tower valve stem
c loses off leakage chamber
leakage outlet
VALVE IN OPEN POSITION.

Upper valve stem moves down towards the lower
one and presses it from its seat. At the same time
tts seal closes off the leakage chamber and separates
it safely from the product area. In this posttton,
fluid streams (pipeline A and pipeline B) are open
to each other.
Figurel2 .
Control Valves 2 91
Double Seat Valve Cleaning
upper valve stem
pipeline A
(cleaning solution)
upper seat open
leakage chamber
between the seats
pipeline B (product)
leakage outlet
UPPER VALVE SEAT AREA.

The upper valve stem is momentarily opened by
the seat lift actuator. Cleaning solution is allowed to
flush the upper seal and seat area as well as the
leakage chamber.
lower valve stem

upper valve stem
lower seat open
pipeline B
(cleaning solution)
WWER VALVE SEAT AREA.

The lower valve stem 1s momentarily opened by
the seat lift actuator. This allows cleaning solutton to
flush the lower seal and seat area as well as the
leakage chamber.
Figure I 3.
Top cap !Of p<essure to close (fyPe P.C.) - -- ---.

Dust cap tor p<essure 10 open
(fype P.O.)
Lift spring titled o n -----...

P.C. Valves.
Inlet
Figure I 4. Piston-operated control valve.
Piston-operated control valves

The piston-operated control valve shown in Figure 14 is another valve
developed to meet the needs of the processing industries. Power is applied
through integral piston operators and the operating source can be pneumatic,
hydraulic or line pressure itself, depending on the application. The valve is
non-concussive in operation and suitable for controlling water. gases and
other liquids compatible with the valve materials.
Modulating control valves
Control valves of this type are generally available with a comprehensive range
of options.
They have a vertical pneumatic piston-type actuator with integral electronic
controller/positioner housed in the head. The control head consists of an
electronic processor that enables the valve to operate in either a 'positioner' or
'controller' mode (Figure 1 5).
Curve characteristics and signal scaling are set by means of dip switches.
The electronic controller's built-in software generates an adoptive response
to changing process conditions, reducing hunting and overrunning.
The pneumatic-diaphragm type provides conventional mechanical control.
Control valves are used for a multitude of applications, e.g.:
Control Valves 293
FigurP 15. Modulating electronic control valve.
• Pressure control, including

Controlling
Downstream reducing and stabilising
Upstream sustaining
Holding a differential pressure
Backflow prevention
Double direction flow if upstream pressure< downstream pressure.
Full opening at a present upstream pressure
• Flow and level control, including

Controlling
Maintaining a maximum flow
Reducing and stabilising flow downstream
Controlling the upper level
Back flow prevention
• Tank and reservoir control. including

Controlling
Not controlling (fully open or fully closed)
Controlling the upper level
Opens at lower level. closes at upper level
Diaphraam control valves fo r softening and.filter applicntio11s.
Figure 16. Act11ated plasLic-rliapl!ragm control valve.

Control Valves 29 5
• Protection and control. including

Against \•Vater hammer
Against electrical failure
Pump protection
Electrical/electronic monitoring
Against downstream pipe failure
Against 'overspeed flow·
Pressure-reducing valves and pressure-relief valves are also used as

control valves and are covered in their specific chapters. Trim designs include
metal-seat ring and cage, soft seat and cage, balanced and unbalanced plug.
soft-seated plug and bonnet types including bellows-seat bonnet.
The valve shown in Figure 16 is an actuated plastic-diaphragm control
valve. Utilising a threaded spindle which operates as a helical gear, it is possible
to regulate the minimum flow (fully closed or fully open). The stroke limiter in
the upper part of the actuator is also adjustable. The internal gear operates as
stroke limiter which provides for restriction as it rotates and thus provides
stroke limitation from fully open to fully closed across its complete movement.
Typical applications include water treatment, water supply. and the chemical
industry.
Iris-type control valves are used where it is difficult to control and regulate
viscous or charged liquids as well as gaseous media, particularly if very small
1. Membrane: reinforced nitrile. 6. Body drain plug: brass.

2. Position indicator with purge: brass and 7. Reversible seat seal: nitrile.
stainless steel. 8. High-pressure valve housing: cast iron
3. High-pressure valve head (pressure epoxy coating (pressure setting 2 5 ).
setting 2 5): cast iron epoxy coating. 9. Pressure relief holes.
4. Nuts a nd bolts: stainless steel. 10. Pressure relief holes.
5. Replaceable streamlined seat: bronze.
~t\fatrr imfustry control valve.

quantities are involved. Conventional flow control valves with slot-type,

sickle-shaped or elongated flow apertures will not generally permit fluctuation-
free regulation. Other control valves tend to have greater head losses that can
result in increased energy costs.
A typical iris-design control valve is shown in Figure 17.
It will be seen from Figure 18 that the flow aperture is almost continuously
variable, making it suitable for use in sugar centrifugals, sewage treatment
stations, paper and paper board processes, etc.
Pneumatic control valves
Pressure-operated and solenoid air poppet and spool valves are extensively
covered in the 'Pneumatic Handbook', also published by Elsevier Science
Limited, which should be referred to for information on this subject. The valves
covered include 2- and 3-port. direct and pilot-operated and pressure-
operated valves as well as 4- and S-port solenoid air-operated valves.
Progressive opening and closing

altitude valve.
Pump protection control valve. Upstream/downstream control valve.
Examples of water industry standard control val \II' S.

Control Valves 297
Pressure- and solenoid-operated air control valves (Figure 19) are used in
general and specialist services including steam. combustion gases. cryogenics.
vacuum. dust collector systems, engineering. proportional. and explosive
atmospheres, etc.
Figure 20 shows how pneumatic-distribution spool-valve islands can be
connected with a PLC or PC control system through a multi wire cable or with
a fieldbus through a communications protocol. These systems meet the needs
for automated installations and allow the transmission of any control signal
to the spool valves and any information signal from the position detections. A
typical connection structure is shown in Figure 21.
See also the chapter on Actuators.
Electromagnetic control valves
Typically, electromagnetic control valves are solenoid-actuated and employ a

pilot disc to assist operation. They do not use any stem. packing or bellows and
there are few moving parts.
Figure I 7. Iris-type diaphragm control valve.
Figurt> 18. Iris-type diaphragm control valve: openir1g sequence.

Figure I 9. Solenoid air poppet and spool valves.
( 1) - lnterbus-S input
(2) - lnterbus-S output
(5) - Pressure supply 1
(6) - Exhausts 3 and 5
(8) - Ports 2 and 4
(9) - Detector ports
(13} - 24V DC supply
Fig11re J.O. Spool-valve island wil.hjieldlms connection to PLC or PC control systl'ln.

Control Valves 299
PLC - -- / \
1- ' [] Microcompuler
~C I I~ _..-__-;-~
__~
.:.oom max ____ I (!1/llliJ»It\\\\\

124 VDC ~ I
I
I 400mm u 1400 mmr.l( I ~OOmm. 1~ ,.. ___
I ,1 J. I
I ~ ,......_,., 0000 ,....._., OQOO_QOQQ_ -~OQOOOOOQ()Qli
I I -
c-- -
I
= .__
I._
-~ 8x ~8 "! go 0 '---
'! g
""/
0 0
8~
-
xo
6 ~
6 """" - 6
hoo
.00'00 00000000 0' )000
Figure 21. Typicnllnterbus-S connection structure.
Figure 2 2. Electromaqnetir control valve- 'equivalent to pipe·.

Two basic designs are on-off isolation valves and modulating control
valves. Operation of the valve occurs when the solenoid is energised to
develop a magnetic field. This lifts the plunger and pulls a pilot off its seat to
open an internal vent port. vVhen the differential pressure between the top
and bottom surfaces of the main disc changes sufficiently, the main disc follows
in servo motion to the pilot and allows the fluid at the inlet to flow.
In modulatory designs, an electronic positioner controls electrical power to
the solenoid to match disc position with desired flow.
An electromagnetic control valve is shown in Figure 22. Typical applications
include storage and handling of hydrocarbons.
The increasing use of rotary valves proceeds hand in hand with the widening
application range, improved reliability and cost-effectiveness of control
valves. It is also becoming standard practice to combine globe valves in small
sizes with rotary valves in larger sizes. In on-off applications, the rotary types
are used throughout the size range. The availability ofmanufacturers' software
programs for sizing control valves provides a valuable tool (or the engineer
who needs to evaluate the true performance of the control. valve. It can also
give information on how to program the controller to achieve the required
control characteristic and thus to improve control accuracy and overall
process-cost efficiency.
490 Pipelines/ Pipework
Modern pigging systems now operate with a 'captive pig' and the pipeline is
opened up only occasionally to check on the condition of the pig. At all other
times, the pig is shuttled up and down the pipeline at the end of each transfer,
for example.
Today's pigging systems can also be operated by a Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC) or other computer-based control system.
System types
Pigging systems usually comprise one or more of the following types:
1. Open system: where the pigs are forced into and expelled from the system
whenever necessary. The system works on a one-way principle.
2. Closed system: the pigs remain 'captive' in the system for their entire
operational life and do not need to be forced into and expelled from the
pipe.
3. Single-pig system: has only one pig in the pipe which goes into action
when. for example, product residue needs to be cleared out of the line. This
can be a cost-effective answer for simple tasks.
4. Two-pig system: probably the pigging system chosen most often. It has two
pigs in a pig launching and receiving station. \1\lhen the pumping process
begins, the first pig is pushed into the line and the product then pumped in
after it. The second pig pushes the product out of the pipe, cleaning any
residue from the pipe as it moves along.
Smart pigs
Smart pigs are generally deemed to be any series of pigs used for internal
inspection of a pipeline. Smart pigs can detect bends, dents and other reductions.
inspect for corrosion and other damage and photograph the internal walls of a
pipeline. Sophisticated electronics and computers in sealed containers take
and record various internal measurements.
Enhanced cleaning pigs
These pigs are specially designed to be more aggressive than standard cleaning
pigs.
Typically. there are three types:
• Magnetic cleaning pig for dealing with loose debris in both gas and
liquid lines.
• Pin wheel-type pig for removing hard scale and wax deposits adhering
to the pipe wall , usually in liquid lines.
• Brush wheel pig which is run after a line has been enhanced and cleaned
using a magnetic cleaning pig, a pin-wheel pig, or a combination of
both.
Enhanced cleaning pigs can be set up for various levels of aggressiveness,

ranging from very low to very high. This gives the advantage of implementing
controlled and gradual increases in aggressiveness to prevent over-cleaning,
which could lead to a blocked pipeline.
Foam pigs are made of polyether or polyurethane foam from 32 to 144 kg/
m (2 to 9 lbf/ft 3 ) density, chamfered on the leading edge and with a sealing
3
disc on the rear pressure face. On some types the outside surface is coated with
elastomeric polyurethane to increase the resistance to abrasion from the pipe
wall. Abrasive foam pigs, in addition. have bands of abrasive grit around the
circumference to improve the cleaning action. While normally made with a
circular cross-section, foam pigs can be fabricated with other profiles for
cleaning ductwork.
Steel pigs are, in comparison, relatively complex, consisting of a steel frame
which seals against the pipe wall by means of two or more elastomeric cup
seals. Except in the case of gauging and bi-directional pigs, cleaning is
achieved by a series of scrapers or brushes arranged around the outside of the
frame. Gauging pigs consist simply of the frame and seals, while the seals of
bi-directional steel pigs are placed in opposition to each other to enable the pig
to be driven in either direction.
Table 4 summarises the principal applications of each type and Table 5
gives recommendations for certain pigs in a given application.
Table 4.
Type of pig Principal u ses Example
Foam Swabbing: removal of thin, soft or Sludge or water in air lines; to

liquid films avoid damaging pipe surfaces.
Coated foam Removal of films and heavy sludges Oily deposits.
Abrasive foam Removal of h eavy or h ard deposits Rust; slag; hard sca le in water:
effl uent and hydrocarbon lines .
Cleaning (brush) Removal of miscellaneou s superficial Light rust and scale;

materials pre-commission cleaning.
Scraper Removal of h ard or strongly ad h ered Corrosion; wax in effluent and

film s and deposits hydrocarbon lines.
Gauging Proving minimum bore prior to

commissioning
Bi-directional Plugging pipeline during hydrostatic testing

49 2 Pipelines/ Pipework
Table 5. Pigging application
Pipeline application Pig choices
Geometry survey. e.g. proving that the inside Gauging or calipe(' pig.
diameter of the line has a minimum clear bore
Removal of rust. scale. and hard deposits Brush cleaning pig.
Removal of wax-type deposits Urethane-bladed cle<ming pig.
Chemical swabbing Spheres: multi-cupped pig.
Water filling/air removal Bi-directional pig: foam pig: multi-cupped

batching pig.
Dewatering
Higher cost: maximum dewatering Cup swabbing, bi-directional
Lowe(' cost: less dewatering foam pigs.
Product ('emoval Multi-cupped pig; foam pig: spheres.
Intemally-coated lines Foam pig; urethane brush pig.
Product separation Spheres; multi-cupped batching pig.
Meter proving Spheres.
Corrosion/material defect Corrosion-detect ion pig.
On-stream liquid removal Spheres; multi-cupped pigs.
Valves
Full-bore, full-opening valves in accordance with API-6D standards are

required for safe pig passage. Reduced port valves usually cannot be pigged.
Some cmnmon piggable valves include: through-conduit gate valves.
wedge-type gate valves, ball valves and check valves.
Wedge gate valves can sometimes present problems for pigs, e.g. those that
are gapped between seat ring spacings. Generally. ball valves are the best type
for use in pipelines that will be pigged.
Optimum cleaning methods
Careful selection of equipment is essential if a pigging operation is to be

successful, and this depends upon possessing adequate information on the
following factors:
• internal pipe diameter

• bend radii
• location and type ofbranches, valves, flow meters and other obstructions
• location of access points
• material of construction
• pressure rating of pipelines
• constraints on propellant type
• physical properties of material to be removed
• distribution and thickness of material to be removed
• · health hazards
Nominal pipe bore. actual bore and bend radii are of crucial significance in
selecting the sizes and types of pigs to be used. Very tight bends or changes in
direction can be negotiated only by foam pigs. vVhere there is a possibility of
the pig becoming stuck. it is necessary to use a bi-directional pig so that it can
be withdrawn from the blockage.
The physical properties and distributions of the material to be removed
influence the type of cleaning action required and hence the choice of pig. In
many cases, a range of different pigs will be used in succession to provide the
optimum cleaning action at each stage of the operation. Unfortunately, it is
often difficult to determine in advance which pigs will be needed, and it is
sometimes necessary to make the choice of pig types as the operation
proceeds.
It is essential to identify berorehand all intersections of pipe runs, change of
bore and obstructions in the bore from valves, pumps and monitoring equipment.
and to plan the pigging operations carefully.
ln complex process pipework it may be necessary to break the operation
into separation sections. On long pipelines there is no reason, however, why a
pig should not be sent many kilometres (miles). If desired it can be followed
electrically or magnetically by the use of tracking equipment.
Applications
Pigging as a technique is suitable for cleaning the walls of pipes and removing
sediment from the invert. It is particularly suitable for long runs of pipework
having many bends and few access points, which cannot easily be cleaned by
Table 6.
Pig type Range or actual bore Minimwn bend radius Uni/bi-directional
D(mm) D (in)
1
Foam 12-1220 / r48 No limits Bi-directional
Steel 50-1420 2- 56 1 1h D-SD Either

494 Pipelines/Pipework
any other method. Pigging is not suitable for unblocking pipes which are
completely closed.
With the correct choice of pigs and equipment, pigging can be successful in
dealing with a wide variety of materials of which the following are examples:
Removal of: Special applications:

weld and nodular scale gauging
slag hydrostatic testing
rust and corrosion swabbing (disinfectants, etc.)
lime scale
ochre
cement powder
wax waste liquid
sedimentation
contamination
Typical locations in which these commonly occur are:
Pipelines: Process pipework:

crude oil refined hydrocarbons
natural gas petrochemicals
refined hydrocarbons general chemical
chemical cooling water
water food and brewing
effluent
dewatering
slurry
High-pressure water jetting
With high-pressure water-jetting techniques, deposits and blockages in pipes

are broken up by the action of fine, high-velocity jets of water directed on to
them from suitably shaped nozzles , and the resulting debris is washed out of
the pipe by the flow of spent water.
Pressures of up to 1400 bar (20,000 lbf/in 2 ), or in some cases higher, and a
wide range of flow rates are used, depending on the nature of the material to
be removed. Water is delivered to the nozzle through lances for cleaning
small-bore pipes and tubes, and through flexible, self-propelling hoses for
cleaning larger pipes.
With lances. straight pipes of 16 to 150 mm ( 5 / 8 to 6 in) bore can be cleaned
for a distance of up to 6 m (20 ft) from access points. Hoses are capable of
cleaning pipes of 50 to 1020 mm (2 to 42 in) bore (up to 1.5 m (60 in) with
attachments) for a distance of up to 120m (400ft) from access points, and
they may also negotiate a number of bends.
Pipeline Cleaning 49 5
Equipment
A conventional pump assembly consists of a diesel or electric power unit,

high-pressure water pump, header tank. control valves and instrumentation,
all mounted on either a skid, trailer or vehicle. Fully flame-proofed versions
are available for use in hazardous environments.
The choice of pump is determined by the pressure and flow requirements of
the pipe to be cleaned. Pumps are usually of the triple plunger type, enabling a
range of pressures and flow regimes to be selected by changing plungers. The
alternative diaphragm type of pump, often used in low-power applications.
may also be used over an extended range of pressures, although this can only
be achieved efficiently by a change of pump heads.
The power requirements of the pump are determined primarily by the pressure
and flow rate. A useful rule of thumb is that, within the limits of flow and
pressures for a given pump, the product of available flow rate and pressure are
approximately constant. The majority of high-pressure water-jetting pumps
are rated at between 2 5 and 200 hp. going up to 500 hp. A typical
specification for a 100 hp pump, for example, would be to deliver 45 I/ min at
690 bar (10 gal/min at 10,000 lbf/in 2 ) .
Hoses are selected to withstand the maximum operating pressure with an
acceptable margin of safety, and to transmit the required flow rate with the
minimum of pressure drop along lengths of up to 120m (400ft).
A primary consideration in the selection of lances for use in small pipes is
the bore of the pipe, as sufficient clearance must be left around the outside of
the lance without restricting the flow through the bore. Maximum lance
length is 6 m (20ft).
A range of nozzles is available to suit the application with a choice of the
number and orientation of jets. and materials of construction.
High-pressure water is extremely dangerous. All pressure devices must be
able to withstand the operating conditions, and must be properly maintained.
Similarly, all operators must be correctly equipped with protective clothing.
Optimum cleaning methods
Careful selection of pressures, flow rates and nozzle configurations is an essential

step if pipes are to be cleaned efficiently, and this depends upon possessing
adequate information on the following factors:
• internal pipe diameter
• distance from access points
• number and location of bends and branches
• location of valves and other obstructions
• physical properties of material to be removed
• distribution and thickness of material to be removed
• health hazards
Table 7.
Pressure range Example
Upto275bar Grease, paraffin wax, crude residues

(4000 lbf/ in 2 ) algae. pulp. asbestos. PVA. food residues.loose masonry. clay. mud.
silt.
275-550 bar Boiler scale, carbon. potas h. asphalt, cement. plaster. mastic. PVC.
(4000-8000 lbf/in 2 ) unbonded paint. rust, oils.
550-1380 bar Polymer. bonded paint. resin s. plastics, synthetic rubber. coke,
(8000-20,000 lbf/in 2 ) concrete, silicates, mill scale.
The physical properties of the material to be removed form the principal

factor in determining the pressure required. Table illustrates cutting abilities
of various pressures, although there can be considerable variations in practice.
Increasing flow rate has the general effect of increasing the rate at which
material is cut. When large quantities of contamination have to be removed
from a pipe, and particularly when it is completely blocked, high flow rates are
essential. This is also true in the case of large-diameter pipes when sufficient
cleansing flow must be maintained in the bottom of the pipe to keep debris in
suspension.
The distribution of the material within the pipe influences the configuration
of nozzle jets which are required, forward-facing nozzles being used to clear
blockages, and rear-facing nozzles for flushing out loose material.
Applications
Water jetting is particularly suitable for removing large amounts of unwanted

materials from pipes, including the cleaning of long lengths of totally blocked
pipes. It offers advantages in plant downtime, cost and, very often, effectiveness
of cleaning.
Pipe Cutting and Bending
Large-diameter iron and steel pipes are normally cut by mechanical saws or oxygen
(flame) cutters in the manufacturer's shop. Special cutting machines are used
for accurate production of profiles for pipe branch'"-'Ork, saddles and square cuts.
Pipe-cutting machines and tools for genera l or on-site use range in size from
powered tools capable of handling the largest sizes of pipes down to hand-
operated cutters. The actual cutters may be circular saws (or cutting discs),
reciprocating saws. wheels or knife edges. Hacksaws may also be used for
hand cutting smaller pipes. A power-driven abrasive disc is one of the most
widely used method s for cutting ductile-iron pipe of all sizes.
Circular-saw cutters are usually robust bench- or stand-mounted machines.
but differ appreciably in detail design. Some employ milling cutter wheels,
others conventional circular-saw blades. The majority encircle the pipe to be
cut in a se lf-centring vice, but some are designed to travel around the pipe as
they make the cut.
Power-driven a/Jrnsive disc cutter used for cutting ductile-iron pipe.

Reciprocating saw cutters range from simple machines with minimal

guidance to guillotine saws where the tool is clamped to the pipe and the horizontal
saw blade is fully guided to ensure a square cut.
Wheel or 'knife-edge' cutters are designed to encircle the pipe and hold it
concentrically as the cutter is rotated around the pipe. On larger. power-operated
machines of this type, the actual cutters are symmetrically positioned on a
ring which is rotated by power. Each cutter is held in a tool box which
automatically increases the depth of cut with rotation of the carrier ring and is
profiled to remove equal amounts from the cut simultaneously.
Manually-operated cutters normally employ cutting wheels rather than
knife-edges, with a similar working principle (i.e. the tool is rotated around
the pipe to produce the cut). The number of wheels employed may range from
one to four. Cutter advance is by rotation of the handle (i.e. is not automatic).
The other major difference is that the cutter does not have to be rotated
continuously but can be 'rocked' backwards and forwards to make the cut if it
incorporates three or four cutting wheels. This is a distinct advantage for close
field work as only a relatively small clearance is then needed around the pipe
being cut.
Guillotine pipe saw.

Pipe-cutting and machining t.ool.
Electric pipe-cutting rnttchine.

500 Pipe/ines/Pipework
Pipe bends
Large-diameter pipes are bent in the manufacturer's pipe-bending shops

using various types of bending tables and furnaces (for hot bending). Three
main types of bends are used: plain bending, crease bending and corrugated
bending. The former two may require the pipes to be filled with sand.
Corrugated bends are produced with the pipe first corrugated in the straight
on a corrugating machine with local heating and are then bent empty ,.v ith
each corrugation heated separately (e.g. by portable furnaces).
Semi-rotnry wheel wtter.
Rotnry pipe cutter.

Plain pipes from 12 to 300 mm (2 to 12 in) may be bent cold on

hydraulically-operated cold-bending machines, with bends up to 180°
possible on radii depending on the pipe diameter and wall thickness. Plain
pipes up to 900 mm (36 in) diameter or more can be bent hot, depending on
the furnace capacity. Temperatures up to 1100°C (2000°F) may be used and
heating time depends on the pipe size, type of bend and pipe material. For
bending, the heated pipe is pegged to the bending table at one end and the
other end pulled by a winch.
Orbital pipe cutter.
Hydraulically-operated pipe-bending machine.

The bending operator. who works to a curved template conforming

accurately to the shape of the bend taken directly from a floor drawing,
controls the rate of bending and the contour by using a coolant on the exterior
of the pipe to control the heat spread. Water is normally used for low carbon
steels, but is not recommended for alloy steels. Alternatively, stop pegs are
used for control instead of a coolant; these are removable pegs inserted into
holes in the bending table as required during the pulling operation.
After bending and allowing to cool, the pipe is emptied of sand, dressed and
examined, and then checked on a surface table against a full-scale drawing. In all
instances of hot bending, a great deal depends upon the skill of the pipe bender;
movement may take place during cooling which must be predicted and
allowed for. and the whole procedure of hot bending a large pipe calls for many
years of accumulated experience for which there is no substitute. With thinner
pipes. subsequent dressing with a flatter may be necessary to take care of slight
rippling while the possible ovality of a pipe caused in bending is always under
careful control. Sometimes, a resetting may be necessary to correct an error, for
which gas-fired portable furnaces using premixed gas and air supplies are used.
Tube bending
Pipe bending by hand is only practicable in the smaller sizes of tubes. and then
is not always satisfactory. On larger sizes, or with tubing with thin walls. it is
Bevel-grinding machine for pipes.

difficult to prevent local collapse of the inner wall unless a pipe bender or filler
is used. Provided the tube material is reasonably ductile, all such bends are
made cold.
The general rule for a minimum radius of bend is that this should not be
smaller than three times the o.d. of the tube. A more generous figure is to be
preferred. particularly in the case of the smaller sizes which are usually hand
bent. Bent radii larger than the minimum values should always be used as far
as possible because these produce less frictional loss and are less liable to
result in deformation of the pipe section through wrinkling or stretching or
introducing ovality. The latter is a common fault, even with pipe benders,
unless extreme care is taken, and can materially reduce the working strength
of the tube at the bend.
The four basic methods of machine bending are:
(i) Press bending-particularly adapted to the bending of heavy gauge

wall tubing up to six times the tube o.d. radii with included bend
angles of 120° maximum. It can also be used with wing dies to achieve
a minimum bend radius of three times the tube o.d.
(ii) Roll bending-also suitable for heavy-gauge wall tubing and capable
of achieving a satisfactory bend radius down to six times the tube o.d.
The bend angle is unlimited because by using three power-driven rolls
the tube can be fed continuously through the machine to produce
complete coils. Four-roll bending machines are capable of producing
true arcs right to the extreme end of the tube.
(iii) Stationary die-a simple and popular method of bending smaller
diameter sizes, usually up to ,about 16 mm ( 5 I 8 in) o.d. The tube is
simply wrapped or 'whipped' around a grooved bending die. Both circular
and non-circular bends can be produced, also bends in two planes (using
special dies). This method is, therefore. extremely versatile.
(iv) Revolving die-in this case the die is rotated while the bending shoe
remains stationary. The particular advantage of this method is that
the tubing can be entirely confined internally and externally at the
point of bend, thus minimising the risk of distortion. The revolving die
machine is particularly suited to handling thin-walJed tubing.
Proprietary pipe benders are usually based on one or other of these

methods. All aim at producing the bends down to a specified minimum radius
with minimum distortion of the tube material. Many, it will be appreciated,
involve a 'wiping' or rubbing action over the outer surface of the tube and in
such cases lubrication is important. Light rn.ineral oil is a satisfactory lubricant
for bending steel tubes. Some designs of pipe benders are designed to
compensate for 'thinning' effects on the outside wall of the formed bend so
that the distribution of material over the cross-section remains unaltered.
Others may produce appreciable thinning.
Instead of pipe benders, filler may be used to support the inside of pipes and
tubes for manual manipulation, or even be used with pipe benders to prevent
distortion. The best type of filler for the pllrpose is a low melting point alloy
which can be removed by gently heating after the bend is completed. The use
of low melting point metallic fillers is not, however, generally recommended
for bending hydraulic tubes as it is difficult to remove completely all traces of
the metal. The only effective way of ensuring complete removal is usually to
blow through the pipes with steam. Sand is not generally used as a filler as it is
difficult to ensure its complete removal after forming, unless elaborate
pressure-cleaning methods are used.
The quality of the bend produced, whether manipulated by hand or
machine, is very much dependent on the operator. Jerky or irregular actions
may produce kinks or wrinkles. Wrinkling may also occur on the inside of the
bend due to the compression of the material in this region, unless the machine
compensates for this by applying tension to the inner radius.
Thickness of bends
The minimum thickness (tb) of a straight pipe from which a pipe bend to a
radius in accordance with Table 1 is to be made shall be determined from
Table 1. Minimum bending radii for pipes of thickness determined by BS formulae
Radii measured to centre line of pipe

--- - --
tb = 1.12 5 tf tb = l.l tf
o.d. all thicknesses tb = 3 5 mm or above
mm mm mm
26.9 65
33.7 75
42.4 100
48.3 115
60.3 150
76.1 190
88.9 230
101.6 265
114.3 305
139.7 380
168.3 460
193.7 630
219.1 710
244.5 810 1140
27 3.0 1020 1270
323 .9 1220 1520
355.6 1500 1780
406.4 1730 2030
457.0 2030 2080
equation (i) or equation (ii), except where it can be demonstrated that the use
of a thickness less than tb would not reduce the thickness below tf at any point
after qending.
For pipes 219.1 mm o.d. and below. and for pipes above 219.1 mm o.d. bent
to the radii specified in the table. column 2:
(i) tb = 1.125 tf
For pipes above 219 .1 rnm o.d. where tf is 3 2 mm or more. bent to the radii
specified in the table, column 3:
(ii) tb = 1.1 tf
The value of tb is the minimum thickness and provision shall be made for
minus tolerances. Manufacturing considerations may make it necessary for
pipes thicker than this minimum to be used .
Radii of bends
Pipes complying with the requirements ofBS 1387 andES 3601 shall not be bent
to radii less than those given in Table l. Other pipes of a thickness determined by
BS formulae shall not be bent to radii less than those given in Table 1 unless:
(a) It can be demonstrated that the use of this thickness will not reduce the
thickness at any point after bending to below tf, and
(b) where the design tempe~ature of the piping is higher than 430°C in the
case of alloy steels and the radius is less than three times the i.d. it can be
additionally demonstrated that the thickness at the internal radius of the
bend is not less than resulting from the following:
2R- r
ti > tf - - -
- 2R- 2r
where
ti is the thickness at internal radius (mm);

R is the radius of the bend (mm);
r is the mean radius of the pipe (mm).
In general it will be necessary to increase the thickness above that

determined by BS formulae in order to meet the aforementioned requirements.
There is a minimum thickness for each size of pipe, depending on bending
procedure, below which the allowance for thinning will be exceeded and , in
such cases, the radius given in Table 1 should be increased where necessary to
ensure that the thickness is not below tf at any point after bending.
Rigid thermoplastic pipe
Rigid PVC and CPVC plastic pipe can be readily cut with an ordinary hacksm·v
or power saw. A cutting speed of 6000 r/min using ordinary hand pressure is
recommended. With band saws, a cutting speed of 3600 ft/min using hand
pressure is recommended. Under some circumstances a lathe can be used. Best
results are obtained with fine-toothed saw blades (16-18 teeth per inch) and
little or no set (max 0.02 5 in).
Cuts should be square and smooth, particularly if the pipe is to be threaded .
A mitre box or similar guide should be used when cutting by hand . The cut
ends can be bevelled with a hand file and the interior deburred with a regular
tool or knife. Dust and chips should be removed to prevent fluid-stream
contamination. The pipe should be well supported during cutting and
protected from nicks and scratches by wrapping in canvas or similar material.
Use of wheel-type pipe cutters is not generally recommended since they
tend to generate heat and can produce a raised bead or ridge which increases
the bevelling effort required.
Bending may sometimes be advantageous in fabricating PVC and CPVC
pipelines. However, bending should be limited to non-critical applications at
room temperature or lower where maximum operating pressures are not
utilised. With the procedure normally used in bending, some stresses from
bending are retained in the material in addition to those caused by the
pressure of the medium.
If bending has to be done, the pipe should be heated from 120 to 135°C (250
to 2 7 5° F) by use of a flame less hot-gas torch, hot-air oven, or by immersion in
hot oil. Uniform heat distribution is required and localised overheating must
be avoided. Care should be taken to avoid holding the pipe at bending
temperature for too long as the pipe may lose its form. The pipe should be bent
around a regular pipe bending form of the required radius. grooved to the
proper diameter and having a radius at bend not less than five times the pipe
outside diameter (to prevent flattening). Other proven methods include filling
the pipe with sand or the insertion of a coiled pipe spring before bending.
Because of the recovery characteristics of the pipe. it should be bent slightly
beyond the desired radius and allowed to spring back, then quickly cooled in
water or with air. It is recommended that the pipe manufacturer or supplier be
consulted regarding the bending suitability of plastic pipe. Thermoplastic
piping is a general term applied to a variety of different plastics.
Hot tapping and plugging
Hot tapping is the procedure for cutting an opening into cast-iron. ductile-
iron and steel pipe which is carrying a product under pressure. A fi tting is
welded or mechanically attached to the line and a valve is attached to the
fitting . A tapping machine is installed and the tap made through the valve.
After the tapping is made, the cutter is withdrawn and the valve closed. If a
completion plug is to be installed in the fitting, the valve can then be removed.
In the petrochemical industry, for example. it is often necessary to isolate a
section of piping without interrupting the service the line provides. Lines must
be kept in service to avoid the shutdown of an entire unit. Hot tapping and
plugging equipment is designed to meet these requirements.
Plugging occurs after the tap is made. Typically a STOPPLETM plugging
machine is installed on the valve and a plugging head inserted into the line.
The plugging head serves as a block valve and seals the line retaining the
pipeline pressure.
[f two plugging machines are used, or one plugging machine and an
existing in-line valve. a section of pipe can be isolated and drained, making
possible necessary repairs or modifications in the isolated section. A bypass
can be installed around the isolated section. keeping the line in service. If a
new section of line is being installed, it is possible to use the new section for a
bypass while the old section is being removed. When all repairs have been
made. the job is completed by installing a completion plug in the fitting.
The plugging head is removed, restoring service through the line. The
tapping machine is then fitted with the completion plug, inserted and locked
into the fitting to provide the seal. The tapping machine, bypass and tapping
valve are removed and a blind flange installed on the fitting. In most cases the
blind flange can be removed and the line re-entered at a future date after the
completion plug has been removed.
One of the most common hot tapping and plugging applications is used
when a valve in a piping system no longer works properly or is damaged.
WELD FITTINGS MAKE TAPS
~
d /
2·· THREAD-0-RING ~~ -::,....-
Purge & EqualizatJOn-:>1 !l ..- "'
Frtlrngs / /.-- _,
~--:/
Tapping Machine
L
-~-<V
STOPPLE((~
B~ass
Fr rn
Fit1ing
A ·
? '
SANDWICH
Valve
B
PLUG LINE \ '/----------------~~
RECOVER VALVES g-/ /
c D
Hot tapping a11d plugging sequencr.

If it is not necessary to keep the line in service, the line can be tapped and
plugged upstream of the valve using only one plugging machine.
Where it is necessary to keep the line in service while repairs are made, two
plugging machines are set, isolating the faulty valve. The use of a three-way T
or an adapter with a side outlet eliminates the need for additional tops.
In plugging many types of product lines, slight seepage across the plugging
head can sometimes occur. In the case of hazardous products. a better seal
must be obtained with the plugging head before the work is commenced.
Folding plugging head
This concept is used on low-pressure lines (maximum 150 lb/ in 2 depending

on the size of the line) to plug a line through a reduced branch fitting .
The folding plugging head involves a flexible sealing element which is
attached to a plugging head with hinged leaves. Depending on the size. the
leaves are opened in the line either hydraulically or mechanically.
Typical completion plugs.
High-pressure STOPPLE"f"" ami tappingfittings.

Pipe C11tUng and Bending 509
f-irst. two STOPPI..F." Fillings arc installed on The plugging heads arc lowered into
the pipe. sealing position. diverting now through the
temporary bypass.
fhe tempor'df)' bypa" is in,talkd and

pressure tested.
With all now divcncd through the byp:L~S.

workers cut and remove the isolated section.
The tapi)ing mm:hinc makes taps through

bmh STOPPLE Filling>.
4
Once the new section is tied in, the
plugging hemls are retracted. returning full
flow to the main.
The ST OPPLECI<' Pluggi ng Machi nes arc The plugging machines and bypass Jines
installt:d. arc removed.
Completion plugs are s<:t in the STOPPLF.

Fillings and the SANOWI\Hw Valves and
spools are recovered , completing the job.
Typical example ofa t.apping and pluggiltg application using n temporary bypass to maintain flow.
Tile 96-in plugging head. in its folded position. is retracted into tlze 60-in housing. It is lowerrd tlrrougll
the tapped hole into the pipe. When the guide wheel. shown at the top. toudws the !Jottom of thr pipe. the
plugging head opens cmd the elastomer sealing element smls agai11st tile wall of tile pipe. assisted by
differential pressr1re.
Welded fitlings
Extreme care must be taken when welding onto an in-service pipeline.

Two major concerns are:
l. Burn-through-where the pipe wall is penetrated allowing the contents to

escape.
2. Hydrogen cracking-as a result of high hardness levels from the
accelerated cooling rate associated with the ability of the flowing pipeline
contents to remove heat from the pipe wall.
A thorough understanding of factors related to welding and, in particular,

to welding on in-service pipelines is required to ensure safe operating
procedures and sound welded joints.
For some applications, the heat input required to avoid cracking may be
greater than the heat input allowed to avoid burn-through, making welding
prohibitive.
In addition to hot tapping and plugging cast-iron, ductile-iron and
internally-coated steel pipe, it is also possible for tapping and plugging to be
accomplished on most reinforced-concrete pipe, provided it is done within the
pressure limits required when the steel shell is exposed to mount the fitting.
Pipeline Inspection and Evaluation
Pipelines are normally surveyed for one of the following reasons:
(i) To investigate repeated or isolated blockages.

(ii) To check: on structural integrity, for connections from new sites, or
expected working life for maintenance expenditure budgets.
(iii) To determine exact location or pipelines, branches and connections to
update drawings or carry out maintenance work.
(iv) To inspect installations prior to hand-over.
(v) To check on scale or corrosion build-up on industrial heating or
process pipelines.
(vi) To detect and locate leaks in buried pipelines.
(vii) To carry out interior inspection of welded joints on long rungs of metal
pipe (e.g. gas or oil lines).
(viii) To test individual components, e.g. safety and relief valves on line.
Techniques used obviously vary with individual industries and installations,

size of pipes. etc.
Defects in pipelines cannot be effectively evaluated thoroughly without
some form of inspection. both internal and external, being undertaken. Many
systems have been engineered and developed for this purpose.
Public authorities and municipalities have been recording video tapes of the
activity in their pipelines for over 30 years, together with corresponding
inspection logs which have caused massive retrieval problems. Hardware and
software is now available to catalogue and reduce mountains of material into
a highly effective data collection and information retrieval system.
Inspection data normally include four basic materials: video tape,
inspection log. defect classification/ cataloguing and picture capture.
Video tapes provide a good visual picture of a pipeline's overall condition.
Defects, though, will only generally represent a few seconds in a tape lasting
from one to one and a half hours. If an inspection log is available. the user
can fast-forward the video tape to the exact point of the tape. If no inspection
log is available. then the tape has to be scanned continuously to locate the
defect.
Inspection logs can vary considerably in their content. A good log should be
identified to a corresponding video tape, with both tapes and logs indexed and
referenced as to exact location.
Some logs contain much more information than just defect data and
location. More sophisticated logs incorporate contract information, line
location, pipe size, pipe type, line gradient (or slope) and other conditions.
Logs are typically stored on a reproducible medium such as a floppy disc.
Software is available to classify and catalogue defects by type and severity of
defect. These programs allow the automatic sorting of defects in order of
severity and rehabilitation requirements. This information then serves for
scheduling repairs and budgeting projected costs.
For a classification program to be effective, continuity in defect
classification is mandatory. When a single operator performs defect
classification. there is less of a problem than when different crews, operators
or contractors perform inspections and defect classification. Photographs of
each defect or problem should be taken and, if possible, this should be carried
out using digital equipment to avoid the possibility of picture degradation due
to ageing. A digital picture will not fade or degrade with age, humidity or
temperature and can undergo enhancement and reproduction without much
limitation, using a standard computer and ink-jet or similar colour printer.
Stand-alone inspection vehicles are particularly useful with municipal
waste-water collection systems. They typically have a data system that will
measure the pipeline gradient (slope), label a defect, insert its distance location
(distance from entry) and label an operator-selected defect classification . This
alphanumeric data will display simultaneously on the video monitor and be
recorded on the video tape and stored on a magnetic disk.
The addition of a graphics computer and picture-capture software makes it
possible to store a still-frame digital picture of a defect or other significant item
simultaneously on a magnetic disk. It is possible to copy all the data including
the captured photograph to a removable disk for integration into a master
database or geographical information system (GIS). Inspection reports and hard-
copy photographs of captured defects should be placed in a master defect log book.
Information and data from each collection vehicle or base should then be
ultimately stored in a central library to provide easy access to all available
historical data.
Geographical information systems
Geographical information systems (GIS) are used to collect and store

information on pipelines and tunnels over large area networks. GIS databases
now contain information on pipeline inspections and surveys using CCTV
equipment. When a survey is completed for a particular pipeline or section of
pipeline. the information is stored in the database where it can be accessed
quickly and assessed via on-line/ off-line multi-media tools.
TV surveying
Control is the key to inspection systems and TV surveying is a particularly

versatile method of pipeline inspection, generally applicable to pipes ranging
in size from 50 mm to over 1m (2 in to over 4ft) in diameter. Such systems can
also be designed to function under widely varying conditions. The following will
be required: video camera, umbilical cable, a control unit, lighting leads, a
video signal recorder (e.g. videotape) , power supply and ancillary equipment.
Video camera units may range from as small as 25 mm (1 in) diameter
upwards. (Small units are obviously n ecessary to survey small-diameter pipelines
and negotiate bends.) A normal 2 5 mm (1 in) diameter camera. for example.
can be expected to negotiate goo bends in 100 mm (4 in) diameter pipelines.
Solid-state mini-cameras can now inspect pipe as small as 25 mm with goo
bends.
Sizes vary but, typically, camera heads the size of a golf ball have high
intensity LED (light-emitting diode) bulbs and a lens with a 2 70° rotational
viewing angle.
514 Pipelirzes/ Pipework
Built-in sondes transmit radio signals from within even cast-iron pipes to
provide accurate location of the camera in the pipeline.
Sewer camera systems generally comprise a choice of camera size, 60. 90 or
120 m of flexible rod wound onto a rotating frame, a high-resolution VCR
monitor and a locator. Power for the system is usually mains supply or
12 v d.c. for remote operation.
Various lighting attachments may be used for illumination of pipes of
different diameters, including the use of a rotating mirror in front of the lens at
Typical pipeline ii!Spl'ction system.

90° to the line of the pipe so that ports and branch lines can be screened
circumferentially.
An umbilical cable of suitable length connects the camera to the control
console. This carries lighting power, rotating-mirror power and vision signal; it is
stored on a 12-\•vay slipring drum or similar device that contains a trip-measuring
device plus an electronic pulsing unit which relays back to the monitor the
distance the camera has travelled down any one line. This distance can be
zeroed or preset to any measurement at any one time.
The control unit. which is basically the power unit for the camera, controls
lighting intensity, remote focusing capability, and rotating-mirror positioning.
Lighting heads are normally low-voltage lamps of different sizes and
wattages housed in intrinsically-safe. glass-fronted housings for attachment
to the front of the camera.
Various items and relevant information need to be shown on the monitor
screen during a survey. such as: site address, date, pipe diameter, run number,
location and description or faults. etc.
The equipment used to produce the characters shown on the screen can
come in various shapes and sizes with differing capabilities. but it is normally
known as a word processor or screen writer.
Ancillary equipment carried by the unit may include: generator, winches,
steel rods. drain stoppers, lifeline, harness, hydrant stand pipe. hoses and key,
extension leads, gas detector, road cones, cable rollers, field telephone set with
up to 365m (400 yd) of cable float lines. etc.
Survey methods
A tried and tested method used to carry out a TV survey is that shown in
Figure 1, whereby a line is passed through the run and a camera is towed by a
winch from chamber 'A' to chamber 'B' . \,Yinch 'A' is purely a safeguard, so
that if the run being surveyed is damaged to such a degree that camera
progress is impeded, the camera can be retrieved by winching back on a steel
WINCH METHOD
CABLE DRUM
SKID CAMERA
Figure 1.
band instead of pulling on the umbilical cable. As previously stated, as the

camera and umbilical cable are pulled down the run, the measuring wheel on
the drum transmits back to the monitor the distance the camera has travelled
from the beginning of the run for location purposes.
Runs are normally surveyed in the direction of the fall of the drain. The
reason for this is that if the camera is pulled against the flow it can create a
bow wave, causing droplets of water to splash on to the camera lens, so
distorting vision. Waste matter can also be deposited on the lens which could
obliterate vision completely. Surveying against the fall is only possible if the
run is 'dry' during the survey.
A landline telephone system may be used for communications between
vision controller and winchman, so that the camera can be stopped anywhere
along the run to focus on any problem area.
When the survey is completed the camera and skid are detached from the
umbilical cord and safety winch cable. The two cables are then wound back to
chamber 'A'. Other methods of transporting the TV camera are by rodding
(shown in Figure 2) and self-propelled traction units.
Duct tractors are capable of providing a vehicle for tasks as varied as simple
draw-line installation, the positioning of remote inspection devices such as
sensors, as well as closed-circuit TV surveillance applications. One system
uses a self-propelled small-bore pipe crawler with traction being created by
the deformation of counteracting diaphragms on the internal walls of the pipe.
This method of traction allows the tool to operate along pipes running at
various inclines, including vertical limbs of up to 100m (328ft). The crawler
can also traverse holes in the pipe wall of up to 75% of the pipe diameter and,
in the straight pipe condition, over holes of up to 100% of the pipe diameter,
i.e. inverted equal-T junctions.
The energy source is compressed air or an inert gas, depending on
environmental conditions, delivered at the appropriate pressure along an
PUSH METHOD
RODDING EYE 1
~
RODDING REEL WITH

INTERGRAL POWER LEAD
Figure 2.
umbilical supply line. The crawler is designed to operate in most dry,

commercially available ductways with the exception of PTFE-Hned pipes. In
general, the rougher the traction surface the more satisfactory the operation.
The vehicle will also travel at reduced speed through a pipe which at any point
contains up to 20% non-viscous liquid, e.g. water.
Figure 3 shows a duct tractor unit complete with trailed pneumatic logic
carriage, umbilical interface carriage and 50 m (164ft) reel of drive supply
line on drum.
long pipelines and tunnels
Several techniques are used for inspection of long pipelines and tunnels.
Varieties of autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV), ranging from the dumb
pig swept through by water flow to smarter systems capable of recording their
progress and the state of the pipeline or tunnel as they pass, operate with
variable success rates. The problem has always been whether to have free-
swimming vehicles in the pipeline or tunnel. Remotely operated vehicles
(ROV) are a viable proposition if cable drag can be kept within acceptable
limits. Good cable needs to be neutrally buoyant and carry sufficient copper
and fibre-optic links. It also should be under 15 mm in diameter with a
polyethylene outer jacket to provide a low coefficient of function. ROVs
operate on tethers of 10 km without problem. Remotely operated vehicles have
Figure 3 . Remotely-controlled duct tractor capable of tackling severe bends in small-diameter pipes.
anumberofthrusters, (usually 12, eight forward and two each for vertical and
lateral movement).
Control software typically includes the standard diagnostic features and the
unit is capable of handling up to four video cameras. In addition to those used
for inspection work, one usually faces rearward to help vehicle retrieval.
Sonar fitted to the vehicle are used for collision avoidance and scanning
(e.g. short-range profiling).
As the vehicle progresses down the pipeline or tunnel, it rotates and scans a
helical path. The sonar screen displays the tunnel cross-section. Flattening at
the bottom indicates sediment build-up and features elsewhere show either
wall corrosion or a build-up of mineral deposits, usually around flanges. Two
forward-looking cameras look at abnormalities thrown up by the sonar.
The biggest problem usually encountered by ROVs is the amount of debris
in the water in spite of trash rakes and sieves. Plastic-material debris can snag
the propellers in the thrusters and plastic bags or similar objects can become
wrapped around the sonar head, for example. The chances of traversing a 10 km
tunnel or pipeline without encountering any obstruction are probably very small.
Position surveys
Metal detection can be used to trace the path or buried metal pipelines, and
also plastic pipelines where a metalised identification strip has been buried
with the pipe. Simple hand-held units of this type are efi'ective up to depths of
2 m (6ft) . More powerful units may be used for detection at greater depth, and
also for surveying wrapped or coated pipes. In the latter case the instrument
may also be capable of detecting flaws or breaks in the pipe wrap.
Such instruments may work in the inductive or conductive mode. In the
inductive mode, a linear or circular aerial is used as a 'direction finder' to
establish a small signal which identifies the exact location of the pipeline run
relative to the aerial. With conductive mode operation, no aerial is used and
direct contact is made with the pipe to be traced to feed the signal directly into it.
Cable-avoiding tools (CAT) and transmitters offer advantages in terms of
accuracy and speed for pipe and cable location equipment. This type of
equipment can be used in all weather conditions.
An innovative plastic water pipe tracing tool operates by connecting a
'transonde' transmitter to a running tap or stand pipe. The pressure-wave
signal produced in the pipe can be located on the surface using a hand-held
receiver. Battery-operated versions are used for tracing service pipes.
Leak detection
Water-leak detectors are an essential inspection tool for pinpointing leaks

cost-effectively and quickly. Typical apparatus is based on the H 2 method
where a low concentration of hydrogen is 'injected' into the leaking pipe and
the escaping gas is then located using a specially designed hydrogen-gas

detector. The gas can permeate through most materials. It is a 5% mixture in
nitrogen and therefore non-explosive in this diluted state.
Line protection
Line protection systems are pipeline monitoring and line-break detection devices
controlled by a dedicated microcomputer. The system is normally located at a
pipeline valve site to provide supervisory control of the valve and actuator.
Line protection systems continuously monitor the pipeline pressure at a
point near the valve site. Once armed, and when abnormal pressure
conditions are sensed, the protection system strokes the valve to a fail-safe
position. The system operates in various modes including:
Data collection mode-pressure is sampled at 32 second intervals and 30
minutes of pressure history is stored in a temporary rolling memory. Memory
capacities are usually quite large.
Valve control mode-pipeline pressure is sampled every 8 seconds. The
pressure magnitude and rate of drop are continuously compared to the user-
set values. When pre-set values are exceeded for the specified time duration,
the control will cause the valve to stroke the fail-safe position. Internal relay
contacts interfaced with telemetry or SCADA systems send a warning signal
back to pipeline operations personnel.
Communications mode-used when the system is connected to a portable
computer.
Water leak detector.

location of sub-marine pipelines
Four different methods can be used to locate sub-marine pipelines: echo-sounding,

magnetometers, sonar-scanning (and similar acoustic methods), and seismic
profiling. Echo-sounding and acoustic methods can only be used to detect
sub-marine pipes which are exposed above the seabed. Magnetometers and
seismic systems can detect buried sub-marine pipelines.
The most common method of locating exposed sub-marine pipelines is by
side-scan sonar, using a towed 'fish' with laterally-directed transducers
generating acoustic pulses of frequencies of the order of 100 kHz. Various
techniques are used depending on the depth of water involved, the length of
pipeline, etc., and the feasibility of employing underwater acoustic
transporters. In shallow waters. suitable results may be achieved more simply
and economically using transit sonar, when the sonar transducer is mounted
on the hull of the running vessel, or conventional high-resolution echo
sounders.
The application of a magnetometer or seismic profiler for the detection of
buried sub-marine pipelines requires the use of detectors towed behind the
survey vessel which then performs a series of transverses to intersect the
expected pipeline axis.
Magnetometers measure the strength of the earth's magnetic field, which is
affected by the presence of a steel pipeline. Essentially, then, a magnetometer
detects the presence of such a buried pipeline by its anomalous magnetic
effect. This magnetic effect is usually proportional to the centre of the distance
Linebreak protection system.

between the magnetometer sensor and the object (pipeline). For this reason it
is necessary to lower the magnetometer 'fish' as close as possible to the seabed.
With a seismic profiler, a piezoelectric transducer or 'pinger' emits pulses of
acoustic energy with single frequencies in the range 1.25 to 1.4 kHz at a high
pulse rate. The 'fish' is towed at a height of 5 to 10 m ( 15 to 30 ft) above the
seabed, concentrating the downward-directed energy beam over a small area
or seabed. A proportion of acoustic energy penetrating the seabed is reflected
back by the lined pipeline, producing a characteristic deflection on a graphic
recorder.
Jacketing and Dual Containment
Even the most engineered piping system is subject to temperature-control and

containment problems. Process industries require higher and more precise
temperature control for efficient operation.
A range of thermal-jacketed products are available for organic and
inorganic chemical processors. pharmaceutical plants, polymer producers.
petrochemical plants and food processors. These products cover a broad range
of processing components including pipes, valves, strainers. fittings and
pumps.
Generally, jacketing that has been specifically fabricated falls into one of
three broad categories: standard, swaged and hybrid systems.
Standard jacketing
Typically, this system provides uniform application of heat by covering the

pipe or valve (core) from the flange. The jacket is welded to the back of the
flange so oversize valves must be used to accommodate bolts.
Figure 1 shows the standard jacketing system.
Process
Jacket-Size Flange
Figure I. Standard jacketed pipe.

Jacketing and Dual Containment 523
Swaged jacketing
Also referred to as capped or partial jacketing, this system is often used where
protection against cross-contamination is required and where temperature
discontinuities at flanges can be tolerated. Swaged jacketing can be less expensive
than standard jacketing because small in-line flanges can be used (Figure 2).
Hybrid jacketing
This method utilises a combination of both swaged and standard jacketing

systems as well as removal and special jacketing. Straight-line piping may use
swaged jacketing while valves and fittings employ standard or removable
jacketing to eliminate temperature discontinuities at critical flow areas
(Figure 3 ).
Figure 2. Swaged jacketPCI pipe spool with stainless core and carbon jacket. The jacket has an integral
staittless expansion joint to relieve cyclic heaL sl.ress.
LINE-SIZE
FLANGE
\c
SWAGED
JACKETIN G
REMOVABLE
JACKETING
Figure 3. Typical f1ybrid jacketing.

Jacketed system design
Very little information is readily available regarding design considerations

and recommendations for jacketed piping systems.
Fabricated jacket equipment manufacturers are the best placed to provide the
information as a result of their manufacturing and fabricating experience and
accepted practices within the processing industries. A typical manufacturer's
recommendation to be considered in overall system design is given here:
1. Design for uniform temperature control throughout the system. Chill
spots, even in moderate temperature systems (120-180°C; 250-350°F), are
the problems most frequently encountered. Temperature discontinuities at
flanged connections, valves or fittings may cause product build-up and
solidification at critical points.
2. Design for uniform heat stress. This is particularly important where
temperatures are over 120°C (250°F) and in batch-type service where the
piping is subject to frequent heat cycles. Under these conditions the core
and the jacket should be of the same material or have very similar
coefficients of expansion.
3. Lengths of straight-jacketed pipe should be a maximum of 6 m (20 ft) for
ease of installation.
4. Spacers between the core and the jacket on pipes should have a nominal
clearance ofl.58 mm (1h 6 in) to restrict core sag while allowing differential
motion caused by heat stress.
5. The slope of installed jacket pipe should be gradual, about 3 mm per 300
mm (1/ 8 in per foot) to eliminate pockets and facilitate drainage of the
heating fluid from the jacket.
6. Heated fluid should flow counter-current to the process to promote the
most uniform application of heat.
7. The length of jacketed runs or the number of spools per single supply of
heating fluid should be carefully analysed. Almost every single application
will have widely varying parameters.
8. Jacket jumpovers, depending on the size of the jacketed pipe and the
heating throughput required, should be 25, 19 or 12 mm (1, 3/ 4 or 1h in).
Flexible metal-hose jumpovers can be used with both vapour and liquid
heating media. System pressures determine whether the hose should be
braided or unbraided. In certain high-temperature, high-pressure
applications, pre-formed metal tubing may be preferred to metal hose.
9. Metal selection for jacketed piping usually has two major considerations:
performance and cost or performance versus cost. The most frequently
used jacketed-piping systems by the chemical process industry is standard
weight carbon steel (SA 53) for both the core and jacket. Food and
pharmaceutical processors generally specify stainless on stainless
construction for service above 120°C (250°F), and carbon on stainless
construction for lower-temperature services.
jacketing and Dual Containment 52 5
Fabricated jacketed assemblies
Fabricated assemblies provide considerable savings on material costs and save

on installation time. The assemblies are easier to insulate, with few jumpovers
and fewer flanges.
Table 1 compares a conventional jacketed-piping construction with a
piping construction utilising jacketed assemblies, both using the same piping
section.
jacketed valves
Practically all types of valves can be fully jacketed by fabricating techniques,
including many valves not available with integrally-cast jackets (Figure 4).
Standard fabrication includes modifying the valve to accept oversize
flanges. extending the body as necessary to ANSI standard. then adding the
Table 1. Conventional jacketed-piping construction versus jacketed assemblies
2 Piping construction utilizing

.jacketed assemblies.
52 6 Pipelines/ Pipework
full jacket ensuring that the interior tolerances remain the same as the original
unjacketed valve. Typically, there are four basic types of jacketed valve:
1. Partially jacketed valve for low-temperature non-critical processes.

2. Fully jacketed valve with oversize flanges. This jacket provides uniform
temperature control and is used mainly for high-temperature processes.
3. Fully jacketed valve with standard flanges. This is only used with
components or piping having swaged jackets or special bolting facilities.
4. Fully jacketed valve having oversize flanges and the face-to-race dimension
of an unjacketed valve. This construction should be used with caution. It is
not recommended for new installations.
Advantages and disadvantages
Integrally-jacketed piping systems and components have long been the

preferred method used with processes that require elevated temperatures for
efficient in-plant transfer or product.
Advantages of integral jacketing include:
• unit construction
• high rates of heat transfer from the heating medium to the process
• ability to maintain processing temperatures within close tolerances
Figure 4. Typicnl t.wo-piece Cont roHeat valve jacket.

Jacketing and Dual Containment 52 7
Like many systems, they have their disadvantages; these include:

• the limited selections available for jacketed components
• relatively long deliveries for these components
• inconsistencies of quality of the jacketed components due to the lack of
industry-wide fabrication standards
An alternative to integrally-jacketed piping systems is the clamp-on heating
system comprising bolt-on jackets for valves and heat-tracing elements for
piping.
Practically any piece of equipment can be heated with a clamp-on jacket.
However, the cost of the clamp-on system can increase as the required
temperature of the process approaches the temperature of the heating fluid.
Component programs using finite element modelling have been produced
by jacketed-piping fabricators to assist end-users in determining the right
system or product for their application. Typically, these programs consider the
thermal conductivities of the system components, film coefficients of both the
processes and the heating fluid, a detailed temperature profile of the piping
system. and the heat lost to the atmosphere through the insulation and the
net beat input to the process.
Dual-containment piping
Dual- or double-containment piping is by no means a new concept to process

piping applications. Systems using a carrier pipe with secondary containment
have been installed using metal pipes for many years. Applications have
included systems for the nuclear and chemical process industries where
hazardous or highly toxic materials have been transported.
Dual-containment piping is all about employee safety and environmental
damage caused by chemical spills and leaks. It is widely accepted that
pollution of the soil due to chemical leaks eventually leads to groundwater
contamination which has become a major world-wide problem.
One proven method of avoiding serious leaks from piping conveying
hazardous or highly toxic materials is to utilise a primary pipe contained
within a protective outer casing, combined with a leak-detection system to
pinpoint leaks and simultaneously raise an alarm.
Systems of this type have often proven to be complex. labour intensive and
costly.
Polypropylene and PVDF piping are now widely and successfully used for
transporting chemical waste and toxic and other hazardous materials (Figure 5).
Typically. the design uses a twin-wall pipe which is extruded as a single
homogeneous structure. The fittings are often moulded as a one-piece item,
with both inner and outer walls fixed in place.
The pipes and fittings may be joined with standard butt welding with a
single weld simultaneously joining both the inner and outer walls.
Figure 5 . Polypropylene dual-containm('llt piping.
Black polypropylene is preferred as it is resistant to weathering and can be

safely used in exposed situations. It is important that pipe and fitting brands
should not be mixed.
Polypropylene dual-containment piping systems can also be particularly
useful for conveying chemical waste in underground systems under gravity
flow conditions.
Typically, the method of jointing is to use primary and secondary couplings,
each manufactured with an integral chrome/ nickel/ alloy resistance wire
moulded in place. The wire is electrically heated using a microprocessor-
controlled fusion unit that enables uniform jointing to be made in minutes.
Both primary and secondary joints can be assembled in the trench or above
ground local to the trench, depending on the site conditions. Polypropylene
pipe is characterised by its outstanding chemical resistance, high thermal
Jacketing and Dual Containmmt 52 9
Figure 6. Underground doub le-containment acid-waste pipin,q.
resistance and good fatigue strength. Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) is

resistant to most inorganic acids as well as to alphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons, organic acids, alcohols and halogenated solvents. It is not
resistant to alkaline amines, alkalis and alkaline metals. Strongly polarised
solvents, such as ketones and organic acid esters, swell PVDF slightly. It has
an exceptional resistance to UV radiation and a wide pressure/temperature
range.
SECTION 7
Performance and Calculations
Flow of Liquids through Pipes
Flow of Mixtures through Pipes
Compressible Flow in Pipes
Losses in Bends and Fittings
Strength of Pipes (Calculations)
Buried Pipes
Collapsing Pressures for Pipes
Boiler-Feed Calculations
Steam Flow Calculations
Cavitation
Noise Control
Balancing of Hydronic Systems
Flow of Liquids through Pipes
Liquids pumped or discharged through pipes under conventional pressure

behave as incompressible fluids. Flow is assumed to fill the pipe section: basic
flow rate (Q) and flow velocity (V) are directly related, viz:
Q = V x pipe bore area (in consistent units)
Flow velocity
Flow velocity is defined as the mean or average velocity at a given cross-

section. Due to frictional effects (and the fact that all real fluids possess
viscosity), a velocity gradient will exist across a pipe section, ranging from
zero at the point of contact with the pipe wall to a maximum at the centre line
(Figure 1). The actual velocity profile may be smooth or irregular, depending
on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, respectively (see the section
Laminar and turbulent flow below).
ZZZZZZZ(?.ZZZZZZZZZZ?Zt
--.
Temporal r-
mean profile"
Figure 1.
5 34 Performance and Calwlations
The basic formula relating Q, V and pipeline diameter (d) is:

Q =~XV X d2
4
In engineering units this becomes:

Q = kV X d2
where k is a constant, depending on the units employed (see Table 1 ).

Transposed forms of this equation are also useful for direct solutions for V
and d. viz:
Q
V = k X d2
Flow velocity Vis not necessarily a significant parameter except that it governs
frictional losses. For general design work. arbitrary flow-velocity limits are
normally assumed, e.g. for water supplies normal design flow velocities are:
General services 1.2 to 3m/ sec (4 to 10ft/sec) Gallon=277in 3

Water supplies up to 2m/sec (up to 7ft/ sec) One day= 86,400 sec
Boiler feed 2.5 to 4.5 m/sec (8 to 15ft/sec) Barrel= 3 5 Imp gal / min
42 US gal/min
m 3 = 6.28 barrels
Table 1. Flow velocity bycalculaHon
Flow rate Flow velocity Pipe bore

(Q) unit (d) unit
ft/ sec m/ sec
Cubic in/sec Q/10d 2 0 .03 Qj d 2 in

20.8 Q/ d 2 mm
Cubic in/ min 0 .00177 Q/ d2 0.00054 ()/ d 2 in
0.348 Q/ d 2 mm
Gallons per minute 0.49 Q/ d2 O. l5Q/ d 2 in
9 7 Q/ d2 mm
Lit res per minute 2 Qjd 2 in
1 2 7 5 Q/ d 2 mm
US gallons per minute 0 .408 Q/d 2 0 .1250Q/ d 2 in
80 Q/d 2 mm
Ton s of water per day 49 Q/ d 2 1 5 Q/d 2 in
Cubic metres of water per day 14.7 5 Q/ d 2 mm
US barrels per day 0.012 Q/ d2 0 .0036 Q/d2 in
2.3 5 Q/d 1 mm
Flow ofLiquids through Pipes 53 5
Example:
7 in pipe: 0.267 ft 2 , 1000 gal/min.

16.7 gal /sec/ 6. 24 = 2.6 7 cusec/0.26 7 = 10ft/sec
49
°·
Ve 1= 10 ft1sec= 4g x 1 ooo ga I/ min= 1 o ['t Isec
Coefficient= 0 .49 d 2 = 1 million

1 day= 86.400 sec Area= 0.785 m 2
Pipe 1000 mm diameter
1 million m 3 /day /86,400 = 11.55 m 3 /sec/0. 78 5 = 14. 7 5 m/sec

rr/ 4=0.785(1Mm 3 / d 2 ) x 14.75 PipelOOOmmdia=d.
Pipe sizing
Rather greater attention to limiting flow velocities is normally required on the

suction side or pumps. AJso, frictional losses are proportional to fluid viscosity
as well as flow velocity. More specific recommendations for flow velocities are
given in Tables 2A and 2B. Again, these are largely arbitrary figures based on
providing suitable hydraulic conditions in suction pipes or generally acceptable
levels of friction loss in delivery pipes (see also Table 3 ).
Accepting arbitrary valves for flow velocities, the corresponding pipe size
(d) required for a specific delivery (Q) follows from simple formula calculation.
In the case of water. a general formula often used is:
gal/min
pipe diameter (in) =
10
Table 2A. Recommended suction-flow velocities
Pipe bore \Nater Light oils Boiling liquids Viscous liquids
mrn in m/sec ft/sec m/sec ft/sec m/sec ft/sec m/sec ft/sec
25 1 0.50 1.5 0.50 1.5 0.300 1.0 0.300 1.0

50 2 0.50 1.6 0.50 1.5 0.300 1.0 0.330 1.1
75 3 0.50 1.7 0.50 1.6 0.300 1.0 0.375 1.2
100 4 0.55 l.8 0.55 1.8 0.300 1.0 0.400 1.3
150 6 0.60 2.0 0.60 2.0 0.350 1.1 0.425 1.4
200 8 0.75 2.5 0.70 2.3 0.375 1.2 0.450 l.S
250 10 0.90 3.0 0.90 3.0 0.450 1.5 0.500 1.7
300 12 1.40 4.5 0.90 3.0 0.450 1.5 0.500 1. 7
over 12* 1.50 5.0
*General formula : pipe diameter (in) - J -gal/min .

10
53 6 Performance and Calculations
In high-pressure systems, e.g. hydraulic circuits using small-bore pipes,

pipe sizing is more critical and normally determined directly from a specified
or nominal figure for pressure drop. This involves working an appropriate
pressure-drop formula as a solution for pipe bore.
The same technique may also be applied to fluid transport systems. especially
if high pressures are involved or working conditions are critical. In this case,
Table 28. Recommended delivery-flow velocities
Pipe bore Water Light oils Boiling liquids Viscous liquids
mm in m/sec ft/sec m/sec ft/sec m/sec ft/sec m/sec ft/sec
25 1 1.00 3.5 1.00 3.5 1.00 3.5 1.00 3.5

50 2 1.10 3.6 1.10 3.6 1.10 3.6 1.10 3.6
75 3 1.15 3.8 1.15 3.8 1.15 3.8 1.10 3.7
100 4 1.25 4.0 1.25 4.0 1.25 4.0 1.15 3.8
150 6 1.50 4.7 1.50 4.7 1.50 4.7 1.20 3.9
200 8 1.75 5.5 1. 75 5.5 1. 75 5.5 1.20 4.0
250 10 2.00 6.5 2.00 6.5 2.00 6.5 ].30 4.5
300 12 2.65 8.5 2.00 6.5 2.00 6.5 1.40 4.5
over 12* 3.00 10.0
gal/min
*General formula: pipe diameter {in) = .j .
20
Table 3. Pipe bore size for given velocity
Flow velocity Pipe bore (mm) for Pipe bore {in) for
flow rate in flow rate in
m/sec ft/sec 1/ rrtin gal / min
0.3 1 8.4.jQ 0.7 .jQ

0.5 6.5 .jQ
0.6 2 6.0.jQ 0.5.jQ
0.9 3 4.9.jQ 0.4.jQ
1.0 4.6.jQ
1.1 4.4.jQ
1.2 4 4.2.jQ 0.35.jQ
1.5 5 3.8.jQ 0.3 .jQ
1.8 6 3.4.jQ 0.28.jQ
2.0 3.3.jQ
2.1 7 3.2 .jQ 0.265 .jQ
2.4 8 3.0.jQ 0.2 5 .jQ
2.5 2 .9 .jQ
2.75 9 2.8.jQ 0.23.jQ
3.0 10 2.6.jQ 0.22.jQ
FlowofLiquids through Pipes 53 7
since relatively larger pipe sizes are normally involved, recommendations are
commonly based on flow rates only, viz:
Suction lines: pressure drop 0.0115 to 0.23 bar per 100m (0.05 to 1lbf/in 2
per 100ft) depending on the available NPSH.
Delivery lines: 0.115 to 1.38 bar per 100m (0.5 to 6 lbf/in 2 per 100ft)
depending on the flow rate, viz:
(a) 0.46 to 1.4 per 100m for flow rates up to 450 lfmin
(2 to 6 lbf/in 2 per 100ft for flow rates up to 100 gal/min)
(b) 0.33 to 1.15 bar per 100m for flow rates from 450 to 900 l/min
(1.5 to 5 lbf/in 2 per 100ft for flow rates from 100 to 200 gal/min)
(c) 0.23 to 0.92 bar per 1200 m for flow rates from 900 to 2250 lfmin
(1 to 4lbf/in 2 per 100ft for flow rates from 200 to 500 gal/min)
(d) 0.11 to 0.46 bar per 100 m for flow rates above 2250 lfmin
(0.5 to 2 lbf/in 2 per 100ft for flow rates above 500 gal/min).
Pipe sizing by specific gravity of fluid
The size of delivery lines on centrifugal pumps is sometimes based on economic

flow velocity related both to the specific gravity (SG) of the fluid being handled
and the type of driver. This is realistic in the sense that the power input
required, and thus the cost of pumping, is directly proportional to fluid
specific gravity, and economic flow velocity varies inversely to pump speed.
Recommended flow velocities are given in Table 4.
Table 4. Recommended flow velocities based on fluids SG
Pipe Power-driven pumps Turbine-driven pumps

diameter
SG = l.O SG = 0.75 SG = 0.5 SG =1.0 SG=0.75 SG == 0.5
mm in m/sec ft/s<:c m/sec ft/sec m/sec ft/sec m/sec fl}sec m/scc ft/sec m/sec ft/sec
50 2 1.80 6.00 2.10 7.00 2.30 7.5 1.50 5.00 1.70 5.50 1.80 6.00
75 3 2.10 7.00 2.40 8.00 2.60 8.5 1.70 5.50 1.80 6.00 2.00 6.50
100 4 2.40 8.00 2.75 9.00 3.00 10.0 1.80 6.00 2.00 6.50 2.15 7.00
150 6 2.75 9.00 3.00 l 0.00 3.65 11.0 2.00 6.50 2.15 7.00 2.40 8.00
200 8 3.00 10.00 3.40 11.25 4.00 13.0 2. 10 6.75 2 ..30 7.50 2.60 8.50
250 10 3.25 l 1. 00 3.65 12.00 4.20 14.0 2.15 7.00 2.35 7.75 2.75 9.00
300 12 3.50 11 .50 3.80 12.50 4.40 14.5 2.15 7.00 2.40 8.00 2.80 9.25
350 14 3.60 11.75 4.00 13.00 4.50 15.0 2.15 7 .00 2.40 8.00 2.90 9.50
400 16 3.65 12.00 4.00 13.00 4.60 15.0 2.15 7.00 2.40 8.00 2.90 9.50
and over
Critical flow velocity
Flow velocity is 'critical' in the sense that it is a major factor in determining

the frictional losses of the flow. This is not necessarily significant for fluid
transport applications involving flow velocities within the recommended ranges.
Flow velocity can, however, be a critical factor in practical applications
involving the transport of solids in suspension in a fluid. The flow velocity will
largely govern whether the solids are transported in suspension (homogeneous
flow). or whether the solids tend to settle out forming sliding layers over a
settled bed (heterogeneous flow).
To produce homogeneous flow it is necessary that the flow velocity should
be greater than the fall velocity of the solids in the fluid. This sets critical or
minimum flow-velocity requirements for the handling of fluids containing
solids in suspension, which can only be determined satisfactorily on empirical
lines. Some specific recommendations are given in Table 5.
See also the chapter on Flow of Mixtures through Pipes.
laminar and turbulent flow
Flow through pipes can be either laminar or turbulent, the flow condition
being significant in affecting both the velocity gradient and the frictional
losses. With laminar flow, frictional losses are due to viscous drag and are
independent of the condition of the pipe bore. With turbulent flow, viscous
shear forces predominate and the condition of the boundary surface can
materially affect the total friction.
The actual flow condition can be established by reference to a non-dimensional
parameter, the Reynolds number (Re), determined as:
dV
Re = -
V
where d =pipe bore

V =velocity of flow
v =kinematic viscosity of the fluid (in consistent units)
Note: The Reynolds number itself is dimensionless.
Table 5. Minimum flow velocities for slurries
Flow velocity
Type Size of solids (mesh no.)
ft/ sec m/ sec
Fines Over 200 3- S 1.00-1.50

Sands 200- 20 5-7 l. 50-2.00
Coarse 20-4 7-11 2.00-3.25
Sludge 11-14 3.25-4.25
In engineering units:
Re = 7740dV or Re = 930dV
v v
where dis in inches where dis in em

Vis in ft/sec Vis in m/sec
vis in centistokes v is in cen tistokes
In the case or clean cold water:

Re = 7740 dV when d is in inches, V in ftjsec
= 9 30 dV when d is in em, V in mjsec.
Also, see Table 6.

The same formulae apply for the calculation of Reynolds numbers for flow
in non-circular pipes, substituting the equivalent hydraulic diameter for the
circular diameter, viz:
cross-sectional flow area)
Equivalent hydraulic diameter = 4 x ( d
wette parameter
The quantity contained in the brackets is the hydraulic radius of a non-circular

pipe.
The flow is laminar at Reynolds numbers up to 2000; and turbulent at
Reynolds numbers above approximately 4000. In the transitional range (Re =
2000-4000), flow can vary from laminar to turbulent and flow conditions are
indeterminate.
In the case of laminar flow the velocity gradient will be linear. Maximum
velocity at the centre of the bore will be of the order of 1. 5 times the mean flow
velocity.
With turbulent flow there is no clearly defined velocity profile. The temporal
mean profile will be of the form shown in Figure 2, the actual profile varying
with the Reynolds number. At low Reynolds numbers the maximum flow
velocity (at the centre of the bore) will be of the order of 2.0 times the
mean velocity, reducing to about 1.2 5 times the mean velocity at higher
Reynolds numbers.
Table 6. Reynolds number for clean cold water
Pipe bore
mm 25 40 50 75 100 1 50 200 250 300 450

(in) ( 1) (ll h_ ) (2) (3) (4) (f)) (8) (10) (12) (18)
Per 11/mio* 835 550 420 280 210 140 105 85 70 46
Per l gal/min* 3800 2500 1900 1270 950 630 475 380 120 210
*Multiply by actual numerica I value in either unit to give Reynolds number.

VALUES OF (vd) FOR WATER AT 60 °F (VELOCITY IN FT/SEC X DIAMETER IN INCHES)
V1
~ ~ 8 10 ; ;-, JC f.O 80: 100 ) Uv .oOO 600
~"'"'
80V .._.
, ...
1.
r!>"'
·~
###
lo ,~
'b · i-1>-
0
'"'0
I I I I I I II I ""<::> '
~
~ f 3
t- m·-tt 1t 1t t r r 1 11! :::,
.07 ~· -t-t- 1, 1 1111 ~ 4 +-+-++H-1 , , H - ;:s
r,
.06
T
' ' '
""
:::,
;:s
s::...
Q
OS ;:;-
·-~~~-~ - ;::;-
'""
c;·
.04 ;::
""
J
Friction
03
factor=
__ L
·r
hL 075 ~ I I
( ~) ~ .OZ
-)'-..
=~~~~ ~
1(}'
ffftlllllill f=fl l l~mlf:: : ::: ::: ::~, , . . .
2 3 4 5 6 8 10' ? 3 1 ) 6 8 10 3 4 ) 6 8 10'
a.k ' ' ' ' "" '"N
Dvp
Re - Reynolds number =
Jle
Figure 2. Frictionfactorsfor pipes. Example:frictionfactor for pipe with relative roughness 0.001 at flow Reynolds number of 30.000 =0.026.
FlowofLiquids through Pipes 541
The velocity profile is primarily of significance where a pilot tube or similar

flow-measuring device is inserted in the pipe as this will be subject to position
error. In the cross-section with turbulent flow there is no point where the local
velocity is likely to be constant and fully predictable. This factor is not
necessarily significant where measurements or calculations are based on flow
rate, or mean flow velocity, the latter being determined directly from the flow
rate and pipe bore.
Frictional losses
Frictional losses are calculated in terms of pressure drop or, alternatively,

head loss. Figures for frictional losses are normally reduced to (friction) head
equivalent perm (ft) or per 100m (ft) of pipe and are then directly applicable
to any length or aggregate length of straight run of pipe of the sizes concerned.
Such data are available and presented both in graphical and tabular form for a
wide range of pipe sizes, for water, oils and fluids. Agreement is not always
good between such data originating from different sources. Many, particularly
for w a ter flow through pipes, are based on formulae more than half a century
old and have a limited range of accuracy. Others are based on quite widely
differing empirical coefficients, with similar limitations. If the reliability of the
data available is suspect. or shows inconsistencies, more accurate solutions
will be arrived at by working from basic principles.
In the case of laminar flow, the D' Arcy- Weisbach formula can be applied in
the form:
LpV 2
.6.p = f- -
2Dg
where .6.P = pressure drop in lbf/ in 2

L = length of pipe in feet
V = flow velocity
D = bore of pipe in inches
p = mass density of fluid
' f f
I = a riction actor = ld64 b
Reyno s num er
In the case oflarger pipes (e.g. 25 mm (1 in) bore and above), and expressed
in terms of flow rate (Q) rather than flow velocity (V), the following simplified
formulae can be used:
Q2L
.6.P = r- -5 X specific gravity of nuid
KtD
where K 1 is a constant dependent on the units adopted for Q, Land D.

542 Performance and Calwlations
The corresponding formula for head loss (~H) is:

Q2L
~H = fK2Ds
It must be noted that before these formulae can be used the Reynolds
number must be determined to:
(i) Establish that the flow is laminar (Re ~ 2000)
(ii) Calculate the friction factor for the formula (r = 64Re ).

With laminar flow, friction loss (pressure drop or head loss) is not affected by
the roughness of the pipe bore (unless this appreciably modifies the effective
bore size). The formulae are thus directly applicable to laminar flow in all
types, construction and ages of circular pipes and non-circular pipes (the
latter with Rc computed on the basis of their hydraulic radius).
Turbulent flow
In a majority of practical cases of pumped fluids, flow is turbulent (i.e. Rc > 4000)
and simple calculation of flow losses no longer applies. Basically. the D' Arcy
formula can be used. but with a different friction factor (fturb). the value of
which is dependent both on the Reynolds number and the surface roughness
of the pipe bore.
Specifically, when the Reynolds number of flow exceeds 2000 there is a
critical zone into which laminar flow may extend (but flow conditions are
unpredictable and may change from laminar to turbulent, and vice versa),
followed by a region of developing turbulent flow where the friction factor
decreases with increasing Reynolds number but increases with increasing
bore-surface roughness. Finally. full turbulent flow is established. when the
friction factor is a constant regardless of increase in the Reynolds number and
is dependent only on surface roughness.
For smooth-bore pipes, the following formulae can be used to calculate the
friction factor directly:
0.3164
fturb = Re 0 _25 for Re values between 4000 and 10,000
' 0.221
lturb = 0.0032 + Re 0 .237 for Revalues over 10,000
Working data for friction factors for turbulent flow are usually presented in
chart form (Figure 3) where these zones are clearly seen. Effectively. turbulent
flow friction factors are bonded by a lower curve, representing the friction factor
for smooth-bore pipes, surmounted by a series of curves for pipes with increasing
surface roughness. Roughness is defined in terms of relative roughness or E/0.
FlowofLiqLiids through Pipes 543
Pipe diameter, in feet - D

.l I
.2 .3 .4 5 .6 1
.e 1 1 I
2 3 4 5 6 1 ~ 110 I
2U 25
.US 1'- -.
~
.04 " r"- 1'.
["\.. (j6
.03 "\.. !"..
02 " ~
~
"' r'\.
~,
"' ~
'
f- . 05
-
r-... r"r-.
' ' t\ I
h U4
.01 ~
.008 "'
' ......
' r.......
' ......
' !"-
035
.006 "\.. ' ''
,"-. '' [..-
R~ V T CD
ST Eo.EL
"'
005
004 ~ '""' " '
...... ~
" ,.__ "' . ' - .03
' 1'-1'.
N RE E
I
-- I' " I'\.
.003
~~ ""
........
-~
WOOD
'
r-~,- ' V,- G25
' "K
1-- TAVE
t"\ N'u>
' "'0.
C)
.OlJ2 ['.
"'I' ~~ '~
~
' ~r-. 'r-.. 'r"\.. 0.
..c
I o. ~
r'\
'"'~ "' ~'
~
'\ !
"' ', 1'-.t-.Oi' !>I)
::l
0
....
'
l1J
I .001
""" ' f'-
~ ~~
-~" ~
~
~
'-«-,, C).
"
(_)
I .0008 ~ --..,.o/. c
"'
0-1'\.1'\.. lJl8 ~
;g"' .0006 ' "'>- ~ . . .
' ~
!'..
~ "-. li>o~ ' ' ['. ' ~ .D
~
2 .0004
0005
' ' ~-,..
·~G'-1~ " '

: ' OJ& ~
....
:::s
' ,~,'1'.
- 1'1 <I)
(I)
~ a.
' '' x,,
........
.
"'-<>,y .,-). :"\..
-~ .0003
r-- :!< .>-~~~'
-
['. E
a:;
0:: "' . 0002 ' 1'\. ~0 (' -?0~'
1- ~ N0"' .._,014 c
~
~ ~"'>- ,.., '~

["\ ~
'~
I' 0
' ~ '' "'~ '~

Ll-
~
·- r- 1
"
~ 01- , r"'
.000 1 S:'- >-"~< ~

"" ~
~ ["\ -....:. ,, 012
.s~
.00008 ~ ' ""~
..... '~ »~ ~
. 00006
00005
""" - ~
' ['\
' :-.... ' ~~
, ,, oo
~(<'-....(I"
.00004 0
~~
~., ""'~
' I'\.. .01
I'\. "io0on-........ -........
.OOGU3 ~~
'x , "' '

i\.: ~
Ro "" ~
',
....
.00002 1-- . 009
.0000 1
"~
\ ['\,
' oo
~
1-- .008
.000008
~ ,,
1\..·o
' !"-
~0 i"\..
.000006 ~,r
.000005 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20 30 4G 50 60 80 100 200 30u
Pipe diameter, in inches- d
Figure 3. Frictionfactors and relative roughness for commercial pipes wit.hfully turbulentj]ow (based on
ASTVIJ:: dat.a originated by L. F'. Moody). Example: for 10 in diamPter cast-iron pipe, relati ve roughrwss
( r=/ D) =0 .0008 5. Friction factor= 0.0196.
544 Performance and Calculations
where E is absolute roughness. or effective height of pipe-wall irregularities,

and D the pipe bore. in the same units.
An alternative form of chart is shown in Figure 4, together with typical
values of E for different pipe materials, from which factors for turbulent flow
can be read directly.
It must be appreciated that the relative roughness of pipes is increased by
corrosion, and also by age, due to encrustations. Data given in Figures 3 and 4
apply to new pipes in clean condition.
Basic formulae then applicable are:
.6-HP pV 2
- - = fturb X - -
L 2Dw
where pis the fluid density

w is the fluid specific weight.
Practical formulae for calculations:
Reynolds number (R e):
w Re = 0.482 Q ~J.l-SG
Re=6.3ldJ.l,
for Win lb/hr for Q in ft 3 / hr

din inches din inches
Jl in centipoise Jl in centipoise
Energy grad,enr
.
6 h
Hydraulic gradient ~-++---+-V 22
~-----.j.d---J-- 2 g
p2
Horizontal datum
Figure 4. Simplified energy and pressure gradients.

dV
Re= ~ Re = 7740 dV
v v
for din ft for din inches
V in ft/min V in ft/ sec
v in ft 2 /sec v in centistokes
Q Q
Re = 1,419,000 dv Re = 3160 dv
for Q in ft 3 / sec for Q in ft 3 / hr

v in centistokes v in centistokes
wv
Re = 394 dv
for Win lb/hr

V(specific volume) in ft 3 j ib
din inches
v in centistokes
Re = 92 .9 dV
v
Re=2274~
for din millimetres for Q in mm 3 / hr
V in mm/sec dinmm
v in centistokes v in centistokes
Flow velocity (V):

Q Q
v= 183.3 d2 v= 0.408 d2
for Q in ft 3 /sec for Q in US gal/min

Q X SG Q
v= 0.00389
p.
d2 v= 0.340 d2
for Q in ft 3 / hr for Q in Imperial gal/min

pin lb/ ft 3
SG =specific gravity
Q
v= 3350-
d2
for Q in m 3 /hr
dinmm
Head loss (laminar flow):

LV~-t
HL (ft) = 0.09 62 d2 p HL (ft) = 0.03 93 ~?~
for Lin ft for Lin ft
V in ft/sec Q in US gal/min
Min ceo tipoise 1-t in ceo ti poise
pin lb/ ft 3 pinlb/ ft 3
LW~-t LQJ.-L
HL (ft) = 0.0049 d4 p2 HL (ft) = 0.0328 d4p

vV in lb/ hr Q in Imperial gal/ min
JJ- in centipoise 1-t in centipoise
pinlb/ft 3 pin lb/ [t 3
LVJJ, LQJ.-L
HL (m) = 107 d 2 p Ht (m) = 2670 d4 p
for Lin inches for Lin inches

Vin mm/sec Qinmm 3 /bar
J.-L in centipoise dinmm
pin tonnes/ m 3 pin tonnes/m 3
din milli-inches
Pressured rap (laminar flow):

. LVM LQJ.L
~p (Ib/in 2 ) = 0.000668 (f2 ~p (lbjin 2 ) = 0.1225d4
for Lin ft l'or Lin ft
V in ft/ sec Q in ft 3 /sec
J.1 in centipoise J.-L in centipoise
FlowofLiquids through Pipes 547
LWJ.J- LQ/1-
~p (lb/in 2 ) = 0.000034 d4 P ~p (lbjin 2 ) = 0 .0002 73 d4

Winlb/ hr Q in US gal/min
11- in centipoise J.J- in centipoise
pin lb/ft 3
~P (lb/in 2 ) = 0.00022 75 u;:

for Lin ft
Q in Imperial gal/min
din inches
LVJ.1 LQJ.J-
~P (bar) = o.030 crz ~p (bar) = 9.05 d4
for Lin inches for Lin inches
Win in/sec Q in 1/ min
din milli-inches din milli-inches
Head Joss (turbulent flow):
LV 2 LQ2
HL (ft) = 0.1863 f d HL (ft) = 62 60 [ (IS
where f= friction factor where f =friction factor

Lis in rt Lis in ft
V is in ft/ sec Q is in ft 3 / sec
dis in inches dis in inches
102 LQ2
HL (ft) = 0.0311 f d HL (ft) = 0.02 6 f (IS
lvhere f= friction factor where f =friction factor
Lis in ft Lis in ft
Q is in US gal/min Q is in Imperial gal/ min
LW 2 V2 LB 2
HL (ft) = 0.000483 f 5 HL (rt) = 0.01524 [ (f5
d
Lis in ft Lis in ft
W is in lb/ hr B is in barrels (42 US gal)/hr
V(specific volume) is in ft 3 / lb d is in inches
d is in inches d is in inches
2
LV 2
HL (m) = 0.041 f d HL (m) = 641,2 70 f Ldq
where f= friction factor where f= friction factor

Lis in m Lis in m
Q is in m/sec Q is in I/min
disinmm dis in mm
Note: These formulae may be used for both laminar flow and turbulent flow.
with appropriate friction factors.
Pressure drop (turbulent flow):

2
~P (lbf/in 2 ) = 0.001294 f Lp;

Lis in ft Lis in ft
pis in lb/ ft 3 pis in lb/ ft 3
Vis in ft/ sec Q is in ft 3 /sec
~p (lbf/in L~~
2
~p (lbf/in L~~
2
2 2
) = 0.000216 f ) = 0.00018 f
where f =friction factor where f =friction factor

Lis in ft Lis in ft
pis in lb/ ft 3 pis in lb/ ft 3
Q is in US gal/min Q is in Imperial gal / min
LV\72 V L 82
~p (lbf/in 2
) = 0.00000336 f d 5 ~p (lbf/in 2
) = 0.0001058 f ~5
where r=friction factor where f =friction factor
Lis in ft Lis in ft
W is in lb/ hr pisinlb/hr
V(specific volume) is in ft 3 / lb B is in barrels (42 US gal) ph
dis in inches d is in inches
.6.P (bar)= 0.000001125 f Ty2

L LpQ2
.6.P (bar)= 0.1613 f (f5
where f =friction factor where f =friction factor

Lis in m Lis in m
Vis in m/sec pis in tonnesj m 3
dis in mm Qis in 1/mm
pis in tonnes/ m 3 dis in milli-inches
Note: These formulae may be used for both laminar flow and turbulent flow,
with appropriate friction factors .
Other formulae
Other charts or friction factor data may show substantially different values of
friction factor for similar values of relative roughness. This is because the
general formula is one of the form:
.6.H Q2
L=fxkDS
which includes the Reynolds number as a factor. The value of the friction
factor (f) derived is thus adjusted accordingly.
Colebrook-White equation
The Colebrook-White equation for transitional flow is extensively used for

determining the hydraulic performance of sewage, drainage and effluent
systems.
The general form of the equation is:
- 1 = -2log 10 ( --+
ks -2.51)
-
JJ: 3. 7D ReVJ:
2gDi
where A.= friction coefficient ~
ks =linear measure of effective roughness (m)

D =pipe internal diameter (m)
VD
Re =Reynolds number, -
v
The equation expressed in engineering terms is:
V = -2
V(2gDl. log10 ks
?D +
( 2. 51 V )
~
3. Dy (2gDI
where V =velocity (m/sec)

g =gravitational acceleration (9. 81 m / sec 2 )
i =hydraulic gradient
v =kinematic viscosity of fluid (m 2 / sec).
The Hydraulic Research Paper No. 4 recommends values for the linear
measure of effective roughness for the commonly used pipeline materials in
various conditions. The values appropriate to ductile-iron pipelines are given
in Table 7.
Generally, there is no significant deterioration with time of the linear
measure of effective roughness ks where cement mortar-lined or bitumen-
lined pipes are conveying treated potable waters. However. conveying certain
raw waters can lead to a build-up of slime in the bores of all pipes and this will
cause an increase in the value of k 5 • The formation of these slime deposits is
not deleterious to the linings, and periodic cleaning of this type of main will
restore the hydraulic performance virtually to that of the pipeline in its new
condition.
The empirical Hazen-Williams formula has the advantage of simplicity
and, for determining the flow of raw or potable water at normal temperatures,
it can be relied upon to give results of sufficient accuracy for all practical
purposes. It is widely used for calculating flow in raw- and potable-water
pipelines.
The formula can be conveniently expressed as :
v= 0.4 s 7 x 1 o- 5 cD0 ·6 3 i 0 54
or
where V =velocity (m/ sec)

Q =quantity (1/sec)
D =pipe internal diameter (mm)
i =hydraulic gradient (dimensionless)
C =Hazen-Williams friction coefficient (dimensionless).
By selecting the appropriate value for the coefficient 'C', the Hazen-Williams
formula can be used for all types of pipe materials. Table 8 gives values of 'C'
for ductile-iron pipelines. The values shovvn are based on case studies and
consequently account is automatically taken of losses due to irregularities at
the joints.
FlowofLit]uids through Pipes 5 51
The same comments about the linear measure of effective roughness ks

apply equally to the friction coefficient 'C'.
The values of 'C' as given in Table 8 are approximately correct at a velocity
of 1m/sec. At other velocities the approximate corrections are given in Table 9.
Effect of inclined flow
Pressure drop (or equivalent head loss) due to flow is the same in straight pipes
whether the pipe run is horizontal, vertical or inclined. With vertical or
inclined flow, however, pressure drop is modified by the difference in actual
head involved. Here, the Bernoulli theorem applies in defining the total energy
at any particular point above any arbitrary horizontal datum plane. Total
energy is equal to the sum of the elevation head, the pressure head and the
velocity bead, i.e.:
p vz
Total head = 2 + - + -
p 2g
The total head (H) will be a constant for any point. Thus. if the friction loss between
points 2 1 and 2 2 on an inclined run (Figure 5) is expressed as a head loss ~H :
H at point 2 1 = H at point 22.
Thus:
., P1 Vt 2 P2 Vz 2
21 + - + - =2z + - +-+~H
PI 2g P2 2g
Confusion can be caused by reference to hydraulic gradient rather than
head or pressure loss. Fundamentally, steady flow conditions through a system
can be analysed in terms of a series of Bernoulli equations appropriate to
specific lengths of the system. from which may be derived energy curves and
pressure curves, as shown simply in Figure 5. The energy curve, normally
referred to as the energy gradient. shows the total energy at any point in the
system. The pressure curve. normally referred to as the hydraulic gradient,
shm".rs the (pressure) head at any point in the system. The energy gradient will
always drop in the direction of flow in the discharge side of the energy into
potential energy, e.g. at a sudden expansion. Over a section not subject to
changes, e.g. a straight length of pipe, the hydraulic gradient effectively
represents the friction head loss and may be referred to as such. The term is
rarely used in practical engineering calculations, however.
Water hammer
'Water hammer ' is the name given to the distinctive 'knocking' noise which
can develop in a closed pipe system when the flow velocity is suddenly changed,
55 2 Performance and Calc11lations
e.g. by the sudden opening or closure of a tap, valve or other flow-control

device.lt can also be produced by other factors causing abrupt changes in flow
velocity, e.g. sudden starting or stopping of a pump, or abrupt changes in
speed of a pump feeding the system.
Pressure sensor
1 ~1-LI==¢;;;33~==~==~¢~~80========;::::::=_~~~ :l~~~fct\~'~ ~w:·

F
Length of lateral 300 m

-
~
- wutc r towers a nd
including a lateral.
Pressure at end o f la~e ral Satu rday 5/1 101 145 P.ba r
I
-
8
v """
A
~ ......... _,
~
-
v- v , - ._.... L"'\.
...,s_,..._
v
"
........... '-../
I 4
'- L- -
10s
-- t
I I I I
i :+-
Press ure at e nd of lateral Saturday 511 l0H30 P .bar
~ ~
-
..,.,., 6
v v "- vM v
1ft. .A.
t..-.
~
~
- ·rv \I ..,...............
J' '1'\
r4 '
f- - - _2 _, I - -
10s t 0
Pressure a t e nd of lateral Friday 4/1 12H P .bar
-1
8
I/'\ /"'
""' ....,- / \ lM.. ,...- ~
"V
.-. ~ A §... ~
\l 'v I'
\i \/ I'V \)
\I 'V
I¥""
"'
4
1_(5
- t
-- ~
0 rl
Fig11re 5. Typical recording of pressure at e11d of lateral.
Flow of Liquids through Pipes 55 3
The cause of the 'hammer' is a sudden pressure rise in the liquid, caused by
the rapid acceleration or deceleration imparted to it, which travels as a pressure
wave along the length of pipe, and is reflected backwards and forwards . In
addition to generating knocking noises or 'hammer', if the pressure rise is
excessive it can cause damage to the piping or system components.
The pressure. velocity and time for the pressure wave to travel from one end
of the pipe to the other can be determined from first principles, viz:
' 4660
Velocity ol pressure wave (v) = ( I)
1 + 1(0 t
where 0 =pipe diameter

t =pipe-wall thickness in same units
elastic modulus for liquid

K = - - - - -- - - - -- - -
elastic modulus for pipe material
Values ofK for water and common pipe materials are:
Pipe material K
Steel 0 .010
Wrought iron 0.0107
Cast iron 0 .025
Asbestos/ cement 0.088
Pressure rise, expressed as Head (H):

V!:::.V
H =-
g
where !:::. V =reduction in liquid velocity

Time for pressure wave to travel length L:
2L
t= - sec
!:::.V
Note that L is the length from the appliance concerned (producing the
velocity change) to the ends of the pipe.
There are various methods of reducing the intensity of the pressure wave
and thus the shock or degree of hammer. The magnitude of the pressure wave
is directly proportional to reduction in flow velocity. so it follows that:
(i) Lowering the flow velocity will be effective, i.e. reducing the How rate
for a given size of pipe or increasing the pipe size for a given flow rate,
because!:::. V must then be less.
(ii) Decreasing the rate of closure will have a similar effect if the flow
stopping time is increased to several times the value oft (times of travel
of pressure wave corresponding to instant closure). Surge compressor

valves are usually designed on these lines.
Other methods which can provide a cure for water hammer. rather than
designing for the system parameters to avoid hammer. are:
(i) air-injection, and
(ii) introducing a flexible element into the system.
Air aspiration is mainly applicable to larger pipelines, the entrained air so
supplied acting as a cushion to absorb pressure surges. Air-relief valves can
also be installed to relieve air and water during a surge.
Chatter
'Chatter' is rather like water hammer in characteristics but is the result of

elasticity in the fluid system. Such elasticity may be introduced by aeration of
air entrainment. Under certain conditions. axial oscillation of the fluid column
may then develop in the system. In the case of high-pressure systems, chatter
may also arise from a mechanical fault, e.g. seal chatter.
Surge-prone pipe systems
Calculation programs using mathematical models can simulate the most

characteristic types of phenomena which give rise to pressure surges and can
provide a theoretical determination of the range of over-pressures which are
likely to affect pipelines.
In practice, while such calculations are available for individual pipes and
simple pipe systems. it is difficult to make assumptions covering all possible
cases for complex networks. These may contain distribution points, pumps.
valves, etc., in which there may be interference, simultaneous or otherwise.
between the various situations caused by the different components. Furthermore,
the attenuation of such phenomena in both time and space may only be
imperfectly known.
The typical recording shown in Figure 6 was made at the end of one of the
laterals of a small municipal distribution system.
In view of the complexity of the problem, it may be worthwhile carrying out
a diagnosis of the system during operation by locating pressure gauges at
various points to detect and record over fairly long periods all the dangerous
pressure variations.
The recording can then be analysed in order to determine whether a given
sector is subjected to over-pressure or depressurisation problems, and to
assess the frequency and importance of such anomalies. Assumptions can be
made, by studying the shape of the pressure versus time curves. concerning
the type of component or operation which gives rise to such occurrences.
Flow of Liquids through Pipes 55 5
Diagnostic systems have been developed consisting of a suitable number of

sensors indicating the values of the various characteristics parameters selected,
and a micro-computer acting as a central measurement system.
The micro-computer can take readings from the pressure sensor at a
frequency of 1000 readings per second. The other sensors operate at longer
time intervals which can be varied according to requirements.
The system has been designed to operate either as a controller or as a central
measurement unit. In the latter operating mode, suitable software enables
the micro-computer to provide operating personnel with information about the
internal behaviour of the system. Operators can thus take measurements
at various points in the network and gain vital information enabling them to
ascertain:
(i) Unknown sources of possible damage to the pipelines caused by equipment

items, and the cause of certain malfunctions.
(ii) Risk of contaminating the mains water supply by ingress of pollution
as a result of depressurisation.
(iii) In certain cases, the nuisance factor experienced by consumers owing
to pressure surges caused by local users.
Flow of Mixtures through Pipes
Standard formulae for pipeline performance calculations (e.g. pressure drop

or head loss) incorporate fluid viscosity as a constant parameter, i.e. as a specific
value dependent on the working temperature of the fluid involved. Such
calculations are valid only for Newtonian fluids where viscosity remains constant
with agitation or change in shear rate. Typical Newtonian fluids include
water, aqueous solutions. mineral oils. hydrocarbons, syrups and some resins.
Various other types of fluid are essentially non-Newtonian in characteristics,
when the viscosity value under any specific conditions is an apparent one
rather than a true one. Such fluids may be categorised as follows:
(i) Fluids containing solids in suspension, further categorised as slurries,

sludges and pulps (paper stock).
(ii} Thixotropic fluids, where viscosity decreases as agitation or shear rate
is increased. Thixotropic fluid s exhibit a hysteresis effect in that their
apparent or instantaneous viscosity is dependent on the previous
history of the fluid. Figure l is a typical rheogram for a thixotropic
fluid under laminar flow. Turbulent flow will tend to change the
structure of the fluid, which will recover if left standing for a sufficient
time. Fluids of this type include greases, soaps. starches, vegetable oils,
varnishes, some resins , tars. asphalts , glues and some inks.
Laminar flow of
thi xotropic fluid
t
SHEAR RATE -
Figure 1.
Flow of Mixtures through Pipes 55 7
(iii) Colloidal fluids which behave like thixotropic fluids but will not
recover their original viscosity when agitation is stopped. Fluids of this
type include colloidal solutions of soaps in water. and oils, lotions,
shampoos and gelatinous compounds.
(iv) Dilatent fluids where viscosity increases as agitation or shear rate is
increased. Fluids of this type include clays and some slurries.
(v) Rheopectic fluids where viscosity increases with increasing agitation
in shear rate up to a maximum value at any constant rate of agitation.
(vi) Plastic and pseudo-plastic fluids where viscosity increases with
increasing shear rate. but initial viscosity may be so high as to prevent
start of flow in a normal pumping system. These are also known as
Bingham fluids.
Strictly speaking, only plastic fluids are true Bingham fluids and include
such products as drilling muds. thick mineral slurries and sewage sludge.
Pseudo-plastic fluids exhibit a different shear rate-shear stress relationship.
Fluids in this category include paper stock, detergent slurries, some paints and
lacquers, some mineral slurries, mayonnaise, and cellulose acetate in acetone.
A further sub-category or such fluids is known as yield pseudo-plastic, typical
products orthis type being clay-water suspensions and polymer solutions.
Complex mixture flow
Complex mixture flow may be homogeneous, pseudo-homogeneous, heterogeneous

or complex, according to the phase(s) involved and the size of the solids
involved (see Figure 2). Homogeneous flow applies only in pure liquid flow.
Simple mixtures involve two-phase flows. complex mixtures multi-phase
flows. In pseudo-homogeneous flow the solids are present in finely divided,
SINGLE-PHASE MULTI-PHASE
fGAS-UQUID. GAS-GAS. LIQUID-LIQUJn.
I GAS OR LIQUID) SOLID-GAS. SOLID-LIQUID)
FINE COARSE
DISPERSIONS DISPERSIONS
PSEUDO-HOMOGENEOUS HETEROGENEOUS
HOMOGENEOUS
~COMPLEX 0-HETEROGENEOUS
Figure 2. Regimes for homogeneous and heterogeneous flow. '""

highly dispersed form with almost uniform dispension in the carrier phase.
The whole mixture then tends to behave as a single-phase fluid.
With increasing size and/or quantity of solids, dispersion is coarser.
yielding hetergeneous behaviour, i.e. with a pronounced solids concentration
gradient along the vertical axis of the pipe. The actual velocity of flo'"' then
becomes a critical parameter.
With complex flow, some of the solids content behaves heterogeneously in
pseudo-homogeneous flow, i.e. the flow can be described as homo-heterogeneous.
These are thus two separate sources of friction and pressure drop .
Figure 3 shows the likely regimes for heterogeneous and homogeneous flow
with typical slurries related to particle size and solids specific gravity for flow
velocities in the range 1.2 to 2.6 mjsec (4 to 8ft/sec).
Homogeneous flow
Common practice with slurries is to use the Fanning friction factor to estimate
frictional losses. This is a quarter the value of the D' Arcy-Weisbuck friction
factor . However. this straightforward approach does not take into account the
fact that solids present have the effect of suppressing turbulence which can
reduce the actual friction factor by up to 15%, depending on the type of slurry.
Empirical formulae can thus be more realistic.
Pseudo-homogeneous flow
Pseudo-homogeneous flow is considered to exist where there is no measurable

solids concentration gradient along the vertical axis of the pipe. For any given
mixture this is related to the flow velocity. Below the critical velocity. flow will be
heterogeneous; above the critical velocity. flow will be pseudo-homogeneous.
Specifically. the flow condition can be expressed in terms of the C/CA ratio
where Cis the solids concentration measured at an arbitrary part near the top
of the pipe (usually 8% of the pipe diameter). and CA is the solids concentration
at the centre of the pipe.
If these two values are equal (i.e. C/ CA = 1). flow wil.l be homogeneous.
Progressively lower values represent pseudo-homogeneous flow. degenerating
into heterogeneous flow. The actual value of C/CA is influenced by particle size
and concentration, as well as flow velocity. In a mixture of solids, finer
particles will have a high C/CA and coarser particles a low C/ CA. As a general
guideline, a C/CA of 0 . 8 or greater is necessary to maintain pseudo-
homogeneous flow.
Heterogeneous flow
\!\lith C/CA values below 0.8 .flow will be a mixture of pseudo-homogeneous

and heterogeneous, e.g. fewer particles remaining in suspense with coarser
Flow ofM ixtures through Pipes 559
particles tending to settle out. Flow will be fully heterogeneous at C/ CA values

of 0 .l or less. V\lith heterogeneous flow, inertia effects are far more significant
than viscous effects. Also. there may be several different flow patterns
ranging from symmetric suspension through asymmetric suspension to
sliding bed (solids sliding along the bottom of the tube), then stationary bed,
finally leading to plugging (pipe blockage) .
PA RTICLE DIAMETE R
(Largest 5 %. )
TYLF.R
MESH IN CH ES MICRONS
( Ve locit y - -l to 7 !t/s)
HOOO :::j
10000 ~====~===~====l====~
;-------~--------+--------+------~
p 250 oOOO -+-------lf-----+-----+------t
-l 0 1H5
41)()() +--------+ HETEROG ENEOUS
21Xl0 4~""'"---+-----f-----t------t
""" \ ' ....

HOO 1----..l'""'"'--+-----1-------t------1
600 +------~'":-------+------+-------1
1·.
-+-•.::..;•::----+--......::~~ '
Based ton thick s lurries _
400 ~ '
wtth fmc (IU25 m esh)
'~vehicle
-+--··'"':-·--f--- -
'••••• ~
200 -+----"~'r.·.:-.-+----+----'""'1111..:::~-------j
•.. C'OMPLEX~,...,.---..._...._-1
'··· Based o n th in slurrie" -
··~ o r s lurries with g raded
I 00
HO
~====t==='~part icle. • ·~
size
••••
- ==:::::!
n'nr':':':"~-:-----1
'· · ••u u n u...&.uJ
~~-------+------~~------+-------~
40 -+-----+-----+-----r------t
20 -+-------+- HOMOGEN EO US
I'
I 0 +-----1----+------T--------1
I .0 2.0 3.0 4 .0 5. 0
SOLIDS SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Pig11re 3. Regimes for lwmogeneous and l~eterogeneousjlo w.

5 60 Performance and Calculatio11s
Friction losses for heterogeneous flow are commonly based on the Durand
formula. although empirical formulae are also used (see later). The Durand
formula for the friction factor (fh) for heterogeneous flow is:
~h = fl1 (l + lSODg)
V 2
(pS-pl pl) (-1-)
Jet;
312
x Sv
where f, = friction factor for liquid (dimensionless)

D = pipe diameter (ft)
V = flow velocity (ft/sec)
p1 = density of liquid (lb/ft 3 )
pS = density of solids (lb/ft 3 )
C0 = drag coefficient (dimensionless)
Sv = volume friction of solids (dimensionless)
Sv = volume fraction of solids (dimensionless)
Homo-heterogeneous flow
With homo-heterogeneous flow, some of the solids behave heterogeneously in

a homogeneous vehicle. This is a condition commonly encountered in practice
where the carrier fluid contains a mixture of particle sizes. To determine
friction losses in this case, it is necessary to split the solids content into
fractions of different size and into homogeneous and heterogeneous portions.
i.e. based on the respective C/ CA ratios.
Thus, taking each sign fraction in turn and determining its C/CA ratio.
multiplying this by volume concentration for that friction will give the
proportion of that fraction having homogeneous flow . The remainder will be
heterogeneous flow. Each fraction is split into homogeneous and heterogeneous
flow in a similar manner. Friction losses are then calculated for each flow .
Transition velocity
Normally. all slurry pipeline systems operate with turbulent flow. Operating
under laminar-flow conditions will allow some settlement which in time
can lead to unstable flow conditions, or even blockage. Flow velocities must
therefore be above the transition velocity, determined by the critical Reynolds
number.
Transition velocities for Bingham plastic fluids are conveniently related to a
dimensionless Hedstrom number (NHr). where:
NHI = Reynolds number x plastic number
where p = slurry density (lb/ft 3 ) To = yield spec (lb/ft 2 )

V = flow velocity (ft/sec) g - acceleration of gravity
D = pipe diameter (ft) 17 coefficient of rigidity (lb/ft sec)
The relationship between critical Reynolds number and Hedstrom number

is shown in Figure 4 and is closely followed by most slurries. Mud and clay
slurries can be the exception.
Critical deposition velocity
The critical deposition velocity relative to heterogeneous flow is given by

Durand as:
112
. _ K 2gD(Ps - Pt)
Vcnt -
Pl
where K is an empirical constant

g = acceleration of gravity
D = pipe diameter (ft)
Ps = density of solids (lb/ ft 3 )
Pt = density of liquid (lb/ ft 3 )
In all such cases. performance calculations can be based on a pseudo-viscosity

or equivalent Newtonian viscosity.
~ 10'.-------~--------------~------------------------------,
v
a:: LEGEND:
z o Cement rock slurry
a:: C> River mud slurries
lJ..I o Clay slurry
co
~ ell Sewage sludge
:::) • Th02 slurries
z • Lime slurry
(/)
g 10~
0
z 0
>-
lJ..I
0::
..J
4:
u
f=
a::
u 10 1 +----.-~~.,.......................-.---.................,..........,.......,............~...,---------.......,......~...,....,.....,....,---.......,......---~~-.--J
10' lcf 105 10~
HEDSTROM NUMBER (NHe)
Figure 4. Variation ofNxe.- with NHe for Binghamflow in pipes.

Slurries
Slurries are liquids (usually water) containing abrasive solids in suspension,

resulting in an increase in specific gravity over the carrier fluid. Slurries are
categorised by the size o[ the solids as fines, sands and coarse.
Slurries behave as non-Newtonian fluids with an apparent viscosity
depending on the degree of suspension, which in turn is dependent on the flow
rate. This may be generally related to a fall velocity or the minimum flow rate
necessary to maintain the solids in suspension and prevent them from settling
out. This, in turn, depends on the size of the solids. and also their concentration.
Approximate flow velocities to retain solids in suspension in water for various
classes of slurries are:
Fines (particle size 7 5 J.Lm or less) 0.9 m/ sec (3ft/ sec)
Sands (particle size 7 5 to 8 50 J.Lm) l. 5 m/ sec ( 5ft/sec)
Coarse (particle size 8 50 to 5000 ~tm) 2.1 m/sec (7ft/sec)
These empirical figures are based on a solids content of 30 to 3 5% by weight

and solids of specific gravity 2.5 to 3 .0 (see also Table 1 and Figure 5).
I
(,/')
(,/')
I.I.J
c::t:::
f-
(,/')
c::t:::
«
I.I.J
:::r:
(,/')
VELOCITY GRADIENT- dU/dr
Figure 5. Fluid classification ofslurries.

Table 1. Some typical slurries
Slurry Proportion of solids by weight
Alumina up to 50%
Crushed chalk up to 68%
Clay up to 60%
Coke fines up to 55%
Gravel up to 25 %
Lime up to 65 %
Magnetite up to 60%
Sand up to 60%
Soda ash up to 60'Yo
Solids which form an intimate mixture yield a homogeneous fluid. in which

case the pump performance is largely determined by the specific gravity and
viscosity of the homogeneous mixture, which behaves as a normal fluid .
Solids in suspension. however. form non-homogeneous mixtures and flow is
then heterogeneous. with particles tending to slide at the surface of a 'bed' of
solids. This 'bed' is only carried fully suspended if the fluid velocity is greater
than the settling velocity of the solids involved. At lower fluid velocities there
will be a corresponding degree of settlement producing a sliding rather than a
suspended 'bed·.
The quantity of water required to deliver a specific quantity of solids when
pumping slurries can be determined from:
Water quantity = K x T (W + ~)
R sgo
where T - weight of dry solids/ hr

W = percentage of water
R - percentage of dry solids
For water quantity in litres and Tin metric tonnes K = 1.06
For ,,vater quantity in Imperial gallons and Tin Imperial tons K = 3. 7 5
For water quantity in US gallons and Tin US tons K = 4.02
sg 0 = specific gravity of dry solids
Specific gravity figures for suspensions of solids in water are given in Table 2.
Frictional losses
There is no complete agreement on the method of calculating the frictional

losses in pipes carrying fluids with solids in suspension. Generalised data can
give extremely inconsistent results when applied to individual systems.
particularly if localised areas exist where the fluid velocity may be less than
the minimum needed to keep the solids in suspension. It can thus prove
Vl
Table 2. Specific gravity of suspensions of solids in water 0'1
~
Percentage Ratio Specific gravity of dry solids ~

..;,
by weight water ~
0
of solids tosolids 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.5 4.0 4 .5 5.0 ::3
:::.
:::!
C")
<'>
Specific gravity of solution :::.
:::!
!:l..
10 9.1 1.05 1.05 1.06 1.06 1.06 1.06 1.06 1.07 1.0 7 1.0 7 1.0 7 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.08 1.08 1.09 1.09 ~
(';"
.s::
[
15 5.66:1 1.08 1.08 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.11 1.11 1.11 1.11 1.11 1.12 1.12 1.13 1.13 1.14 o·
:::!
20 4:1 1.11 1.11 1.12 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.15 1. 15 1.15 1.1 6 1.16 1.1 6 1. 1 7 1.18 1.19 1.19 ""
25 3:1 1.14 1.15 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.18 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.20 1.20 1.21 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.2 5
30 2.33:1 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.23 1.24 1.24 1.25 1.25 1.26 1.26 1.2 7 1.29 1.31 1.31
35 1.87:1 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.32 1.33 1.35 1.37 1.39
40 1.5:1 1.25 1.26 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.36 1.3 7 1.38 1. 39 1.40 1. 43 1.45 1.47
45 1.22:1 1.29 1.30 1. 32 1. 34 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.40 1.41 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.4 6 1.47 1.51 1.54 1.56
50 1:1 1.33 1.35 1.37 1.39 1.41 1.43 1.44 1.46 1.47 1.49 1.50 1.51 1.52 1.53 1. 55 1. 60 1.63 1.67
55 0.91:1 1.3 7 1.38 1.41 1.43 1.44 1.49 1.51 1.53 1.5 5 1.56 1.58 1.59 1.61 1.62 1.65 1. 70 1. 75 1.79
60 0.67:1 1.43 1.46 1.48 1.51 1.54 1.56 1.5 8 1.61 1.63 1. 65 1.6 7 1.68 1.70 1.72 1. 75 1.82 1.87 1.92
65 0.54:1 1.48 1.51 1.55 1.58 1.61 1.64 1.6 7 1.69 1.72 1. 74 1. 76 1. 79 1.81 1.83 1.8 7 1.95 2.03 2.08
70 0.43:1 1.54 1.57 1.62 1.65 1.69 1. 72 1.75 1.79 1.82 1.85 1.88 1.90 1.93 1.95 2.00 2.10 2.20 2.27
75 0.33:1 1.60 1.65 1.69 1.73 1. 78 1.82 1.86 1.90 1.93 1.97 2.00 2.03 2.06 2.09 2.1 5 2.29 2.40 2.50
Flowoflvlixtures through Pipes 565
difficult to estimate for centrifugal pumps the total head to be supplied by the
pump and thus to determine the most efficient working point.
A general formula which can be used is:
.6-Ps D(sg- 1) x Vs
---1 = KCv
~Pw jd(sg - 1) x y2
where the constant K is determined from emperical data
where .6-Ps = pressure drop when transporting solids

~Pw = pressure drop for water
Cv concentration of solids by volume
0 - pipe diameter
d = mean particle diameter
sg - specific gravity of solids
Vs settling velocity of solids (in still water)
v - flow velocity
Output
Typically, the output from a slurry pump will follow the characteristics shown
in Figure 6. with the output curve consisting of three zones:
(i) delivery distance,

(ii) delivery distance within the normal working range of the pump,
(iii) loss of output over any further delivery distance.
~ Output (solids)
«l
6..
..... E 2
~ 600
':1
::l
0~ 0..
C<~> II)
11):::::
..... '--' .:::.
::l u
;( ....
.......
<!)
400
3
~ <!)
..... 0
::l
~
g_..o::
~
0
1: 200
c: c:
.2 ;:;
',~I
(; 0..
.....
c:
II) 0
::l
0
u 600 900 1200
c:
0 Delivery pipeline length in m
<.>
0
> I. Delivery distance.
2 . Delivery distance within the normal 3. Loss of output over any further
working range of the pump. delivery distance.
Figure 6.
The first zone is critical in that it determines the suction conditions. At a

high flowrate, when the upper limit is reached. the vacuum becomes critical.
i.e. the flowrate at the attainable mean specific gravity of the mixture is so
high that the corresponding vacuum on the suction side of the pump installation
is equal to the critical vacuum, which may not be exceeded and thus constitutes
the limit of the attainable vacuum . Figure 7 shows the critical vacuum applying
to a delivery pipeline length 1 1 .
The critical vacuum is reached at working point P 1. If the critical vacuum is
exceeded, e.g. as a result of shortening the delivery pipeline. with the result
that a lower resistance curve applies (see 1 2 in Figure 7), cavitation ensues.
If it is desired to operate with a shorter delivery pipeline, the speed n 1 of the
pump must be reduced to the point where the intersection of the corresponding
pump characteristic and that of the shorter pipleline falls within the normal
working range of the pump. This implies that the point of intersection
(working point P 3 ) must coincide with a flowrate at which the vacuum is
slightly below the critical level corresponding to the lower pump speed. This is
shown in Figure 7. The two working points P 1 and P 3 have a virtually equal
flowrate . If the delivery distance is less and the specific gravity of the mixture
remains virtually unchanged, the output at these (too) short delivery distances
will also remain virtually constant, as shown by the horizontal section 1 of the
output group (Figure 6 ).
I Hman Pipeline lengt
0
~
40
30
_1----.....
_:----r- --'
Pump speed n 1'
Pump speed~._
- r-- PJ Pipeline length
L2 < L,
E n2 < n 1 • / P2 ~p,
20
c::
c:
/ v
"'E 10 ··- -
I
0
Vacuum
I I
Decisive vacuum
at speed n~ : \.
8 I I __-_
Decisive vacuuml
~"-·
PI
p2
0 6 -f-
at speed n,: /
~
E 4
c:: /
E 2 /
:::l
:::l
u
. .v
<'l
0
> 500 I0000 1500 2000
Flowrate (lis)
Figure 7.
Critical velocity
If the delivery pipeline is lengthened. the specific gravity of the mixture to be

pumped must be reduced as soon as the critical velocity (the second bend in
the output curve) is reached. This is necessary to avoid a subcritical situation,
leading to sedimentation. At what is in effect an excessive delivery distance,
pumping a mixture of such specific gravity as to cause sedimentation in the
pipeline is to risk total blockage. In practice. this danger can be averted by
admitting more water. The specific gravity must be reduced just sufficiently to
restore a supercritical situation.
In approximate terms. it can be stated that the critical flowrate of a soil/
water mixture at the reduced specific gravity differs little from the critical
flowrate at the highest attainable mean specific gravity This implies that,
when delivering into pipelines that are too long, the specific gravity must be
reduced when a certain flowrate. which is virtually constant, is reached. This
is the flowrate corresponding to the critical velocity. Increasing the delivery
distance will therefore result in a lower output of solids.
When pumping mixtures of vvater and fine sand (less than 7 5 :m), or clay,
e.g. soil and silt, or combinations of these materials , the critical velocity in the
delivery pipe will be very low. Moreover, the resistance offered by the pipeline
is less than would be the case during the transport of mixtures of water and
coarser sand under comparable circumstances. As a result. the bend in the
output curve, between line section 2 (the actual working range of the pump)
and section 3 (the area relating to delivery distances that are too long), will
coincide with an extremely high delivery-distance value, or will be missing
altogether. The output curve will then be as shown in Figure 8 and consist of
only two sections.
Sludge
Sludge is defined as a liquid (usually water) containing large solids with a

e
particle size of 6 mm I 4 in) or greater, the solids being soft rather than
abrasive in nature . These solids may be further describes as 'stringy', 'clogging',
etc., although a more useful classification would be 'soft' and 'hard' sludges
because the solids may be hard and abrasive in some cases. Sludges may also
contain a proportion of smaller solids or sand which could have an abrasive
effect, affecting pump material choice, clearances. etc. Thus, sludges may
have some of the characteristics of slurries. Sewage, on the other hand, mostly
involves soft solids.
Frictional factor
Frictional losses involved in th e transport of sludges and sewage are difficult to

evaluate other than on empirical lines. However, where the mixture is
reasonably homogeneous. a friction factor may be calculated on the basis of a

pseudo-Reynolds number. This takes the form:
R - AQ
e- cxdY
where Q is the flow rate

A is an empirical factor
Cis the consistency of the mixture
dis the solids' diameter
Values of the exponentials x and y are determined empirically for different
fluids. Typical values for pulps are x = 1.15 7 andy= 1. 79 5.
The friction factor, for insertion in standard function formulae. is then
determined as:
K
fs = (Rez)
where K is a constant for a particular sludge.
The value of the exponential z also varies with the type of sludge, but is
typically of the order of 1.63.
Mixture nowrate
~
L.
1200
~
~:? 1000
I'· .................
.........
----
'-....... ~ ......
~v
~ 800
600
c:
.2 Vol.<on<enlraUonJ
~
... 20 - -
c:
Cl) 10
u
c:
0 0
u
0
> Output in clay material
I
.... 600 I I
I
P--i
;:l
0 ............
.-, 6..
..c:
E E 400
-------1---
~ i
i !.Delivery distance.
c: ;:l
·-
'5
0..
Cl)
I 2. Delivery distance within the normal
o...:! working range of the pump.
; t> 200 --
0~
Cl)
.....
Cl)
0..
0
800 1600 2400 320 4000 4800
Delivery pipeline length in m
Figure 8.
Table 3. Head-capacity factors for stock
Stock consistency Head factor Capacity factor Head-capacity factor

(%) (Hp) (Qfl (H p/Qp)
l.O 1.00 0.99 0.99

2.0 1.00 0.99 0.99
2.5 1.00 0.98 0.98
3.0 1.00 0.97 0.97
3.5 0.99 0 .96 0.95
4.0 0.98 0.92 0.90
4.5 0.97 0.87 0.85
5.0 0.95 0.80 0.76
5.5 0.93 0.72 0 .67
6.0 0.90 0.62 0.56
6.5 0.87 0.52 0.45
7.0 0.83 0.42 0.35
ex:
ol){)
0
<
~
100
80
........;;
--
F:: ......... r-- ....._
!"... ..........
1---
...........
-r-- ....._ ....._
r--r--
3 ~
4 >-
5
u
z
UJ
r
~
r .......... Vl
z
(a) 0 .......... 0
< 70 .......... u
0..
<(
u
0
<(
UJ
60 "' .......... ~ ......
61;;
~
u
0
::r: .)-o
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
% WATE R CAPACITY AT MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
100
ex: i"""r-... - t--
3
~
0
0
t;90
<(
t--........
-r--- r-- r-- 1---
r-..r-.. -
4
u
5 ~
>-
rVl
-r---..
!J...
~ 80
0 zVl
(b) < 1---.t---..... 0
0.. 70 6 u
~
 !;;
UJ
::r:
50
t) 20 40 60 80 100 120
% WATER CAPACITY AT MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
figurP 9. Deterrninat.ion of head-capacity correction factors: (a) chemical stock; (b) mechanical and
reclaimed stock.
5 70 Perfo rmance and Calcr.tlations
3
l.,...--' ~
, --
~~
6
5 .}
.,., I--" ,,
....... ~ I"' ........ ~
v
,. ....... 7 -"""'~
.... ~
5
2 ,..,. ,....
, ~ """""
,.. ~ .... ~
4.5
~ [/ ~
_......, ~ _..!--"' 4.25
I--' L..oo
1.5 1..-- 1--" .... ~
... ...... ~
~ ~~ "" ~ ........ v ~ ~
4
l.,...--' ~
.... , ~ L...... ~ ~~
,... 1.---' ---~ 3.75
l.--- ...... ~"""' 3. 5
~
ll"'v [....; ~ ~
.......
_,.,.,.
L..
1--"j..- ..,,.,., ,... .......""" ~~ _.., ~ ~
1.---' .J'
~ .....
0. 1 P'
~
~ ~
l,..oo
~.,.,
, ..,.
~
,.. .....
,..i--
lo-"""
........
~
~
... .... ..,.I'""

~
~~
L,..o
, 3.25
lo--"" ~
0.09 l.,...--' ,.... ......
--~ ~
_.., ~
..,.,..... ~ 3
...... ~ ~ ~
0 OR ,~ ,... ..,.,.,., , ...
,..,..
L..oo
,. ,..
ioo""' ~ ~"""
~ ~ ~""' ....... p
_.., ...... ~ .... I"'
,.,., , ~ ,.....
c
::l P" ,.,., p ....... ,... ;;;;; I"' ......
L
..,.,.,., v 2.5
~ 0.06 ,......
L,...-o ,.,., 7 ...... ""',...., ... /
.......
,. ....~
...... , ... ~
~ ,...... ...... ,.... ,.... ,....
-
.;'
'"j" 0. 05 ....... ..,.,. ~

...,.,. .... ,...... ., ~
,..... ....... ,. ~
(/}
(/}
,. .....
0
.....l
0 0.04 .........
,... '-""" ~
,
lo-"" lo-"" 2
<( !.."" ......... ioo"
U) 1,.
l.,...--' I"""'
::r:: ,.... ~
0
>-
- ~"'
""""" I--'~ ~ u
0.03 c;.,;.;;; z
~ UJ
p 1--
~ ,... (/')
........ v ~ """ (/")

z
l.,...--' ~
;..."' 0
..... u
0.02
-
,.....__ '--
l,..oo
L..
~""""
u
0
::,t
f-
~ (/")
~
~
0.0 15
0 .0 1
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 10000 15000 2000
Gal/ min
Figure 10 . Friction loss with pulp stock: 12-in pipe.

Paper stock (pulp)
Paper stock is basically in the form of sludge with a specific type of solids
(paper pulp). With low consistencies (i.e. less than 1% pulp by weight), flow
and friction losses can be calculated as for water. With higher consistencies
there is an increasing derating or pump performance (see Table 3 ).
Frictional losses increase rapidly with stock consistencies above about 2%
by \veight. A rriction [actor can be determined based on a pseudo-Reynolds
number. viz:
where K = an empirical constant, dependent on the type of pulp

Rc = pseudo-Reynolds number
K 1 = a constant depending on the units employed
C = stock consistency%
D = pipe diameter
x. y and z are exponents with the typical values:
X = 1.63
y = 1.16
z = 1.8.
For Q in gal/min and Din ft

K1 = 17.2
For Q in I/ min and Din em

K1 = 8.18
(see also Figures 9 and 10).

Compressible Flow in Pipes
Air, steam and gases are all compressible fluids and the D' Arcy equation used
for determining pressure and head losses with liquid flow is no longer
applicable because the density of gases and vapours changes considerably with
changes of pressure. However, for simplified general engineering calculations
not requiring great accuracy, liquid D' Arcy flow formulae may be used if the
pressure drop involved is less than 10% of the inlet pressure. Use of such
formulae is also sometimes extended to pressure drops up to 40% of the inlet
pressure. provided in this case the specific volume is taken as the average of
the upstream and downstream conditions.
The real flow of a pressurised gas through pipes differs appreciably in a
number of important characteristics from the flow of liquids in pipes. Pressure.
for example, drops at an increasing rate along the pipe, rather than with a
constant pressure gradient. At the same time, velocity tends to increase up to
a maximum defined by V = %kgRT for air. but subject to a limiting or
maximum length, which must correspond to the end of the pipe. At this point
the pressure gradient in infinite, i.e. the pipe is effectively closed. In this
equation, k is the ratio of specific heats at constant pressure to constant
volume. R the individual gas constant, and T the absolute temperature
(degrees Rankine). An alternative formula isM= 1 %k (=0.845 for air), where
M is the Mach number.
The general equation may be written in the same form as the D' Arcy equation
for fluid flm.v, but with the addition of an extra term representing the pressure
drop required to increase the flow momentum:
6P f pV 2 - dV
L = D X 2 + ,BpQ dL
where 6P is the pressure drop
Lis the pipe length
fis a constant friction (but dependent on surface roughness)
Dis the pipe diameter
pis the gas density
Q is the specific volume or gas
dV /dL is the velocity gradient
Compressible Flow in Pipes 5 73
fJ is a factor of the order of unity and normally taken as 1.0 (i.e. can be
eliminated from the equation).
Actual flow conditions may range from adiabatic to isothermal. Adiabatic

conditions are only likely to apply in short, well-insulated pipes where no
appreciable heat is transferred to or from the pipe. Isothermal flow, or flow at
constant temperature, is commonly assumed as more consistent with normal
practice, especially for long pipes. In fact, most practical pipelines will generate
polytropic flow conditions, which are virtually impossible to analyse. The
assumption of isothermal flow is thus a practical compromise.
Isothermal flow
With isothermal flow, a formula developed from basic principles is:

f pV 2
L'lP D X 2
-
L kM2 - 1
The friction factor is dependent on the Reynolds number of flow and pipe
roughness. It can be assumed independent of Mach number.
The Reynolds number will be constant for isothermal flow, but may vary
with adiabatic or isentropic flow (and certainly with diabatic flow), in which
case a mean value can be assumed.
The Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity, given arithmetically by:
pVD
Re = - -
1-L
VD
v
where p = the mass density in units consistent with
f.L = viscosity velocity (V) and
{
v = kinematic viscosity pipe diameter (D)
For air at standard temperature v = 1. 5 68 X 1 o- 4 ft 2 /sec.

Thus Re = 531.5 VD
= 530 VD (with sufficient practical accuracy).
where Vis in ft/ sec

Dis in inches.
The friction factor (f) is common for all fluids (i.e. gases and liquids) and is
normally determined from empirical charts. For laminar flow, the friction factor
is dependent only on Reynolds number and is numerically equal to 64/ Re,
laminar flow being defined by the Reynolds number not exceeding 2000. For
turbulent flow and smooth-bore pipes, the Reynolds number can be calculated
from the following empirical formula:
f = 0.3164
Re0.25
As the Mach number (M) approaches 0, the denominator in this equation

comes closer and closer to unity, reducing the equation to the same as that
for liquid flow. There is some justification for using the D' Arcy formula for
compressible-flow calculations (as mentioned initially) as M60 (i.e. consistent
with short lengths of pipes with resulting low pressure drops). This also
implies that at very low Mach numbers, compressible flow can be treated as
incompressible. Pressure gradients (~P /L) will. in fact, be ,within 5% of
incompressible flow values at Mach numbers up to about 0.18 for air.
A complete working formula for isothermal flow, expressed in terms of mass
flow rate (Qm) is:
144gA 2
- it pl)
D P2
( Vt-+ 2\og-
where A = cross-sectional area of pipe (ft 2 )

g = acceleration of gravity= 32.2 (ft/sec 2 )
V1 = specific volume of gas (ft) jib)
L = length of pipe (ft)
f = friction factor
D = pipe bore (ft)
P1 = absolute pressure (entry)
P2 = absolute pressure (exit)
For long gas pipelines (where velocity gradient can be ignored) this reduces to:
(Pi-P~)
2
Qm 2 = (144gDA ) x
VrfxL P1
Or expressed in terms of volume flow rate (Qv) in ft 3 /sec:
Ov = 114.2 P~ - P~ x o
( fLT sg X
5)
where Tis the absolute temperature (degrees Rankine)

sg is the specific gravity of the gas.
Other working formulae of similar derivation are:
Weymouth formula :
( Pf - P~)
520
Ov = 28.0D2.on7
Lsg T
Panhandle formula :
p 21 _L p-_)7 ) o. s3 94
Qv = 36.8ED2.6182
(
where E is an efii.ciency factor, normally taken as 0.92 for average conditions.
The Panhandle formula is widely used for natural gas pipelines from 6 to 24 in
diameter.
Limiting values
Maximum possible velocity (V"' ) in a pipe is source velocity (M = ] ), given

directly by:
v~ = 12)kgPVv
where V"' is in ft/ sec

k is the ratio of specific heats of the gas
Pis the absolute pressure (lbf/ in 2 )
Vv is the specific volume of gas (ft 3 /lb)
Maximum pressure (P*) can be determined on the basis of continuity, viz:
Hence
P* = Vt = M1 = M Jk
1
P1 V* M•·
where the suffix 1 refers to initial concentration .

Hence (and because the velocity of sound is constant under isothermal
conditions) :
Unity Length (L"') can be determined from the general equation:
fLO* = (kMl i- 1) 1
-loge kM2
l
or
L'= ~ ( (k~I ~ 1) ~ log,k~I)

The implication of this is that velocity of gas flow can go on increasing in a
pipe up to a maximum Mach number ofl/Vk. This increase ceases at a limiting
length ofpipe (L*). which must be at the end of the pipe. If the actual length of
pipe is greater than L*, initial conditions will have to be adjustecf to reduce M 1
so that the actual pipe length is less than, or equal to, L*.
At the same time, the limiting pressure ratio (P*/ P t) and limiting length (L *)
are dependent only on initial velocity (Mach number) and the k value of the
gas.
Pressures and lengths between two sections of a pipeline can thus be
expressed as follows (if the Mach numbers at each section are known) :
P2 M1
fL
D
Adiabatic flow
Similar treatment applies for adiabatic flow, although the corresponding formulae
are more complicated and may require working as a series of approximations
in order to reach real values in particular cases. In general, the pressure,
temperature and velocity will always be slightly less than those for isothermal
flow, but the limiting length will be similar. The di1rerences are usually small
enough to be negligible, except at higher Mach numbers, and thus, for
simplification of calculations, isothermal formulae can be used for subsonic
adiabatic flow.
Limiting velocity:
This is given directly by:

, . - - -- - - -
V* 1
2(1+ k; 1Mi)
k+ l
Limiting temperature:
2(1 +~Mf)
k+l
Limiting length:
L* = D (l - Mi) k+ 11 (k+ l)Mi

F kM 2
1
+ 2k oge
Limiting pressure:
k- l
2( l +- -Mf )
2
k+l
Stagnation state
Flow is possible between two extremes. At one extreme, velocity is zero and
temperature is a maximum because all the kinetic energy is converted to
enthalpy. The speed of sound is also a maximum (stagnation point or stagnation
state). At the other extreme, the velocity is a maximum and the temperature
falls to absolute zero, all the enthalpy being converted into kinetic energy. The
speed of sound ls then zero (zero temperature state). Between these extremes
the practical flow may be subsonic, transonic or supersonic (Figure l) although
the zero temperature state can never be reached (i.e. it is a hypothetical
condition).
At the stagnation state:

02 vz
- + ho=-+h
2 2
or
vz
ho=
2 +h
- - M<l
I - M =-I OR V::: c
I ---...M> I
w I
""0
c .2
::J ..0
0 I
....v I
'Jl
'- "'
0 ·~
>, O..J g
E .c
u
81
52
v
;>
..:=, q Supcrson ic
ro
~ I
..J I
Hypersonic
vu Velocity V-+
Figure 1.
From the general gas relationship it follows that the stagnation temperature
(T 0 ) is given by:
v2
To= T + -
2 sp
where sp =specific heat at constant pressure.

Alternatively,
To= 1 + k- 1 x M2
T 2
where M =Mach number= - .

v
c
The stagnation pressure can be derived as:
k _L
~o = (i't = (l+k 1M')''2
This may be expanded in the form:

2 2
M 2- k 4
pV {
Po=P+-
2
l +-+--M
4 24
+ ... }
This can be compared with the equation for incompressible flow:

pV2
Po= P+l
The difference between these two equations represents the effect of increased
gas density due to compressibility, generally termed the compressibility
factor. Values of the compressibility factor range from unity at very low Mach
numbers (where there are no compressibility effects), up to 1. 2 76 as the Mach

number approaches 1 (velocity approaches the speed of sound in the gas) .
Besides increasing the dynamic pressure of compressible flow, compared with
incompressible Aow, the rising value of the compressibility factor can also
affect the flow velocity through ducts with varying area . The relationship
between area and velocity changes is, in fact. a function of the local Mach
number, and can be rendered in the form:
dA A
- = - (M 2 -1)
dV V
With subsonic flow . a decrease in area produces an increase in flow velocity

and vice versa (similar to incompressible flow), i.e. area and Mach number
changes are opposite. The flow velocity may be sonic only at a constant section.
V\lith supersonic flow, a decrease in flow area produces a decrease in flow
velocity and vice versa, i.e. area and Mach number changes are the same.
Flow from stagnation conditions
Gas compressed and stored in a reservoir is essentially under stagnation

conditions, where velocity is zero and the pressure and temperature are
known (or can be determined). Where the reservoir is used as a supply, the
velocity. temperature and pressure at any other section of flow are determined
basically from the following relationships:
Velocity at any arbitrary section:
V= 2spT0 ( p) .\
1 - Po
Alternatively. for adiabatic flow, the velocity at any section can be determined
from the temperature at that section:
Flow rate
Flow rate can be determined as the mass flow, i.e. mass flow = VAp. or
directly as the product ofV and A in numerically consistent units:
L L3
Dimensions are T x L2 = llow rate =T
Pressure at any arbitrary section:

Po
p =
2)--r
k-1
k 1
( l+TxM
Temperature at any section:

T= To
l+k-lxM2
2
At any (constant) section where the flow is sonic, the flow conditions are
described as critical, yielding a critical temperature (T*) and a critical pressure
(P*). where:
T* 2
(adiabatic or isentropic flow)
To k+1
k
Po* -_ (k +2 1) n
P (isentropic flow only)
Note: For air, where k = 1.4, the value of critical pressure is (_2__)
2.4
b·: = 0.52 8.
That is, the critical pressure is 52.8% of P 0 . Similarly, the critical

temperature can be calculated as 83.3% ol'T0 .
Critical area:
The relationship between the critical area (A*) or throat area where f.1.. = 1
and the area of any other section (A) is given by:
A
A*
2
2 3
= -1 (1 + 0.2M ) for a1r.
.
M 1.2
Nozzle flow
Flow at the throat or a nozzle, supplied by a reservoir or similar source under

stagnation conditions, will be sonic if the critical pressure is greater than the
receiver pressure (Figure 2a). This means that the flow will be critical. The
flow velocity follows from calculating the critical temperature, from which:
Flow velocity c = 49 Jr ftjsec

Reservoir p• > Po Reservoir *Po < Po

Po Po
To To
V 0 =0 Y 0 =0
Figure 2.
(The velocity of sound in air - c = 49T ft/ sec where T is the absolute
temperature in degrees Rankine.)
If the critical pressure is less than the receiver pressure, then the flow cannot
be critical (Figure 2b ). In this case the flow will be subsonic and the exit
pressure will equal the receiver pressure. The temperature can be calculated
from the general formula, or from:
p ¥
T, =To(r~)
The velocity is likewise calculated from the general formula.
Similar analysis applies where the nozzle is of convergent-divergent form
(Figure 3). In this case it is necessary to establish whether the flow is critical or
not (at the throat). The throat velocity can be determined accordingly, and
from this the final exit velocity from the divergent section.
Flow through a nozzle can also be rendered directly in terms of flow rate and
a discharge coefficient, this being a convention for engineering calculations.
The complete nozzle formula is:
Mass flow = Ax Ec x ox d 2 Jh yiP;7T
where A - a constant depending on the units employed
E - coefficient for the velocity of approach
1
cross-sectional area of nozzle A2

where m =
cross-sectional area upstream A1
c - nozzle coeffi.cien t
o = expansibility factor allowing for the change in air density which
occurs during acceleration through the nozzle
Reservo ir
Po
To
Yo = 0
Figure 3.
1 - 0.07h f l
- or va ues of circa 0.16
1 3 . 6 p2
(and h in inches wg and P 2 in inches of mercury)
d = diameter of nozzle
h = pressure drop across nozzle
P2 = absolute pressure on downstream side of nozzle
T = absolute temperature on downstream side of nozzle.
If Tis in oR. P 2 in inches of mercury, h is in inches wg and d is in inches. a

value of A= 0.1148 gives the mass flow in units oflbj sec.
For a specific nozzle profile, the formula can be simplified by the use of a
nozzle constant appropriate to that particularly geometry and nozzle size.
Rendered as a solution for conventional flow rate (Q): '
Q = K(Tl/Pt)Vh JP2/T2
where K = nozzle constant

T1 = absolute temperature at specified inlet point
T2 = absolute temperature at nozzle or specified point downstream
P1 = absolute pressure at specified inlet point
P2 = absolute pressure at nozzle or specified point downstream
h = pressure drop across nozzle.
Simplified orifice formulae
An orifice is a simple form of nozzle. formed by a circular hole cut in a thin flat
plate. Flow can again be determined with reference to an empirical discharge
coefficient or orifice coefficient. This will be much lower than for nozzles
because of the less streamlined flow but, owing to the simpler form of the nozzle.
will be Jess subject to variation. Thus nozzle coefficients may vary between
0.90 (or less) and 0.995, depending on size and geometry, whereas an orifice
coefficient can be expected to be of the order of 0. 61, regardless of size, and
differing only if the orifice has a well-rounded, as opposed to a sharp, entry.
Very much simplified formulae can therefore be applied to assess the
discharge of air through orifices, and the following are generally satisfactory
for straightforward engineering calculations:
(1) For upstream pressures above 14. 7lbf/in 2 g
218xAxPu
0 (ft 3 /min) for sharp-edged orifice= -~~==::::--- (a)
- v'460+T
172 X d2 X Pu
or
J460 + T
3 417 X A X Pu
Q (ft /min) for rounded-entrance orifice~ (b)
J460 +T
or
(2) For upstream pressures below 14. 7lbf/in 2 g
210 X A X Pu
Q (ft 3 /min) for sharp-edged orifice=---;::::::::.~=~ (c)
J460+T
166xd2 xPu
or
J460+T
3 324 X A X Pu
Q (ft /min) for rounded-entrance orifice~---;::::::::.~=~ (d)
J460 + T
255 X d2 X Pu
or ,. . ., -J-;=4===6O:::=+====:::c:T-
where A = orifice area (in 2 )

Pu = upstream pressure (lbf/in 2 g)
d = orifice diameter (in)
T = upstream air temperature (°F)
l. (a) Q (ft 3 / min) = 11.9 Ax Pu

or = 9.4d 2 Pu
(b) Q (ft 3 / min) ~ 18.3 A x P u
or · ~ 14.4 d 2 Pu
2. (c) Q (ft 3 / min) = 11.5 A x Pu

or = 9.05 d 2 Pu
(d) Q(ft 3 /min) ""17.7 A X Pu
or ~ 13.92 d 2 Pu
Losses in Bends and Fittings
Pressure losses in a piping system due to changes in the shape of the flow path
or changes in cross-section as produced by bends, valves, fittings. etc., can be
evaluated in three different ways:
(i) as a resistance coefficient (K) for the component involved

(ii) as an equivalent length (L/D)
(iii) as a flow coefficient (Cv).
Resistance coefficients
Specifically because a bend, valve or fitting, etc .. presents additional resistance

to flow, there is a velocity head loss at that point which can be expressed
directly as:
where HL is the velocity head loss

K is the resistance coefficient for the component involved.
Table 1 gives a range of worked out values.

Pressure drop ( 6P) can also be calculated directly from resistance coefficient:
KV 2 w
6P=--
2g
where w is the specific weight of the fluid.
For clean water: 6P (lbf/in 2 ) = 0.00673 KV 2

when v is in rtjsec
6P (bar) = 0.000044 KV 2
where V is in mjsec
Table 1. Head loss io [eet from resistance coefficient'

..., ~
Flow velocity- ft/sec (m/sec)
u c
c ...,
ro ·u
....,
.~ !:::
·- l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
V) ...,
Q.)
a::
0
u (0.3) (0.6) (0.9) ( 1.2) (I. 5) (1.8) (2.1) (2 .4) (2.75) (3.0)
0.05 0.00080 0.003 0.007 0.013 0.019 0.030 0.039 0.050 0.063 0.077
0.1 0.00200 0.006 0.014 0.025 0.039 0.060 0.071) 0.100 0.126 0.155
0.2 0.00300 0.012 0.028 0.050 0.078 0.112 0.1 52 0.199 0.252 0.310
0. 3 0.00500 0.019 0.042 0.075 0.117 0.168 0.228 0.299 0.377 0.470
0.4 0.00600 0.()25 0.056 0.100 0.155 0.224 0.304 0.398 0.503 0.620
0.5 0.00800 0.031 0.070 0.12 5 0.194 0.280 0.381 0.497 0.629 0.780
0.6 0.00900 0.037 0.084 0.149 0.233 0.335 0.457 0.597 0.755 0.930
0.7 0.01100 0.044 0.098 0.174 0.271 0.391 0.533 0.696 0.880 1.090
0.8 0.01200 0.050 0.112 0.199 0.311 0.447 0.609 0.796 1.006 L.240
0.9 O.tH400 0.056 0 .125 0.214 0.349 0.503 0.685 0.895 1.132 1.400
1.0 0.01600 0.06 2 0.140 0.249 0.388 0.559 0.761 0.995 1.25 8 1.550
l.l 0.01710 0.068 0.154 0.274 0.427 0.615 0.837 1.090 1.380 1.710
1.2 0.01860 0.074 0.168 0.299 0.466 0.671 0.913 1.190 1.510 1.860
1.3 0.02020 0.081 0.182 0.324 0.505 0.727 0.989 1.290 1.630 2.020
L.4 0.021 70 0.087 0.196 0.349 0.544 0.783 1.065 1.390 1.760 2.170
1.5 0.02330 0.093 0.210 0.374 0. 583 0.839 1.141 1.490 1.890 2.330
1.6 0.02480 0.099 0.224 0.398 0.621 0.895 1.217 1.590 2.020 2.480
1.7 0.02640 0.106 0.238 0.423 0.660 0.951 !.293 1.690 2.140 2.640
1.8 0.02800 0.112 0.252 0.448 0.699 1.007 1.369 1.790 2.270 2.800
1. 9 0.02950 0.1.18 o.26o 0.473 0.738 1.063 1.445 1.890 2.390 2.950
2.0 0.03106 0.124 0.280 0.497 0.776 1.118 1.522 1.990 2.520 3.110
2.1 0.03261 0.130 0.294 0.522 0.815 1.174 1.598 2.090 2.650 3.260
2.2 0.03416 0.1 36 0.308 0.547 0.854 1.230 1.674 2.190 2.780 3.420
2.3 0.03571 0.143 0.322 0.572 0.893 1.286 1.750 2.290 2.900 3.570
2.4 0.0.3726 0.141) 0.336 0.597 0.932 1.341 1.826 2.390 3.030 3.730
2.5 0.03881 0.155 0.350 0.621 0.971 1.397 1.902 2.490 3.150 3.880
2.6 0.04036 0.161 0.364 0.646 1.009 1.45 3 1.978 2.590 3.280 4.040
2.7 ().04191 0.168 0.378 0.671 1.048 1.509 2.054 2.690 3.400 4.190
2.8 0.04346 0. L74 0.392 0.696 1.08 7 1.565 2.130 2.790 3.530 4.350
2.1) 0.04501 0.180 0.406 0.721 1.126 1.621 2.206 2.890 3.650 4.500
3.0 0.04659 0.186 0.419 0.746 1.165 1.677 2.283 2.990 3.770 4.f:>60
3.1 0.04814 0.192 0.433 0.771 1.204 l. 733 2 .359 3.090 3.900 4.810
3.2 0.04969 0.198 0.447 0 .796 1.243 1.789 2.435 3.190 4.030 4.970
.U 0.05124 0.205 0.461 0.821 1.282 1.845 2.511 3.290 4.150 5.120
3.4 0.05279 0.211 0.475 0.845 1.321 1.901 2.587 3.390 4.280 5.280
3.5 0.05434 0.217 0.489 0.870 1.360 1.957 2.663 3.490 4.400 5.430
3.6 0.05589 0.223 0.503 0 .895 1.398 2.013 2.739 3 .590 4.530 5.590
3.7 0.05744 \ 0.230 0.517 0.920 1.437 2.069 2.8 15 3.680 4.650 5.740
3.8 0.05899 0.2 36 0.531 0.945 1.476 2.125 2.891 3.780 4.780 5.900
3.9 0.06054 0.242 0.545 0.9 70 1.514 2.181 2.967 3.880 4.900 6.050
4.0 0.06212 0.248 0.559 0.994 1.553 2.236 3.044 3.980 5.030 6.210
4.1 0 .06367 0.254 0.573 1.019 1.592 2.292 3.120 4.080 5.160 6.370
4.2 ().()6 522 0.260 0.587 1.044 1.631 2.348 3.196 4.180 5.290 f:>.520
4.3 0.06677 0.26 7 0.601 1.069 1.670 2.404 3.272 4.280 5.410 6.680
4.4 0 .06832 0.273 0.6] 5 1.093 1.709 2.460 3.348 4.380 5.540 6.830
4.5 0.06987 0.279 0.629 1.118 1.748 2.5 16 3.424 4.480 5.660 6.990
4.6 0.07142 0.285 0.643 1.143 1.786 2.572 3 .500 4.580 5.790 7.140
4.7 0.07297 0 .2 92 0.657 1.168 1.825 2.628 3.576 4.680 5.9 10 7.300
4.8 0.07452 0.298 0.671 1.19 3 1.864 2.684 3.652 4.770 6.040 7.4SO
4.9 ().07607 0. 304 0.685 1.2 J H 1.903 2.740 3.728 4.870 6.160 7.600
5.0 0.07765 0.311 0.69R 1.243 1.942 2.795 3.806 4.97 6.29 7.77
5.l 0.07920 0 .3 17 0.71 2 1.268 1.981 2.85 1 3.882 5.07 6.41 7.92
5.2 0 .080 75 0.323 0.726 1.293 2.020 2.907 3.958 5.1 7 6.54 8.08
').3 0.08230 0. 3 30 0.740 1.3 J 8 2.058 2.%3 4 .034 5.27 6.(i6 8.23
5.4 0.08 38S 0.3.36 0.755 1.342 2.097 3.019 4.110 5.37 6.79 8.39
5.5 0.08543 0.342 0.769 l.367 2.136 3.075 4.186 5.47 6.9l 8.54
Table 1 (continued)
- -- - - -
~ ~
u t: Flow velocity- ft/ sec (m/sec)
t:: ~
~ ·;::;
.~ E 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
"'
~
~
0 (0.3) (O.n) (0.9) (1.2) (1.5) (1.8) (2.1) (2.4) (2.75) (3.0)
~ u
5.6 0.08698 0.348 0.783 1.392 2.175 3.131 4.2 1)2 5.57 7.04 8.70
5.7 0.08853 0.355 0.797 1.417 2.213 3.187 4.338 5.67 7.17 8.85
5.8 0.09008 0.361 0.811 1.442 2.252 3.243 4.414 5.77 7.30 9.01
5.9 0.09163 0.367 0.825 1.467 2.290 3.299 4.490 5.87 7.42 9.1 f)
6.0 0.09318 0.373 0.839 1.491 2.329 3.354 4.5n7 5.97 7. 55 9. 32
6.1 0.09473 0.379 0.853 1.516 2.3(~8 3.4] 0 4.643 ().07 7.68 9.47
6.2 0.09628 0.385 0.867 1.541 2.407 3.461) 4.719 6.17 7.81 9.63
6.3 0.09783 0.392 0.881 1.566 2.446 3.522 4.795 6.27 7.93 9.78
6.4 0.09938 0.398 0.895 1.590 2.485 3. 572 4 .871 6.37 8.06 9.94
6.5 0.10093 0.404 0.909 1.615 2. 524 3.634 4.947 6.47 8.18 10.09
n.6 0.10248 0.410 0.923 1.640 2.562 3.690 5.023 6.57 8.31 10.25
6.7 0.10403 0.417 0.937 1.665 2.601 3.746 5.099 6.67' 8.4 3 10.40
6.8 0.10558 0.423 0.951 1.690 2.fi40 3.802 5.175 6.76 8.56 10.56
o.9 0.10713 0.429 0.965 l. 71 5 2.679 3.85H 5.251 6.8n s.os 10.71
7.0 0.10871 0.435 0.979 1.740 2.717 3.913 5.328 6.96 8.80 10.87
7.1 0.11026 0.441 0.993 1.765 2.756 3.969 5.404 7.0o 8.93 11.03
7.2 O.ll181 0.447 1.007 1.790 2.795 4.025 5.480 7.16 9.06 11.18
7.3 0.11336 0.454 1.021 1.814 2.834 4.081 5.5 56 7 .26 9.18 11.34
7.4 0.11491 0.460 1.035 1.839 2.87~ 4.137 5.632 7.36 9. 3 I J 1.49
7.5 0.11646 0.466 1.049 ] .864 2.912 4.19 3 5.708 7.46 9.43 1 1.65
7.6 0.11801 0.472 1.063 1.888 2. 9 50 4.249 5.784 7.S6 9.56 11.80
7.7 0.11956 0.479 1.077 1.913 2.989 4.305 5.860 7.66 9.fi8 11.%
7.8 0.12111 0.485 1.091 1.938 3.028 4.361 5.9 36 7.7o 9.81 12.11
7.9 0.1226fi 0.491 1.105 1.963 3.066 4.417 6.012 7.86 9.93 12.27
8.0 0.12424 0.497 1.118 1.988 3.105 4.472 6.089 7.96 I 0.06 12.42
8.1 0.12579 0.503 1.132 2.013 3.144 4.528 6.165 8.06 LO. 19 12.58
8.2 0.12734 0.509 1.146 2.038 3.183 4.584 6.241 8. 16 10.32 12.73
8.3 0.12889 0.516 1.1 fiO 2.063 3.221 4.040 6.317 8.26 10.44 12.89
8.4 0.13044 0.522 1.174 2.087 3.260 4.6% 6.393 8.36 I 0.57 13.04
8.5 0.13199 0.528 1.188 2.112 3.299 4.752 6.4fi9 8.4 6 10.69 13.20
8.6 0.13354 0.534 1.202 2.13 7 3.338 4.808 6.545 8. 55 10.81 I 3. .3 5
8.7 0.13509 0.541 1.216 2.162 3.377 4.864 ().621 8.65 10.94 13.51
8.8 0.1361)4 0.547 1.230 2.1.87 3.416 4.920 6.697 8.75 1 1.07 13.66
8.9 0.1381':) 0.553 1.244 2.212 3.455 4.97o n.773 8.85 11.19 13.82
9.0 0.13977 0.559 1.258 2.237 3.493 5.031 6.850 8.95 11.32 1 3. 98
9.1 0.14132 0.565 1.272 2.262 3.532 5.087 6.926 9.05 11.45 14 . .1 j
9.2 0.14287 0.571 l.28h 2.287 3.571 5.143 7.002 9.15 11.58 14.29
9.3 0.14442 0.578 1.300 2.312 3.609 5.199 7.078 9.25 11. 7() 14.44
9.4 0.14597 0.584 1.314 2.336 3.648 5.2 55 7.154 9.35 I 1.8 3 14.60
9.5 0.14752 0 .5 90 1. 328 2.361 3.687 5. 31.1 7.230 9.45 11.9 5 14. 7 5
9.6 0.14907 0.590 1.342 2.386 3.726 5. 367 7.306 9.55 12.08 14.91
9.7 0.150()2 0.603 1.356 2.411 3.765 5.423 7.382 Y.65 12.20 15.06
9.8 0.15217 0 .609 1.370 2.43 5 3.804 5.479 7.458 9.75 12.3.3 15.22
9.9 0.15372 0.615 1.384 2.4fi0 3.843 5. 534 7.534 9.85 1 2.4 5 J 5. 3 7
10.0 0.15530 0.621 1.398 2.485 3.882 5. 589 7.612 9.94 12.58 1 'i. 53
ll 0.17083 0.68 1.54 2.74 4.2 7 6.15 8.37 10.9 H.8 17.08
12 0.18636 0.74 1.68 2.99 4 ,()() 6.71 Y.l 3 1 l. 9 J 5.1 J 8.64
13 0.20189 0.81 1.82 3.24 5.05 7.27 9.89 12.9 16.3 20. I 9
14 0.21742 0.87 1.96 3.49 5.44 7.83 10.h5 13.l) 17.6 21.74
15 0.23295 0.93 2.10 3.74 5.83 8.39 I 1 .41 14.9 18.9 2 3. 30
16 0.24848 0.99 2.24 3.98 6.21 8.95 12.17 15.9 20.2 24.8S
17 0.26401 1.06 2.38 4.23 6.60 9. 51 12.9 3 16.9 21.4 2 6.40
18 0.27954 1.12 2.52 4.48 6.99 l().()7 1 3 .n9 17.9 22.7 27.9')
]9 0.29507 1.18 2.66 4. 73 7.38 10.63 14.45 lil .9 2 3.9 29.5 1
20 0. 3 I OoO 1.24 2.80 4.97 7.76 11.1 8 15 .22 19.9 2 5.2 31.0()
'For head loss in metres. rae tor by 0. 3.

Losses in Bends and Fittings 58 7
The value of K for a given component is independent of friction factor or

Reynolds number and is constant for all conditions of flow. including laminar
flow. Equally. in theory at least. it should be the same for all sizes of a given
component with similar geometry. In practice this is not so. Resistance
coefficients are necessarily determined empirically, and can vary widely with
pipe size. Some typical values are summarised in Table 2.
Equivalent length LID
Equating velocity head loss derived from the D'Arcy formula with that derived
from the resistance coefficient formula:
v2 v2
(f X L/d) - = K X -
2g 2g
It follows that:
K= f X L/D
UK is a constant for all conditions of flow (but modified by geometric dissimilarities

in different sizes, as above). the value of L/D for any given component must
vary inversely with the change in friction factor for the different flow
conditions. This rules out the effect of geometric dissimilarities in the sizes of
valves. fittings, etc., of the same basic geometry.ln other words, the equivalent
length of L/0 value for any particular valves. fittings, etc., is a constant for the
same flow conditions. and is valid for all sizes of that particular component
(see Figure 1 and Tables 3 and 4).
Flow coefficient Cv
For valves (and , particularly control valves). it is often more convenient to

express the capacity and flow characteristics in terms of a flow coefficient (Cv).
defined as the flow or water at 60°F in US gal/min at a pressure drop of llbf/ in 2
across the valve.
Note: This definition of Cv based on the US gallon and pressure drop in lbf/in 2
is used both in countries employing Imperial units and those normally employing
metric units. The metric 'equivalent' is called the flow factor. designated Kv
and defined as the number of cubic metres per hour of water at 20°C which
will flow with a pressure drop of 1 kg/ cm 2 ( 1 bar). This gives somewhat
different values for the same condition. Equivalents are:
Kv = 0.853 Cv
Cv = 1.16 Kv
Table 2. Resistance coefficient of fittings
Fitting Pipe diameter-in lmm)
1
3
IR /2 j / 4. 1 l 1/4 1 1/2 2 3 4 5
(10) (12.5) (20) (25) (35) (40) (50) (7"i) (100) ( 125)
Integral pipe bend Approximately 0.04 (all sizes)

(turbulent flow) bend 3 xD
(turbulent flow) bend 4 x D
Integral pipe bend Approximately 0.1 (all size~)
(laminar flow) bend 3 x D
(laminar flow) bend 5 x D
Integral pipe bend Approximately 0.04 (<Ill sizes)
(laminarflow)bend lOxD
Standard 90° elbow (screwed) 2.40 2.10 1.70 1.50 1.25 1.15 1..00 0.80 0.70 0.55
Standard 900 elbow (flanged) 0.45 0.40 0.38 0.34 0. 32 0.30
Large-radius 90° elbow (screwed) 1.0 0.90 0.75 0.60 0. so 0.40 0.30 0.25 0.20
Large-radius 90° elbow (flanged) 0.40 0.34 0 ..30 0.25 0.21 0.18
Standard 45° elbow (screwed) 0 . .39 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27
Stnndard 4 soelbow (flanged) 0.37 0.35 0.34 0.33 0. 32 0.31 0.29 0.28 0.2 7 0.26
Large-radius 45° elbow (screwed) 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.18
Large-radius 45° elbow (flanged) 0.22 0.21 0.21 0.20 ().] 8 0. L8 0.17
Return bend 180° (screwed) 2.40 2.10 l.70 1..50 1.38 1.25 0.96 0.78 0.68 0.58
Return bend 180° (flanged) 0.43 0.40 0.37 0 .34 0.32 ().3() 0.28
Large-radius return bend 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0 ..35 0 . .30
180° (screwed)
Large-radius return bend 0.42 0.39 0.36 0.30 0.25 0 .22 0.20
L80° (flanged)
T-line flow (screwed) Approximately 0.9 (all sizes)
T-line flow (flanged) 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.1.3
T-bnmch flow (screwed) 2.50 2.40 2.00 1.80 1.60 1.50 1.40 1.20 l.l () l.OO
T -branch flow (flanged) L.OO 0. 90 0.80 0.72 0.64 0.62
Screw-down valve (straight) 12.00 10.00 s.oo 7.00 6.00 5.00

Screw-down valve (right-angle flow) 6.00 5.00 4.00 3. 50 3.00 2.50
Gate valve (typical) (screwed) 0.2.3 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.13 0.11
Gate v<1lve (typical) (flanged) 0.30 0.23 0.15 0.13
Gate valve: J /.rclosed 0.8-0.2 this range
Gate valve: 1/ 4.0-0.8 this nmge
2 -closed
Gate valve: 3 I 4 -c!osed 16.0-2.0 this range
Globe valve (screwed) 15.0 12.50 8.50 7.50 6 . 50 6.00
Globe valve (flanged) 12.50 8.50 7.50 6 . 50 6.00
Swing c heck valve (screwed) 5.0 3.00 2.00 2.00 2 .00 2.00
Swing check valve (flanged) Typically 2.0 (all sizes)
Foot valve Typically 0.8 (all sizes)
Basket strainer Typically I. 5-1.0 this range
In terms ofD'Arcy equation:

c - 29.9d 2 29.9d 2
v- Jr x L/D JK
The flow through a valve handling liquids with a reasonably similar viscosity
to that of water can then be determined as:
Q = Cv v ~
£). P ---;;- = 7. 9Cv v(M
--;i or
where w is the specific weight of the fluid (lb/ ft 3 )

sg is the specific gravity of the fluid
f).p is the pressure drop across the valve.
VISCOSITY CORRECTION TABLE
8
EQUIVALENT LENGTH OF PIPE
FOR VISCOSITY RANGE (CP\ OF
lO ?00 2 000 ?0 000

\0 •o •o IV \0
20 •oo ' 000 10000 100 000
CP CP CP CP CP
Gl\lhC v~ lve o pen 1 sao
Gate valve 3 000 3000 nso 150
J;, closed
1
12 closed 2 000 7000 I SOO I 000 sao
'I• dosed
Fully o pen
I 000 1000 750 sao 250
50
Angle valve open

®
Standard tec
500 500 375
r-
250 12S
300
[?' 30
@ Sq uare elbow
200
~
:;; .,.,
.s:: 20
200 ISO 100 50
Close return bend 100 ... u

c: 100 75 r-so 25
/
LP· ·c..
a.
.,
a. 14
([] / Borda e ntran ce so .<:~
~
·c..
~
50 37.5 25 12.5
"'"j
I "'
S t~ ndard tee
I rr3- 30
20
0
v;
.r:::.
00
'0
c:
"'
:;;
0...
10
.,
0
..<::
30
20
22.5
IS
15
10
7.5
'"'""•" "d' ' 1 Sudden enlargement u
~(OJ-
il- d D-lf•
__;.., d D- 112 10
~
c:
c:...
.,
.,
E
6 =
'0 tO 7.5 5 2.5
d D-Y• -;;; s
Standard elbow ' -~
"'
'0 4' ' f.- r-
o r run o f
tce reduced 1!1 I LP'_,J ' ' 5
3',
"0"
Ul
(,j
c:
.E
0
3'' 4 t- 2 1
..,Ordinary e ntrance z
~rru ''' 2''
2 1.5 1 .s
Medium sweep elbow I~ ''
,.,
o r run of
tee reduced 1/ • c
Sudden contraction t
d!D- 'IJ
d/D-'12
l
o.s
.75 .s f- .25
.125
~ tOt
0.5 .375 .25
d!D-Jf,
Lo ng sweep elbow o r §!) 0.3
0.2
0.3
0.2
run of standard tee
.,
0.1 O. t .075 t--05 .025
05
Figure l. Friction loss in valves and.fittings.

Table 3. Equivalent straight lengths of fittings in feet
Fitting Pipe diameter - in (mm)
6 8 10 12 l4 111 18 20 24 3h
(150) (200) (250) (300) (350) (400) (450) (500) (hOD) (900)
Welded 90° L-benrls R/D. where

R = bend radius
D =pipe diameter
0.5 19 25 32 28 44 50 56
1.0 8 11 14 17 20 23 26
1.5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
2.0 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
3.0 4 6 7 9 11 13 15
Standard 90° elbow (screwed) 12 16

Standard 90° elbow (flanged) 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 48 72
Large-radius 90" elbow (screwed)
Large-radius 90° elbow (flanged) 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 36 55
Standard 4 so elbow (screwed)
Standard 45° elbow l[hmged) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 18
Large-radius 4 so elbow (screwed)
Large-radius 4 so elbow (11anged) 2 2.5 3.3 4 4. 5 5.5 6 h.S 8 12
Return bend 180° Jh 47 62 73
Large-radius return bend 180° 19 26 33 39
T-line flow 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 .1 80
T-branch flow 150 200 250 300 350 400 440 480 570 850
Cast elbow (90°) standard Hi 20 26 32 36 42 46 52 63 94
Cast elbow (90°) large radius ll 14 17 20 23 27 30 34 40 60
Screw-down valve (straight) 156 208 260 310 363 415 467 519 622 934
Screw-down valve (right-angled run) 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 450
Gate v<llve (typical) (flanged) 3.5 4.5 5.7 6.7 8.0 9.0 10.2 12 .0 14.0 20.0
Gate valve: 1I 4 -closed 19 26 33 39
Gate valve: 1h.-closed 100 130 160 190
Gate valve: 3 / 4 -closed 400 540 700 800
Globe valve (flanged) 160 214 267 320 373 427 480 534 640 960
Swing check valve (screwed)

Swing check valve (!langed) 40 53 67 80 93 107 120 134 HiO 240
Foot valve (typical) 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 48 72
Basket strainer (typical) 11 14 16 18 21 24 30 35
Sudden enlargement
1
d/D= /4 16 20 26 3.1 36 42
d/D = l/2 11 15 18 22 25 29
d/D = 3 /4 3 4 6 7 H 10
Sudden contraction
d/ D =- 1h 6 8 10 12 14 H1 18 20 24 3 (1
Entrance (typical) 9 12 l5 18 21 24 27 30
d, smaller pipe diameter.

D. larger pipe diameter.
Table 4. Equivalent straight lengths of pipe in metres
fitting diameter-mm
fitting 1000 800 600 500 400 300 200 150 100 80 fiS 50 40 32 25 1 <;
-
Gate valve 6 5 4 3 2.7 2.2 1.5 1 0.7 0.5 0.43 0.35 0.27 0.2 0.18 0.1
~
Non-return flap va lve 110- 90- 70- 60- 50- 35- 25- 20- 13- 10- 8-15 6-12 5-9 4.7 3.6 2.4
-G- 200 170 130 110 90 70 50 35 25 20
Screw-down valve 300 250 200 1110 130 100 70 50 35 28 22 17 13 10 8 s

~
Screw-down valve. right- 150 130 90 80 60 50 32 25 16 13 10 8 7 s 4 2.5
angled -eool}
Bends and elbows 18 15 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1.7 1.4 l 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.3
~
25 20 15 13 10 8 5 4 2.8 2 1.8 1.5 1 0.8 0.7 0.4
~
t-<
12 10 7 6 5 4 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0
~ "'"'
"'"'
5
a 30 25 18 15 13 10 6.5 5 3.2 2.5 2 1.8 1.4 1 0.8 0.5 OJ

"';:s
~
"';:ss:::.
~
75 60 50 40 33 25 17 13 8 6.5 5.5 4 3.2 2.6 2 1.4
~ ~
,...
.....
s·
<:!::>
"'
Vl
1.0
f-.'
T fittings 100 80 60 50 40 30 20 15 10 8 7 5 4 3.2 2.7 1.7 U1
~ \.0
N
'\:l
70 58 45 35 30 24 15 12 8 6 5 4 3 2.5 2 l.2 "'
~ ~
0:::.
~
....
:.:::,
a 15 12 0.5 :s
18 10 8 6 4 3 2 1.7 1.4 1 0.8 0.6 0.3
"'::.':s"'
~
(")
Taper connectors 25 20 16 14 11 8 5.5 4 3 2.5 2 1.5 1.3 0.9 0.7 0.4 ::.
c:;
~-Y4 s:::
~
.._
c;·
30 25 20 16 13 10 7 5 3.5 2.8 2.2 1.7 1.4 1 0.8 0.5 :s
~OjO= "'
= 1f2
Abrupt 90° bend 60 50 40 35 28 20 14 10 7 5.5 4.4 5 3 2 1.8 1
t&J
Abrupt changes of section 6 5 4 3.5 3 2 1.5 1 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.37 0.3 0.24 0.18 0.11
~d/!J"
~-3
13 10 8 7 5 4 3 2 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.55 0.45 0.35 0.2
~%~
10 8 6 5 4 3.2 2.2 1.6 l.J 0.9 0.7 0.55 0.45 0.35 0.27 0.17
~sh
~'[)
30 25 20 16 13 10 7 5 3.5 2.8 2.2 1.7 1.4 1 0.8 0.5

__r-ct;.z
L-~b-
15 13 10 9 7 5.5 3.5 3 2 1.5 1.3 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.3

_r-~~
..,_..,:: '[) '2
15 13 10 8 7 5 3.5 2.5 1.8 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.25
~
-----...
L_
The pressure drop across a valve can be determined from the same formulae
rearranged:
LlP = 62.4
w (Q)
Cv
2 sg (Q)2
=Cv
Working formulae
These formulae are expressed in terms of the resistance coefficient (K) where
K = fL
D
Head loss through valves and fittings
K0 2
HL (ft) = 522 d~
where Q is in ft 3 / sec
d is in inches
KB 2 KQ2
HL (ft) = 0.0012 7 d4 Hr.. ( m) = 1, 8 7 7, 19 7 d4
where B is in barrels (42 US gal/ hr) where Q is in m 3 / sec

d is in inches dis in mm
KQ2
Hr.. (ft) = 0 .00259d4
where Q is in I/ min where Q is in US gal/min
d isinmm d is in inches
K0 2
HL (ft) = 0 .00216 d~
where Q is in Imperial gal/ min where W is in lb/ bar

dis in inches V(specific volume) is in ft 3 / lb
Pressure drop through valves and fittings (using resistance coefficient K)
Kp0 2
LlP (lbfjin 2 ) = 0.0001078kpV 2 LlP (lbfjin 2 ) = 3.62 d4-
where pis in lb/ ft 3 where pis in lb/ ft 3

Vis in ft/sec Q is in ft 3 / sec
d is in inches
~p (lbfjin 2 ) K~~
2
= 0.00000882 ~p (bar) = 0.000000112 KpV 2

where pis in lb/ ft 3 where pis in tonnes/ m 3
B is in barrels (42 US gal/hr) Vis in m/sec
dis in inches
KpQ2
~p (bar)= 0.1729d4 ~p (lbf/in 2 ) = 0.00000003 KpV 2
where pis in tonnes/ m 3 where pis in lb/ ft 3

Q is in l/min Vis in ft/ rrtin
dis in mm
~P (lbf/in K~~
2
Kp0 2
2
) = 0.000018 ~p (lbf/in 2
) = 0.000015 d<
where pis in lb/ ft 3 where pis in lb/ ft 3
Q is in US gal/min Q is in Imperial gal / min
dis in inches d is in inches
where W is in lb/bar
V(specific volume) is in ft 3 / lb
Pressure drop through valves and fittings (using flow coefficient Cv)
~p (lbf/'
2 pQ2
2) = pQ ~p (bar) = 223Cv
m 62 .4Cv2
where Q is in lb/ ft 3 where pis in tonnes/m 3
p is in 1bI ft 3 Q is in l/ min
Q is in US gal/ min
~p (lbfj' 2) = pQl
m 90Cv 2
where pis in lb/ ft 3
Q is in Imperial gal / min
Losses;, Bends a11d Fittings 59 5
Discharge through pipes and fittings
Q (ft 3 /s) = 0.0438 d 2 ~ Q (US galjmin) = 19 6 5 d 2

. (fh
VI<
= 0.525d 2 ft5:P - 236d 2 {EP
VI<P VKP
where dis in inches where dis in inches
He is in ft HLisinft
~pis in lbf/ in 2 ~pis in lbf/in 2
pis in lb/ ft 3 pis in lb/ft 3
Q (Imperial galjmin) - 16.375d 2 ~
= 19 7 d 2 ft5:P
VI<P
where dis in inches
HL is in ft
~p is in lbf/ in 2
pis in lb/ ft 3
Q (lb/h) - 197.6pd2 ~ Q (lj min) - 0.1357 d2 ~
= 6.06 d 2 fM5
VT<P
where dis in inches where dis in mm
HL is in ft HLis in m
~pis in lbf/ in 2 ~pis in bar
pis in lb/ ft 3 pis in tonnes/ m 3
None or these formulae is strictly valid for predicting valve performance with
viscous fluids or compressible fluids (i.e. air or gases).
Losses in bends
Losses in bends are difficult to evaluate other than on purely empirical lines.
Attempts to rationalise resistance coefficients in terms of relative radius (ratio
of bend radius to internal pipe diameter) are generally unsuccessful, but
values are fairly well established for standard bends, including mitre bends.
Alternative data are presented in terms of equivalent length or L/0 (see Tables
3 and 4 and Figure 1).
Contractions and enlargements
Flow through gradual changes in pipe sections (contractions or enlargements)

can be analysed from first principles using the Bernoulli equation (Bernoulli
constant), with the subsequent introduction of an empirical coefficient to take
into account frictional losses introduced with a real fluid.ln problems involving
closed circuits, the potential head can normally be ignored in view of the
inherently higher value of velocity and frictional head so that the original
equation can be reduced to:
P v2
- +- = a constant
p 2g
This is often more convenient to use in the form:

2Pg
V2 + - p- = a constant
Applying this condensed equation to steady frictionless flow along a length of

horizontal pipe which contracts in cross-section, the following applies:
2Prg V 2P2g
V 21 + --= 22 +--
p p
i.e.:
p ( 2
PI - p2 = 2g v2 - v 2)
1
This form of equation also shows that a steadily contracting section followed
by a widening section can be used as a principle for flow velocity measurement
by measuring the difference in pressure at two extreme sections, as in the
venturi (Figure 2). If X expresses the ratio A 2 /A 1 • it follows that the volume of
flow is the same at both sections that V1 = X x V2 . Hence, rearranging the
equation above and rewriting (P 1 -P 2 ) as ~P:
2g~P x2
Vl= - X --~
p (1- x 2 )
Figure 2.
This is the basic formula for the theoretical design of a venturi velocity
meter. In practice. the formula is modified by the introduction of a calibration
coefficient to take into account frictional losses, etc., neglected in the Bernoulli
equation.
Sudden enlargements (Figure 3)
Again , flow conditions can be analysed from first principles, although for
engineering calculations it is only necessary to determine the velocity head
loss from the corresponding resistance coefficient K 1 . This can be determined
as:
where d 1 = i.d. of smaller pipe

d 2 = i.d. of larger pipe.
This formula is also quoted in the form:

Kl = (1- [32)2
Sudden contractions (Figure 4)
In this case, resistance coefficient is one half that for a sudden enlargement,
viz:
or
Figure].
Figure 4.
Enlargement/contraction coefficients
e ~ 4 5o Ce = 2. 6 sin ~
Coefficients for gradual contractions, derived by Crane, are:
e < 4 5o Cc = 1. 6 s m 2
. e
where eis the angle of divergence.

These formulae can also be expressed in terms of the larger pipe and have
been extended to define resistance coefficients (K 3) for both sudden and gradual
enlargements and contractions, viz:
Enlargement
(1 - {32)2
KJ = f34
2.6 sin~ (l - {3 2 ) 2
2
K3 = f34
Contraction
0.5 sin J~ (1 -
fJ 2 )
K3 = ------'----,----
[34
0.8sin~(l- {3 2 )
K 3 = - ---=
{3-4 - - -
Losses in Bends and F'itl.ings 599
Resistance coefficients and equivalent straight lengths applicable to changes

of cross-section are given in Tables SA, Band C.
Flow through orifices
Flow through a sharp-edged orifice is particularly significant as this has a

number of practical applications, e.g. an orifice plate can be used as an
indicating flow meter. though normally restricted in application of pipes of
relatively large diameter, say over SO mm (2 in).
Orifices are. in fact, principally used to meter rate of flow. They are also used
to restrict flow or reduce pressure. vVith liquid flow, several orifices may be
Table SA. Change of cross-section: equivalent straight lengths
mm 25 so 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600
Pipe size (d)
in 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 24
Expansion
=
d/D 0.25 3 6 8 11 14 16 20 26 31 36 42 48 55 65
0.5 2 4 6 7 9 12 15 18 22 25 29 34 46 52
0 .25 5 1 2 2 3 3 4 6 7 8 10 l2 15 20
Con traction
=
d/D 0.5 2 3 3 4 6 tl 10 12 14 16 18 20 26
d. smaller pipe diameter.

D. larger pipe diameter.
Table 58. Change of cross-section: resistance coefficient
Ratio of smaller pipe diameter to larger pipe diameter (d/D)

Change of section
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
10° taper 0.35 0.25 0.20

200 taper 0.15 0.12 0.10
Sudden expansion 2.0 0.15
Sudden contraction 0.5 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.4 0.3 0.2
Table 5C. [nlets and outlets: resistance coefficient
Ch<mge of section Typical value
Inlet: Abrupt 0.5

Gradual Not less than 0.5
Projecting tube 1.0
Outlet: Abrupt l.O
Gradual Not less than 0.12
FigureS .
used in sequence to reduce pressure in gradual steps, thus minimising the risk
of cavitation occurring.
Simple analysis is restricted to streamlined flow, the flow p~ttern being of
the form shown in Figure 5. The streamlines converge on approaching the
orifice and continue to converge after passing through the orifice, reaching a
minimum cross-sectional area, known as the vena contracta, downstream of
the orifice before diverging again. For small circular orifices. the downstream
position of the vena contracta is of the order of half the diameter of the orifice.
At the vena contracta, all the streamlines are perpendicular to the plane of the
orifice.
Strength of Pipes (Calculations)
In the case of homogeneous tubes (e.g. drawn tubes), a suitable pressure rating
can be determined directly in terms of the D/ t ratio by assuming a uniform
distribution of stress through the tube wall, when:
2St
P=-
D
where D -- outside diameter

t -- wall thickness
p -- internal pressure
s -- material stress
This can be rendered in terms of a working pressure rating Pw where:

2Sma.xt
Pw = V
where Smax = the maximum permissible material stress for the material used.
This is generally taken as one third the ultimate material
stress (see Table 1 ).
Written as a solution for tube-wall thickness:

PwD
t=--
2Smax
Provided the maximum material stress figure is taken within the limit of
proportionality of the material, this simple formula is valid. It does not hold
true for higher stress values, and thus will not accurately predict bursting
pressures, e.g. using Snit in place of Smax· It is also not valid where the ratio D/t
is 16:1 or less, as stress is then no longer uniformly distributed through the
wall thicknesses, but ranges from a maximum at the inner surface to a
minimum at the outer surface. The simple formula is thus restricted to thin-
walled tubes (D/t greater than 16:1).
It will over-estimate the pressure rating for thick-walled tubes (D/ t 16:1 or
less), and in such cases an alternative formula must be used. An alternative
Table 1. Maximum permissible stress for tube calculations (Minimum UTS divided by 3)
Pmax
Material Condition bar lbf/in 2
Low carbon steel As drawn 1280 18.300

Drawn and polished* 2000 28.000
20-ton steel As drawn 1000 15.000
Stainless (304) steel Annealed 2350 3 3.300
Half-hard 2800 40.000
Hard 3500 50.000
Light alloy 61S-T6 As drawn 1000 15.000
Copper Annealed 480 68001
Half-hard 630 9ooot
Hard 800 u.Joot
Tungum Annealed 1550 22.000
Precipitation hardened 1550 22.000
Titanium llS/125 uoo 18.500
Titanium 150/160 2100 30.000
*Cylinder tubes.
tup to 65.5°C (150°P) only.
formula which can be applied in the case ofthick-waUed tubes and homogeneous
metal pipes is:
Smax = P X
RT
R~ _ RT X
(R~
RT + 1
)
where Ri = inner radius of tube
R 0 = outer radius of tube.
Alternative formulae, written as a solution for wall thickness required, are:
t = D
2
(JsS-P+ P- 1)
t =D
2
(J 3S + P _ 1 )
3S- 4P
where S - Smax the corresponding value ofP is Pw

s Sutt the corresponding value ofP is the bursting pressure.
Modified formulae are used in the case of non-homogeneous tubes and also
for non-metallic tubes.
(i) In the case of welded tubes, a correction factor may be introduced or.
alternatively, a higher divisor may be used to establish P max from
Strength ofPipes (Calculations) 603
the ultimate tensile strength of the material. This is not necessarily the
invariable rule, as welded tubes can have the same working strength
as drawn tubes. Corrections may be applied to tubes with welded
connections on a similar basis, however.
(ii) In the case of cast tubes, a nominal (and substantially lower) value
may be adopted for Pmax· Cast tubes are associated with older hydraulic
systems and Large pipe sizes, where pressure rating is established on
empirical lines. permitting fairly large tolerances in wall thicknesses.
(iii) In the case of copper pipes and tubes intended for brazed or soldered
connections, the standard thin-walled formula is de-rated:
2Smaxt
Pw = D- 0.8t
(iv) In the case of metallic tubes intended for threaded connections, an

allowance is made for the reduction in tube strength due to threading.
The following formula can then be used for thin-walled tubes:
2Smax(t- C)
Pw = D - 0. 8 (t - C)
where Cis taken as equal to the depth of thread cut, with a minimum
value of 1.2 5 mm (0.05 in).
(v) In the case of plastic tubes, an allowance is made for the higher elastic
moduli of such materials, when a suitable formula is:
2Smax t
Pw = D- t
Pipe-wall thickness according to British Standards

'
Two British Standards are applicable for the calculation of pipe-wall thickness:
BS 806: 1975 Specification for ferrous pipes and piping installations for
and in connection with land boilers.
BS 3 3 51: 19 71 Specification for piping systems for petroleum refineries
and petrochemical plants.
Design to BS 806
Minimum pipe-wall thickness where the outside diameter (D) is used as a basis
for calculation .
Table 2. Design stresses for ferrous pipes (BS 3351)
Values ofS for metal tcmper<Jtures in oc not exceeding•
Materi<d Notes -200

to 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 425 450
+50 (N/ rrun 1 )
BS3601HFS. 125.5 114.5 103.9 99.3 94.5 89.7 8'i.O 75 .0 fiS.7 56.9
CDS. steel22
BS3fi01HFS. 154.5 141.3 127.5 121.7 114.2 110.0 104.0 87.7 75 .8 fi2 .0
CDS. steel 2 7
APlSLGradeA. 122.5 111.9 101.3 95.8 91.3 86.5 82.0 7L1 64.8 55.8
seamless: steels
open hearth,
electric furnace
and basic
oxygen
APJSLGrndeB. 153.0 139.8 126.5 119.0 113.8 108.5 102.5 89.3 7'i .5 62.0
seamless: sub-
merged arc.
spiral weld:
steels open
hearth. electric
furnace and
basic oxygen
BS 3602 CDS. 2 130.0 125.5 120.6 11 7.3 111.5 96.5 88.9 78.2 6 7. 9 5 7.7
HFSandEHW.
steel 25
BS 1602 CDS. 2 154.5 143.0 132.0 12 7.0 11':1.0 1J 0.0 104.2 89. 7 75 .9 62 .3
HfSand ERW.
steel 27
BS 3fi02 EfW 2. 3 123.5 116.5 109.6 104.0 95 .2 90.4 8 7.0 n.s 62 .0 50 .3

Grade 28 13
BS 3603 HFS. 4.5 1 54. 5 143.3 132.0 126.5 119.0

CDS. steel
27 LT-30
BS 3fi03 HFS. 4. 5 154.5 143.3 132.0 126.5 119.0

CDS. steel
27 LT-50
BS 3603 HfS. 4. 5 1 59.0 14 7. 8 13 5.3 1 29.3 12 1.9

CDS.stcel
503 LT-1 00
BS 3604 620 166.5 144.2 144.0 139.0 l24.5 114.0 109.5 104.() 101.5 ':n\.5
HFS. CDS.
steel2 7
------------------------------------------------------------------------
BS 3604 fi21 144.5 144. 2 144.0 13 9.0 124.5 11 5.5 110. 5 106.0 103 .8 100.0
HFS. CDS.
steel 2 7
'Inte rmediate values may be obtained by linea r interpolfltion.

(1) Limited application (see Section 3 of BS 3351).
(2) The design stress values for pipe with a longit udinal or spiral weld seam inrorporflk weld-joint factors as follows:
API 5L submerged arc welded: 1.0: API SLS Grade B: 1.0: BS 3602 ERW with Appendix A: 1.0: BS 3602 EFW: 0.8.
(3) The values for BS 3602 EFWare based on material to BS 1501.151 or 161. Grade 2813 (certified or hot-tested).
Por temperatures over 400°C. 161 material should be used.
(4) The BS 3603 pipes listed are impact-tested <Jnd intended for use in low-temperature service.
(5) Up to 250cc to cover 'steaming out' find flexibility Cfllculations.
(6) The llgures in parentheses illongside the grades are equivalent AlSI types. There is no AlSI equivalent of 845T
Strength of Pipes (Calculations) 605
Values ofS for metal temperatures in °C not exceeding•
475 500 525 550 575 600 650 675 700 725 750 775 800 825
47.5 35.8
48.6 35.8
39.3 24.8
92.3 Sl.O 62.8 43.8 28.9 17.2
92 .8 81.2 64.3 49.3 34.2 14.4

Table 2. Continued
Values ofS for metal temperatures in ° C not. exceeding•
Material Notes -200

to 50 100 150 200 2 50 300 3 50 400 425 450
+50 (N/ mm 2 )
BS 3604 622 144.5 134.2 129.6 125.0 120.5 115.5 111.0 106.0 103.8 101.0
HFS. CDS.
steel 2 7
BS3604622 164.0 164.0 164.0 164.0 156.S 150.5 144.0 1 37.2 134.0 130.2
HFS.CDS.
steel 31
BS 3604 660 172.0 172 .0 167.0 164.0 156.5 150. 5 144.0 137.2 134.0 130.2
CDS. HFS
BS 3604 625 137.0 131.0 125.5 ll9.5 114.0 108.5 103.0 97.0 92.8 86.5
HFS
BS 3605 6 126.0 113.5 103.5 95.0 R7.5 81.9 76.3 7 l. 7 (>13.'J 66.8
Grade 801
(304 )
BS 3605 6
Grade 811
(304H)
BS 3605 106.8 102 .8 90.3 76.5 68.2 h3.3 60.0 5 7 .2 55 .8

Grade 80 l L
(304 L)
BS 3605 6 129.3 127.5 117.0 lOlLS 105.5 102.8 102.0 101 .3 100. 5 99.0
Grade 822T
(321)
BS 3605
Grade 832T
(321H)
BS 3605 6 129.3 128.2 123.5 120.6 118. 7 118.0 11 7. 5 1 16.5 11 5.5 1 14.0
Grade845
(316)and
Grade 845T
and
Grade 846
(3J 7)
BS 3605 6 107.5 106.2 100.0 83.4 79.3 74.3 66.9 62 3 60.7 58.6
Grade 8451
(316L)
*Intermediate values may be obtained by linear interpol<~tion .

(1) Limited application (see Section 3 of BS 3351).
(2) The design stress values for pipe with a lon gitud inal or spiral weld seam incorporate weld-joint factors as follows:
APf SL submerged arc welded: J.O: API SLS Grade B: 1.0: BS 3602 ERW with Appendix A: 1.0: BS 3602 EP\N: 0.8.
(3) The values for BS 3602 EPWare based on material to BS 1501.151 or 161. Grade 288 (certified or ho t-tested).
For temperatures over 400°C.161 material should be used.
(4) The BS 3603 pipes listed are impact- tested and intended for use in !ow-temperature service.
(5) Up to 250°C to cover 'steaming out' and flexibility calculations.
(6) The figures in parentheses alongside the grades are equ.ivalent AISltypes. There is noAISJ equivalent of845T.
Values ofS for metal temperatures in •c not exceeding•
475 500 525 550 575 600 625 ()50 675 700 725 750 775 800 825
(N / mm 2 )
92.5 ll2 .8 63.8 47.5 36.2 26.8
107.5 82 .8 63.8 47.5 36.2 26.8
127.5 115.6 79.9 53.7 36.9
81.0 72.4 59.0 43.8 31.3 21.1
64.8 63.3 61.3 59.7
55 .8 48.0 37.6 30.7 22.4 17.6 13.4 10.3 7.9 6.2 4.5
-- - ----------------------------------------------------------------
97 .5 96.0 94.0
91.7 88.5 75.8 51.3 34.5 25.5 19.6 15.2 11.8 9.3 7.6 6.5
111.5 106.0 <J9.3 90.3 79.3 67.6 56.2 46.6 36.8 28 .3 22.0 17.6 14.4 11.8 9.6
Pd
t. ~ --
mm- 2fe- P
where tmin = the minimum thickness (mm)

P = the internal design pressure (N/ mm 2 )
D = the outside diameter (mm)
d = the inside diameter (mm)
f - the maximum permissible design stress as specified in Table 2
(N/mm 2 )
e - 1.0 for seamless and for electric resistance wel.ded-steel pipes
and for electric fusion welded steel pipes complying with the
requirements ofBS 3602 in which the weld is fully radiographed
or ultrasonically tested.
e = 0. 9 5 for electric fusion welded pipes complying with the
requirements ofBS 3602.
e - 0.90 for pipes complying with the requirements ofBS 3601
other than electric resistance welded pipes.
The value of tmin is the minimum thickness for straight pipes and provision
shall be made for any minus tolerance. Manufacturing considerations may
make it necessary for pipes thicker than this minimum to be used .
PD
t=---
20S +P
--
where t internal pressure design thickness (mm)
p -- internal design pressure (bar)
--
D outside diameter of pipe (mm)
s --
design stress (N/ mm 2 ) (shall be obtained from and shall not
exceed those given in Table 2 for the design temperatures indicated
therein). Linear interpolation for intermediate design temperatures
is permitted.
Pipes with t equal to or greater than D/ 4 require special consideration.
Mitred bends
Although smooth bends are more common, mitred bends are widely used in
industry. Typical applica tions include large-diameter pipelines or ducting in
chemical complexes, de-salination plants and nuclear power stations, where
the manufacture of smooth bends may be either impra ctica l or uneconomical.
To sa tisfy requirements within the high-pressure pipeline industry in the
UK, the BSI has produced recommendations on the design and application of
gusseted or mitred bends. This is published in Amendment No . AMD 3 545 to
BS 806. A feature of the recommendations is that they are to be used in

conjunction with BS 806 stress limits, and thus complement the BS 806
smooth bend design assessment procedure.
Finite element methods have been used to analyse the stresses in single
mitre pipe bends to verify experimental results.
Tee junctions and intersections
Pipelines used in the power generation industry, either in conventional or

nuclear power stations, are subjected to complex loading. The pipelines from
the boiler to the turbine can weigh up to 400 tons. and have to be stressed as a
structure loaded by its own weight, as well as a pressure vessel at high
temperature. Tee branch pipe intersections are therefore subjected to both
internal pressure and external moment loadings arising as a result of dead-
weight. thermal expansion, cold pull or seismic effects.
The following design codes are used for the calculation of stresses and the
determination of stress concentration and flexibility factors:
BS 806: 1975 Specification for ferrous pipes and piping installations for
and in connection with land boilers.
BS 5500: 1982 Specification for unfired fusion welded pressure vessels.
ANSI/ASME
8.31.1:1980 Power piping
ASME 111: 19 8 3 Boiler and pressure vessel code: nuclear power plant
components.
Finite element analysis methods have been used to compare the results
obtained from the different codes with experimental results, and these have
been published by the Institution ofMechanical Engineers in the United Kingdom.
See also standards EN 545, EN598 and ISO 25321 as well as British Standard
Code of Practice for Pipelines 8010 Section 2 .1.
Buried Pipes
In designing rigid buried pipelines. the determination of the external load due
to backfill and surface loadings is conventionally based on the methods and
formulae established by Marston and Spangler. These involve lengthy and
tedious calculations but are readily adapted to CAD (computer-aided design).
For general calculation, simplified tables are available, notably those by
Young and Smith (Building Research Station Report. 1970), corresponding to
normal practice with concrete pipes and incorporating corrections for differences
in external diameter. The latter can be a significant feature in the case of
cement pipes because of the smaller external diameter reducing the load
which it has to carry. Further simplified tables have been computed on this
basis.
Rigid metal pipes (e.g. cast iron) and pipes in flexible materials (e.g.
reinforced glass fibre) need somewhat different treatment. The former can be
laid at any depth with 7 5 to 600 mm ( 3 to 24 in) of cover under buildings; and
with not less than 300 mm ( 12 in) under roads and yards subject to normal
usage. Elsewhere in good ground. such pipes will only need extra protection
where subject to special loadings or abuse. In the latter case, design is
usually based on traditional empirical data; recommendations based on
experience or derived from experimental data evaluating specific structural
protection requirements. \tVith flexible pipe materials, due allowance must be
given to the diametrical deflection produced by soil load. e.g. using Spangler's
formula.
Cement-buried pipelines
The following covers the use of simplified tables for the design of cement-buried
pipelines. Metric units are employed throughout, consistent with current
British and European practice. General assumptions are:
(i) Backfill density of2000 kg/m 3 (125lbf/ft 3 )

(ii) Frictional values KJJ. between 0.13 and 0.19
(iii) rsctP values of 0.5 and 0. 7 as indicated.
Buried Pipes 611
Appropriate conversions are:

1 mm - 0.0394 in 1 kg/ m 3 = 0.0624lbf/ ft 3
1m 2 - 10.76ft2 1N = 0.2248lbf
1 kg - 2.20461b 1 N/mm 2 = 1 MPa = 145 lbf/in 2
1m - 3.2008 ft 1 kN/m - 68.52lb/ft
Notation
Be Outside diameter of pipe barrel.

Be~ Trench width, measured at the level of the top of the pipe.
Fm Marston bedding factor, the value of which depends on the bedding
method employed.
Fs Design factor of safety (1.25).
H The height of soil cover. measured from the top of the pipe barrel to the
ground or road surface.
Y Soil density in kg/m 3 (2000).
KJ.L Product of the Rankine coefficient for the soil (K) and coefficient of
internal friction of the soil (J.L).
rsdp Product of p, the proportion of the pipe diameter that projects above the
bedding, and rsd, the 'settlement ratio'.
\!1/e Total vertical external load imposed on the buried pipe (kgf/m).
WT Minimum ultimate crush load of asbestos cement pipe (kgr/ m).
Application of the tables
Tables 1-3 are based on assumptions that will be safe for a wide range of site
conditions. The equivalent water loads are included in these tables. By
separating the concentrated surcharge loads, Table 4 enables the designer to
vary the calculation of the backfill load to suit individual circumstances, but
here the water load must be added from Table 5 for pipes of 600 mm and over.
Pipes laid under verges should be designed for the full-vehicle loads. Buried
pipes must not be exposed to excessive loads from heavy equipment during
construction. Choice of the appropriate loading category for a given location
is a matter for the engineer's judgement, with due regard to possible future
changes. The tables are not appropriate for flexible pipes (pitch fibre, plastics,
steel. etc.), nor for rigid pipes supported on piles.
Design method
For safe design, the minimum ultimate crush load (Wr) which the pipe is designed
to withstand must be greater than or equal to the computed external load (We
multiplied by a factor of safety of 1 .2 5 and divided by the bedding factor Fm.
1.2 SWe
WT > - - -
- Fm
612 Performance and CalculaUons
I Bd I
l
'"'i/IJIS<
""".....,.,..,IWI/;~ - - - -
::::::_------:::__ -=::::....-
--
----
---
-
- -
-
-
-----
- - - -
---------
-
-
-------
-----
H
Class A Bedding Factor = 2 .6 Class 8 Bedding Factor= 1.9
Od Od
1-0WM~~~=======~~- . '10"'-'
II H 2
1-·
l_'4 JOOmm
mm
\050Bc\
--
mon
Class C Bedding Factor = 1.5 Class D Bedding Factor = 1. I
1. Lightly compacted fill. Bd =Width of tren ch at crow n of pipe.

2. Loose fill. H = Depth of cover over crown of pipe .
3. 20.5 N/mm 2 at 28 days concrete well- Be = Outside diameter of pipe.
packed under pipe.
4. Selected granular material well-tamped Bedding fac tor
unde r and alongside the pipe.
Bedding class Type ofbcddlng F,,
5. Selected material well-tamped by h and in
7 5- 150 rom layers. A (RCl I 20' reinforced concrete cradle 3.4
6. Selected materi a l lightly tamped by ha nd in A (Plain) 120° plain concrete nad le 2.6
B .l60- l:(ranul<Jr bedding 2.2
150 mm layers. [l 120' ~ranular bedding 1.9
7. Normalfill. c Hand-shaped lrt>nch bnttoru 1.5
[) Hand-trinunl'lf flat boll om l.l
8 . Lightly compacted by h a nd.
Figure 1. Bedding factors for pipes in trenches.

Buried Pipes 613
Table 1. (Metric units. kgf/m): main roads
Nominal Outside Assumed

diameter diometer trench
width H=
(mm) (mm) (m) 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.4 3.0 4.6 6.1 7.6
100 125 1432 1352 1326 1332 1408 1535 2003 2202 2212
150 182 0.60 2047 1946 1913 1926 2040 2228 2743 2829 2881
175 208 O.oO 2328 2216 2181 2197 2328 2543 2784 2856 2899
200 232 0.70 2587 2465 2428 2446 2593 2834 3342 3500 3565
225 260 0.70 2888 2756 2715 2737 2903 3174 3385 3528 3585
250 288 0.70 3190 3046 3003 3028 3212 3288 3429 3556 3604
300 339 0.75 3738 3574 3526 3556 3754 3841 4058 4257 4369
375 423 1.00 4585 4368 4292 4312 4547 4951 5930 6451 6797
450 504 1.05 5443 5190 5101 5127 5591 5894 6666 7272 7733
525 587 1.15 6320 6031 5930 5901 6291 6672 7416 8126 8680
600 671 1.20 7415 7089 6977 7012 7273 7546 8367 9190 9848
675 756 1.35 8372 8009 7882 7924 8352 8743 9819 10.935 11.797
750 837 1.45 9282 8883 8745 8793 9082 9479 10.676 11.876 12.913
825 921 1.50 10.230 9796 9646 9650 9826 10.223 11.507 12.831 14.041
900 1007 1.60 11.220 10.747 10.526 10.424 10.586 11.013 12.371 13.907 15.190
975 1075 1.85 12.000 11.498 11.324 11.387 12.000 12.613 14.574 16.545 18.307
1050 1157 1.90 12.950 12.405 12.220 12 .290 12.750 13.380 15.365 17.520 19.450
Table 2. (Metric units. kgf/m): light roads
Nominal Outside Assumed

diameter diameter trench
width H=
(mm) (mm) (m) 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.4 3.0 4.6 6.1 7.6
100 125 1335 1122 1053 1052 1152 1316 1863 2105 2144
150 182 0~60 1850 1585 1503 1512 1667 1909 2540 2690 2782
175 208 0.60 2085 1796 1708 1721 1901 2180 2552 2697 2785
200 232 0.70 2302 1991 1897 1914 2117 2429 3083 3324 3440
225 260 0.70 2554 2217 2117 2139 2369 2719 3096 3331 3445
250 288 0.70 2806 2444 2337 2364 2621 2784 3109 3338 3449
300 339 0.75 3265 2816 2737 2772 3056 3248 3683 4002 4188
375 423 1.00 3966 3458 3301 3330 3677 4213 5462 6134 6572
450 504 1.05 4681 4095 3915 3955 4552 5014 6110 6895 7465
525 587 1.15 5412 4745 4544 4593 5082 5647 6768 7687 8370
f>OO 671 1.20 6360 5612 5388 5447 5890 6375 7628 8689 9493
675 756 1.35 7166 6837 6088 6158 6793 7424 8987 10.370 11.400
750 837 1.45 7934 7026 6756 6836 7357 8019 9755 11.250 12.470
825 921 1.50 8737 7746 7455 7495 7927 8617 10.494 12.150 13.550
900 1007 1.60 9576 8502 8128 8067 8510 9257 11.264 13.160 14.660
975 1075 1.85 10.236 9097 8762 8870 9782 10.738 13,36f> 15.750 17.740
1050 1157 1.90 11.037 9818 9460 9579 10.352 11,364 14.094 16.660 18.84 0
True values ofFm are considerably dependent upon standards of workmanship

and good compaction of the side fill. Those tabulated assume properly
maintained and supervised standards.
Method of use for Tables 1-3

Select the table appropriate to the type of surface loading. From the pipe
diameter and the cover depth, the external load is read off directly. Use the given
bedding factor to calculate the minimum value ofWr, and find the class of pipe
required from Table 4. If a pipe of sufficient strength is not available a better
class of bedding may be specified.
In general. the cover depth will vary along the main, andl:he pipe strength
and bedding class must be selected to meet the maximum cover-depth condition.
With pipelines having considerable variation in cover depths, it may be worth
specifying different classes of pipe and/or bedding for different sections of the
main. Alternatively, the tables may be used to find the limits of permissible
cover depths for the different pipe and bedding classes available.
Method of use for Table 4

Where the trench conditions and backfill density deviate from the norm.
Table 4 may be used to obtain the most economical design.
Table 3. (Metric units. kgf/ m): fields. etc.
Nominal Outside Assumed \11,1c

diameter diameter treoch
width H=
(rom) (mm) (m) 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.4 3.0 4.6 6.1 7.6
100 125 809 792 825 886 1054 12 53 183 7 2091 2133
150 182 0.60 1174 1150 1198 l288 1532 1821 2502 2670 2769
175 208 0.60 1341 1313 1368 1470 1750 2080 2509 2674 2771
200 232 0.70 1494 1463 1525 1639 1951 2319 3035 3297 3424
225 260 0.70 1673 1638 1707 1835 2185 2598 3043 3302 3427
250 288 0.70 1852 1813 1889 2031 2418 2650 3051 3306 3429
300 339 0.75 2176 2131 2221 2388 2820 3090 3nl5 3964 4164
375 423 1.00 2655 2578 2671 2859 3389 4021 5.3/R n087 6543
450 504 1.05 3157 306(1 3177 3401 4212 4786 nOll 6840 7431
525 587 1.1.5 3670 3564 3693 3954 4689 5384 6654 7623 8329
600 671 1.20 4397 4276 4423 4722 5442 6076 7497 8616 9448
67.5 756 1.35 4979 4843 5009 5345 6292 7089 8841 10.290 1l.34n
750 837 1.45 5535 .5384 5567 5940 h803 7649 9593 11.163 12.414
825 921 1.50 6117 5950 6152 6513 7320 8210 10.316 12.046 13.492
900 1007 1.60 6729 6547 6709 6998 7848 8814 11.070 13.049 14.591
975 1075 1.85 7211 701() 7252 7731 9077 10.266 13.159 15.630 17.668
1050 1157 1.90 7795 7586 7839 8.355 9605 10.856 13.872 16.53 3 18.766
f3uried Pipes 615
The method of use is:
Step 1 Knowing the pipe diameter and cover depth, obtain the vehicle
load and the wide-trench load.
Step 2 Knowing the trench width, read off also the narrow-trench load.
Adopt the lesser of the two backfill loads.
Step 3 If the soil density y differs from 2000 kg/m 3 (125lb/ ft 3 ), correct
the backfill load by y/ 2000 ( yj 12 5).
Step 4 Add the backfill. vehicle loads and equivalent water load for pipes
over 600 mm to obtain We·
With We determined, the class of pipe and bedding required may be worked
out as in Method of use for Tables 1-3 above.
Example
Determine the strength classes and bedding required through a length of 600
mm nominal diameter asbestos-cement pipeline laid under fields at cover
depth ranging from 1.2 to 6.4 m (narrow-trench conditions).
Consider the use of Class B (F m = 1. 9) bedding or, if ground conditions permit,
a Class D (Fm = 1.1) bedding. The maximum permissible external load can
now be found by using the equation shown under Design method:
. 1.1 x Wr
I.e. We~ 1. = 0 .88Wr
25
1.9 x Wr
or We~ 1.
25
= l.52Wr
The values ofWr for the different classes of pipe can be found in Table 4 .
Wr for 600 mm diameter Class L pipes= 4300 kgf/ m.
Wr for 600 mm diameter Class M pipes= 5800 kgf/m .
The permissible depths of cover can now be found from Table 4.
Table 4A.
W,. (kgf/m) Depth of cover (m)

---
Class Fm=l.l Fm = 1.9 Fm=l.l Frn =l.9
L 3784 6536 0.6-3.7

M 5104 8816 0.6- 2.1 0.6- 7.0
A 600 mm Class L pipe, on a Class B bed, can be laid from 0.6 to 3.4 m; from
3.4 to 6.4 m, a Class M pipe laid on a Class B bed would be needed.
If ground conditions permit, a 600 mm Class M pipe can be flat bedded from
0.6 to 2.1 m, and laid on a Class B bed from 2.1 to 6.4 m.
616 Pe1jormance and Calculations
Table 4. Class of pipe required
Nominal Outside Trench Type Tow I design load We in kilograms pe( metre of pipe length for covt'r depth 1-1 in met(CS
internal diameter width of
diameter Be Bd load H=
(mm) (mm) (m} 0.6 0.9 1.2 15 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 .0 3.4
100 125 Narrow

Wide(0.7) 233 350 468 585 703 821 938 1056 1173 1330
Main road 1083 887 743 631 543 471 413 364 311
Light road 985 656 468 350 271 215 174 144 ll4
Fields. etc. 689 459 324 239 183 144 116 95 79 63
150 182 0.60 Narrow 1370 1550 1710 1840 1960 2080 2J 70
Wide(0.7l 337 508 680 851 1022 1193 1364 1536 1707 1935
Main road 154l 1268 1065 906 780 677 59 3 523 446
Light road 1343 907 653 491 381 303 246 203 lli 1
Fields. etc. 1002 666 470 347 265 209 11iH 1..17 114 91
175 208 0.60 Narrow 1370 1550 1710 1840 1960 2080 2170
Wide(0.7) 384 580 776 971 1167 1363 1559 ' 1754 1950 2211
Main road 1750 1442 1211 1031 888 771 675 595 508
Light road 1506 1021 737 555 431 343 279 231 183
fields. etc. 1145 761 537 397 303 238 19 1 157 130 104
200 232 0.70 Narrow 1590 1810 2010 2190 2340 2470 2600
Wlde{0.7) 428 646 864 !083 1301 1519 1737 1956 2174 2465
Maio ro«d 1942 1603 134 7 1147 987 858 751 662 564
Light road 1656 1127 815 614 478 381 309 256 203
Fields. etc. 1276 848 599 442 338 265 213 174 ]45 116
225 260 0.70 Narrow 1590 1810 2010 2190 2340 2470 2600
Wide(0.7) 478 723 968 1212 1457 1701 1946 1191 2435 2761
Main road 2167 1790 1505 1282 1104 959 840 740 632
Light road 1832 1251 906 683 532 424 345 285 226
Fields. etc. 1430 950 671 495 378 297 239 195 162 130
250 288 0.70 Narrow 1590 1810 2010 2190 2340 2470 2600
Wide(0.7) 529 799 1070 1341 1612 1883 2154 2425 2690 3058
Main road 2392 1977 161>3 1417 1220 1060 n8 8 18 699
Light road 2008 1374 997 752 586 467 380 3 14 249
Fields. etc. 1584 1052 743 548 419 329 264 216 180 14 3
300 339 0.75 Narrow 1810 2060 2300 2510 2700 2880 3030
Wide{0.7) 619 938 1257 1576 1895 2214 2533 28 52 3171 3596
Main road 2801 2319 1952 1663 1432 1244 1089 961 820
Llgbt road 2328 1559 1162 878 6R4 546 445 368 292
Fields. etc. 1863 1238 873 645 492 387 310 254 21 I 168
37'5 423 1.00 Narrow 2480 2870 3230 l570 3870 4150 4420
Wide(0.5) 733 1111 l4S9 1867 2246 2624 3002 3380 3758 4262
Maio road 3476 2881 2426 201i8 1781 1547 13 55 1195 1020
Light road 2855 1969 1434 1086 847 676 551 456 362
l'ields. etc. 2324 1544 1089 804 6 14 482 387 316 263 210
450 504 1.05 Narrow 27 JO H40 3540 3911) 4260 4580 48RO
Wide(0.5) 868 1318 .l769 2220 2(,7() 3120 3751 4022 4473 5073
Main road 4126 3423 2884 2459 2118 1840 1611 1421 1213
Light road 3363 2327 1697 1286 1003 801 653 541 429
Fields. etc. 2769 1839 1297 957 731 574 461 377 313 249
525 587 1.15 Narrow 2940 3420 3860 4260 4650 5020 5350
Widc(0.5) 1004 1529 2054 2579 3104 3628 4153 4678 5203 5902
Main road 4792 3979 3353 2859 2463 2140 1874 1652 1410
Light road 3883 2692 1966 1490 1164 930 758 627 498
Fields. etc. 3224 2 J 41 1510 llJ4 851 668 536 438 364 290
600 671 1.20 Narrow 3170 3690 4180 4620 5050 5450 5830
Wide(0. 5) 1141 1740 2340 2940 3540 4 140 4740 5340 5940 6740
Main road '5467 4540 3827 3264 2812 2443 2139 J88h 1610
Light road 4410 3063 223H 1698 1326 1060 864 71':> 568
Fields. etc. 3685 2447 1726 1273 972 763 612 501 416 332
675 756 1.35 Narrow 3630 4240 4800 ~350 S850 (,~50 6800
\>Vide !0. 5) 1277 1953 2629 3304 3980 4956 5332 6008 6hS4 7585
Main road 6149 5110 4308 3674 3165 2750 2408 2123 1812
Light road 4943 3438 2514 1908 1490 I 191 971 804 639
Fields. etc. 4151 2757 1944 1434 1095 859 690 5b4 4(,9 3 74
750 837 1.4 5 Narrow 3850 4500 5120 5710 &270 6800 7280
Wide(0.5) 1405 2153 2901 3650 4398 5146 5895 6642 739 1 8389
Main road 6799 5652 4765 4065 3501 W42 2664 2.349 2005
Light road 5451 3795 2776 2108 1647 1317 1073 889 706
fields. etc. 4596 3052 2152 1587 1212 9'il 7nl 624 519 413
Buried Pipes 617
Total design load W c in kilogn1ms per metre or pipe length for cover depth H in metres
H=
3. 7 4.0 4.3 4.6 4.9 5.2 5.5 5.8 6.1 6.4 6.7 7.0 7.3 7.6
1448 1566 I 1)83 1801 1918 2036 2154 2271 2389 2506 2624 2742 2859 2977
278 250 226 205 U!6 170 156 143 1 32 122 113 105 98 92
97 83 72 63 sn 49 44 39 35 32 29 27 24 22
54 47 41 3h 32 28 25 23 21 19 17 16 14 13
2260 2340 2390 2450 2500 2540 2580 2620 2640 2660 2690 2710 2730 2750
2 107 2278 2449 2620 279 1 2963 3134 3305 3476 3648 3819 3':190 4 161 4333
399 359 324 293 267 244 224 206 189 I 75 162 151 140 131
137 118 102 90 79 70 62 56 50 46 41 38 35 32
78 67 59 52 46 41 36 33 30 27 24 22 20 19
2260 2340 2390 2450 2500 2540 2580 2620 2640 2660 2690 2710 2730 2750
2407 2602 279/l 2994 3189 1385 3581 3776 3972 4168 4364 4559 4755 4951
4 54 408 369 334 104 278 254 234 216 199 185 I 71 160 149
156 134 116 102 'JO 80 71 64 57 52 47 43 39 36
89 77 67 59 52 46 41 37 34 3l 28 25 23 21
27 10 2810 2900 2970 3040 3100 3160 3210 3260 noo 3330 3360 3390 3400
2683 2902 3120 3338 355(, 3775 3993 4211 4430 4648 4866 5084 5303 5521
505 454 410 372 338 309 283 260 240 221 205 191 177 165
173 14 9 129 I I3 100 88 79 71 64 58 52 48 44 40
99 86 75 65 58 52 46 41 37 34 31 28 26 24
2710 2810 2900 2970 3040 3100 3160 3210 3260 3300 3330 3360 3390 3400
3006 32 51 34')) 3740 3985 4229 4474 4718 4963 5208 5452 'i697 5942 6186
565 508 4 ~~~ 415 378 345 316 290 268 247 229 213 196 185
193 166 144 126 111 99 88 79 71 6':1 58 53 49 45
1I 1 96 83 73 65 58 52 46 42 .38 35 32 29 27
2710 2810 2900 2l)70 3040 3100 3160 32 [() 3260 3300 3330 3360 3390 3400
l328 3'i99 3879 4141 4412 4583 4954 5225 5496 5767 6038 6309 6580 6851
624 'i61 506 459 418 381 349 321 296 273 253 235 219 204
21.3 18.3 159 139 123 JOY 97 87 78 71 64 59 54 49
123 !Of> 92 81 72 64 57 51 46 42 311 35 32 29
3180 3300 3420 3520 3610 3700 3780 3830 3910 3950 4010 4050 4090 4130
3915 4234 4553 4872 5191 5510 5829 6148 6467 6786 7105 7424 7743 8061
7.l3 658 594 '>38 490 447 410 376 347 321 297 276 257 239
249 214 186 163 144 127 114 102 92 S3 75 69 63 58
144 124 108 95 84 7'i 67 60 54 49 45 41. 38 34
4fi50 4870 5080 5260 5440 'i600 5750 5900 6020 6140 6250 6340 6440 6500
4641 5019 5397 5775 61H fi532 6910 7288 7666 8044 8422 8801 9179 9575
912 819 739 fi70 b09 556 509 468 431 398 369 343 319 297
30S 26(, 231 202 178 158 141 126 114 103 94 85 78 72
179 155 135 Ill:! 105 93 83 75 67 61 56 51 47 43
5160 5410 5650 5870 6080 6270 644() 6610 6760 6900 7040 7150 7260 7380
5524 5'J75 (>42 5 6876 7326 7777 8228 8678 9129 9579 10.030 10.480 10.931 11.382
1084 974 871l 796 724 661 605 556 512 473 438 407 379 353
3(,(, 315 274 240 211 188 167 150 135 122 111 101 93 85
213 184 160 141 124 1I 1 99 89 80 73 66 60 55 51
S660 59'i0 62.30 6490 6720 f>950 7150 7340 7530 7700 7850 IWOO 8140 8270
6427 6952 74'77 8002 8256 9051 9576 10,101 10.626 11.150 U.675 12.200 12.725 13.250
1260 I 132 1021 926 842 768 704 647 596 550 510 4 73 440 410
425 366 318 278 246 218 194 I 74 15 7 142 129 118 108 99
248 214 187 164 145 129 115 103 93 85 77 70 64 59
6190 6500 6820 7100 7390 7630 7X60 8090 1>300 8500 8680 8870 9020 9170
7340 7940 RS 39 9139 97l9 I 0.33l) 10.939 11.539 12. I 39 12.739 13.339 1 3.938 14.538 15.138
Hl9 1292 l16f> 1()<; 7 961 877 803 738 680 628 582 540 502 468
485 417 363 118 280 248 222 199 179 162 147 134 123 113
284 245 213 11!7 165 147 13) 1I8 106 96 88 80 73 68
7230 7630 8010 8360 8720 9040 9340 9640 9900 10.200 10.400 10.600 10.800 11.000
826 1 8937 9613 10.289 10.965 I 1. 540 12.316 12.992 13.668 14.344 15.020 15.696 16.3 72 17.048
J(i20 14 ~s I 313 II S9 1082 9S7 904 831 765 707 654 607 565 527
545 4hY 408 357 3I 5 279 249 224 202 182 166 151 138 127
319 276 240 2I1 186 165 148 13 3 120 109 99 90 83 76
7750 8190 8620 9030 9400 9760 10.100 10.400 10.700 11.000 11.300 11.500 11.800 12.000
9137 9885 10.634 I J. 38 2 12.130 12.R79 l3.f>27 14.375 1 'i.J 24 15.872 16.620 17.369 18.1 17 18.865
1792 lli09 1452 l316 11 97 1092 1000 919 846 782 724 672 625 583
603 519 415 395 348 309 276 247 223 202 183 167 153 141
35.3 305 266 233 20f> 183 16 3 14 7 133 120 109 100 91 84
Table s.•
Nominal diameter Equivalent load
(mm) (kgf/m)
600 210
675 270
750 330
825 400
900 490
975 560
1050 650
·when a pipe is running full. its contents are equivalent to an external load of 75 1Yo of the weight of
water in the pipe. '
Buried flexible pipes
The following are guidelines for calculations involving buried flexible pipes.
Notation
Symbol Definition Unit
Deflection lag factor

Mean diameter of pipe mm
Reduction in vertical diameter mm
Elastic modulus for soil as determined at
2
overburden pressure in tri-axial test N/mm
Stiffness factor for pipe N/m 2
2
Sub grade modulus N/ mm /mm
Bending strain
Tensile strain
Height of cover above pipe spring line m
Deflection coefiicient dependent upon
bedding angle
Meyerhof's constant for granular
materials (taken as 1.63 N/mm 2 j m depth)
Total external pressure on pipe
External pressure on pipe used in buckling
)
strength calculations N/mm-
External pressure on pipe used in
2
deflection calculations N/ mm
Critical buckling pressure N/mm 2
External pressure on pipe due to backfill N/mm 2
2
Internal pressure N/mm
External pressure on pipe due to
surcharge loading
Buried Pipes 619
External pressure on pipe due to traffic

loading
Internal vacuum pressure
Pipe-wall thickness
Loads
Traffic loads (P1)
Traffic loading may be taken rrom the appropriate charts, e.g. as given in NBS
Special Report No. 3 7.
Table 6. Turnall pipes: size range and classification
Class L ClassM Class H
Nominal Minimum ultimate Minimum ultimate Minimum ultimate

diameter crushing load crushing load crushing load
(WT) (W.r) (WT)
mm kN/m kfg/ m kN/ m kfg/ m kN/m kfg/ m

~--
100 37.95 3870

150 3 7.95 3870
175 37.95 3870
200 37.95 3870
225 37.95 3870
250 37.95 3870
300 35.00 3570 46.68 4760
375 38.63 3940 52.56 5360
450 43.73 4460 58.35 5950
525 37.95 3870 47.46 4840 65.70 6700
600 42.16 4300 56.87 5800 77.47 7900
6 75 48.05 4900 64.23 6550 86.10 8780
750 51.00 5200 68.64 7000 91.88 9370
825 55.40 5650 74.53 7600 100.71 10.270
900 58.35 59.50 85.57 8930 107.87 11.000
975 62.76 6400 94.82 9670 116. 70 11.900
1050 ' 6 5. 70 6700 99.24 10.120 124.05 12.650
Table 7. Dept h 11 1 (mm) corresponding to bedding angle a
Nominal 200 225 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 7'i0
di <Jmeter
(rnm )
Bedding lr 1 (mm)
angle
a.
t100 25 50 - - - - - - - + ~ 7 5 -----+
90° 50 - - -- ---7 f - -- - - 100 ~ 150 -----+
120° f--- - -- - 100 200 ~ 250 - - - - - - t
For main road traffic loading, normally use either HA or 45 units of HB

loading in accordance with BS 153: Part 3A, depending upon the quantity
and type of vehicles expected.
Surcharge loads (P5 )
Include here long-term loads.
Backfill (P e)
Normally use the full weight of the soil above the crown of the pipe. For
buckling resistance, where ground-water level is above the pipe, ma1<e allowance
for buoyancy and add water pressure at crown (at invert if pipe can be empty).
Vacuum (P)
Include this if there is a possibility of full or partial vacuum inside the pipe.
Internal pressure (p)
This is used in strength calculations to assess the quantity of glass

reinforcement necessary to resist bursting. Normally use maximum working
pressure including an allowance for surges, and check using test pressure
with a reduced factor of safety.
Total external pressure on pipe (P0 )
For deflection calculations Pod= 2Pt + P s + Pe·

For strength calculations P ob = P t + P s + P e + P v·
Note: Transient loads, e.g. traffic loads, have less effect in deflecting a flexible
pipe than do permanent soil loads and surcharges. Therefore. when
considering deflection only. a reduction factor of 0. 5 may be applied to Pt.
Deflection
Spangler's formula for the deflection of flexible pipes can be written thus:
~_ D K x Pod
1
d- 8 El
106 x d 3 + 90.031 e.d.
where 8 - reduction in vertical diameter
d - mean diameter of pipe
e = subgrade modulus
Buried Pipes 621
El
d3 - pipe stiffness factor
D 1 = deflection lag factor

This is introduced to make allowances for the slow increase in
deformation of some soils under sustained lateral pressure. Typical
values are in the range 1.0-1. 5 for non-pressure pipes. For
pressure pipes where internal pressure just balances external
load. use D1 = 1. For pipes where high internal pressure is likely
to cause re-rounding use values between 0.25 and l, typically
0.5 .
k = 0.100 for 60 bedding angle
Meyerhof and Fisher, based on Terzaghi, have shown that:

Es
e= - --
0 . 75 X d
where Es = modulus or elasticity or the soil at overburden pressure, as

determined in a tri-axial test. If no test results are available, use 4000-10,000
kN/mm 2 in good ground above water table, according to compaction; 2000 to
5000 kN/m 2 in poor ground, or in good ground below water table.
Alternatively, in good ground Es may be assessed by the following
relationships:
Es = ksH x if backfill is dry granular material
Es = ksH x 1.7 d
. if backfill is saturate granular material
2 7
where ks (Meyerhof) is taken in the range 1.09-3.2 5 N/mm 2 / m depth, a value

of 1.63 N/mm 2 / m depth being commonly used.
H = height of cover above pipe spring line
With flexible pipes, the effect of the pipe stiffness on the deformation of the
composite pipe/ soil system is small and can usually be neglected. The Spangler
formula then reduces to:
~ _ D 2.4Poct
1
d- Es
The long-term deflection calculated as previously should not exceed 5% of
the diameter. If necessary. better quality surround material, and/ or higher
compaction should be specified. Allowable initial deflection will depend upon
the engineer's assessment of D 1 but, as a guide, this should be limited to a
maximum or 3%.
Buckling strength
Based on Meyerhof and Baikie. the critical buckling pressure on a buried pipe
(P c) is given by the following equation:
El 1
Pc = 4.6 Es x d3 x 10n
Therefore. permissible buckling pressure (P ob) is as follows:

1 El 1
p ob = FS X 4. 6 Es X d3 X Cf X 1 on
'
where FS = factor of safety against buckling for which a value of 2 is used
Cf = creep factor typicallly in the range 2-3 depending upon the
long-term elastic properties of the pipe-wall material
El
d3 - pipe stiffness factor (initial)
Bursting strength
Bursting is resisted by glass-reinforced layers acting in hoop tension. The

thickness of glass-reinforced layers provided is such that at working pressure
there is an initial factor of safety against bursting of between 6 and 7. At test
pressure, a factor of safety of at least 4 is normally available.
Crushing strength
Certain pipes have a crushing strength in excess of 80 MN/ m 2 . Crushing

stress is not normally critical. though.
Longitudinal strength
Pipes should have longitudinal strength in excess of the requirements of BS

54 8 0 Part 1 : 1 9 7 7.
Strain
Bending strain £6
If the pipe deformed a s a n eclipse, the strain in the pipe w a ll due to bendin g
would be :
38 t
Eb = - X -
d d
where t = thickness of pipe wall.

Buried Pipes 62 3
Tests by Molin showed that bedding irregularities caused deviations from this
theoretical value which were dependent upon pipe stiffness, i.e.:
where 3 ~ d ~ 6: d tends towards 3 for stiffer pipes which are less affected
by bedding irregularities and hence, for a particular deflection, are subject to
correspondingly lower levels of bending strain .
In non-pressure pipes, bending strain should be limited to 0.3 5%. For
pressure pipes, bending strain is generally limited to 0 .2%.
Circumferential tensile strain E1
Circumferential tensile strain in pressure pipes should normally be limited to

an initial maximum value of 0.2% at working pressure.
Note: In pressure pipe design , the effects of bending and internal pressure are
not additive and may, therefore, be considered separately.
Summary of design criteria
Long-term deflection shall be limited by the allowable bending strains listed or

to 5%, whichever is the lesser.
Bending strain, 0.3 5% (non-pressure); 0.20% (pressure).
Circumferential tensile strain, 0.2%.
Trenching
The preparation of the trench bottom to give an even bedding for the barrel of
the pipe, and proper alignment of pipes, is of primary importance. In rocky
ground the trench should be extended to at least 100 mm deeper than
required and then made up to the required level by introduction of well rammed
compactible material of a type which will not be washed away; alternatively,
the pipe may be embedded in a layer of freshly mixed concrete. The trench
should not normally be opened up more than a few pipe lengths ahead of the
point where laying is taking place.
Width of trench
The trench width will depend to some extent on the ground conditions and
depth of laying but should be kept to the practical minimum. Minimum widths
for normal conditions. as used in the preparation of external loading charts,
are based on standard bucket sizes wherever possible and give at least 150 and
200 mm clearances on each side of the pipe for diameters in the ranges
200-3 SO and 400-7 SO mm, respectively.
In narrow-trench conditions, the backfill load is a function of the depth of
cover and width of trench (B) as measured at the level of the crown of the pipe.
Thus the backfill loads will be the same for any of the trench sections shown in
Figure 2.
Where a particular width has been specified, it should not be significantly
exceeded without reference to the pipeline designer.
Depth of trench
The depths at which a pipeline is to be laid will normally have been

determined by the pipeline designer to whom reference should be made if, for
any reason, the depths specified for a particular application require to be
exceeded by a significant amount. The minimum depth of cover will depend
on considerations such as frost , traffic loadings, size and class of pipeline and,
as regards adequacy of anchorage, the type and compatibility of the fill
material.
Preparation of trench bedding
Class C bedding
In Class C bedding where the pipe barrel is to be in more or less continuous

contact with the foundation soil, the initial excavation should be marginally
less than the required depth in order that final levelling and preparation of the
bedding may be carried out manually. Any high spots should be removed.
If overdigging accidentally occurs, the correct level must be regained by
introduction of selected material, well-compacted. This preparatory work can
be aided by use of a wooden straight-edge. of length not less than that of the
The effecrive rrench widrh (B) in lhe lhree exa mples shown is as
measured all he level correspo nding 10 rhe u own o f I he pipe.
t
H
t
H
... ..
. :-::··
. ..:. .· ·. -8-+--~ ...·
.....
:- ·-::· ;~(:.::;::: ·:-:.:·
.. ::-:·:·:-::· ::- .·.-... ·.·..·.... ..··....·.·. . . ·.
Figure 2.
Buried Pipes 625
pipes. One end of the straight edge should be notched. Allowance can be made
for slight initial settlement due to the weight of the pipe.
Class B bedding
In Class B bedding itis necessary to overdig the trench by an amount equivalent
to the required depth of granular overlay between the pipe and the foundation
ground. The straight-edge technique can again be used to obtain the gradient
and approximate level of the granular bedding.
For both Class B and Class C bedding it is necessary to excavate a joint hole
of sufficient length and depth to give clearance for the coupling to ensure that
the pipes rest on the trench bed and not on the coupling.
Backfilling
Backfilling should be carried out in accordance with the requirements specified

for the particular pipeline and can take place as soon as the joints have been
made. rr it is desired to leave joints uncovered until completion of pressure
testing, the trench should be backfilled only over the barrel portion of each
pipe. In such cases it is necessary to ensure that an adequate depth of
compacted backfill is applied over the crown of the pipe to prevent the pipeline
lifting when the test pressure is applied.
For Class C bedding selected backfill is compacted to a suitable depth h 1 ,
which corresponds to the bedding angles as selected for the particular
nominal diameter of pipe.
The backfill between levels is ordinary soil, free from lumps and large stones.
Compaction will normally be required and should be carried out in stages with
layers of 150-300 mm in thickness. The remainder of the excavated material
can be used for the top level of backfill, the extent of compaction required
depending on local factors.
For Class B bedding the pipe will have been laid on a prepared granular bed,
which should not be less than 100 mm for all sizes of pipe where laid in
uniform soils. Where laid in rock or mixed soils containing rock bands,
boulders. large stones or other irregular hard spots, dimension h should not be
less than 200 mm.
To complete the granular bedding, a further layerofsuitable depth (according
to pipe diameter and bedding angle (a) as selected) should be added and
compacted.
Selected backfill. free from lumps or large stones, is then compacted in
layers of 150-300 mm to a height of 300 mm above the crown of the pipe.
Ordinary backfill material can be used for the remainder, the extent of
compaction depending on local requirements.
Joint holes should be backfilled with selected material and properly
compacted.
Large stones should be kept well away from the sides or the trench to avoid
the possibility of their being accidentally dropped on the pipes which have
been laid.
Thermoplastic pipes
CPVC piping is usually selected for its higher temperature characteristics, i.e.
48-94°C (120-200°F). Expansion and contraction could become excessive at
the higher ranges with intermittent flow in buried lines.
Expansion joints are recommended for use in suitable pits for the upper
temperature limits. In this case, the line should not be 'snaked'. Snaking the
pipe with as many loops as possible per 30m (100ft) should prove satisfactory
for normal conditions for PVC and for temperature ranges up to 60°C (l40°F)
for CPVC. Sun heat or hot water flow to bring the pipe to 38-44°C (100-
11 0°F) surface temperature is recommended prior to preliminary backfill of
the snaked line.
Care should be used to make the best possible solvent-cement joint.
Threading should be avoided.
\,Yhere the thermoplastic pipe is joined to metal. use or a metal flange with a
flexible gasket is suggested.
Cement cure times in excess of those normally recommended are suggested
prior to running at the elevated temperature. vVhen thermoplastic pipe is installed
underground in trenches, the trench bottom should be smooth and rree or
rocks and debris.
Trenches should never be used as repositories for rubbish. H the trench is
dug in ledge rock, hard pan or where boulders and rocks are not removed, the
trench bottom must be padded out with sand or compacted with fine-grain
soils.
The trench should be wide enough to provide adequate room for : (1) joining
the pipe in the trench, (2) snaking the pipe from side to side in the trench to
provide slack for future contraction or expansion, and (3) placing and
compacting side fills.
Trench width may be minimised by joining the pipe outside of the trench
and lowering it into the trench with levelling supports.
Trench depth is determined by intended service. national standards and
recommendations as well as local conditions.
Thermoplastic pipe should be installed at least below frost level. Pipe for
conveying liquids susceptible to freezing should be buried no less than 300
mm (12 in) below the maximum frost level. Permanent lines subjected to
heavy traffk'should have a minimum cover of 600 mm (24 in). For light traffic
300-450 mm (12-18 in) is normally sufficient for small diameter and small
diameter-to-thickness ratio pipe. \,Yith larger sizes or larger diameter-to-
thickness ratio pipe, bearing stresses should be calculated to determine cover
required.
BuriedPipes 627
As well as local and national codes, reliability and safety should always be
paramount.
Bedding and backfilling thermoplastic pipe
vVith a smooth uniform trench bottom. the pipe will be supported over its
entire length on firm, stable material. Blocking should never be used to
change pipe grade or to provide intermittent support over low sections in the
trench . Because subsoil conditions vary greatly throughout the world, different
pipe-bedding problems will be encountered in various localities. In general,
subsoil should be stable and should provide physical protection for the pipe.
The pipe should be surrounded with backfill materials having a particle size
e
of 13 mm I 2 in} or less. Backfilling should be carried out in layers with each
layer compacted sufficiently so that lateral pressure soil forces are developed
uniformly. Under certain conditions, it may be advisable to have the pipe
under pressure during the backfilling operation.
When compacting sand or gravels. vibratory methods are recommended. If
water flooding is used, the initial backfill should be sufficient to ensure complete
coverage of the pipe. Additional backfill should not be added until the water-
flooded backfill is firm enough to walk on. Precautions should be taken to stop
the pipe flo a ting. In all instances, the trench should be filled completely, and
rolling equipment or heavy tampers should be used only to consolidate the
final backfill.
With regard to thermoplastic pipe, rererence should also be made to ASTM
D2 774 'Underground Installation of Thermoplastic Pressure Piping' and
ASTM D2321 'Underground Installation of Flexible Thermoplastic Sewer
Pipe'. See also the Chapter on Thermoplastic Pipe.
Collapsing Pressure for Pipes
and Tubes
In the general case of pipes where the length is eight or more times the
diameter, the uniformly applied pressure to produce collapse is given by:
3
p = 2E (_!_)
1- a 2 D
where P --
external pressure
E --
modulus of elasticity of pipe material
a -- Poisson's ratio for pipe material
t = pipe-wall thickness
D = outside diameter
The upper limit for the collapsing pressure is given when the compressive
stress produced is equal to the compressive yield strength of the pipe material.
Buried pipes
Buried pipes are subject to both internal and external loading. the general
theory stating that the magnitude of internal pressure which a rigid pipe can
withstand varies inversely with the magnitude of simultaneously applied
external loading. The net effect on the combined load-bearing strength of the
pipe can be determined mathematically from the Schlick formula, as follows:
pi p+ -(~Tr]
=
which may also be written as:

Collapsing Pressure for Pipes arrd Tubes 629
where P 1 - internal hydrostatic pressure (kN/m 2 ) which will fracture the

pipe when acting in combination with some external load F.
applied in two-edge bearing
P2 internal hydrostatic pressure (kN/ m 2 ) which will burst the pipe
in the absence of any external load
F1 - external load (kN/ m) applied in two-edge bearing which will
fracture the pipe when combined with some internal pressure P 1
WT = two-edge bearing load (kN/m) which will crush the pipe in the
absence of any internal pressure.
Figure 1 shows a 'combined loading' curve for a pipe which would burst at
some internal pressure, P 2 , or crush under some external load, WT, if either
were acting alone. If, however, some lesser internal pressure, P 1 • is acting on
the pipe in combination with an external loading, F 1 • the magnitude ofF 1 at
which fracture will occur can be determined by means of ordinates drawn to
intersect at a point X on the curve.
Combined loading
The potential working envelope of a buried pipe is represented by a curve

describing maximum internal pressure combined with a curve describing
maximum external load (crushing pressure). Thus, because of the inter-
dependence of the two parameters. boundaries are curves rather than straight
lines and take the form shown in Figure 2.
Practical curves of this form, known as combined loading charts, can be
devised for each particular size and class of pipe and incorporate suitable
safety factors against bursting or crushing. Such a chart will indicate maximum
working limits, e.g. for any given pressure limit a corresponding safe working
crushing strength, or safe working pressure limit.
Q)
L.
~
~ p.
Q)
'-
a.
C'J
c
....
Q)
c P2
X
WT F,
y External load
Figure I.
/pressure limit curve
crush limit curve
Safe working two -edge crushing

strength of pipe F( =~:}
k
Figure 2.
Basically, such loading charts are modified Schlick curves, taking into
account suitable safety factors, e.g.:
Pw = ~ [1 - ( ~J]
where Pw = maximum sustained operating (or static) pressure (kN/ m 2 )

X = factor of safety against bursting when an in tern a! pressure. Pw·
is applied together with an external load (see Table 1)
F 1 = external load (kN/m) applied in two-edge bearing which will
fracture the pipe when combined with some internal pressure. Pw
F = safe working two-edge crush strength of pipe (kN/m)
y = factor of safety against crushing when an external load, W c• is
applied together with an internal pressure
P 1 = internal pressure (kN/m 2 ) which will fracture the pipe when
acting in combination with some external load, F1 , applied in
two-edge bearing
P 2 =internal hydrostatic pressure (kN/m 2 ) which will burst the pipe
in the absence of any external load.
External loading
From preceding considerations it is evident that the safe working two-edge

crushing strength, F, corresponding to a particular maximum sustained
operating (or static) pressure, Pw• must be compared with the total external
load acting on the pipe due to backfill and any other superimposed loading.
Collapsing Pressure for Pipes and Tubes 631
16·0 ~----------------------------------------------------------------,
t---------
..
£!.
14·0
~ class 25 maxomum sustaoned pressure

Q_
~ 12·0
"
:::.,
r----
a.
~ 10·0
~
0;
u
0
"0
~ 8 ·0
§
"'
"'E"
6·0
"
E
..
;;
.,E
!: 4·0
o;
u
0.
2·0
0 "'
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Workmg 2 -edge crush strength F

=( wke) kN/m 200 mm nominal diameter
Chart 1. Example of combined loading chart: 200 mm dianreter.
16·0
14·0
~
8.
~
Q_
Q) 12·0
:;
"'"'
!'!
0.
g' .10·0
.,~u
0
u.,
c:
8·0
§
"'::>
"'E
6·0
"
.~
)(
.,E"'
!: 4 ·0
'ii
u
0.
2·0
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Work1ng 2 -edge crush strength F = ( ~e ) kN/m 250 mm nomina l diameter
Chart 2. Example ofcombined loading chart: 250 mm diameter.

16-0r------------------------------------------------------------------,
14·0
class 25 maximum sustained pressure
'"
8.
~
~
"'"'"
P!
0.
"'
·=
..
~
a.
..
0
"0
c
5...
"'"
E
"
6.
..E
-~
.
.E
~a.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Wor1<~ng 2 ·edge crush strength F = ( ~e ) kN/m 350 mm nominal diameter
Chart 3. Example of combined loading chart: 3 50 mm diameter.
16-or--------------------------------------------------------------------------.
14·0~------------------------------------------------
E
6·0
"
E
..
;c
..
E
c
4·0
~
o.
2·0
0 10 20 30 50 60 70 80 90
Workong 2-edge crush strength F 450 mm nominal diameter

'
Chart 4. Example ofcombined loading chart: 4 50 mrn diameter.
Collapsing Pressure for Pipes and Tubes 6 33
16-o r--------------------------------------------------------------------------,
14·0
:.
£
"' 1 2·0 class 25 m aXImum

~ susta•ned pressure
"'"'c.
~"' .1 O·O c;;; 20mawrmum
~ su~ta•ned pressure
.,
0
~ 8·0
'"
~ class 1 5 max•mum susta•ned pressure
E
E 6·o
..
;;
..
E
~ 4·0
"a.
2·0
O L-----------------------------~----------------~--------------------~
0 10 20 30 40 50· 60 70 80 90
Work ing 2 · edg e c rus h streng th F (=~) k N / m 650 mm nominal diameter

l
16-o r--------------------------------------------------------------------------,
14-0 r----------------------------------------------
class 25 maxtmum sustamed pressuro
class I 5 maxrmum
.,., 8·0 sus!<lined pressure
c
~
..
E
:I
6-<>
:I
..E
;;
E
2·0
0 10 20 30 80 90 110 120
W or'K ing 2 · edge c ru sh strength F (=~) kN / m 750 mm nominal diameter

Table 1. factors of safety (combined loading)
Nom ina! diameter of pipe
mm in X y
200 and 225 7.9 and 8.9 3.5 2.5

250-500 9.8-19.7 3.0 2.5
600-750 2 3.6- 29.5 2.5 2.5
Table 2. Bedding factors-Class 'C' bedding
Bedding factors (k) in different laying and backfill conditions
Trench and negative projection Positive projection
Bedding Ordinary Ordinary Ordinary

angle backfill backfill compaction
CJ. compacted non-compacted
between between
XX and YY XX and YY
1.3 1.1 1.4

1.5 1.2 1.7
1.7 1.3 1.9
1.7 1.3 1.9
Table 3. Bedding factors-Cla ss 'B' bedding
Bedding factors (k) in different laying and backfHI conditions
Trench and negative projection Positive projection
Bedding High Ordinary Ordinary

angle ex compaction compaction compaction
90° 2.6 1.9 2.3

120° 3.0 2.2 2.5
·At least 90% of maximum possible at the optimum moisture content (90% standard Proctor).
Notes:
1. The above factors of safety include allowance for surge provided that the maximum sustained
operating, or static. pressure plus surge (i.e. pipeline design pressure) does not exceed the maximum
allowable sustained pressure for the class of pipe by more than 10%.
2. For pipe sizes up to 150 mm (6 in) diameter. combined loading may not need to be considered a3'.
in this range. pressure pipes are designed on the basis of beam strength and consequently have
bursting and crushing strengths in excess of practical needs.
Collapsing Pressure for Pipes and Tubes 63 5
~ F is defined in terms of a two-edge strength, so the following relationship is

applicable:
kF =We or F = We
k
where We = total external loading acting on the buried pipe (kN/m)

k - bedding factor (see Tables 2 and 3 ).
The magnitude of We can be calculated from the appropriate Marston
formulae and coefficient according to the type of soil and whether laid in
trench ('narrow' or 'wide') or embankment conditions.
Table 4A. Modulus of soil reaction for pipes to EN 545
DN 80- 300 350- 450 500- 1000
K (2cx:) () .11 () (20°) 0.105(45°) 0.103 (60°)

- -- - ~
{3=0. 75 E' =0 0 .3-10.5 0.3-7.5 0.5-2.0

E' = 1000 0.3-11.0 0.3-8.5 0.3-3.5
E' =2000 0.3-12.0 0.3-9.0 0.3-4.5
E' = 5000 0.3-14.0 0.3-12.0 0.3-8.5
{3= 1.50 E' =0 0.3- 10.5 0.4- 7.0 See note 1
E' =1000 0.3- 11.0 0.4-8.0 0.6-3.0
E' =2000 (>.3- 11. 5 0 .3- 9.0 0.5- 4. 5
E' = 5000 0.3- 14.0 0.3-1 2. 0 0.3-8.0
Note 1: Only a specific calculation for each case can provide an adequate a nswer.
Note 2: The values given for the heights of cover have been established for the class K9: they are also
valid for classes K ~ 10.
Table 48. Modulus of soil reaction for pipes to EN 598
DN 100-300 350-450 500- 1000

- ---
K (2cx:) 0.110 (20°) 0.105 (45°) 0.103 (60°)
/3=0. 75 E' = 0 0.3-5.0 0.5-3.0 0.5- 2.0

E' =1000 0.3-6.0 0.4-4.0 0.4-3 . .5
E' =2000 0.3- 6.5 0.3- 5.0 0.3- 4.5
E' = 5000 0.3- 8.5 0.3- 8.05 0.3-8.0
/3= 1. 5 E' =0 0.6-5.0 See note See note
E' = 1000 0.5-5. 5 0.7-3.51 0.8-3.0
E' = 2000 0.5-6.5 0.6- 5.0 0.6-4.5
E' = 5000 0.4-8.5 0.4-8.0 0.4-7. 5
Note: Only a specific calculation for each case can provide a n adequate answer.
Trench beddings
Wherever soil and other related conditions permit. it has been widely adopted
practice over many years to lay concrete pressure pipes on the well-levelled
and prepared natural bottom of the trench. Selected backfill is introduced in
layers not exceeding 300 mm (12 in), and properly compacted up to a level of
300 mm (12 in), approximately above the crown of the pipe. In the International
Standard. beddings of this type are designated Class 'C'. This bedding
embraces the Class 'C' and Class 'D' beddings described in National Building
Studies Special Report No. 35. Consult EN545: 1994 and EN598 : 1995 . See
also the chapter on Buried Pipes.
Boiler-Feed Calculations
Boiler-feed pumps have to deliver hot water at temperatures exceeding 1 oooc

from closed feed tanks, with a steam cushion of a minimum saturated vapour
pressure at a given temperature of the feed water. A typical layout is shown in
Figure 1, when the geodetic positive suction lift is given by:
Hgs = 6.Hc + h;:s
where 6.Hc = cavitation margin

hzs = pressure losses in suction pipe
The positive suction lift (h) must be equal to or greater than Hgs·
In smaller-size boiler feed pumps, the calculated Hgs value will usually be
increased by the difference of saturated vapour pressure at trnax and tkmax from
the balancing device. When planning larger boiler feed pumps, check calculations
of the intake piping are recommended, particularly with regard to the positive
suction lift. This is mainly to be done in the operation of the so-called stepping
deaeration powers.
K - steam boiler
N - feed water tank .
VTO- high pressure heater .
I - inlet piping
2 - discharge p iping.
3 - let~ k -o ff.
4 - balancing piping from
balancing device.
5 - discharge from balancing
device.
Pp - saturated steam pressure of
feed water at respect ive
temperature.
Ps - suction branch manometric
pressure .
Pv - fina l resultant pressure of
boilerfeed pump in
discharge branch.
Hgv - geodetic delivery head .
Hgs - geodetic suction head .
Figure 1. Layout diagram ofa boiler-feed pump.

To meet potential requirements in individual projects regarding small positive

suction lifts. a so-called 'booster pump' is installed before the boiler-feed
pump. The positive suction lift of the booster pump is determined in the same
way as for the boiler-feed pump.
Minimum pressure in the suction branch (Ps) of the boiler-feed pump and/or
the booster pump is given by the relation:
(h- Hzs)Y
Ps = Pp + lO (bar)
where Pp = vapour tension pressure at a given temperature (bar)

y = specific weight of water at a given temperature (kg/dm 3 )
_
Ps- Pp
+ (h-148
Hzs)Y (Jbr;· 2)
m
Air vent
Condensate
Boiler blowdown
heat recovery ~
Temperature
control
Drain
Injector
Level probe protection tube
Feed tank desi!]n.

·where hand Hzs are in fee t

y is in lb/ft 3
Pressure in the discharge branch (Pv) is given by:

h zv X Y
Pv=Pk+ · (bar)
10
where Pk = steam generator (boiler) pressure (bar)

h zv = pressure losses in delivery piping from the boiler-feed pump
branch as far as the boiler (m wg)
hzv X Y 2
Pv = Pk + (lbf/in )
148
wh ere h zv is in feet
y is in lb/ ft 3
Boiler-feed pump head
The head to be generated by the boiler-feed pump should be calculated from

the required pressure in the discharge branch of the boiler-feed pump using
the following relation:
H = Pv - Ps x lO
_ (m wg )
y
H = Pv - Ps x 1 7 s·5 (.In wg )
y
where pressures are in lbf/ in 2

yin lb/ ft 3
However , the project engineer s hould take into account that the pump head
in (m wg) will change its characteristics consistently, regardless of the feed-water
temperature.
The specific weight of the water will change with its temperature. If a
booster pump is to be ins talled before the boiler-feed pump, the same relation
should be applied for calculating the pump head as that used for the calculation
of the pump head when no booster is involved. so that:
H = Pv - Ps x 1 O ( m wg )
y
H = Pv - Ps X 17 55 (in wg)
y
DUPLEX BRANCH CASING
IMPELLERS PUMP STUFFING

BOX BUSH
STUFFING BOX
BUSH
PUMP
SHAFT
BALANCE
DRUM
RESTRICTION
BUSH
RING SECTION
ASSEMBLY
Compensated boiler-feed pump.
The only difference will be in establishing the magnitude of pressure in the

inlet branch of the boiler-feed pump which can be calculated by the relation:
hzp X y
Ps = Pvn - (bar)
10
where Pvn = discharge branch pressure of booster pump (bar)

h~P = head losses in the piping between the booster pump and boiler-feed
pump (m)
hzp X Y )
Ps = Pvn- (lbf/in-)
148
for hzp in feet

yin lb/ ft 3
Pump delivery
The boiler-feed pump delivery may be expressed as (l/hr) in project documents.

The pumps are, however. tested in the manufacturer's test shops with cold •
water. In European practice, pump delivery is given in (1/ min) and/or (I/sec).
BARREL CASING
IMPELLERS
I
z
0
E
::J
DISCHARGE COVER
(f)
BALANCE DRUM
STUFFING BOX
BUSH
STUFFING BOX
BUSH
PUMP SHAFT
Barrel-casing boiler-feed pump.
The relation between these deliveries will be:

y X 60
Q(l/ hr) = Q(l/min) X 1000
Similarly, for Q in gal/ min:
Q (ga ljhr) = 0(gal/min) X 60
Shaft input power required is given by:
N = Q X (Pv - Ps) X 0 .02 723 (kW)

y X l}
where Q = pump delivery in (l/hr)

Pv = discharge branch pressure (bar)
Ps = inlet branch pressure (bar)
y feed water specific weight (kg/dm 3 )
17 = boiler-feed pump efficiency at a calculated point(%)
In English units:
N= Ql X (Pv- Ps) X 0.00932 5 (kW)

y x ry
= Ql X (Pv- Ps) X 0.0125 (hp)

yxry
= Q2 X (Pv- Ps) X 0 .00777 (kW)

y x ry
= Q2 X (Pv - Ps) X 0.010 (hp)

yxry
where Q1 is in UK gal/min
Q2 is in US gal/ min
Pv and Ps are in lbf/ in 2
yisinlb/ft 3 .
The pump shaft input of a boiler-feed pump should be given by the manufacturer
in the consistent units given later and calculated by the following equation:
N= QX H X Y = Nu (kW)
102 X 60 X fJ fJ
where Q = pump delivery (1/ min)

H = head (m wg)
Nu = pump useful capacity (kW)
y = feed-water specific gravity (kg/ m 3 )
In English units (head His in wg):
N = Ql H X y
X
(kW)
51,500xry
Q] X H X y
(hp)
38,420 X 1]
Q x Hx
2 y
N = ----.-
42,920 X fJ
(kW)
Q2 X H X y
(hp)
3200 X YJ
Boiler-Feed Calculatio11s 643
Por the slection of the driving machine. a planning margin in its output
should be considered owing to the inaccuracies in calculations of the whole
system and unpredictable conditions. This is why the driving machine output
(NM) will be obtained by the following relation:
NM = ( 1.08 - 1.2)N
When speed-increasing gear boxes (speed-reducing gear boxes for booster

pumps) and hydraulic couplings are to be set, then efficiency should also be
taken into account for calculating the pump shaft input so that:
Qx Hx y
N = -- - -- - - - -
1 02 X 60 X 11 X 7']p X l7sp
where 7'Jp = gear box efficiency

7'J sp - hydraulic coupling efficiency
If the pump was tested with a cold-water supply then the followin g recalculations
of the pump efficiency should be carried out if pumping hot water.
l7p = '7ip = 17m
yp
where17ip = l -( l - 7'Ji) x - x 0.1
y
7'J i = _!}_-efficiency after subtracting bearing losses

YJrn
7'] 111 = m echanical efficiency
y = kinematic viscosity of water at the test shop
Yp = -kinematic viscosity of warm water
leak-off
The whole of the pump sh a ft input. N, is not utilised in the pump for increasing
the energy o f the liquid , as part of the input that corresponds to all losses
within the pump will be converted into heat. This means that the water
temperature in the boiler-feed pump increases proportionally to the losses
within the pump.
The temperature will then be:
where 0 = delivery (1 / hr)

Qk = amount o f water flow throught the balancing device (l/ hr)
N = pump sh a ft input (kW)
If the amount of the feed-water flow through the balancing device is introduced
before the boiler-feed pump, the temperature of water entering the boiler-feed
pump increases to the value:
t _ (Qto + Ok)tk
I - Q + Qk
where t 0 = water temperature in the inlet branch less the effect of water
from the balancing device (°C)
tk = water temperature after the balancing device (°C).
A temperature rise of approximately 1 ooc is permissible in small- and

medium-sized boiler-feed pumps. At this point, a device discharging this leak-
off delivery (from the piping placed after the boiler-feed pump) should come
into operation automatically. In high-pressure boiler-feed pumps, more
detailed analysis should be made of the leak-off amount (i.y. minimum
delivery) at which the leak-off device must start to open automatically.
Steam Flow Calculations
\,Yater freezes at ooc (32°F) and boils at lOOoc (212°F) under normal atmospheric
pressure. ooc (32 °F) is the reference phase for zero heat content. Because
the actual boiling point is dependent on ambient pressure, this can be
designated t 1 . The heat required to raise the temperature of water from ooc
(32 °F) to tlt marking the onset of vaporisation, is known as the sensible heat
(h). At atmospheric pressure, the sensible heat of water is 349.3 kJ/ kg
(150.17 Btu/ lb ).
If heat continues to be applied to the water, the process of vaporisation
(boiling) goes on until all the water has been transformed to steam (AB in
Figure 1). During this period the temperature remains constant. The heat
absorbed is called the latent heat of vaporisation (L), so that at point B:
Total heat absorbed (H) = h+L
tl
A c
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I
~I
0 oc (32 °F)
~ I
h
.'. 7
L +· I
Cp(t2 - t 1)
Figure I .
Again, at atmospheric pressure, L = 2259.7 kJ/ kg (970.3 Btu/lb) so that:
H = 349 .3 + 2259.7
H = 2609 kJ/kg
or
H = 150.17 + 970.3
H = 1150.5 Btu/lb
At any intermediate point (C) between A and B. the stage of vaporisation can
be expressed as the dryness fraction (q), or ratio of latent heat at that point to
that necessary to produce a state of dry saturation (point B):
Thus at any point C: H = h + qL
If, after point B, more heat is added to the dry saturated steam, the steam is
said to be superheated. Provided the steam is subject to unrestricted expansion,
the pressure remains the same, but the temperature rises to t 2 . The degree of
superheat is then CP (t 2 - t 1 ).
The approximate value of Cp is 0.48 . Specific values are obtained from
steam tables.
Steam can thus exist in three forms: dry saturated steam free of any water
particles in suspension. wet saturated steam containing water particles in
suspension , and superheated steam. The higher the degree of superheat the
steam possesses, the more closely its characteristics resemble those of a perfect
gas.
Steam flow through pipes
The original (Babcock) formula for determining the quantity of steam able to
pass through a particular pipe with a specified pressure drop is:
D(P1 - P2)d 5
w = 87.5 L(l + 3.6/d)
where W = quantity of steam (lb/ min)

D = density of steam (lb/ft 3 )
P1 = initial pressure of steam (lbf/ in 2 )
P2 = final pressure of steam at end of pipe (lbf/ in 2 )
d - inside diameter of pipe (in)
L = length of pipe (ft)
Steam Flow Calculations 64 7
212 259 266 307 )23 336 350 361 371 380 368 OF
PSIG
0 20 40 60 60 100 1 20 140 160 180 200
2600 J J 1200
~ TOTAL HEAT OF STEAM
2600
1100
2400 - 1000
2200
2000
~
- ...._ ~ 900
1800 600
r-- LATENT HEAT AVAILABLE AT DIFFERENT PRESSURES-
I
1600 700
kJ/kg 1400 600 Btu lib
1200 500
1000
400
-
HEAT IN CONDENSATE AT STEAM TEMPERATURE
BOO
.--
-
300
600
~
..- 200
400
HEAT IN CONDENSATE AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
200 I I I I I i i I I I 100
0 0
0 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
bar gauge
100120 134 144 152 159 165170175 180 184188192 195198 oc
Changes irr amounts of heat required for the two stages ofsteam production.
The formula can also be rewritten as a solution for pressure drop:
These formulae are applicable to both saturated steam and superheated

steam.
A further formula derived from these gives the size of pipe required for a
specific mean velocity of steam:
d =usJv~D
where V = steam velocity (ft/sec)
Typical values ofV are:
20 to 30 m/s (70-100 ft/sec) for exhaust steam

30 to 45 m/s (100-150 ft/sec) for saturated steam
40 to 60 m/s ( 130-200 ft/sec) for superheated steam.
Such formulae may still be used for simplified (approximate) calculations,

but modifications of the D'Arcy equation are now normally employed, viz:
(PI-P,)= ,;p = w' (o.oo~s336f) x V
_ 2 (3 3, 6oor) v- _9
- W dS X X l0
where W is the flow rate (lb/hr)

Vis the specific volume (ft 3 /lb)
fis the friction factor appropriate to the pipe and flow velocity.
Working is further simplified by calculating a discharge factor (C 1 ):

c1 = W2 x Io- 9
and a size factor (C 2 ):
c - 33 ,600f
2 - d5
(Tabular data are available for determining C2 .)

Then:
-
~P = c1c2v
c1c2
p
where pis the mass density of the steam (lb/ft 3 ) and isdependenton temperature
and pressure.
W = Jc1 X IQ-9
35,600f
c2
w
Q = 4 .8
where Q ::: flow rate (ft 3 /min at STP)
Sizing of condensate-return lines
Basic considerations
The diameter of the pipeline between the heat exchanger and steam trap is .
normally chosen to fit the nominal size of the trap .
vVhen choosing the diameter of the condensate line downstream of the trap ,
flashing has to be considered. Even at very low pressures the volume of flash
steam is many times that of the liquid if the condensate is at saturation
temperature upstream of the trap (e.g. during flashing from 1.2 to 1 bar (17 to
14.4 lbf/ in 2 ) the volume increases approximately 17 times).
In these cases it is possible to dimension the condensate line in accordance
with the amount of flash steam formed. The flow velocity of the flash steam
should not be too high otherwise water hammer (by the formation of waves),
flow noises and erosion may occur.
A flow velocity of 15 m/s (50ft/sec) at the end of the pipeline before the inlet
into the collecting tank or flash vessel is a useful empirical value. The inside
diameter of the pipeline required can be taken from Table 1.
20
~ I~ ~ A)" I
~~
~ ""'
""' ""
""" ~'1;.
10
i
"
"'
"" ""'""' "'"'" ~
~ >-
""' " ~
"'~?v'~
"~ ,...,. I--'
"' --
~-
--
8
'\ ~ "\
7
8 ~ """' "'- "- valve
Standard g~r-- ,.- " ,...- ~
"' :>
""r-..
--
5
4
" ""' ""'~~g-~~~~K
~'--
"".....,
_.,.. X
./
~
"
r---~~~ Tee
- ~
"' ~ "" )r<

""'
3
u !'\..,
~~
Q)
- I " ""'
u
;
"'
"'....
Q)
2 a tea. tube
-r-::-?om06 ""' '\,
r--= ~~bellows)\
""' ""'"""'~ _...~~
"".....,
......
0
I\I\ ""~ "'~
c
Q)
·.-....u "' ""' "'~ I\.
"""
""....., ~
"""
'V
0
u
0.5
go• elbow "' ~
""....., ""' "' "~
.
0,3
,..,.... ~
""'~
v v ~
f.-'
.......
\0 ~a:~~
"' ~
--
0.2
_.,..~
.....- _.,..
0,1
10 15
,..,....-v --
25 32
Nominal size (DN)
40 so && eo 100 150 200 300 400 soo
The coefficie nts of resistance C of all pipeline components of the

same size are read in the above chart. The total pressure drop 6p
in bar can be dete rmined with the sum o f all individua l components
(::iC) and the operating data.(see Figure 5)
Figure 2. Pressure drops in steam lines.

~
Table 1. Condensate line sizing (based on flash steam) lrt
0
State of condensate before flashing "\:j

P ressure at end of condensate line (bar a)
c.J)~
"'0
.;,
s:: o ....,
·- v
:=L- 3l::l
0 :::l
0
.....
~~ ::s
.,..,
::::;
-ol::
~ ~
., .....
..., o..>
'-'::::>.
<':)-
"':::,
::s
-c:
.....
c.. "'
.0
v..,
c:::_ 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 -·'
) r
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 18 20 ~
(")
~
.,..,
1.0 99 3 5. 7 16.0 7.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - s::
1.2 104 3 7.9 18.0 10.0 6.1 - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - S'
.....
1.5 111 40.1 20.6 12.9 9.5 6.8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - a·
2.0 120 44.2 23.5 15.8 12.6 10.3 7.6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ::s
2.5 127 46.8 25.5 17.7 14.5 12.3 9.2 5.3 - "'
3.0 133 48.8 27.1 19.2 16.0 13.9 10.7 7.3 4.5
3. 5 138 50.4 28.4 20.4 17.1 15.0 11.9 8.5 6.0 3.8
4.0 143 52.0 29.6 21.5 18 .2 18.0 12.9 9.7 7.3 5.3 3.5
4.5 147 5 3.3 30.5 22.3 19.0 16.9 13.7 10.5 8.1 6.3 4.7 3.0
5 151 54.3 31.5 23.1 19.8 17.7 14.4 11.2 8.9 7.1 5.6 4.2 2.8
6 155 55.7 32.3 23.9 20.5 18.4 15.2 11.9 9.h 7.9 6.5 5.1 4.0 2.7
7 158 56.5 33.0 24.5 21.1 18 .9 15.7 12.4 10.1 8.4 7.0 5.7 4.6 3.5 2.1
8 170 59.9 3 5.5 26.7 2 3.1 20.9 17.6 14.2 11.9 10.2 8.9 7.7 6.7 5.8 4.8 4.0
9 175 61.3 36.4 27.5 23.9 21.7 18.3 14.9 12.6 10.9 9.5 8.4 7.4 6.6 5.5 4 .8 2.4
10 l79 62 . .3 37.2 28.2 24.6 22.3 18.9 15.5 13.1 11.4 10.0 8.9 7.9 7.1 6.0 5.3 3.3 2.1
12 187 64.4 38.7 29.5 25.7 23.5 19.9 16.5 14.1 12.3 11.0 9.8 8.9 8.0 7.0 6.2 4.5 3.6 2.8
15 197 66.9 40.5 31.0 2 7.2 24.8 21.5 17.7 15.2 1 3.4 12.0 10.8 9.9 9.1 8.0 7.2 5.6 4.8 4.2 2.9
18 206 69.0 42.0 32.3 28 .4 26.0 22.3 18.7 16.2 14.3 12.9 11.7 10.8 9.9 8.8 8.0 6.5 5.7 5.1 3.9 2.5
20 211 70.2 42.9 33.0 29.0 26.6 22.9 19.2 16.7 14.8 13.4 12 .2 11.2 10.4 9.2 8.4 7.0 6.2 5.6 4.4 3.1 1.7
25 223 72.9 44.8 34.7 30.6 28.1 24.2 20.4 17.9 15.9 14.5 13.2 12.2 11.4 10.2 9.3 7.9 7.1 6.5 5.4 4.2 3.1 2.5
30 233 7 5.1 46.3 36.0 31.8 29.2 25.3 21.4 18.8 16.8 15.3 14.0 13.0 12.1 10.9 10.0 8.6 7.8 7.2 6.1 4.9 4.0 3.4
35 241 76.8 47.5 37.0 32.7 30.1 26.1 22.1 19.5 I 7. 5 15.9 14.6 13.6 12.7 11.4 10.5 9.2 8.4 7.8 6.7 5.5 4.5 4.0
40 249 78.5 48.7 38.0 3 3.6 31.0 26.9 22.9 20.1 18.1 16.5 15.2 14.1 13.2 12.0 11.0 9. 7 8.6 8.2 7.1 6.0 5.0 4.5
45 256 80.0 49.7 38.8 34.4 31.7 27.5 23.5 20.7 18.6 l7.0 15.7 14.6 13.7 12.4 11.4 10.] 9 .3 8.6 7.5 6.3 5.4 4.9
50 263 81.4 50.7 39.6 3 5.2 32.5 28 .2 24.1 21.2 19.1 1 7.5 16.2 15.1 14.2 12.8 11 .8 10.5 9.9 9.0 7.9 6.7 5.7 5.2
To determine the actual diameter. the above values must be multiplied with the following factors:
kg, h 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 lOUO 1500 2000 3000 5000 8000 10.000 15.000 20.000
-
Factor 1.0 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.-1- 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.9 4. 5 5.5 7.1 8.9 10.0 12.2 14.1
Bases fordetermt nin~ the i11side diameter.

l. The flash steam <.~mount only I~ be in~ constdered.
2. Th.: flow velocity of the tlash ~team is as~umed to be 15 m/s.
Stearn FlowCalwlntions 651
For long pipelines (over 100m or 300ft) and large condensate flowrates.
the pressure drop should be calculated to avoid the back pressure becoming
too high. The velocity of the flash steam may be used in the calculations (see
Table 1 and Figure 2).
When the condensate is mainly in the liquid state (e.g. high degree of
undercooling, extremely low pressure) its flow velocity should, if possible, be
rated at 0 .5 m/ s (1.64 ft/ sec) or higher. The pipeline diameter can be chosen
from the chart (Figure 3).
If the condensate is pumped, the condensate in the pump discharge line can
only be in the liquid phase. For choosing the pipeline diameter, the mean
velocity can be rated at 1. 5 m/ s ( 5 ft/sec). Again, Figure 3 may be used.
100
()
80
70
50 ()
50
Steam
t.O
'
~
30
-
10 ,_ :-.
t r~ 1
--
_i
Compressed air
111
v
a
•
10 r I
' i ,/
8
7
~ 1(1
' I
(')
t- ~~
6
5
- 3
3 '
1-
·u
0
 '
3
0
CL: 0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.1.
0.3
0.2
0.1 02 O;L 0.7 2 7 20 '0 70 210 500 2000

0.1 0.3 05 3 s 10 JO SO 100 J00 1000 DXl
Flowrate V in mJh
FigHre 3. Vo llllneflowra tes in pipelines.

Calculation of condensate flowrates
Basic formula
If the amount or heat required in kcal / hr is known (indicated on the name

plate of the heat exchanger) or easy to determine, the condensate flowrate M
can be calculated:
M = 1.2 kcaljhr (1 /h )
500 (g r
The quotient 500 is the latent heat of steam (kcal/ kg) for m~dium pressures.
The factor 1.2 is added to compensate for the heat losses.
In SI units, the condensate flowrate is calculated as foHows:
= 2 W X 3600
M 1. 2000 1000
Hence:
w
M ~ 1.2 (kgjhr)
560
W is the amount of heat required in Watts or Joule per second (J/ sec) and the
quotient 2000 the latent heat of steam (kJ/ kg) for medium pressures.
U the amount of heat Q per hour is not known, it can be calculated [rom
the weight M of the product to be heated in 1 hour, the specific heat
(c = ~~~ or, in SI units, c = k~K) and the difference between initial temperature
t 1 and final temperature t 2 (b.t = t2 - t 1 ):
Q = M x c x b.t (kcaljhr)
or in SI:
c
Q= M X X b.t (W)
3600
Example:
50 kg of water to be heated in 1 hour from 20 to l00°C. The amount of hea t

required is:
Q = 50 x 1 x (100 - 20) = 4000 kcaljhr
or, in SI:
4187
Q = 50 X X (100 - 20) = 4652 W
1600
The amount of condensate is:

4000
M = 1.2 x = 9.6 kgjhr
500
or. in SI:
4652
M = 1.2 X 560 X 9.97 kg/h
/ / / I~
1---t;''-!rlr-tr':Y..- r- / -'I / v " ~ <:-

/ L ~~ ~
300
'/1SO ./10 1.1.
5040 30 20 1& 10 t6 5 4 ~
1\..
1,5 1
"
0.5
aoo 100 eo
Flow velocity win m/s
Example :
Steam temperature 300 °C, steam pressure 16 bar, Result :
a steam flowrate 30 t/h, nominal size (ON) 200 mm . Flow velocity = 43 m/s.
Figure 4. F low Vflocity in steam lines.

Example
Pipeline components ON 50 rnm
Pipeline length 20m C = 8.1
Operating data
I angle valve . . . . . . . C = 3.1
l standard globe valve . . C = 'i
Temperature · Joooc
Steam pressure 16 bar a
I tee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C == 3. 1
3 e I bows . . . . . . . . . . . . C = 1.5
Velocity = 40 m/s
•
LC = 21.0 Result 6p= 1. 1 bar
Temperature in oc
0,05 ~
.0
1:::
0,1 0..
<J
0..
0,2
0
...
"0
0,3
...::l
0
</J
1/)
o,s 0......
<U
1,0
Figure 5. Pressure drops in steam lines.

Sizing of steam lines
When sizing steam lines, care must be taken that the pressure drop between
the boiler and steam users is not too high. The pressure drop depends mainly
on the flow velocity of the steam.
The following empirical values for the now velocity have proven to be
satisfactory:
Saturated steam lines 20-40 m/s ( 6 5-130 ft/ sec)
Superheated steam lines 3 5-65 m/s (115-215 ft/ sec)
The lower figures should be used for smaller flowrates.
For a given flow velocity. the required pipe diameter can be chosen from the
chart (Figure 4).
The pressure drop can be calculated from the charts in Figures 2 and 5.
If 50 kg of water is to be vaporised in 1 hour, the latent heat of approximately

5600 kcal/kg or 2000 kJ/ kg has to be added:
50 x 500 = 25 ,000 kcaljhr
or, in SI:
1
50 X 2000 = 100 000 kH/h = lOO ,OOO X 000 = 27 778 W
t 3600 '
The total amount of heat required, and consequently the total amount of
condensate formed. can be calculated as follows:
M=12 4000 + 2 5,000 = 6 9 6 k /h

. X 500 . g
'
or, in SI:
M = l. 2 x 4652+27,778 x 3600= 7 Ok h
2000 1000 gj
Each produc~has its own specific heat.
If the size of the heating surface and the temperature rise (between initial and
final temperatures) of the product are known, the condensate flowrate M can
be calculated with sufficient accuracy as follows:
A X k (ts- tl + tz)
2
M = (kg/hr)
r
0\
Table 2. Heat emission from pipes Vl
0'
Heat emission from bare horizontal pipes with ambient temperatures between 10 and 21 °C and still air conditions.
'\l
Temperature Pipe size "'0

s,
difference: ....
3
steam to air 15mm 20mm 25mm 32mm 40mm SOmm 65 rnrn 80mm 100mm 150mm !:l
;:;l
oc W/m "''!:l"'
::s
!:l...
56 54 65 79 103 10 8 132 155 188 233 324 (J
:::.
,._
67 68 82 100 122 136 168 198 236 296 410 <'>
l::
78 83 100 122 149 166 203 241 298 360 500 ::;-
89 99 120 146 179 205 246 289 346 434 601 .....
>-·
0
100 116 140 169 208 234 285 337 400 501 696 ::s
111 134 164 198 241 271 334 392 469 598 816 "'
125 159 191 233 285 321 394 464 555 698 969
139 184 224; 272 333 373 458 540 622 815 1133
153 210 255 312 382 429 528 623 747 939 1305
167 241 292 357 437 489 602 713 838 1093 1492
180 274 329 408 494 556 676 808 959 1190 1660
Heat emission from bare horizontal pipes with ambient temperatures between 50 and 70°F and still air conditions.
Temperature Pipe size
difference:
3
steam to air 1
/2 in /4 in 1 in 1 1/ 4 in 1 1h in 2in 2 1/.z in 3in 4in 6 in
OF Btu/linear ft/ hr
100 56 68 82 107 113 138 163 194 243 337
120 71 85 104 127 142 175 206 246 308 427
140 86 104 127 155 173 212 251 300 375 521
160 103 125 152 186 213 256 301 360 451 626
180 121 146 176 217 243 297 351 417 522 725
200 139 171 206 251 282 346 408 488 • 622 850
225 166 199 243 297 334 410 483 578 726 1009
250 192 233 284 347 389 478 563 674 849 1180
275 220 266 326 398 447 550 ' 649 778 9 78 1360
300 251 304 372 455 510 628 742 888 1140 1557
325 285 343 425 520 580 705 843 1010 1240 1730
Steam Flow Calclllations 6 57
or, in SI:
( t1 + t2)
M= A X k ts - 2 X 3 600 (k h)
r 1000 gf
where M = amount of condensate (kg/h)

A = heating of surface (m 2 )
k = coefficient of overall heat transfer (kcal/m 2 h K)
w
or, in Sl in mlK
ts = temperature of steam
t 1 = initial temperature of product
t 2 = final temperature of product (quite often it is sufficient t if the
average temperature is known, e.g. room temperature)
r = latent heat in kcal/kg or kJ/ kg (approximation for medium
pressures 500 kcal/ kg or, in SI, 2000 kJ/ kg)
A few empirical values for the coefficient of overall heat transfer k are given
as follows:
kcal
m 2 hr K
Insulated steam line 0.5-2 0.6-2.4
Non-insulated steam line 7-10 8- 12
Unit heater with natural circulation 4-10 5-12
Unit heater with forced circulation 10-40 12-46
Jacketed boiling pan with agitator 400-1300 460-1500
As above, with boiling liquid 600-1500 700-1750
Boiling pan with agitator and heating coil 600-2100 700-2400
As above, with boiling liquid 1000-3000 1200-3500
Tubular heat exchanger 250-1000 300-1200
Evaporator 500-1500 580-1700
As above, with forced circulation 800-2600 900-3000
Cavitation
The phenomenon of cavitation is associated with a reduction of pressure

occurring in a liquid system, reducing the liquid pressure at a localised area
down to the vapour pressure of the liquid concerned. As a consequence,
vapour and small gas-filled bubbles form in the liquid at this point and are
entrained by the flow . As soon as they reach a region of higher pressure, they
suddenly collapse at extremely high velocities, with vapour condensing into
liquid again. Very high implosion pressures are generated , depending on the
bubble size, and may even each 10,000 bar (140,000-150.000 lb[/in 2 ). Such
high-velocity impacting pressures can show up as:
(i) noise
(ii) vibration (critical oscillations)
(iii) mechanical damage to construction materials.
Critical regions for the development of cavitation in a piping system are sudden
cross-section enlargements or contractions, changes in flow direction and
sudden changes in flow (such as at throttling gaps). The sudden contraction.
illustrated in Figure 1, is a typical example. This shows the pressure
distribution at the throttling point, where p 1 is the upstream fluid pressure, p 2
the downstream fluid pressure (lower because of the head loss after
throttling), PA is the atmospheric pressure and p0 the vapour pressure of the
fluid . At point p 3 , the pressure is reduced to the vapour pressure, generating
cavitation, with subsequent pressure recovery to p 2 . Somewhere bet\.veen p 3
and p 2 the cavitation bubbles will collapse suddenly.
Cavitation does not necessarily lead to damage. even if it does generate
noise and vibration. It depends on the intensity of cavitation or. specifically.
the lifespan of the bubbles from formation to implosion. Cavitation intensity
decreases with an increase in the life of the bubbles.
The pressure travel gradient (p 1 , p 3 , p0 ) is thus significant and related to the
shape of the flow passage. As a general rule, the pressure drop can be
influenced by streamlining the flow, although this can be optimised for one
predetermined flow condition only. Thus it is rather more important to try to
extend the pressure-travel gradient. Geometric shapes can be found which,
despite cavitation, do not lead to damage. i.e. the bubble implosion occurs
Cavitation 6 59
r1
I
I
I
I
,__. P2
/
I //
PA I /
/
I
-
I /
/
Po
Pl
- ~
-- :/1
Fl F1 F2
VI Y .1 Y2
Figure I.
away from the possibility of contact with the material surfaces. From this it
can be seen that only bubble implosions near the wall are destructive. If the
bubbles contact material surfaces, the destruction mechanism conforms with
that of liquid droplet erosion.
From the point of view of metal physics, what happens is a high-velocity
deformation of the metal as a result of the bubble implosion. In many cases the
mechanical erosive influence is coupled with an electrochemical corrosive
influence. cavitation and corrosion occurring together. It has been shown
that. in the case of industrial water, damage to carbon steel and ingot iron can
be reduced by cathodic protection, i.e. the corrosive influence can be removed .
Among construction materials which have proved to be less prone to cavitation,
austenitic steel. single-phase copper alloys (bronzes). stainless steels and stellite
armouring have been most successful. These materials are largely resistant to
corrosion so they are not subject to this additional attack.
Typical potential points of cavitation damage are:
(a) suction pipes of pumps

(b) narrow flow spaces, leakage and bearing gaps
(c) sudden changes in flow area
(d) changes in flow direction. as in bends and pipe tees
(e) changes which lead to turbulence
(f) downstream of throttle and control valves; components built
into the flow stream.
From the following list. measures can be chosen by which disadvantageous

cavitation consequences can be avoided:
(1) Avoidance of turbulence by proper streamlining of flow, e.g. by

means of a vaned ring in a needle valve (Figure 2).
(2) Prevention of wall contact after regions of pressure drop by sudden
enlargement of the pipeline (Figure 3). Developing cavitation bubbles
implode in the water space. Cavitation arises in a space not endangering
the material.
(3) Letting pressure drop occur over sharp edges.
(4) Dissipation of the kinetic energy not solely through turbulent mixing but:
(a) through built-in resistance, i.e. by increasing the friction-causing
wall surfaces. This causes an increase in the back pressure after a
point of throttling. A pressure drop below the atmospheric pressure
can be avoided (Figure 4);
(b) partitioning of several resisting bodies in series (multi-stage pressure
drop).
Figure 2.
-
-
Figure 3. Figure4.
Cavitation 661
As an approximation, the number of stages required can be calculated as

follows:
P2
n = -6.45 x lg-
Pl
where p 1 = upstream pressure

p 2 = downstream pressure
(5) Principle or flow partition into small single cross-sections. e.g. hollow
cylinders (Figures 5 and 6). The division into single jets beneficially
influences the dynamic behaviour of the medium flowing off downstream
of the throttling devices. In addition, the partition into small cross-sections
achieves a more uniform downstream flow in the following pipe.
Figure 5. Ciloke valve with low-recovery trim.
-
-
Fig11re 6.
(6) Change of flow contractions by the introduction of air:

(a) in free exit, similar to the effect of perlators in water taps with the
well-known soft jet (Figure 7);
(b) intensive ventilation in the flow passage produces the hydraulic
character of an end closure. The arrangement of the valve on the air
side is. from the hydraulic point of view, more favourable than that
within a pipeline with ventilation.
From the aforementioned it can be seen that, for throttling and control
duties, special valve types are required which are designed with special seat
and exit configurations. In general. valves are limited only according to the
nominal pressure rating. Within the standard design requirements. the special
dynamic loadings in the flow passage of the various types of valves are not
considered. In the case of mere shut-off valves, such as gate and butterfly valves.
the necessary adaptation cannot be achieved by means of design, (Figure 8).
They are, therefore, not suitable for pronounced throttling and control duty
but, because of the low permanent pressure drop, are ideal for on- off duty .
Figure 7.
lL
\ ...
Figure 8.
Cavitation 663
Such valves are suitable for short-period throttling duties such as during
shut-off in the case of a burst pipe. However, when dimensioning these valves.
the limits which result from the energy head must be considered:
Butterfly valves:
PN25 7.5m/s (25ft/sec)

PN16 Sm/s (16.5ft/sec)
PNl 0 4 m/s (13 ft/sec)
PN4 2. 5 m/s (8ft/sec)
PN2AS 2 m/s ( 6. 5 ft/sec)
(Flow velocities referred to valve nominal diameter.)
If butterfly valves are used as safety devices in the case of a burst pipe. the
responsible manufacturer considers the stresses in these circumstances and
dimensions valve and operator designs in a correspondingly strong manner.
Buttertly valves can be used for on-off operation. in conjunction with
special parallel-gate valves with perforated fixed plates, for the continuous
control of the downstream flow of water from dams.
The perforated plate divides the flow into a large number of small jets to
create the required throttling effect. The jets are evenly distributed over the
cross-section of the pipe and the uniform small-jet configuration achieved is
erfective in suppressing vibration. cavitation damage. pressure fluctuations
and noise.
Components of the control, shown in Figure 9, are simply two circular
perforated plates and an annular body (1) mounted between pipe flanges.
Plate (2) is fixed. and plate (3), on the upstream side, is free to slide up and
down. In the fully open position, the orifices in the plates coincide. The fully
closed position is obtained by displacing the moving plate ( 3) through a
distance equal to one orifice diameter. Under normal conditions of flow
control. the position is intermediate with the orifices in the fixed plate only
partially blocked off by those of the moving plate. The latter may be positioned
by hand or by valve actuator.
In water works and water power plants, needle valves, also known as ring
piston slide valves (Figure 10). have proved in more than 40 years of practice
to be excellent as flow-control valves. because individual adaptation to the
given operating conditions and duties is, with this type of valve. possible. With
reference to cavitation, this means that. by specific configuration of the outlet
shape. formation of the throttling point. design of the downstream piping. and
by the selection of the point of installation, the hydraulic conditions can be
influenced directly and damages due to cavitation be avoided. With these
control valves, all intermediate positions. i.e. partial openings, must be
possible for continuous duty to achieve variable flows or an effective change in
energy. e.g. reduction of pressure. No ill effect due to cavitation or vibration
664 Performance and Calct~lations
must occur. The design of the needle valves offers all the advantages. The flow
is guided through a ring-shaped passage around a ball-shaped inside body.
The outside body is so designed that the free-flow cross-section continuously
diminishes from the inlet to the sealing and throttling point so that flow
velocity increases. Shortly before the narrowest cross-section, a vaned ring is
provided, which swirls the outer flow filaments in such a way that the fluid is
Figure 9. Schematic showing comporrrnts ofcontrol for parallel-gate valve with perforatedjixPd plates.
Figure 10. Typical ring-piston slide valve.

Cavitation 665
forced against the wall of the downstream flow section so that detachments
are avoided and cavitation bubble implosions are kept away from the wall.
The shut-off piston in the spherical inside body moves in the opening and
closing passage, i.e. in or against the direction of flow, and produces.therefore,
a linear change in cross-section without causing the flow direction to change.
The downstream shape of the piston is sharp-edged. In contrast to former
designs with pointed piston ends. the hydraulic exit flow angle can develop,
A globPvalve fitt ed with the Smart Vnlve Interface ( SV l 0~- ) positioner/ controller.
depending on piston position and velocity in the water area, without touching
the metallic valve parts.
To enable a control valve to fulfil its duty, i.e. continuous throttling of the
rate of flow. the valve must be properly dimensioned. By dimensioning. not
only the sizing of the valve is meant but also the adaptation to the duty
prescribed, taking into account the specific operational conditions including
assessment of the cavitational behaviour. The cavitational. behaviour of a
valve can be observed in a model test from which the behaviour in the actual
installation can be deduced .
As a means of comparison, the cavitation coefficient sigma. also known as
the Thomas cavitation number, has been introduced. This value indicates the
start of cavitation. The cavitation number 8 is calculated from:
8
= P2 + PA- Po
v2
P1- P2--
2g
where PA = atmospheric pressure

p2 = pressure downstream of disturbance
Po= vapour pressure of water
p1 = pressure in undisturbed upstream side
V - velocity in undisturbed upstream side
g = acceleration due to gravity
Responsible valve makers determine the behaviour of their valves in all-

embracing tests and therefore possess comparison values for all common
operating conditions. From these data, the required design shapes can be
deduced. In extreme cases for which test data are not yet available, the particular
case is reconstructed in model tests and the required design determined . The
main precondition is precise knowledge of the operating and instaJlation
conditions at the project stage.
Only with these data is it possible to determine the optimum design of the
valves and piping run with the aim of avoiding damaging cavitation effects.
Among the necessary details are knowledge of:
(i) static and dynamic pressure upstream and downstream of the

valve referred to the desired range of rates of flow
(ii) the installation situation within the pipeline
(iii) the piping and built-in components downstream of the valve
(iv) the maximum permissible head loss, etc.
A close co-operation between designer, user and manufacturer or valves .

has in the past always proved to be very beneficial, and will doubtless lead to
equally satisfactory solutions in the future.
Noise Control
Noise produced in pipelines may be pump-generated (changes in power and

pressure. or varying amplitudes of pressure pulsations) or fluid-generated
(flow instability, turbulence or simple fluid friction).
Fluid-generated noise in small-bore pipes with low to moderate flow rates is
generally negligible, unless pressure pulsations are present (e.g. owing to
valve cavitation). Thus pipe vibration, and consequent radiation of airborne
noise, is usually caused by a higher level of noise generated by fittings; pipe
resonance is caused by a mechanical vibration or resonant noise generated in
supporting systems.
Relative noise levels are shown in Table l.
Specifically, noise control (noise abatement) falls in to two distinct categories:
Source treatment: i.e. design of components to ensure operation at minimum
noise levels.
Path treatment: to reduce source-generated noise to acceptable levels.
Noise caused by the operation of valves, regulators and control elements is
transient and related to the degree of turbulence or cavitation produced
although. in specific designs and certain circumstances. individual elements
may be subject to vibration and generate a continuous noise. So much
depends on the design and finish of the flow passages involved that no general
analysis can be attempted. The noise level of such devices is dependent on the
design and the localised flow velocities produced, and also on the response
Table 1. Relative noise levels
130 decibels jet aircraft on take-off

120 decibels Threshold of feeling
110 decibels Elevated train
l 00 decibels Loud highway
90 decibels Loud truck
80 decibels Plant site
70 decibels Vacuum cleaner
60 decibels Conversation
50 decibels Offices
Rotary eccentric plug control valve with noise control trim.
time, where applicable. The latter effect can be minimised by making sure that
the response time is not shorter than that required by the system. This will
result in minimum 'hammer'. 'Water hammer', in fact. depends on the
switching velocity of the valve, e.g. on the spool-switching velocity in the case
of spool vaJves. Valves operated by dry solenoids have uncontrolled response
and so often produce 'hammer'. \Net solenoids are cushioned by the fluid so
move more smoothly and open the valve passages more gradually (at the
expense of some loss of solenoid power).
As a general recommendation, simple undamped ball-and-spring non-return
and relief valves should not be used. On the design side. every effort should be
made to ensure that the flow passages of valves are swept and free from sharp
edges and corners as far as possible. Directional control valves must also be
carefully designed to prevent flow instability occurring.
About 80% of the noise problems in process industry control valves are
caused by flowing gas and 20% by flowing liquid. The noise caused by liquid is
more often associated with cavitation, corrosion erosion and vibration.
Noise prediction has been made a lot easier by virtue of a number of
manufacturers' software programs that have become available for general use.
Source treatment
Source treatment is difficult to describe in general terms because it is mainly

concerned with the design of optimum flow paths through valves to reduce or
eliminate noise that would otherwise be generated. In this respect, quite
Noise Control 669
different design parameters are involved in dealing with aerodynamic noise

· resulting from liquid flow .
Aerodynamic noise
Noise generated in gas or vapour is called aerodynamic noise. Most of it occurs

during the deceleration stage in the throttling process. The area where the
noise is generated can extend a long way from the orifice into downstream
piping. Pressure waves inside the piping make the wall vibrate.
Noise is attenuated very slowly in piping filled with gas or vapour. The
sound pressure level of a gas control valve generally has a broadband frequency
distribution. Maximum sound pressure levels are between 1000 and 4000Hz.
There are a number of methods of diminishing aerodynamic noise. Two, in
particular, are effective:
(i) reduction of pressure and velocity gradients generated during the

throttling process:
(ii) using, for example, multi-stage throttling and splitting the flow into
several jets.
The mean flow velocity and its profile downstream of the valve have a
particularly marked effect on the valve noise level. Splitting the flow into
smaller parallel jets reduces noise.
A typical frequency distribution of aerodynamic noise is shown in Figure 1.
Two examples of aerodynamic noise treatment are shown in Figures 2 and 3,
applicable to globe- and angle-valve bodies. Both are cage-style valves, one
using a cage with multiple slotted orifices of special shape, size and spacing,
and the other a cage with multiple hole orifices. Claimed performance is an 18
dB reduction for the former compared with a conventional valve of similar
type, and a 30 dB reduction for the multi-hole orifice cage. The latter is also
particularly effective for applications involving high differential pressures
(pressure drop across the valve). A common feature of both these valves is an
expanded outlet design to minimise regeneration of valve noise.
Hydrodynamic noise
When turbulent liquid flow is stable, it does not usually cause any significant
noise. Cavitation is the most common cause of noise in liquid flow .
Hydrodynamic noise can be reduced by affecting the intensity of cavitation.
The best way to prevent cavitation is to intensify flow losses, which reduces
the intensity of pressure recovery and increases the acoustically determined
differential pressure ratio of incipient cavitation. Valves can be designed so as
not to direct any cavitation jets at the valve trim; this helps to lower the effect
of cavitation corrosion.
6 70 Pe1jormance and Calculations
Sound
pressure level
dB
100~--------------------------------------~
Standard valve
90
Special valve
70
250 500 1 000 2 000 4 odo

Octave band center frequency, Hz
Figure 1. Typical frequency distribution ofaerodynamic noise.
Whi~per trim I with

slo tted ori !ices.
figure 2 . Trim cage and valve-body assembly.

Noise Control 6 71
Examples of cage-type valve trims for hydrodynamic noise treatment are

· shown in Figures 4 to 7. Here, the immediate aim is to eliminate or minimise
cavitation. The cage design of Figure 4 uses one stage of diametrically-opposed
flow holes through the cage wall to reduce both cavitation noise and damage.
Each specially-shaped hole directs a jet of cavitating liquid which impacts
with the jet admitted from the opposing hole at the centre or the cage. Thus, a
continuous cushion is formed which prevents cavitating liquid from
contacting the metal surfaces and ensures that vapour-bubble collapse takes
place in the centre of the flow stream.
The cage design in Figure 5 consists of one or more concentric cylindrical
sections referred to as stages. The number of stages required depends on the
inlet pressure and the pressure drop. In operation, the liquid undergoes a
portion of the total pressure drop in each stage of the cage. This prevents the
liquid in any one stage or the cage from falling to or below its vapour pressure.
Therefore, formation of vapour bubbles and their subsequent collapse is
eliminated.
Figure 6 shows a further trim design employing a {patented) pressure
staging for elimination or cavitation with differential pressures above 200 bar
(3000 lb/in 2 ). The expanding flow area design takes advantage of the ability
Whi~per
trim JII cage in Pish er
EWDcontrol valve-body
assembly.
Whisper trim lil cage.
Figure .3.
of the liquid to undergo a greater pressure drop in the initial stages without
cavitating. This results in a much lower inlet pressure to the final stage.
This design also separates the shut-off and throttling locations to prevent
clearance-flow erosion.
A further design is shown in Figure 7 where the trim consists of a carefully
designed bundle of tubes which minimises cavitation noise and damage by
controlling the formation of cavitation-bubbles. The tubes serve three functions:
they prevent the flow stream from reaching its potential minimum area, they
maintain maximum pressure head to reduce cavitation bubble formation. and
they limit the size and number of cavitation bubbles that do form .
Ca vitro I I cage.
Cavi tr oll cage in f is her ED
valve-body assembly.
Figure 4.
Ca vit.rollfl cage in Fishe r ET

va lve-body assembly.
Figure S.
Noise Control 6 73
Ball valves
Rotary-control ball valves were previously noisy due to the high recovery
character of the ball valve and cavitation at high differential pressures.
The first low-noise anti-cavitation ball valve was introduced in 1979. It
was based on a multi-stage, multi-flo'"' principle, with a trim of variable
resistance depending on the valve opening.
Cavitrol IV trim.
Cavitro! IV trim with fisher
valve-body assembly.
Figure 6.
fnlet of Vee-Ball valve-body

Cavit.rol V trim.
assembly with Cavitrol V trim.
Figure 7.
The quiet metal-seated control-ball valve sh0\1\rn in Figure 8 combines the

concept oflow noise with minimum cavitation.
Parallel perforated plates in the ball flow opening smooth the pressure drop
as the flow passes through. The gradual pressure reduction over the valve
reduces velocities, noise generation and cavitation.
When the ball is opened, the fluid passes through the upstream seating
orifice encountering resistance inside the ball flow opening. The flow is forced
through the holes in the perforated attenuator plates (Figure 9).
The plates create a frictional path, where each plate and the seating orifices
reduce the pressure step by step. This prevents excessive velocity generation.
lowers the noise level and minimises cavitation.
When the opening angle is increased, resistance decreases as the flow
successively by-passes the plates. This gives optimal valve-flow characteristics
and thus high rangeability and capacity.
Fig1.1re 8 . Quiet metal-sPatrd control ball vnlvr.
Figure 9. Principle of the IJnll with parallel perforatrd piaU'S.

Noise Control 675
This type of valve has proved successful in many applications industries

including:
• hydrocarbon processing
• power generation, chemical, and pulp and paper industries
• flow and pressure control. especially in critical flow conditions
• blow-down
• pressure equalisation
• high-temperature service and tight shut-off requirements
Butterfly valves
With conventiona l butterfly valves, increasing differential pressure causes a

high dynamic torqu e. thus jeopardising controllability at high opening angles
and causing noise with gases and cavitation with liquids.
The valve shown in Figure 10 overcomes this problem. The non-symmetrical
pressure-distribution pattern on both sides of the vane bas been made
symmetrical with a downstream partial flow obstacle inside the valve body.
This design helps to eliminate the dynamic torque and , because of the more
turbulent flow pattern, lowers the recovery behaviour.
Figure 10. ·s' disc but ierfly control valve witltj low-ba/ancing and noise-control trim.
The disc has been designed to remove fluid forces from the disc to the body
and the 'flow-balancing trim' has been incorporated to optimise the inherent
flow characteristics of the valve. As a result, noise and vibration are reduced .
The valve is used in many process applications within the temperature
range -200 to +700°C (-333 to+ 1300°F).
Pressure-relief valves
The following formulae are used for calculating noise levels of gases, vapours
and stream as a result of the discharge of a pressure-relief valve.
The expressed formulae are derived from API Recommended Practice 5 21.
Ltoo = L + 10LOG10(0.29354 W k T/M)
Where 1 100 = sound level at 100ft from the point of discharge (decibels)
L = noise intensity measured as the sound pressure level at 100ft
from the discharge
vv = maximum relieving capacity (lb/ hr)
k = ratio of specific heats of the fluid (for steam, k = 1. 3 if
unknown)
T = absolute temperature of the fluid at the valve inlet (0 Rankine
(°F + 460))
M = molecular weight of the gas or vapour obtained from standard
tables
When the noise level is required at a distance of other than 100 ft, the
following equation should be used:
Lp = L10o - 20LOGIO (r/1 00)
where Lp = sound level at a distance, r, from the point of discharge (decibels)
r = distance from the point of discharge (ft)
Path treatment
Standard methods used for noise reduction in piping are:
(i) Damping by means of suitable isolating pipe supports. This also provides
decoupling for supporting structures.
(ii) Decoupling from other sources of noise or vibration in the system.
(iii) Insertion of silencers.
(iv) Soundproof ' lagging'.
(v) Use of bearing-walled pipe.
For the majority of systems, only (i), and to a lesser extent (ii), should be
necessary. 'Lagging' is normally only required when there are pulsation
Noise Control 6 77
vibrations present which cannot be damped or isolated by simple means. This

is most likely to occur in pumped systems employing thin-walled, large-diameter
piping, particularly on the suction side.
Sufficient damping for pipes is usually provided by suitable supports. or pipe
clips, spaced at regular intervals, the supports having resilient linings so that
vibration in the pipe is not transmitted directly to the surface to which the
supports are fixed.
Optimum pipe spacing can be analysed in terms of standing wave phenomena,
although this is seldom necessary. The case of axial standing wave is usually
academic, for practical lengths are usually substantially lower than the
critical length, which is defined by:
8200 .
La = f tor steel pipes
where La resonant length of pipe (ft)

r = frequency of any strong vibration
Theoretically. at least, the distance between pipe supports should always be

less than this resonant or critical length.
It may, however, be necessary to analyse the various possible sources of
noise in a fluid pipework system in more detail in order to arrive at satisfactory
noise treatment. In this case, the possible sources of noise generation, in
decreasing order of significance, are:
(a) pump noise (where applicable)

(b) appliance noise
(c) control element noise
(d) water hammer
(e) chatter
([) cavitation
(g) resonance
(h) pipework noise
(i) thermal effects
Bellows
Bellows-particularly rubber bellows-can be very effective in preventing

pump noise from being transmitted along pipelines. Plain elastomeric bellows
provide a complete isolation joint and give the best possible sound absorption
as all pipe-borne noise must pass through the bellows material. For best
results. the bellows should be placed as close to the pump as possible, and the
pipe to which it is connected securely anchored as near as possible to the other
end of the bellows. The pump also needs to be solidly mounted to withstand
both pressure forces and flexibility forces arising out of the bellows' stiffness.
Where this is not possible (e.g. the pump is flexibly mounted), or other
factors (such as high pressure) mitigate against the use of plain bellows. tied
or axially-restrained be.llows must be used. Such bellows are pressure-
balanced units. The flanges and tie-bars, however. now form a transmission
path for vibration unless isolation treatment is incorporated. The simplest
form of treatment is by the use of resilient bushes and/ or rubber washers to
prevent metal-to-metal contact between the tie-bars and the backs of the
restraining flanges. Even single rubber washers can be effective. if correctly
selected in terms of hardness.
Some noise-reduction data obtained with representative designs are shown
in Figure 11.
Metal bellows
Metal bellows can give inconsistent results in terms of noise and vibration
isolation. Generally their performance is much below that of rubber bellows.
Again some test data are shown in Figure 12.
Isolating flanges
An alternative type of isolator is shown in Figure 13. Basically, this consists of

a solid rubber 'washer' of appreciable thickness, into which are bonded steel
flanges. These flanges are tapped to accommodate bolts for assembling the
I NOISE REDUCTION I
PIPE MATERIAL WATER COLUMN
STATISTICAL STATISTICAL UNTIED

UNTIED
AVERAGE AVERAGE
-~
I
50 50
80 80
-;; -;;
:; 125 -I> 125
~ 200 u
c 200
c
"'::l 315 "'::l
rr 315
a
~ "'
~
u.
u.. 500 500
800 800
1250 1250
2000 2000
3150 3150
5000 5000
0 -10 -20 -30 0 - 10 -20 -30

dB dB
6-----.1'1.6-~~ == 3 bar ~---o---o = 5 bar c .. ..... o· · .....a .= 8 bn r
Figure 11. Typical noise reduction with simplr ntiJber bellows.

Noise Control 6 79
isolator betvveen conventional flanges without metal-to-metal contact

through the joint.
Theoretically, such a form of isolator should prove better at higher frequencies
than lower frequencies. although actual performance would depend on the
hardness of the elastomer used. It is not generally as effective as rubber
bellows, and definitely inferior for isolating lower frequencies. It does. however.
---NOISE REDUCTION---,
.-I
STATISTICAL STATISTICAL
AVERAGE AVERAGE
~ -~
50 50
80 80
12o 125
200 200
.., 1:
T 315 315
,._ u
>-
500 500
'" c:
0>
"
~ :?. 800
,; 800 ~
lL
~~
~250 1250
2000 2000
3150 3150
5000 5000
0 -- 10 - 20 -30 0 - 10 - 20 -30
dB dB
Figure I 2. Typical noise reduction with corrugated-steel bellows .
.---NOISE ABSORPTION---,
STATISTICAL STATI STICAL

AVERAGE AVERAGE
50 50
80 80
125 125
....
I 200 :I: 2oo
>
u 3 15 ~ 315
c:
c Q)
ll>
:J 500 :::> 500
cr 2"
QJ
lL 800 u: 800
1250
1250
2000 2000
3 150 3150
5000 5000
I
0 -10 - 20 - 30 0 - 10 -20 - 30
dB dB
Figure 13. Solid metal/solid rubber isolating unit and typical noise-reduction data .
have the advantage of providing a 'solid' coupling and so can be used with
flexibly-mounted pumps.
Acoustic filters
Acoustic filters can be fitted to systems where pressure ripple is high. These
are essentially tuned silencers which are critical in design and are usually
effective over only very narrow frequency bands, although the attenuation
achieved can be quite high. Untuned silencers simply comprise an expansion
chamber with broader coverage but reduced attenuation . An accumulator is,
in effect. an untuned hydraulic acoustic silencer and is most effective at lower
frequencies. Dissipative-type silencers provide for dissipation of energy
through viscous flow losses and. as a consequence, consume some fluid
energy. They may be combined with an untuned silencer. although the
attenuation will still be appreciably lower than that of the tuned type.
In general, wave-cancelling filters are to be preferred because the frequencies
involved are low. If the pressure transients are narrow band, a Quinke tube
and expansion chamber can be effective (Figure 14). A major disadvantage of
this and other types of simple wave-cancelling filters, however, is the
relatively high pressure drop produced. The more usual form of hydraulic
silencer is the pressure-release type shown in Figure 15. This gives minimum
c
0
Equal flows in
"'
each section
'i1
- ....
Ill
" '0
c
- 0
U)
::J
Frequency-
Figure 14.
Rubber separator
Gas space
Orifice tube
Pigtlrl' 15. Pressure-relensefiltl'r.

Noise Control 681
pressure drop and broad-band filtering, but is pressure-sensitive and needs

regular routine maintenance.
Shock preventers
Shock preventers are pulsation dampers (or accumulators) characterised by

having very large flow-inlet apertures which are partially closed off by liquid
trying to flow back out of them. They are not shock absorbers, as they prevent
shock or surge occurring. For the same reason, they do attenuate shock.
Shock removers
These are sensitive hydropneumatic devices which prevent a standing wave

from passing farther down a system or from bouncing back through them.
They are normally o[ tubular or sleeve form with a flexible membrane.
Because of their length, it is possible to open a membrane so that it is exposed
to the increased pressure of a wave and to close it behind the wave, thus
shutting it in.
See also the chapters on Cavitation and Flow of Liquids Through Pipes.
Balancing of Hydronic Systems
Excess consumption of heating energy is the result of temperature variations

in a building and the generally incorrect approach taken to solve the problem.
If, for example, one room is too warm and another too cold. the necessary
adjustments are often made in the room that is too cold-the result being that
the average temperature of the building, which to start with was probably quite
sufficient had it been balanced out, now becomes too high (see Figures 1 and 2).
18 19 20 2 1 27.
Figure I. Example of correctly 1m/anced building. Averngl' trrnparr ture 20°C.
23 24 25 26 77 ?fl oc
Figure 2 . Example of wrongly balanced b11ilding. A vernw tempPr atu re 2 3° C.
Balancing o{Hydronic Systems 68 3
Obviously, this higher average temperature implies a higher consumption

of energy; how much higher depends on the specific heat requirement of the
geographical area in degree/days. Generally speaking, however, one can say
that each degree above+ 20oc (+68 °F) indoors means heating costs which are
about 5 or 6% higher than normal (see Figure 3 ).
In a cooling plant the conditions and the means are of course reversed, but
the waste of energy is often increased.
In many cases, excess temperature is even ventilated away, or the windows
are opened, which can mean an average temperature which is more than 4-5°C
( 7-9°F) too high.
Energy-conservation measures have always been of considerable interest
and the balancing of a hydronic system is particularly interesting because
only simple measures are needed and they give quick and very evident results.
Savings of 20 to 30% are not unusual.
Pump-energy waste
It is often forgotten that pump energy also costs money. In many cases, the
pumps are oversized.
In heating systems, this is not always so very significant because the
temperature differences are often high and, therefore. a relatively small
amount of water is being circulated. However. particularly in refrigeration
systems with their lower temperature differences, pump-energy waste can add
a lot to the operating costs.
Another essential difference between heating and cooling systems is that
energy losses in the systems are converted to heat; this works to the benefit of
a heating system but necessitates an increase in capacity for a cooling system.
o/o %
cool heat
20 10
18 9
16 8
14 7
12 6
10
8
6 3
2
5
4
' ..... ......... ....... __
-.
"
2
0
0 5 10 - 15 - 20 - 25 °C heat
+30 + 35 +40 1- 45 °C cool
Fi,qure 3. Solid line: Ener(J!J cost saving in %for each degree higl1er indoor temperature at various
mnximu111 outdoor l'etnperatr1res in 11 cooling system. Brokrnline: Energy cost snviny in a heating system
in %for each degree lower indoor temperature at various minimum outdoor temperat11res.
Over-dimensioning is generally a consequence of the following:
(i) When the pump was chosen, the designer was uncertain of the pressure
drop in the system (boiler, heating batteries, valves. etc.) because the
tender covering the components had not been finally accepted.
(ii) Insufficient data concerning the pressure drop in the piping system.
(iii) General safety factors .
However. to facilitate balancing, it is wise to increase the sizes of the pump

slightly, but not to exaggerate.
Modifications to an over-dimensioned system (for example, by changing the
pump or the impeller) , do not always lead to lower overall costs, although
such measures do often prove worthwhile.
For some time now, it has been taken for granted that a hydronic system in
a new building must be balanced. The question being discussed is how to
balance it and who is to balance it-the application engineer, the heating
contractor, or a firm specialising in the balancing ofhydronic systems.
Examples of balancing valves.

Balancing ofHydronic Systems 685
Construction
To skip the piping calculations entirely and simply specify that the system
shall be balanced without detailing the means or the way to do the work
implies a significant amount of extra work for the person who is to perform the
balancing. Furthermore, balancing is not a universal solution which will
make a poorly designed system function adequately.
When designing the system, care must be taken to arrange clearly demarcated
sections.
Calculations
For newly-built facilities in Sweden, for example the SBN 80 3 9:3 2 specifies
that the method of balancing and the presetting values and water-flow values
for the balancing valves must be detailed on the building permission
documents. This necessitates complete piping calculations and the
determination of pressure losses in the heating system.
The Kv values can, in the case of radiator valves, generally be adjusted
directly by means of the presetting unit which is marked off in Kv , although
this only applies in a limited number of manufacturers' valves.
Balancing valves must be incorporated in all branches to avoid having to
balance the radiator valves in one branch against the balancing valves in
other branches (Figure 4).
Reverse-return mains, according to the Tischelmann system, can simplify
many balancing problems. The exclusion from such a system of balancing
valves will, however, lead to imbalance, because different radiators and heaters
or cooling units do not have the same output or pressure drop. However, the
pressure differences in the system between branches will be lower, which
means that balancing will be easier. The Tischelmann reverse-return system
a lso has benefits to offer when balancing the sub-circuits (Figure 5).
Balancing and sllllt-off valves.

Balancing
Before commencing to balance a system, all valves must be opened fully. This
applies particularly to thermostatic radiator valves and two-way control
valves. This type of valve operates with varying flows and. unless it is ensured
that the valve is fully opened, it may just have closed automatically as balancing
was commenced.
A thorough knowledge of the system is also important before the commencement
of balancing. The information required includes the following:
(a) drawings with hydronic sketches

(b) data concerning flows and pressure drops across heat generator, batteries,
radiator heaters, balancing and control valves
(c) pumps data and pump diagram.
The desk method
A well-defined system of not too great complexity generally requires only one
single adjustment of all valves used. including radiator valves and balancing
valves, in accordance with the values specified by the drawings. Control
measurements should, however, be made on one or more extremity branches
Figure 4 . Balancing valves incorporated in all brand1es to avoid having to balance the radiator valves in
one branch against the balancing valves in other branches.
I· --l
Figure 5. The Tischelmann reverse-return system can simplify many balancing problems. Tire exclusion
f rom such a system of balancing valves will. howPver. lead to imbalance, since different radiators and
heaters or cooling units do not have the same output or pressure drop. but the pressure d(fferrnce in the
systnn between the branches will be lowe r. This means that balancing will be easier. The Ti schelmrmn
reverse-ret urn system also has benefits to off er whm balanciny the sub-circuits.
Balancing ofHydronic Systems 68 7
(farthest away from the pump) as well as on a few central branches. The flow
deviations found in these control measurements should not exceed 10% of the
volume or 20% of the pressure. If. after an adjustment as described earlier.
there are still temperature deviations of more than 1 oc (2°F) in individual
rooms. and if these cannot be related to temporary fluctuations in the heating
or cooling load. the explanation will be found in one of the following: incorrect
calculation of the heating/cooling facility; incorrect design/ installation of
heating/ cooling facility; bad building (insufficient sealing, draughts).
Temperature measurement method
This method. which is only applicable to heating systems, is based on the fact
that each radiator/ heater is dimensioned according to the same temperature
drop with an equal outdoor temperature. As a consequence, the system can be
balanced by measuring the temperature drop at the pump and then adjusting
the balancing valves so that the temperature drop is the same at the pump as it
is over each branch.
To achieve acceptable accuracy with this method. the outdoor temperature
must be almost constant throughout the entire balancing process and. in
addition, below 1 oc (34°F). It is often small temperature drops that are being
measured and therefore the temperature differences become even smaller. For
this reason, the system is at times less than exact (see also Figure 6 ).
The temperature method can also save time if it is used as a preliminary
stage prior to the proportionate balancing method described below.
Proportionate balancing method
This method is one of the most frequently used and it is suitable for old
facilities as well as for new ones.
The procedure is to measure the pressure drop and to move proportionally
from branch line to branch line. This is done as follows:
{1) Set all radiators and balancing valves according to the drawings
specifications-or open them if no specifications are available (Figure 7).
(2) Start by measuring branch lines 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 of sub-system 1 and
determine the proportionate flowrate, that is to say the relationship
between measured flow rate and design flow rate. If flow in 1.1 is 1500 l/h
and the design flowrate is 1000 1/h, the proportionate flow rate will be
1.5.
(3) Presume that 1.1 has the lowest proportionate flowrate, 1.2 the next
lowest and so on. In this case. leave the valve of branch 1.1 open and
balance 1.2 to give the same proportionate flowrate as 1.1 (within the
tolerance applying). These two branches are now balanced and you can
continue with 1.3, balancing it against 1.2 until they both have the same
10 20 30 40 50 100 200 300 400 500

100 200 100 400 500 1000 2000 3000 5000
6. p(any unit)
Nomographic chart for the balancing of branch lines on the basis of

combined pressure and temperature difference measurements.
In the example, the measured pressure difference is 45 mm Hg and 1he
/emperature difference is 8 oc.
If a 10 oc difference is desired p
the balancing valve must be 180
throttled to give a pressure ir"
1oo
difference of 29 mm Hg . )~
140
120 ·f
I~ 0( 1.3)
~~
100
80
v ~
1./
60
1/ )A
j )
~
40 - -I --
I ll'
'{_., ~"
20
0 0 %
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 14 0 160 6 t %
Fig11re 6. The heat em iss ion variations in % as a function of temperature changes flt in% and flow changes
ill %(an 80-60 radiator system). The diagram shows that n I %deviation in temperat11re wi/lgivea significant
deviation ill heat emission. A deviation inflow will influence heat emissio11 ton muc!J lesser extent.
Balancir1g ofHydronic Systems 689
proportionate flowrate. 1.1 need not be checked. [t will change in direct

proportion to 1.2 and remain in balance with 1.2. Then continue with 1.4
in the same manner.
Because 1.4 is the last branch line of sub-system 1, this means sub-
system lis now ready and, if any flow changes occur in the total system,
the branch lines of sub-system 1 will be altered by the same proportional
amount to a new common proportionate flow rate.
Figure 7.
Boiler or
t>.P2
heat exchanger
For the same flow
Figure 8. Mixing valve.
cv
Boiler or
flowcontrol BV 6P2
heat exchanger
6Pl=t>.P2
Figure 9. Diverting valve.

Boiler or
BV2
hea t exchanger
Use BY! when CVI = 100°/.) to obtain TV 45 °C

U se BV2 to o btain return te mperature 60 oc
Use BV3 to obtain correct flo w.
Figure 10. Dou!Jie mixing valves.
(4) Proceed in a similar manner with sub-systems 2 and 3.

(5) Leave the balancing valve open in the sub-system which has the lowest
proportionate flowrate and balance the other sub-systems as described
earlier.
(6) The final stage is to determine whether or not the pump is supplying too
large a quantity of water. If it is giving too much water. it can be throttled
by a means of the balancing valves. by altering the pump speed, or by
changing the impeller. In the case of large oversizes. it is often best to
reduce the speed of the pump or change the impeller.
Some other examples are given in Figures 8- 10.

SECTION 8
Duties and Services
Water Services
Hygienic Services
Steam Services
Fire-Safe Valves
Fire Hydrant Valves
Marine Services
Vacuum Services
Cryogenic Valves
Nuclear Services
High Pressure Services
Water Services
On a global basis, the valves produced to handle water are generally made
from cast or ductile iron or cast steel. They are, in the main, larger in size than
valves for other industries. The water industry can be divided into two main
areas:
• handling clean water
• handling dirty water or sewage.
Clean water is normally handled with butterfly and gate valves. Butterfly
valves typically have steel bodies and gate valves have ductile- or cast-iron
bodies. Sewage tends to be handled with gate valves as, although butterfly
valves have good sealing characteristics, when the valve is opened, the disk is
still flat within the channel and thus presents an obstruction to solids.
Specialist applications use knife-gate valves or wafer-butterfly valves. Plastic
valves are not used in hot-water supply generally.
Other common valve types for water and waste-water include sewage
combination air valves, cushioned swing check valves, hydraulically
controlled air and vacuum valves, cone valves and air release valves.
Some water companies appear to have moved to gate valves with a resilient
seat with mainly rubber materials rather than metal-seat valves. These valves
are also replacing rising spindle-gate valves on grounds of cost. Rubber or
plastic 0-rings, including PTFE, are standard packing materials.
Metal-seated AWWA-type ball valves remain a popular choice for water-works
and industrial specialities. Automation with actuated valves is preferable. In
the water-distribution industry, for example, the water used, whether its
purpose is urban. agricultural or industrial. is distributed by an increasingly
complex pattern of pipeline networks. Every new installation, development or
addition to the network (building development, industrial zone, etc.) creates
an imbalance. Control valves in a water-distribution system help to restore
the balance by directing water distribution according to pre-determined
priorities.
It is important to understand that, although automation is now a major
factor in the water sector, it is still limited as many valves within this industry
are isolation valves that require to be operated manually.
694 Duties and Services
The main requirement is reliability in operation with little or no disruption

to the service.
Some common impurities in raw water are shown in Table 1.
The use of the plug valve for water-supply systems dates back to Roman
times and is still widely used in its modern forms, together with various other
types of rotary movement and screw-down shut-off valves. The main exception
has been the ball valve. Only during the last 10 years or so has this type been
developed to meet the technical and economic requirements of water-supply
systems. In the meantime, various manufacturers have attempted to provide
an alternative for drinking-water systems by offering 'intermediate' ('mixed')
construction types, such as the segmented gate and ball valves. In practice,
however, these types of constructions generally turned out to be hydraulically
unstable and required very high actuating moments.
Q)Reduccs pres:;ure to a clistrihution

systc01 when gnn,ity-fcd from <l
soun.:c with ~ relatively high
elevation.
Ol~edutTS pressure in an irrigalion
system.
Q)i\·laintains " preset upstrea m
pressure and a preset downstream
pressure reduc lion.
Q)Reduces pressure to a low-pressure
zone when the pump discharge Js
too high.
0 Prevcn ts over-pumpin~ of both
deep-well and booster pumps if tbc
systc·m demnnd exn:eds the
pumping ~apacity.
(:)(;unrantccs maintcnaoce of
sufficient upstreum pressure when
supplyin~ water to a low-pressure
zone.
®Prevents a pump from lowerinp;
its suction pressure below n desired
~afc operating minitnum.
0 1\hlintains a comlant dJITerenrial
pressure across a pump to maintain
a constant Uow rate.
0Prott·•·ts the system against
accidental overpressures (l'iJUSt'd hy
iJ failure of the con trol valve C lOU .
stop valve closing too quickly).
0 Doublc-netion altitude valve
allowing fi lli ng of the tank and
t•mpt·ytng hack tot he su pply.
~~~~~~ ([!) Controls the h:v ..l o f tlw tan k by
~.J;:::tf~~::V' means of float re~ulation aod allows
~ distribution to tlif• vlllagt·.
@Protects the pump stat JOn agulnst
surges due to start-up. s hut-dow n
and power failure.
<[J>([!)Eliminntcs pn·ssure flllctuntinns
when pump starts and shut s down .
0 Controls flow rote to the factory.
@ Allows l.low hetwel'n two
distribution syslt'II1S (cxnmple:
feeding a water-storage tank for
pcHk distribution I imd.
Typical control application examples.

Wat.erServices 695
Compared with the general class of shut-off valves, the ball valve offers the
following potential advantages:
(i) In the open position. it provides free passage of water in the supply
system with a diameter equal to the supply connections.
(ii) It gives an unimpeded flow profile without any distortion.
(iii) It offers the smallest resistance to flow, that is, a very small loss in
pressure over the comparable supply-line distances.
(iv) It is completely adaptable.
(v) The change in the cut-off from open position to closed position
requires a minimal change in place.
{vi) The precise shape of the cut-off guarantees a seal of great integrity.
(vii) It offers a favourable ratio of weight to stability resulting from the
design of the ball or hollow sphere which withstands the pressure.
(viii) It has low installation costs.
Ball valves for water supplies
It was not until there were ball-valve designs which took into account the
specific requirements of a drinking-water supply (such as resistance to the
formation of deposits and acceptable hydraulic performance in intermediate
positions), and the cost requirements (namely, amortisation of the high use of
energy even at low flow rates and short periods of useful operation) , that the
use or ball valves for all aspects of drinking-water supply systems became a
Table 1. Some common impurities in raw water
Nanll' Symbol Common name Effect
Calcium carbona te CaCO~ Chalk. limestone Soft sca le
Calcium bicarbonate Ca(HC0 3h Soft seale + C0 2
Calcium s ulphate caso .• Gypsum. plas ter of Paris Hard scale
Calcium chloride CaCI2 Corrosion
Magnesium carbona te M~C03 Soft scale
1vlagnesium sulph<Jte MgS04 Magnl'site Corrosion
Magnesium bicarbonate Mg(I-IC0 1h Epsom salts Scale. corrosion
Sodium chloride NaCI Common salt Electrolysis
Sodium ca rbonate Na 2 CO j Washing soda or soda ash Alkalinity
Sodium bicarbonate Na HC01 Baking soda Priming. foaming
Sodium bydroxide NaOH Caustic soda Alka linity. embrittlement
Sodium sulphate Na 2 S0 4 Glaube r salts Alkalinity
Silicon dioxide Si02 Silica Hard scale

69 6 Duties and Services
subject of interest. In contrast to the design of a conventional ball valve with

seat rings on both sides to form a seal, the principles of the rotary piston valve
were borrowed as the basis for the design of a valve having flow around a ball
section (Figure 1).
This type of circulation stabilises the flow through the bore of the ball and
prevents the damaging effects of cavitation and disintegration which occur in
the intermediate positions. The ring gap is used for the through-flow of the
medium as soon as a point of constriction is attained at which the pressure
loss in the central bore is greater than the pressure loss in the ring gap.
The basis for the stabilisation of the flow is, however. that the ring gap for
circulation exhibits small transient changes in the surface, so that sudden
changes in pressure or velocity can be avoided. The desired resistance of the
ball valve to the formation of deposits, of the sort that might be formed from
minerals and foreign particles such as sand. can be achieved in a design which
makes use of a surface not requiring special finishing (Figure 2).
+--+---
Figure I. Ball valve: opm positio11.
~
'it/
Figure 2. Ball valve: closed position.

WatcrServices 697
This type of design requires the fixed placement of the seal elements, so that
a rubber or an elastic preformed seal. of a conventional variety would be first
and foremost. To this end, there are already well-tested seals from the area of shut-
off valves which have been around for decades and can be easily adapted. The
counter seat in the housing can use a metallic seal made of corrosion-resistant
steel with inlet and outlet edges having especially large radial sections which
then provide a useful fixing in place of the rubber/ elastic preformed seal.
Figure 3. Hygienic service valve.

In addition, the bearing for the turning point of the ball is placed on an
eccentric. This reduces the frictional load of these seal elements to the smallest
levels, which is, of course, a necessary requirement. Mineralogical deposits
and foreign particles can in this fashion block the ball in its entire periphery.
so that the operating forces of the drive unit are not sufficient to move the ball.
For this reason. these types of ball valves are given a relatively large gap
between the outer surfaces of the ball and the inner surfaces of the housing, to
try to avoid gap corrosion-the formation of hard layers of deposits and
corrosion. Additionally, the ball is provided with a scraper rim extending
beyond the turning radius, which provides only a line contact and otherwise
gives the ball surface free room in which to turn.
As a consequence, even with a large amount of deposits, the operating
forces are sufficient to actuate the valve. In intermediate positions of the ball
valve, this overall ring gap results in a washing action, and the medium
moving through the valve produces a kind of sel [-cleaning effect. This
provides the necessary flow characteristics.
One design of this type of valve is the ball valve with an alternative opening
which, in a state of no pressure, permits the exchange of the elastic ring seat of
the ball without removing the valve itself from the supply line (Figure 3 ). This
device is particularly useful with large nominal diameters. It is a further
requirement that the components for transmitting the motion and the drive
unit must be solidly built and require no maintenance. For this reason,
massive shaft bearings in the horizontal direction are needed. These are not
exposed to the deposits of solid matter. and thus are not located at the deepest
point. The resulting possible lateral arrangement of the driving mechanism
Figure 4. V-port ball control valve.

Water Services 69 9
. --._
Figun! 5. Centred-disk rlastorner-lined butterfly

Metal-seated gate valve for potable-water a11d
valve {or large pipe sizes. dirty-water applications above and below ground.
results in a relatively low construction height. These construction

considerations have led to a durable and maintenance-free design of ball
valves for the drinking-water supply using well-tested components at
competitive prices.
The ball valve shown in Figure 4 is suitable for fibrous suspension
applications as well as clean water. The construction of this valve makes it
ideal for pulp and paper industry duties. The packing gland is investment cast
316 stainless steel with a standard PTFE packing.
In line with many developed control valves, the internal flow passages have
been computer designed. Shut-off is to ANSI Class VI.
PTFE-seated butterfly valves with a double-offset design offer optimum
valve life, particularly if they are used primarily for isolation and flow control.
The elastomer-lined centred-disc butterfly valve (Figure 5) has been
specially designed for large pipe sizes-1100-3200 mm (44-128 in). This
type of valve is mainly used in water supply, water treatment and electric
power stations.
In terms of standard performance and durability, rubber-lined butterfly
valves still command a significant position in the water and waste-water
industry . although PTFE is the outstanding performer. Where a rubber lining
is bonded to the body of the valve. making it an integral part of the body. the
valve body is not in contact with the medium so corrosion between body and
lining is not an issue. \1\lhen installed with the shaft in a horizontal position.
the valve is self-cleaning. This type of valve is suitable for both sealing and
control functions. A typical example is shown in Figure 6.
Other types of butterfly valves used in water service include those with an
inclined-cone sealing system for metal-to-metal sealing, where the sealing
system is completely integrated within the body.
Gate valves (Figure 7) are still the primary valves for water and waste-water
service. Manufactured in a wide range of materials. they are ideally suited for
on-off duties. The valves have knife gates, wedge gates, and parallel face
gates. Generally, these valves have a very low resistance to flow which, in the
case of parallel-gate valves, approaches that of a straight pipe.
They are also used for duties with high-pressure fluids due to the fact that
upstream pressure assists the sealing between the gate and seat.
Gate valves tend to be hand wheel operated for water service.
Shaft :.ou~ 1u
Topflongc ISO 52 1 I
O..Jlf'\g ! 0 uno bush
Bnauno
Cen~ 'IC
v•tva d iSC
Vul vo body
Figure 6. Rubber-lined butterfly valvl'.

Water Services 701
Reflux valves
Basically, this type of valve is designed for water-works duties such as normal
distribution on gravity mains. Certain types include non-slam recoil reflux
valves which are designed to prevent flutter at high velocities, and rocking
disc reflux valves, used where pipeline dimensions are in excess of 600 mm
(24 in). Some reflux valves have outside weighted levers and heavy
proportioned doors to provide non-slam characteristics and assist closing. A
particular type of water-works reflux valve is the multiple-door reflux valve
suitable for large-diameter pump or suction mains , where flow velocity is
small.
Multiple doors combined with the large-area diaphragm provide a lower
head loss against the valve than is possible with the valves of single door
STAINLESS STEEL
KNIFE GATE CAST IRON KNIFE
VALVES GATE VALVES
e Major m;lrkcts: Popa. chemical, e Major markets: Wa~!c11 at~r. water. ~--·
mming. power. solids handling.
chemical. mining. solids handling. raper.
OEM rower. OF.M
e Sit.L' range 50mm to 2000mm e Sitt' range 80mm to 600mm
e i'r~'>> llr<: r.tt i n~ PN I 0
e Raised scm face: fnr positi,·c seating
e Raisc.d sea t face fo r posit ive '>eating e Pressurt' rating PN 16
e Actuatm': Manual. clectrK. e Actuators: Manu;rl. ckctric. pneumatic.
pncum;tti.:. hyuritulic hydraul ic
WEDGE GATE
VALVES UNIVAL PORTED
GATE VALVES
inu u,,,,
• M ajor markets: Paper. chemical. power.
e Size ran<'c SOmm to 600mm
mining. solids handli ng
e Prc,~ure r.ttin:; PN 16
• StJ.e rang~ 80mm 1< • oOOmm
e Meet\ BS ~ 161 Type B Standard
e Prt·,surc rating l'i\'6 standard. PN I 0 on
• ( iunmctal sc.:at
appl ication
e Actu<llors: Cap top. e Bi-direct ional
h<1nd11·hccl. eke!ric motors
e One piece rei nforced elastomer 5lt:eve
for ~cali ng. abrasi' and corrosive
s'-·n in:s
e l-ull port open i ng
e Actu;\lm': Manu:,!. clcl'tric. pneumatic.
hydr~ul i c
Figure 7. Examples of gate valves.

design. Also, the reduction of inertia reduces the risk of slamming as pump
shut-down occurs. The design of the diaphragm inlet ports and body-contour
shape largely avoids the action of cavitation. Valves of this type are typically
suitable for velocities up to 3 m/s (10ft/sec).
Non-return valves in water systems
The complexity of water-distribution network dynamics creates an unstable

equilibrium of pressure and back-pressure, constantly modified by the user,
leading to different appliances or collectors, some of which can be compared
with veritable drains: retention vats in factories. sinks and their dishwasher.
baths and their bath- or soap-water. washing machines, central-heating
circuits with anti-scale additives, etc.
As a result, there is the possibility that water provided through the network
can be polluted by waste-water leaving the consumers returning to the mains
or passing from one consumer point to another without going through the
mains (from one apartment to the other).
1. Body inlet 14. Nuts and pins

2. Body outlet 1 5. Keys
3. Cover .16. Split pins
4. Stop 17. Stud bolts to body
5. End caps 18. Studs to cover
6. Door 19. Setscrews to end caps
7. Rocker arms 20. Eyebolts
8. Faces to body 21. Body joint
9. Faces to door 22. Cover joint
10. Bushes to rocker arms 23. End plate joinl
11. Bushes to end caps 24. Bu~ers
12. Spindles to rocker arms 25 . Air release plug
13. Pins to rocker arms
Multiple-door reflux valve for large-diameter pump or suction 11111ins.

11\later Services 703
This may be caused by:
(i) Depression on the mains: a considerable call for water (e.g. fire
hydrants) or intervention in the main pipe (repair, new branch.
breakage) can create a depression.
(ii) Over-pressure at the consumer: all systems of high pressure, of course.
but also all appliances for hot-water production. sanitary or
otherwise. instantaneous or otherwise, can be the reason for this.
(iii) Simultaneous appearance of low pressure on the mains and high
pressure at the consumer.
Protection systems
Theoretically, it is imperative to implement those systems which prevent

water returns due to these pressure disturbances. These systems should be
automatic. They can be purely hydraulic, air-hydraulic or mechanical. The
hydraulic systems are theoretically the most reliable but are often expensive
Non-return stop valve.
Gotera/[mrpose valve for water, sea-water and sewage.

or difficult to install. The mechanical systems are subject to doubts regarding

function and longevity. Principal types of protection are summarised in
Table 2.
In the presence of all these complex phenomena, and conscious of the
necessity to organise a water distribution of quality and to protect it against
the risks of pollution, numerous countries have brought about legislation
which defines the measures to be taken (see Table 2).
The principle consists of defining the rules which a good general installation
has to follow and the criteria of quality of the protection appliances to be
incorporated, in order that the whole mains escapes the danger of pollution.
To do this it is possible to use. individually or in combination, certain o[ the
different hydraulic, air-hydraulic or mechanical systems examined later.
Most industrial countries have chosen to install non-return valves (NRV).
taking into account the security-cost compromise and applying very strict
design and control rules which considerably reduce the possible hazards
connected with the mechanical character of the design.
Handwheel nut
Handwheel
Gland
Gland Packing
Stuff1ng Box
Stuffing Box Gasket
Stem
Bonnet
Bonnet Bolts
Bonnet Gasket
Wedge Nut
Wedge Face Ring
Body Seat Ring
Wedge
Body
Cast-iror1 gate valve.

Water Services 705
Table 2. Protection systems
Method Geometry Remarks
Barometric loop lO mm (33ft) loop Phys ically very safe. but costly
without branch and not always re<.~ lisable.
lnopernble in case ofleakage.
Overflow sa fety gap: - r-----....

~--~------------f.x
1. Total overUow - ·- --..:--==---..:::::==-.----; Essentially safe but ineiJective
if tap is extended with a
sample pipe.
2. A partial or Safe if outlet flow is well

overflow limit dimensioned in comparison
with inlet flow.
rneffectual if the tap is extended
with a sample pipe.
3. Diverted overflow Safe principle but limited in practical

application.
Disconnectors:
l. Without moving Safe principle but may involve

parts sub~tantial head loss.
2. \<\lith moving parts
(a JOn-line Safe principle. may have

reliability problems.
(b)Tec Safe principle. may have

reliability problems.
Reduced press ure Elaborate and costly system.

back flow preventer generally needing regular
maintenance to ensure
continued proper function.
Non-return valves Simple an d effective.

Performance and reliability
primarily depend on design a nd
qual ity of components and
manufacture.
Table 3. State of the regulations in force in different countries
Regulations Control Control

Country with tests. at the with the
agreements and/or manufacturer's consumer or in
standards site the trade
Germany X
Great Britain X X
Belgium X X
Denmark X X X
Spain
France X X X
Holland X X X
Italy
Sweden X X X
Switzerland X
Back-flow preventers and vacuum breakers
Back-flow arising from connections between a potable and non-potable water

supply can constitute a serious public health hazard. There are numerous well
documented cases where back-flow from cross connections has resulted in
contamination which could be harmful to health. The problem is a dynamic
one because plumbing systems are continually being installed. altered and
extended.
Where pollution cannot be prevented using approved check valves. the
modern approach is to use vacuum breakers and back-flow preventers.
Vacuum breakers are used on medium-risk lines and fawcets. In high risk
areas, many Health Authorities throughout the world recommend the use of
reduced-pressure back-flow preventers. These units operate on the variation
of three decreasing pressures created by the head loss of two check valves.
Any reversal of pressure from back-flow and/or back-siphonage is sensed by a
membrane actuating a release valve which will drain polluted water to
atmosphere.
Non-return valve families

An NRV is an automatic appliance intended to prevent a fluid changing its
flow direction.
Numerous classifications exist. Here we use that of the CEN which
distinguishes between four families, based on the direction of the
displacement of the closing system with regard to that of the flow of water.
Note that there are other NRV families but these are not for use in the
sanitary field, notably the ball valve. particularly recommended for loaded
liquids.
Water Services 707
Family 1:
Linear displacement, not parallel.

Perpendicular-displacement valve with straight flap.
Oblique-displacement valve with oblique flap.
Famify 2:
Angular displacement.
Lift valve.
Butterfly valve.
Family 3:
With deformable closing system.

Membrane valve.
Famify 4:
With linear parallel displacement.

'Guided' valves.
Back-flow preventer.
Test specifications on non-return valves
These should embrace the following points: mechanical characteristics of the

casing. tightness, head loss, and reliability .
In the field of sanitary protection, different countries have enforced test
specifications and methods for valves smaller than 50 mm (2 in). We will
examine here this category only and will mention the minimum and
maximum requirements for each of the characteristics listed previously.
Stainless-steel minH1ttings used to join small-bore stainless-steel tubing.
A selection of copper and gunmetalfittings.

Water Services 709
Mechanical characteristic of the casing
The resistance is defined:
(i) To pressure: from 16 bar (230 lbf/in 2 ) in water at ambient

temperature to 25 bar (360 lbf/in 2 ) at 95°C (203 °F), (duration oftest
2 to 5 min).
(ii) To buckling and torsion: according to the sizes and the countries,
the casings are subject to constraint in order to determine their
resistance.
Certain countries require the NRVs to be of dismountable design with

regard to tbe connection, with bosses for ~he following purposes:
(a) To control the tightness of the NRV.

(b) To drain the installation.
(c) To disinfect the pipes.
Also in certain countries, the alloys are specified according to the nature of
the water (e.g. the problem of dezincification).
It must be noted that the mechanical holding tests carried out on the casing
should not modify the hydraulic characteristics of the NRV.
Tightness
(i) Low-pressure tightness: all specifications prescribe that an NRV must

be tight under a pressure of 30 mm (13 in) water column, applied
during a total time of 3-10 min.
(ii) High-pressure tightness: the valve must be tight under a pressure
rising from 0 to 16 bar (0 to 2 30 lbf/in 2 ) applied during a total time of
3 to 10 min.
Head loss (L~ P)
We know that the head loss is a loss of pressure induced by any plumbing
appliance mounted on a pipe. The design of the appliance can reduce the head
loss to a minimum. In the case of an NRV, the survey of the hydraulic profile of
the internal parts determines the head loss.
It is usually expressed in feet or metres water column at a given flow . (It can
also be expressed by a coefficient of LlP, k, square function of the average speed
of flow on twice the acceleration of the weight.) The specifications usually
prescribe. for a given nominal diameter. the achievement of a minimum flow
at different values of LlP ranging from 0.5 to 10 m {1.6 to 32 ft) water
column.
Rei iabi Iity
Endurance tests are very important for an NRV which, insofar as being a
mechanical system, is often tainted with unfavourable prejudice in
comparison with purely hydraulic systems. Without modification of its
principal characteristics (tightness, t..P), the appliance can undergo up to
100,000 cycles of operation at a pressure varying from 6 to 16 bar (90 to 230
lbf/in 2 ) (according to the country), one half in cold water and the other
half in hot water (temperatures varying from 65 to 9 soc (l SO to 200°F)
according to the country). This corresponds on average to a minimum
longevity of 10 years.
Opening pressure
In principle, present legislation prescribes that an NRV must be able to

function in all positions, which means in this case the use of a release spring.
This spring must conform to the specifications which impose a limit of opening
pressure. At present, the opening pressure must always be positive and below
1m (3.28 ft) water column, according to the country. This is very important.
Experience shows that, being open for 80% of its time. an NRV functions with
very weak flow rates. Under these conditions, it is of prime necessity that the
opening is complete, as vibrations occur which can generate strong noise
nuisances. as well as their being problems of premature wear.
Valve types compared
At present, only the linear parallel-displacement valve described as 'guided'

seems to comply as, whatever its position, the design of this type alone gives
the following results:
(i) Perfect tightness at weak pressure, mainly ensured by the quality

of the guide system (difficult to obtain in the valve family with
angular-displacement, lift or butterfly valves).
(ii) A high-pressure tightness, mainly ensured by the compression of one
face against the seat and a solid closing system, which is not ahvays
the case with the family of membrane valves.
(iii) Minimum head loss, the linear parallel displacement preventing a
considerable deformation of the fluid flow, contrary to that given by
valve families producing non-parallellinear displacement.
Role and interest of the regulations
Re gulations ca n only exist if they are defined and imposed by the public
authorities and if the application is controlled by the proper bodies.
Wnter Services 711
Regulations depend on two aspects:

(i) The localisation of the protection features: it defines the list of appliances
or installations in which a form of protection must be installed, in
which part of the installation and what type of protection must be used.
Most European countries have prescribed their own regulations by
replying to two questions: 'What is to be protected?' and 'In what
manner?'. The result is that, in certain cases, the choice of appliance is
left to the decision of the installer.
(ii) The definition of the qualitative criteria of the protection equipment:
From the moment when the fitter has chosen a type of appliance. it is
necessary for him to know that the appliance corresponds with a
qualitative specification which allows it to be used in the considered
case.
Conformity to criteria
In all the countries where regulations exist, these criteria have been the object
of tests. where the operating mode is defined and where the positive result is
confirmed by the issue of an Approval No. and the right to affix a distinctive
sign on the body of the valve.
The control of the appliance is either carried out by the body which has
prescribed the regulations or by an authorised independent laboratory. whose
results are confirmed by the recommended body.
It is desirable that the definition of the specification is the result of
co-operation between the legislators, the manufacturers and the installers but
it must not be forgotten that the opinion of the legislator is predominant.
Control of appliances when being designed and manufactured is insufficient
if the complete installation itself is not also submitted to the control of the
authorities. In the case of the whole installation having to be joined with an
exterior source, it is the authorisation of the branch which is the ultimate
sanction and constitutes its certificate of conformity.
Finally, it is necessary to watch that the quality of the installation does not
deteriorate with time. This is the purpose of the necessary periodic controls.
carried out by the responsible authorities and which particularly apply to the
appliances subjected to greater approval requests. This is the reason why
NRVs are equipped with bosses in order that controls can be carried out easily.
In some cases the regulations even state quite simply that the appliances are
to be exchanged every 5 years, hence the importance of the valves being of
standard dimensions and also being easily dismountable.
Equally. it is ultimately necessary that regulations and specifications
should extend beyond the national standards, so that the rules applicable to
different countries are rendered identical for aJl. In the NRV field, the specialist
commissions of the European Standards Committee are studying this problem,
with the participation of the different national plumbing syndicates. It is
desired that their studies result in rationalisation, reduction of costs and the
elimination of protectionism. of which some national regulatory bodies could
presently be accused.
Pipes and tubes
The most common material used in domestic heating and plumbing systems is
copper tube. This has proven to be a versatile and reliable tubing product,
easily joined by compression fittings or more efficiently by soldering and
brazing. Other methods for joining larger-diameter copper tubing include the
grooved-end upper connection system that eliminates leaks more commonly
associated with soldering and brazing and speeds up installation. The system
is more suited to industrial applications and uses a pressure-responsive
synthetic rubber gasket to seal on the outside of the tubing. Tube sizes range
from 50 to 200 mm (2 to 8 in).
Increasing use is being made of stainless-steel tubing . Particular
advantages offered by stainless steel tubes are:
(a) The appearance of finished pipework is aesthetically pleasing. Both the

satin and the polished finishes are attractive, and the thin walls of capillary
fittings give pipeline and fittings a neat, continuous appearance.
(b) No maintenance is required after installation: the satin finish stays
satin-looking and the polished finish stays polished.
(c) The price is comparatively stable, not fluctuating like copper.
(d) The corrosion-resistance of stainless steel is better than copper in areas of
cupro-solvency and it is not prone to pitting corrosion by water.
(e) The mechanical properties are good. The strength is high which means
that it is less prone to damage in service. Elongation is also high which
gives it good bending properties-as a. comparison, it takes the same
amount of effort to bend 15 mm (0.6 in) stainless tube as a 22 mm (0.9 in)
copper tube. It can be sawn easily with a hacksaw or roller cutter.
(f) Copper or other non-ferrous pipe and fittings are subject to pilfering on
site as they have a high scrap value. Stainless steel does not have a high
second-hand value.
The inherent disadvantage of stainless-steel tubing employed as pressure pipes

has been the difficulty of making leak-free joints (e.g. stainless-steel tubing
used on high-pressure aircraft hydraulic systems is invariably welded). However,
this has now largely been overcome by the availability of suitable fittings ,
solders and fluxes making plumbed joints quite practicable and several jointing
techniques are now well established. These fall into two major categories:
(i) techniques requiring heat

(ii) joints which can be made at room temperature.
Water Services 713
Joints using heat
Techniques using heat to join are welding, soft soldering and silver soldering.
Welding is not used in the majority of plumbing installations although it is an
established technique for the chemical, food and cryogenic industries.
Soldering implies the use of capillary fittings where the i.d. of the fitting socket
is just a few thous greater than the o.d. of the tubing. Capillary attraction pulls
the solder into this gap. To make successful joints in stainless steel it is
essential to recognise two important properties of the metal:
(a) The low thermal conductivity of stainless steel-about 1/ 30 th that of
copper.
(b) The property which gives the metal its stainlessness-this is because a
hard oxide coating is formed within seconds of a nascent surface being
presented to an oxygen-bearing atmosphere. The coating steadily
increases in thickness until a stable protection is achieved.
For successful soft soldering, the outside end of the tube and the inside of
the fitting socket must be abraded with emery cloth to remove the oxide skin.
The prepared surface should then be painted with solder paste and the joint
assembled.
The secret of soldering stainless steel well is not to hurry, to use a small flame
and to make sure that the back of the joint (away from the plumber) gets enough
heat. Using a metal reflector behind the joint can often be a help or. alternatively,
the use of a cyclone burner produces a flame which will curl around the back of
the fitting . vVhen the solder begins to flow a frying sound comes from the joint. The
joint should be completed by end-feeding with solder wire.
Many solder paints have been made and marketed over the years. One with
a 5-year shelf life contains phosphoric acid base flux and also powder of the
tin-lead alloy which has the lo·west melting point possible. Phosphoric acid
fluxes are recommended as they only become aggressive and eat up the
tenacious chromium oxide when heated ; they will not continue to attack the
stainless steel when cold.
For silver soldering. it is necessary to use an aggressive chloride-based flux
to eat the oxide and make a good joint. It is important to remember that this
flux must be removed from the joint area (inside and outside) within 24 hours
of making the joint. Usually swilling with water for an hour or so will remove
all trace .
There are many suppliers who market silver solder and brazing rod, together
with flux, especially for joining stainless steel. The majority of these are entirely
satisfactory providing the suppliers' instructions are carefully followed. and
there must be the same care in heating the joint as with soft soldering.
Capillary fittings are at their most efficient when the gap between tube and
socket is uniform. Such uniformity is achieved with a design in which the tube
is held centrally by a specific deformation of the socket at three points.
714 DutiesandService.s
joints made cold
Low conductivity has undoubtedly been the cause of a number of leaking

joints made by soldering and, although soldering techniques have been much
improved , it is still useful to explore cold techniques. These might be used, for
instance, where naked flames cannot be applied, e.g. on sites with fire risks or
pipelines fitted with a plastic anti-burst liner.
Three basic techniques are: cold adhesive bonding (now approved for
cold-water supplies), the use of compression fittings. and the use of screw-thread
fittings (the last named is only used for thick-walled pipe and. as it is not applicable
to thin-walled tubing used in plumbing, will not be discussed further).
Experimentation has been carried out by the adhesive makers. by stainless-
steel capillary-fitting makers and by the British Steel Corporation to determine
the best adhesive to use and to devise a method of applying same. Of the many
adhesives tested, the dimethacrylate esters, which are anaerobic adhesives,
have proved to be the most satisfactory.
These anaerobic adhesives cure in the absence of air, that is, ·when they
enter the confined capillary gap they start to harden. They will cure by
themselves, but in order to make a joint cure to handling strength in 2 min it
is necessary to use an accelerator which can be applied from an aerosol
spray.
The bonding technique entails cleaning the tube ends with coarse emery
cloth, spraying with accelerator and allowing the latter to dry (30 sec). A ring
of the viscous adhesive is then applied to the leading edges of both the tube and
the fittings. The tube is then pushed into the fitting socket and left without
movement for 2 min for handling strength to be achieved. When cured, a pull-out
strength of 1.1 tons is obtained for a 15 mm (0. 6 in) tube. Pipelines jointed by
these adhesives will withstand internal pressures of 310 bar (4 500 lbf/in 2 ).
This technique has now been approved by the UK Thames Water Authority
for use with potable water and by the majority of the Regional Water
Authorities in the UK. The maximum temperature for which its use with
water and aqueous chemicals is recommended is 60°C (140°F).
Now that mini-bore tubing is available down to 6 mm ( 1 / 4 in). together with
a complete range of low-cost capillary fittings, this technique (and soft
soldering for applications above 60°C (150°F) will increase the use of
stainless-steel instrumentation, for medical gases and for various water
applications.
Stainless-steel compression fittings employ the principle of tightening a nut
which causes a ferrule or olive to be compressed tightly on the tube by forcing
it down a cone on to the tube end. The shape of the ferrule is the subject of
many patents.
Most compression fittings have two or three ferrules per fitting . Some
designs dig into the tube wall-the so-called 'bite-ring' fittings-and some are
just compressed tightly onto the tube. Joints are quickly and easily made with
Water Services 715
compression fittings; with most designs just two spanners, turned in

opposition, are needed. A particular model employs only one screw thread to
apply the forces necessary for compressing the two ferrules and the joint can
be broken and remade a number of times. These fittings are intended for use
with thin-walled tube to BS412 7, and this point should be checked by
plumbers contemplating the purchase of stainless-steel compression fittings
as some designs only work on thick-walled tube.
For the handling of some liquids such as milk, milk products and beer, it is
essential to have demountable joints in order to clean stainless-steel pipelines.
Such joints must be free from cracks and crevices which might become
breeding places for bacteria. There are a number or designs of fittings available
incorporating PTFE washers and neoprene 0-rings for these applications. For
other chemicals. cone-seated or flat-seated joints with gaskets are in common
use.
Summary
The cause of leaks in stainless-steel plumbed joints in the past can be mainly
attributed to lack of knowledge of the differences between stainless steel and
copper. It is worth repeating that the low thermal conductivity of the metal
must be recognised. A big flame from a blow-lamp is not enough; time must be
allowed for the heat to soak all round a joint.
The other important difference is seen in the choice of flux . Chloride-based
fluxes are a hazard as they are corrosive on stainless steel. Often hygroscopic
traces of hydrochloric acid can form and cause pitting.
The availability of stainless plumbing as a complete system acts as a
stabilising influence on the cost of plumbing. The growth of the stainless-steel
domestic plumbing market will be affected by three main factors:
(a) the price of copper tubing and fittings, which may well rise again in the
not too distant future;
(b) the price of stainless-steel compression fittings, which is expected to fall:
(c) the availability of an adhesive which will withstand boiling water for long
periods without losing its strength. When this is available. the use of
stainless-steel tubing in central-heating systems will be even more widely
accepted.
Domestic water-supply valves
The demand for shut-off and thermostatically-controlled valves has increased

for domestic copper and stainless-steel pipelines with the greater use of
domestic central heating, washing machines. dishwashers and showers. etc.
The quarter-turn valves shown in Figure 8 are designed as emergency shut-off
valves to be installed upstream of taps, ball valves and appliances, and can be
used to isolate individual fittings for servicing without having to drain down
the whole plumbing system. Alternatively, they are used for permanent
plumbing-in of washing machines and other appliances.
The valve has been designed to shut against a test pressure of 20 bar
(300 lbf/in 2 ) and has been accepted by the UK National Water Council
providing that it does not replace the mandatory screw down stop valve.
Figure 8. Quarter-t11rn slmt-off valvl's.
Handwheel
Tube
cutter
and seal
Saddle
Backplate
Fits to all 15 mm (1/2 in) copper water supply pipes
Fig w-e 9. Selj-n1tling plumbing-in valve l<i tfor donrestic equipmnrl.

Water Services 717
A valve with a self-cutting plumbing-in kit has been developed so that it can
be fitted quickly without having to turn off the water supply. The valve shown
in Figure 9 is suitable for connection to 15 mm copper pipe supplying
domestic cold and low-pressure hot water, and is ideal for plumbing-in
washing machines, drinks dispensers and garden taps, etc.
Thermostatically-controlled flow regulators and stopcocks have been
developed for use with electric instantaneous showers, wall kettles, etc., to
enable a selected temperature to be maintained. The regulator senses
fluctuations in supply pressure causing variations in water flows and
automatically adjusts to provide constant flow across the heater elements,
and thus provide constant temperature.
Hygienic Services
Valves have been developed for use in hygienic pipelines for dairy, brewery,
food, beverage. biological and other process plants, where automatic valves
manufactured to a high standard of hygienic design are demanded. These are
usually stainless-steel valves free from pockets or crevices designed for the
control of both product and 'cleaning-in-place' fluids .
Food and beverages
The food and beverage industry is a large user of gas. steam and water on a
continuous basis, indicating a requirement for general process-control valves
in addition to sterile valves for handling food products. Plastic/ polymer valves
are also a popular choice although use of these may be limited by the need ror
aggressive or caustic cleaning. Manual shut-off valves are used in areas of
planned maintenance shut-down or in problem areas which may need to be
clea red. Products can then be left in the pipeline leaving only a small section
to be cleared and cleaned.
Double-seat valves are ideally suited for 'contained-flow systems'.
eliminating the need for manual swing bends for product and cleaning lines.
Filling, emptying and CIP can take place simultaneously in a totally 'closed-in'
flow system with all functions automatically controlled.
The butterfly valve shown in Figure 1 has a disc/ stem (A) in a 316
stainless-steel one-piece design and produces bubble-tight shut-off. The valve
has acetal stem bushes (B) and a double '0' cup self-adjusting seal (C). The
extended neck (D) allows ror 5 mm of piping insulation. The seat is of a tongue
and groove design (E) and the primary seal (F) is achieved by an interference
fit. The body (G) is a two-piece wafer or lug style. The main feature ol' this
particular type of hygienic valve is its international compatibility.
The rotor valve (Figure 2) is particularly suitable for rood, beverage and
pharmaceutical applications. The main benefits of this type of valve are:
multi-port capability, cavity-free, high- now, top-entry and quick-couple
connection.
Figure 3 shows an air-operated remote-control changeover valve. The
movement of the valve is transmitted by a piston in the actuating cylinder.
Hygienic Services 719
The piston is operated by compressed air arranged to open or close the valve as
required, the return movement being spring-assisted to provide a fail-safe
feature. The diaphragm shaft seal shown is particularly suitable for aseptic
duties involving the use of steam-sterilisation procedures. The seals are
manufactured from PTFE and can be used at temperatures up to 150°C
( 302°F).
Pharmaceuticals
The pharmaceutical industry has requirements for primary and secondary

manufacturing processes. The secondary processes have standard
requirements covering steam, water and quality-water supply.
The material of choice tends to be 316 stainless steel with gate- or
bellows-sealed valves for steam handling, bronze-gate valves for standard
water handling and _diaphragm valves for quality-water handling. Primary
processes require sterile valves for materials handling.
The valve shown in Figure 4 is used in the pharmaceutical drug industry
and in hospitals for oxygen-supply systems. The valve is fitted with a seaJed
plunger mechanism to ensure there is no remnant of media in the actuating
zone.
A manifold of mixproof valves installed irz a dairy.

720 Duties arrdServiccs
Sterile valves developed for use in bio-technology and food-processing

applications are available, complete with valve actuator as shown in Figure 4 .
Stainless-steel body extensions at both inlet and outlet permit welding into the
process line with extra-thick extensions to guarantee weld integrity.
Internal components can be steam-sterilised via permanent connections to
a steam supply. Temperature-monitoring devices are attached to the valve to
ensure total sterility and conventional bonnet backing is removed to avoid
process contamination .
A colleclion of sanitary valves and pipeline components for use 011 process lines in food. beverages and
body-care plants.
Hygie11ic Sl'rvices 7 21
Figure 1. Butterfly valve for hygienic services.
4-Way 5-Way
Fig11re 2. Multi-port rotor valves for food, beverage and plwrmaceuUcnl npplicntiorrs.
Figure 3. Air-operated hygienic-service valve.
Figure 4. Plwnnaceuticnl industry stnnd11rd valve.

Hygienic Services 72 3
Stainless-steel thin-walled pipes and stainless-steel fittings are produced to

various standards for use in hygienic applications. Some standards are:
BS 18 64: stainless-steel milk pipes and fittings using the recessed 0-ring
joint (see Figure 6).
BS 3 5 81: stainless-steel cone-joint pipe fittings .
American 3A: dimensionally similar to BS 3 581 with metal-to-metal
cone-type joint.
IDF (International Dairy Federation): lighter in construction than BS 18 64
and employing a specially shaped rubber joint to give a flush crevice-free seal
(see Figure 7). This standard is now incorporated in BS 4825 Part 4 and ISO
2853.
Figure S. Sterile valve with nctuator.

The most common material used for hygienic valves and pipes is 316
stainless steel or 18/ 10/ 3 stainless steel, also known as BS 316S16. with
equivalent specifications as follows:
United States: AISI type 316

France: Z.8CND
Sweden: 832 SK and RRNJ44
Germany: V4A Supra
Corrosion of stainless-steel pipelines can readily occur, however, if

sterilising agents based on halogens are allowed to remain in contact with the
metal for extended periods. See also the chapter on Corrosion of Stainless
Steel.
Glass pipelines
While plastic pipe and tube meets much of the demand for non-toxic pipelines,
glass piping may be preferred, or even become essential. for sterile services.
Glass is attacked by only a few reagents, which include hydrofluoric and hot
concentrated phosphoric acids (both of which produce serious corrosion).
superheated water and alkaline solutions.
BS 1864 Fittings with With butt weld fixing

expanded pipe fixing
Figure 6.
BS 3581 fittings with expanded pipe fixing , also available with butt weld fixing.
Figure 7.
Cold alkaline solutions attack glasses very slowly but, as the temperature
increases. the rate of attack rises rapidly. Attack also increases with
increasing alkalinity. Attack by superheated water is seldom serious enough
to prevent satisfactory service life from glass tubes, although the rate of attack
increases with the temperature and alkalinity of the water.
Borosilicate glass pipeline systems are corrosion-resistant and neither rust
nor age. They are used extensively for effluent and venting lines in accordance
with DIN 1986 in scientilic institutes, hospitals, and the chemical and
pharmaceutical industries (Figure 8 ).
However. they have many other applications, e.g. for conveying numerous
other liquids and gases in all branches of industry, laboratories, hospitals and
in the [oodstuffindustry.
A typical borosilicate pipeline system has a 'slip-on' coupling which allows
simple assembly without specialist knowledge and this, together with traps ,
laboratory drip cups and supports, constitutes a range of fittings with which
virtually any installation problem can be solved.
Typical normal bores can be 40, 50, 80, 100 and 150 mm and pipe lengths
between 100 and 2000 rom.
Figure 8 . Borosilicate glass piping system.

The glass components are connected together by means or a coupling

consisting of a single-bolt stainless-steel clamp which produces a tight
connection. Within this clamp is a flexible nitrile rubber insert. which
positively grips the bead flanges of the glass parts to be connected.
At the actual sealing point. there is a PTFE insert which has the same
chemical resistance as the glass itself, thus the medium only comes into
contact with borosilicate glass and PTFE.
The most complicated pipeline installation can be assembled and the low
weight of glass (density only about one-third that of cast iron) is an advantage
which aids installation under ceilings and other inaccessible areas. Glass
piping is fragile and does require safeguarding. particularly if used in
pressurised applications.
Maintenance costs can be reduced by visual inspection through the pipe,
which enables rapid location of potential build-up and blockages. The use of
rods to remove blockages is acceptable provided that non-metallic ferrules
and attachments, e.g. nylon. are used.
See also the chapter on Thermoplastic Pipes.
Thermoplastic pipes have their attractions because of their chemical
inertness and a structure which does not harbour bacteria. Not all such
materials are hygienic in the sense that they are free from tainting the
product, even PTFE not being ideal for handling foodstuffs. All such materials.
too , suffer from relatively low maximum-service temperatures, which can
make certain types unsuitable for sterilisation via cleaning in place. Certain
Rigid clear PVCpipl'.

food products are, however, successfully handled by elastomeric pipes (hoses)

or rubber-lined pipes.
Plastic-lined pipe is a frequent choice in food and beverage processing and
pharmaceutical facilities. Entire plastic systems that meet FDA requirements
can be assembled using plastic-lined pipe and valves.
Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) is suitable as a pipe-lining material for high
purity needs to 80°C ( 17 5° F). where stream-purity protection is critical.
Another successful plastic piping material for pharmaceutical and
biotechnology industries is unpigmented natural polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF). PVDF plastic piping is one of the most chemically inert engineering
polymers. It is an excellent material for all types of ozonation systems, for
example. particularly where both purity and strength are required.
Clear Schedule 40 rigid PVC is a good choice for sight-glass and
dual-contaminent applications. Made from non-toxic materials conforming to
FDA standards. it has found success in wet- and dry-food processing, bakery
products. medical/hospital uses and in the cosmetics industry. It is a cost-effective
alternative to copper, stainless steel and glass piping. It is not recommended
for compressed-gas applications or pipe threading.
Steam Services
Steam is water in the vapour phase and is one of the oldest industrial tools.
The first requirement in steam production is to add heat to water until it
reaches its boiling point. It is then necessary to add a much greater quantity of
heat to convert the water to steam.
Steam allows the energy of fuel burned in the heat source or boiler to be
carried to some other point where it can either provide mechanical energy
through an engine or provide heating.
In all types and sizes of oil and chemical plants, energy is used for process
heating, power generation and driving pumps and compressors.
In many refineries, primary steam is obtained by burning waste prpducts in
the boilers. Although steam is the traditional means of conveying heat, there
are a number of alternatives including:
• high- and medium-pressure hot water.

• high-temperature oils.
• electric heating.
• mechanical agitation.
It is not the remit of this handbook to discuss the merits of steam or alternatives,
neither is it appropriate to discuss the subject of steam in its full capacity.
This subject is well documented in another more technical publication and
in some specific manufacturers' literature and publications.
Steam distribution
The most important link between a central steam source and the steam user is
the steam-distribution system. A typical steam circuit is shown in Figure 1.
The steam flow in a circuit is caused by condensation of steam which
produces a pressure drop. This induces the flow of steam through the pipes to
where the heat energy is required.
In operation when the steam outlet (crown) valve is opened, steam passes
immediately from the boiler into and along the main pipes. The pipework is
cold initially so heat is transferred to it by the steam . The air surrounding the
Stemn Services 729
Space
rr=n========ri="~~~==n===--rr=~===, heating
system
Feedtank - Condensate
Boiler
Figure 1. A typical steam circuit.
pipes is cooler than the steam, so the pipework will begin to lose heat to the
air. This causes the steam immediately to condense and fall to the bottom of
the pipe.. It is then carried along with the steam flow and by gravity owing to
the gradient in the steam main which normally falls in the direction of steam
flow. The condensate is drained from the lowest points in the pipeline.
By continuously feeding more fuel and water into the boiler, a continuous
flow of steam is maintained to make up for the water which has already
evaporated into steam.
The condensate is usually returned to the boiler feed tank.
The pressure at which the steam is to be distributed is to some degree
determined by the point of usage on the plant needing the highest pressure.
Steam at a higher pressure occupies less volume per kilogram than steam at a
lower pressure.
Steam boilers
Boilers are the most important part of the steam circuit. A boiler is a vessel in
which the heat energy from a fuel is transferred to a liquid. In the case of
saturated steam. a boiler also provides heat energy to produce a phase change
from liquid to vapour. Steam boilers come in all sizes to suit both large and
small applications and operate using different fuels , including commercial
waste, oil, gas and coal.
The choice of fuel is largely dependent on the tariff given to each type of fuel.
Boilers can operate on just one or on two types of fuel (e.g. oil and gas). A
typical package boiler is shown in Figure 2 .
Rear outlet box

Tubes 2nd pass
Tubes 3rd pass
Furnace tube
Figure 2. A typical package boiler.
Superheated steam
Steam produced from the outlet of a shell-type boiler or from the steam drum
of a water-tube boiler can only be saturated steam. \1\later-tube boilers are
often required to produce superheated steam by passing saturated steam from
the steam drum through another set of tubes inside the main furnace area,
where it is heated up beyond its saturation temperature to a gas (superheated
steam). Where superheated steam is required , a boiler incorporating
superheating tubes is essential.
Safety valves
An important boiler fitting is the safety valve. Its function is to protect the
boiler shell from over-pressure and subsequent explosion.
There are many types of safety valves fitted to steam boiler pla nt but they
must all meet the following criteria:
• The minimum bore of a safety valve connected to a boiler must be 20

mm.
• The total discharge capacity of the safety valve(s) must be at least equal
to the drum and at 100% capacity of the boiler.
Steam Services 7 31
• The full rated discharge capacity of the safety valve(s) must be achieved
within 110% of the boiler design pressure.
• The maximum set pressure of the safety valve(s) shall be the design (or
maximum permissible working pressure) of the boiler.
• There must be an adequate margin between the normal operating
pressure of the boiler and the set pressure of the safety valve.
A typical boiler safety valve is shown in Figure 3.

Double safety valves are commonly found on boilers with an evaporative
capacity of more than 3 700 kg/ h.
Stop valves
A stop valve (crown valve) must be fitted to a boiler in order to isolate the
steam boiler and its pressure from the process or plant.
Typically. stop valves used are generally angle-pattern globe valves of the
screw-down type. Cast-iron valves should not be used for this application.
The stop valve is not designed as a throttling valve and should be fully open
or closed. It should always be opened slowly to prevent any sudden rise in
downstream pressure and associated water hammer. The valve should be of
the 'rising hand wheel' type in order that the valve position can be easily seen.
An inductor fitted to the valve also assists this procedure.
Isolating valves. usually screw-down globe valves with disc-check valves
sandwiched between the flanges of the two stop valves. are used on multi-boiler
applications.
Fif!ure 3. A typical boiler safeLy valve.

Feed-check valves
These are installed in the boiler feed-water line between the feed pump and
boiler. A boiler feed stop valve is fitted at the boiler shell.
Bottom blow-down valves
Steam boilers should be fitted with at least one bottom blow-down valve at a
point as close as possible to where sludge or sediment is likely to accumulate.
Blow-down valves should be key operated or automatically controlled by
timers and electronic interlocks.
Air vents and vacuum breakers
Simple cocks and pressure-balanced air vents are designed to purge air from
the steam space (Dalton's Law). Vacuum breakers are fitted on the boiler shell.
They are used when a boiler is taken off-line and the steam space condenses
and leaves a vacuum that can result in damage to boiler flat plates and leaks
from inspection doors.
System valves
In addition to both safety and control valves. butterfly valves are used in
steam-pipeline systems when tight shut-off is required.
Check valves are used for the protection of reverse flow in pipelines. They
are typically of the wafer pattern up to 40 bar.
Ball valves to over 60 bar are commonly installed throughout the system .
Bellows-sealed stop valves are ideal for high-pressure and high-temperature
applications.
Pressure reduction
Steam generators produce steam at a pressure, temperature and volume not

generally acceptable to a consumer. As a consequence, it is necessary to
apply steam conversion (i.e. change one. two or all three parameters) in the
steam-distribution systems of power plants for public safety, heating power
plants, industrial power plants and in the chemical and process industries.
Conventional practice is to reduce steam pressure in a reducing valve
station (see Figure 4). and reduce temperature further down the line with
desuperheaters operating on a variety of principles, e.g.:
(i) direct water injection into the low-pressure steam line

(ii) applying saturated steam to the hot steam
(iii) steam cooling by a separate steam cooler.
Steam Services 733
High-prrfomwnce open-IJonnet safrty valve for saturated and superheated steam sPrvice.
Rigid moulded insulnted vnlve cover.

RANGE
SPRING ~,,
PILOT
PISTON INLET
VALVE
PILOT
EXHAUST
PILOT VALVE
PILOT
- - - EXHAUST
LINE
Main Valve Closed
Main Valve Partially Open Main Valve Fully Open
Non-flowing modulating pilot-operated prcssure-rl'iief vrrlve.

Steam Services 73 5
Safety valve
Steam-
Trap set
t Condensate
Figure 4. A typical pressure-reducing valve station.
The two processes of pressure reduction and desuperheating can also be

accomplished either simultaneously or sequentially in a steam converter
valve.
Details of steam-control valves and steam-relief valves are shown in Tables
1 and 2.
Valve operation (Figure 3)
Steam-conditioning valves
Steam-conditioning valves are primarily designed for pressure and

temperature control of steam. The first valve was developed in 19 2 9 and had
butterfly pressure control.
Steam-conditioning valves (Figure 5) combine pressure and temperature
reduction in a single body and are particularly suitable for applications such as:
turbine bypass valves, process steam-conditioning valves and pressure-relief
valves. The use of this type of valve means less rigorous requirements for
piping downstream from the steam-conditioning valves.
In situations where cooling without pressure reduction is required, a
desuperheater is used.
Steam traps
In any steam installation, the effectiveness of the steam-distribution system

and the steam-using pJant depends to a large extent on the correct selection
and application of steam traps. There is a tendency to underestimate this point
in order to standardise on one type of steam trap.
Wrong selection and installation can cause waterlogging, damage plant
performance, reduce output, upset temperature control and give rise to water
hammer. Wrong sizing is often the root cause of pressurised condensate lines,
short trap life and high maintenance costs.
'-1
Table 1. Steam control valves: applications w
0'
Temperature controlling equipment Combined steam converting 1::::1

s::
~
and safety valve ;;·

Superheated steam cooler Nozzle injectors "'
:;:,
:::!
:::...
Cl:l
Circuit Circuit Circuit "'....-<::
;:::;·
To lurbinc
.. ----------"\ "'"'
~~
+1 ~ I i
Application: Application: Application:

For special temperature-control tasks in For special temperature-control tasks in For high-pressure (HP) bypass stations during
industrial power plants. industrial power plants. start-up a nd bypass operation. primarily in
public utility power plants.
Typical design: Typical design: Typical design:

Withdrawn pipes. welded flanged Nozzle arrangement as required . Forged, welded connection (to DN, ANSI. etc.).
(to DIN, ANSL etc.). Division of the spray water among several Type 500: inlet at side.
immersion pipes possible depending Type 600: inlet from below.
upon purpose.
Remarks: Remarks: Remarks:

Low pressure loss. no additional High-duty nozzles for easy installation in In conjunction with the auxiliary control system. it
atomising steam. every pipeline. functions as a safety valve. No external control
Low noise level. No moving parts. simple maintenance. media are used . only the existing live steam.
No moving parts: simple ma intenance. DN > 50(mm). With an electric pressure-control system. the valve
Fitted in all positions. functions as a normal control valve.
Sizes: DN 12 5 to DN 1600 (mm).
Table 1. Continued
Feed-water control valves Conventional control valves Level control valves
Circuit Circuit Circuit
--~
r - - - --,
p) $~
p ~ )
Application: Application: Application:
For controlling all or part of the feed water. also In plants for pressure control of oil, On high- and low-pressure (HP and LP) feed-water
available in a special version as a boiler filling water, steam, etc. As auxiliary control tanks, condensers. etc.
valve. valve. drain valve of start-up flash tank.
Typical design: Typical design: Typical design:

Cast, forged, straight-through valves, angle Cast, forged. welded pipe construction, straight- Cast. forged. straight-through valves, angle valves,
valves. welded connections, flanges (to DIN, through valves, welded connections. flanges (to welded connections, flanges (to DIN, ANSI, etc.)
ANSI. etc.). DIN. ANSI, etc.). Valve parameters (ON, PN) as required.
Remarks: Remarks: Remarks:

Versions available for all capacities Typical sizes and pressure ranges. For plant-specific problems with
encountered in practice. From ON 15 to ON 1500 (mm). evaporating media (cavitation. etc.).
ON 50 to DN 500 (mm). From PN 10 to PN640 (bar)
(145 to 9300 lbf/in 2 ). V)
.....
"':;:,3
~
....
<::
;::;·
C">
"'
'-1
w
'-1
Table 2. Steam relief valves: applications
Steam converting station
Steam converting valve Spray water valve
I S1cam l'Onv.:.:rllng V(llvc

2 .Sprdy water v~lvc
Application: Application:
In all thermal systems where steam For steam converting plants. combined steam
pressures and temperatures are to be converting and safety stations and temperature-
simultaneously reduced, e.g. in steam- control equipment.
distribution systems in industrial plants
and. in particular, as a turbine bypass in
power plants.
Typical design: Typical design:

Cast. forged , straight-through valves. angle Cast. forged. straight-through valves. angle
valves, welded connections, flanges (to DIN. valves. welded connections. flanges (to DJN.
ANSI. etc.). ANSI. etc.). with single- or muJti-stage
perforated cage trim depending upon the
pressure drop to be handled.
Remarks: Remarks:
Saving of space and improved control quality DN 15 to ON 150 (mm) and higher.
as a result of simultaneous pressure
reduction and desuperheating in one
single valve.
Maximum design data for valves supplied
to date: 700 t/ h. 2 76 bar (4000 lbf/ in 2 )
56 5°C (l050° F).
There are various types of steam trap (Figure 6 ). which include:

• Thermodynamic traps: suitable for mains drainage and for draining
tracers or jacketed lines. Its simple design with one moving part. a flat
disc, makes it a popular choice. This type of trap can withstand severe
water hammer and freezing.
• Bimetallic traps operate by the movement of a bimetallic strip with
temperature change. These traps work over a wide range of pressures
but with a degree of waterlogging.
• Balanced-pressure traps have capsules manufactured in stainless steel
for corrosion resistance. They also have a high resistance to water hammer
and are not affected by back-pressure. The balanced-pressure principle
is now widely accepted for applications where thermostatic steam traps
can utilise sensible heat in the condensate and reduce flash steam losses.
Steam Services 7 39
• Fixed-temperature discharge traps: one of the balanced-pressure range

of steam traps for discharging condensate at just below steam
temperature when installed in one altitude, or at a fixed temperature
when installed in reverse. A condensate degree of sub-cooling and
perhaps waterlogging is implicit in the use of a trap of this pattern.
• Mechanical steam traps: probably the most popular choice of steam trap
is the ball-float type.
First launched in the 1940s, the ball-float steam trap will pass
condensate as soon as it reaches the trap but will hold back steam and
Figurr 5. Steam conditioning valves.
Ball float type Thermodynamic type Thermostatic type Inverted bucket type
Figure 6. Steam traps.

adjust itself automatically to a change in load. It is particularly suitable

for draining plant which must be kept clear of condensate at all times.
Automatic air vents and steam-lock release valves may also form an
integral part of this type of steam trap. Ball-float steam traps generally
have a high discharge capacity, whether installed in a horizontal or
vertical position.
Inverted-bucket steam traps normally give an intermittent discharge
and are more suited to superheat conditions because they are sensitive
to density. If bucket traps are used on plant which will frequently be
called upon to start from cold, separate air vents should be provided in
by-passes. Bi-metallic or balanced-pressure elements are more suited to
this requirement.
All mechanical steam traps are comparatively bulky and, since they
contain water. they must be protected from freezing in exposed conditions.
• Swivel-connector steam traps: this type of trap is designed for ease of
fitting and removal without the need to break the pipework or disrupt
plant operation. The swivel quick-release connector is a permanently
installed pipeline connector with a leak-free joint. Three different trap
options can be incorporated into this system: thermodynamic, balanced
pressure and inverted bucket. This type of steam trap is ideal in
situations where altered plant or process conditions call for a different
type of trap to be installed.
Steam-trap monitors
This type of unit enables steam traps to be checked while they are working.
Typically, it consists of a sensor chamber capable of distinguishing bet\t\reen
steam and condensate and is fitted upstream of the steam trap. It is suitable for
continuous monitoring and can operate on saturated steam systems up to
32 bar. The unit can be used with any type of steam trap.
Air vents
The three primary barriers to heat transfer are films of water, air and scale. By
far the most resistant to heat transfer is air. In fact, air is more than 1500
times more resistant to heat transfer than iron or steel and no less than
13,000 times more resistant than copper.
Thermostatic air vents automatically open to air and gases, but shut
against steam. They discharge air full bore on start-up and open during
running whenever air collects, irrespective of steam pressure. Air vents
should be located furthest away from the steam inlet because this is where air
tends to collect. Where possible they should be fitted at all high points in the
system. Manually-operated air cocks are not suitable when dealing with air
and uncondensable gases that are mixed in with steam.
Steam Services 741
Balanced-pressure air vents are the most widely accepted type of air vent.
because they operate close to the steam-saturation temperature and can
therefore differentiate between pure steam and air/ steam mixtures. They have
a high resistance to superheat and water hammer.
Pipeline sizing
Pipe sizes may be chosen on the basis of either
• fluid velocity
• pressure drop
There is often a tendency when determining pipe sizes to be guided by the

size of connections on equipment to which they will be connected. The desired
volumetric flowrate may not be achieved if the pipework is sized in this way.
If the pipe is too small, then high pressure drop and steam starvation at the
using end will result. If the pipe is too large, the pipes will be more expensive
than necessary, a greater volume of condensate will be formed due to greater
heat loss and increased running costs will result. The quality of the steam will
also be poorer.
The most common pipe standards used when sizing pipe are those derived
from API. In Europe pipe is manufactured to DIN standards. Other terms used
include Blue band and Red band referred to from BS 138 7 regarding pipe
thickness. Red is commonly used for steam-pipe applications and Blue for
air-distribution systems.
Ifpipework is sized on the basis o[velocity, then calculations are based on the
volume of steam being carried in relation to the cross-sectional area of the pipe.
Pipe is sized on the 'pressure drop' method by using the known pressure at
the supply end of the pipe and the required pressure at the point of use.
Boiler-feed calculations and steam-flow calculations are more
comprehensively covered in a preceding section of this handbook. In addition,
a number of specialist steam equipment manufacturers have produced some
excellent publications that cover this subject in considerable detail.
In any steam main, some of the steam will be condensed due to radiation
losses and this water must be drained out otherwise corrosion and water
hammer will result. In addition, the steam will become wet as it picks up water
droplets.
Steam-pipe mains should be run with a fall or not less than 40 mm in 10m
e h in in 10ft) in the direction of the steam flow. to ensure that both steam
and condensate run in the same direction. Drain points are installed in the line
to collect and remove water.
Steam-distribution systems will often give more trouble than any other
piped service because of the failure to recognise that the pipework contains
not only steam but water and air. Saturated-steam lines should be drained at
742 DutiesandServices
regular intervals, at all low points where the condensate can collect. Drain
points at intervals of 30-50 m (100-1 SO ft) are usual and they are most
effective where pipework changes direction.
Pipework should be arranged so that pockets where water can collect are
avoided. Globe valves of under-and-over construction can also form a weir
and prevent condensate from flowing to the next drain point. If the valve is
fitted on its side, this can usually be avoided. It is important also to note that
branch lines are normally much shorter in length than the steam mains.
Sizing branch lines on the basis of a given pressure drop is Jess convenient on
short lengths of pipe.
Branch-line pipe sizes are normally selected from a table based on pipeline
capacities at specific velocities.
Branch connections should always be taken from the top of the main so that
the driest steam is taken.
Steam tracing
The temperature of process liquids being transferred through pipelines must

often be maintained to meet the requirements of the process, to prevent
thickening and solidification or simply as an anti-frost measure. This is achieved
by the use of jacketed pipes or by attaching to the product line one or more
separate tracer lines. each carrying a heating medium such as steam or hot water.
External tracer lines are simple and cheap to install. The simplest form of
tracer is one that is clipped or wired onto the main product line. Maximum
heat flow is achieved when the tracer is in tight contact with the product line.
The material for the tracer line should always be chosen to avoid electrolytic
corrosion at any contact points.
Tracer pipes can generally be wired on but it is better to use either galvanised
or stainless-steel bands. A practical method is to use a packing-case banding
machine. Where temperature difference between the tracer and the product is
low, the tracer may be welded to the product line using either short-run or
continuous welds for maximum heat transfer.
For maximum heat transfer it can be an advantage to use a heat-conducting
paste. The paste can be used to improve heat transfer with any of the clipping
methods described. The surfaces should be wirebrushed clean before the paste
is applied.
Spacer tracing involves the use of insulating material between the tracer
and the product pipe to avoid local hot spots on the pipe if the product being
carried in the line is sensitive to temperature.
lf pipes are to be insulated. the insulation should cover both product line
and tracer but it is important that the air space remains clear. The insulation
should be properly finished with a waterproof covering. Most of the sizing of
external tracers is done by rule of thumb but the problem is- what rule? and
whose thumb? There are widely differing opinions on lay-out as well.
Fire-Safe Valves
Defining industrial fires is a difficult task.

They can range from smoking. oxygen-poor, low-temperature fires with
their resultant low heat flux to the extreme of a hydrogen-jet fire with flame
temperatures exceeding 2800°C (5000°F).
No valve is an entity by itself in a fire. The entire system has to be considered
and includes effects on pipe supports. pressure-retaining bolting tanks, and
concrete structures.
The API (American Petroleum Institute) fire tests were designed specifically
for valves in oil and gas production plants. Over many years the tests have
been refined and adapted for many different industrial plants. API 607 (Rev
4). API 6FA and BS 6755, BS 5146 are the accepted standards for fire tests
today and adopt the same procedures. Other test standards and procedures
include OCMA FSV-1, Exxon BP3-14-l , FM 6033 and API RP6F. Many users
have also established their own corporate standards for fire-safe valves.
A strategy of fire fighting that appears to be universal as far as fire duration
is concerned is that if the fire is not beaten in one half hour, a withdrawal and
containment policy is instituted. This comes from structural component
failures such as pipe-rack collapse, flange-bolt failures and concrete eruptions
due to water of hydration changing to steam.
Based on the limiting factors of ancillary equipment, a test duration of one
half hour was established.
The basis of all fire tests is that a pressurised valve must operate after being
burned at a specified high temperature for a specified period and leakage after
burning {which will destroy soft seals) must remain within specified limits .
Valve-open or valve-closed test

Soft-seated valves which employ seats on both the upstream and downstream
side of the obturator will trap fluid in the cavity formed by these seats and the
pressure shell. If this fluid is an incompressible liquid, increases in
temperature will cause the pressure of the trapped fluid to rise dramatically.
Calculation and rather simple experiments both show that a trapped
hydrocarbon liquid will increase in pressure by 12 bar for every oc of
temperature rise.
This is a known problem that has been so overlooked that paragraph 2.3.3
of the American National Standards B16.4, 'Valves-Flanged, Threaded and
Welding end', warns about the effects of thermal expansion of fluids trapped in
double-seated valves.
While some ball-valve designs are capable of automatically relieving this
cavity pressure when in the closed position to the upstream side. others may
not.
In OCMA FSV-1, the test did not evaluate the valve's resistance to
cavity-pressure rise as conditions with the valve open and a vent hole in the
ball stem slot did not represent those of a closed valve. API insists on a cavity-
filled closed test.
Specific API test requirements are:
(a) The valve shall be tested in the closed position with water, with the stem
and bore in the horizontal position. Check valves will be tested in their
normal operating position.
(b) The valve will be uniformly enveloped in flame having a temperature of
761-871 oc (1400-1600°F) average of two thermocouples, one located 25
mm (1 in) below the valve and the other 25 mm (1 in) from the upper stem
packing box on the horizontal centreline. No reading shall be belo-w
704 oc (1300°F). Piping upstream of the test valve larger than 25 mm (1 in)
nominal pipe size or one half of valve nominal pipe size (whichever is
smaller) must be enveloped in flame for a distance of at least 152 mm
(6 in).
(c) The end connection piping-to-valve joint leakage (flanged, threaded or
welded) is not considered a part of this test and is not included in the
allowable external leakage. For the test, it may be necessary to modify this
joint to eliminate leakage.
Suggested systems for fire testing to API specifications are shown in Figures
1 and 2. Figure 2 is a schematic outline for systems using compressed gas as
the pressure source. Test procedure is as follows:
(i) Open valve(s) (items 5 and 6) at water source, and any necessary vent
valves (item 17) to flood the system and purge the air. The test valve
may have to be placed in the partially-open position in order to
completely flood the valve body.
(ii) Close fill valve (item 5) and vent valves (item 17). and close the test
valve (item 11 ). The system upstream of the test valve should be
completely water-filled and the system downstream shall be drained.
(iii) Pressurise the system to the appropriate pressure from Table 1.
Maintain this pressure during all testing. Record the reading on the
calibrated sight gauge (item 4). Empty the graduated downstream
container (item 19).
Note: 6 in"" 152 mm
Note: 6 in= 152 mm
Figure 1. System using a pump as the pressure source.
Note: 6 in= 152 mm
I. Pressure source. 12. Fuel gas supply with minimum of three

2.Pressure regulator and relief. burners located at 120°
3. Vessel for water. 13.Flarne temperature thermocouple
4.Calibratcd sight gauge located 25 mm (I in) from upper stem
S.Water supply. packing box on horizontal centreline .
o.Shutoff valve . 14.Flame temperature thermocouple- to be
7. Pressure gauge. located 25 mm ( 1 in) below the centre of the
~.Piping arranged to proviue v(:Jpour trap. valve body.
9. Enclosure for test - horizontal clearance 15. Pressure gauge and relief valve (if
between any part of the valve and the requireu) connected to centre cavity of vctlve.
enclosure shall be a minimum of 152 mm 16. Shutoff valve.
(6 in). 17.Vent valve.
IO.Minimum height of enclosure shall he JR. Condenser .
152 mm (fi in) above the top of the valve. 19.Calibrated container .
I!. Test valve mounted horizontally with 2!J.Check valve.
stem in horizontal position.
Figure 2. System using compressed gas as the pressure source.

(iv) Open fuel supply, establish a fire, monitor the flame temperature, and
when the average of the two thermocouples (items 13 and 14) reaches
761 oc (1400°F) start the test. Maintain the average temperature
between 761 and 871 oc (1400 and 1600°F) for the test duration. No
reading shall be less than 704°C (1300°F).
(v) Record instrument readings (items 7. 13, 14 and 15) every 2 min for
the test duration.
(vi) At the end of the test duration ( 15 or 30 min), shut off the fuel.
(vii) Immediately determine the amount of water collected in calibrated
container (item 19) to establish total through-valve seat leakage.
Continue recording the amount of water collected for use in
establishing the external leakage rate. If the test valve is of the
upstream sealing type, the volume or water that is trapped between
the upstream seat seal and the downstream seat seal (when the valve
is closed) shaH be determined before the test is started and identified in
the test report. It is assumed that during the test this volume of water
would move through the valve, past the downstream seat seal and be
collected in the calibrated container. This volume has not actually
leaked past the upstream seat seal, so it may be deducted from the total
volume measured in the downstream calibrated container when
determining the through-valve leakage.
(viii) Allow the test valve to cool to 93°F (200°F) or less. Use temperature-
sensitive crayons or other suitable means to indicate valve-body
temperature near the thermocouples (items 13 and 14). Record the
level in the sight gauge (item 4) . Use the initial and final readings to
determine total leakage during the test.
(ix) Close the shut-o ff valve (item 16) and operate the test valve against
test-pressure differential (Table 2) to the full-open position.
(x) Measure and record external leakage for a minimum of 5 min after
valve is in the full-open position at test pressure. Divide the total external
leakage by the duration of the test in minutes to obtain the external
Table 1. Summary from SGS Yarsley fire-test report
Leakage rate Through Maximum External Maximum

(ml/min) leakage rate allowed leakage rate allowed
Burn period Zero 5600

Zero 1400
Cool down
Low hydrostatic
Zero 560 Zero 280
pressure test
High hydrostatic
Zero 2800
pressure test
leakage rate. The test system, excluding the test valve, may be adjusted
during the test period to keep the test within the limits specified herein.
Fire-safe ball valves
Fire-safe ball valves are manufactured for applications in explosive and fire-risk
environments, and are specifically designed to prevent the spread of fire. The
fire-safe ball valve shown in Figure 3 is of the floating ball type fire-tested to
API 607, API 6FA and BS6755 Part 2. This type of valve is suitable for use in
the oil. chemical. petrochemical and pharmaceutical process industries.
The floating ball design relies on the downstream movement of the ball due
to pressure differential to effect a seal against a resilient seat ring. The valve
employs a double-stage sealing arrangement and independently loaded
graphite fire-safe packing that remains unaffected by any deterioration of the
main PTFE chevron packing set under fire conditions.
Butterfly valves
Pyrogenic and fire-safe butterfly valves are usually certified fire-safe to

BS6 7 55 Part 2 and API 6FA. They have inherently fire-safe primary metal/
metal sealing and bubble-tight shut-off in both directions.
Typical fire-test results for this type of valve are shown in Table 1, which refers
to the triple-offset metal-seated valve shown in Figure 4. It has zero-leakage
Table 2. Test pressure during fire test
Type of Valve rating Test pressure

valve {PN)'
Jbf/ in 1 bar
Spec 6D 150 {20) 210± 10% (14.5±10%)

valves 300 (10) 540±10% (3 7.2 ± 10%)
400 (64) 720± 10(}(, (49.6±10%)
600 (100) 1080± 10% (74.5 ± 10%)
900(150) 1620± 10% (111. 7±10%)
1 500 (250) 2700± 10% (186.2 ± 10%)
2500(420) 4500± 10°!., (310.3±10%,)
(bar)
Spec 6/\ 2000 (130) 1500±10% (103.4± 10%)
valves 3000 (207) 2250± 10% (15 5.1 ± 10%)
5000 (345) 3750±10% (2 58 .6± 10%)
10,000 (690) 75 00± 10% (51 7.] ± 10%)
15,000 (1034) 11.2 50± 10% (775. 7± 10%)
20 .000(1 379) 15.000±10% (1034.2 ± 10t){,)
' (PN) is the pressu re class designation utilised in ISO (Internationa l Standards Organisation)
documents.
performance, fire-tested to API 6FA and BS6755 Part 2. The block and bleed
seal configuration consists of two metal-laminate seals with an intermediate
bleed channel. which connects to the bleed purge port in the valve body when
the disc/ segment is in the closed position. The valve is designed as a
replacement for gate, globe. ball or plug valves.
Some advantages claimed of a triple-offset segment valve over ball, gate and
plug valves are given in Table 3.
Flame arresters
Flame arresters are employed as safety devices to extinguish flames in

pipelines, ducts and vents carrying flammable gases or vapours. They prevent
fire spreading to other parts of the system, helping to avoid extensive and
costly damage to plant and equipment and the risk or personal injury.
------- ~
'~ ITEM COMPONENT
BODY
2• BALL H ALF
2b BALL LOCKING I~ING
2c BALL KEY
J STEM
4 STEM 81\LL
'> BALL SI'IHNG
6 GLAND
7 G LAND SCREW
92--1~ ~---- --10 9 COVER
9 \,. -~~ 10 CO VER SCR£W

11 SLEEVE
93 ~~ 20 SLEEV E SeA L
~ - sea 21
22
SEAT RING
C HF.VRON RING
2"-1 ~ 2.1 SPREADER RI NG
24 H EADER RING
?2 ~ 25 STOP PLATE
~ 89 LEVER OR "f·liAil/ADAPTOR
li- ~ 90 LEVER SCREW
!:11 LEVER WASHER
92 PlRE SEAL
9J COVER GASKET
Figure 3. Fire tes t certified.floatingfull-bore ANSi class 1 SO and 300 ball valve.
Firi'-Safe Valves 749
Figure 4. 1 50 mm wafer-typl' valve with stainless-steel laminated seal. Cert.ified to BS 6 7 55 Part 2.
I:III;IUII
APPROVAL CERTIFICATE In• M7654/C
0#1;111·1:1 Rot. BV.ITA.: 40.96.7654

IA .. , L ' :=-i+f j _ lo ' •~-
.• • :a:;;:: , . c;;: ' ._, .::::::z::s:t::

'*I'. . . I • ---u: ·=
Cl1ent:OM8Sr~A~------------------------------L~~
~~~~~~~~~·~·~·~t•~·~0~4~
. 1~1~.9~6~----------
Tho und•r&igncd ALFIO N ICOUNI, Surveyor Of BUREAU VERITAS, acting wnhin the 5COPU ol the genen•t
ti''IT'H1i1i()ns which l tgullltC rhe lnterv&mione of our company, did fl ttfllnd. Dt roquc:•t of Mes.srs OMB SPA
Ct.NA'I 1.: SOT rO • BERGAMO to thttlf wo;k~ f ot tho purpo"e of wi1ne~sing the F~re Sofo Tas.t according to
API fi07· 198E ond 85 6756 PART 2·1987 on the following • • '•"'
I
Ball Side fn1'Y BSE frunn1on Valvo 900 lbs. Fl11nged Stock Finish
size 6 x 4 • Reduced Sou~
Moterlol Body·Cio•vre : ASTM A I 05N + ENP
M aterilol Soot: A STM At82 F8e Clou Z ... NVIon 12
Mo!uriol S<•m: ASTM A 106N + ENP
Motori•l Bali : ASTM A 182 f6o Cia$$ 2
M on..-facrvrcd and a::;~emblccl in neeord~l'\ce w ilh OMS drewiOQ no. A900A4900
The vn:"o wei uxpo~t.>d to fire lor 30- minute.!!, end dunng lht te st olt pt~ramettrs, u feQulrad by API
607 ond BS6J56 P1n 2 . w ert c hecked. rGCordcd end f·o~om~ according to STD ~qultements.
For turthLtf de:rolls of tnt 1rnngcments ond test rttaults, aLtO OMS Cerrtflc1ne no 1689 herewith •nec tmd
af"'d duly undonu~d.
ON THE SASIS OF THE RESULTS,THE AllOVE !JALL VALVE SATISFACTORLY PASSED THE· FIRE SAFE
TEST •
'==:r we •-•
[~ I
L J
Typical/ire-safe certification.
'-1
U1
Table 3. Advantages of triple-offset segment valve over gate and plug valves 0
Gate Plug Ball Triple-offset segment t::l

s::
~
;;·
Sealing Jam closures: leak becomes progressively worse with each cycle. Pressure and/or mechanically Unique torque sealing.
assisted seating maintains seal. "":::::::.
~
V':l
Actuation Manual: requires high torque High torque due to surface Consistent torque. Low torque.
to jam. area. requires frequent takeup 1 / turn rotation. 1/ turn rotation. '....<::""
4 4 ;:;·
Stem threads corrode and of sealing nut increasing Stops must be set. No stops required.
resist turning. often break in torque. Seat provides mechanical stop.
""""
open or closed position. Impractical in gritty, caking.
coking or gummy service. Accepts manual. pneumatic and electric motor without special
requirements.
Throttling Not used Impractical Yes Yes
Relative size Very high. bulky and heavy. Bulky. Large. Automated package Light-weight.
Automation very large. Automation very large. smaller than comparable gate Most compact..
or plug.
\-Iaintenance Very high. particularly in High. particularly in corrosive Medium. Very low.
costs corrosive or erosive service or gritty service.
due to stem freezing. wedge
failure. and seat erosion.
Requires [requent preventive
maintaneance (greasing. etc.).
Labour HIGH HIGH MEDIUM VERY LOW

intensity Installation (heavy weight). Installation (heavy weight). Medium to heavyweight. Light-weight.
Manual actuation (high torque). Manual actuation (high torque). Body needs to be split for i\{aintenance is simple.
Preventive maintenance. Preventive maintenance. maintenance.
Overall maintenance.
Cos t of ownership
Purchase High High Medium Lowest
Installation High High Lower Lowest
Operation Highest High Low Lowest
Maintenance Highest High Low Lowest
Life Long Long Long Long
Cost of actuation Highest High Low Lowest
Flame arresters prevent the propagation or spread of flames by absorbing

and dissipating heat from the flames on one side of the arrester. so preventing
the temperature of the gas or vapour on the opposite side rising to ignition
point.
Ignited gas or vapour attempting to pass through a flame arrester is
extinguished by the element assembly absorbing heat from the flame faster
than it is developed.
Thus the temperature of the flame is lowered below its ignition point. To
accomplish this, the area of metal surface of the arrester element must be
sufficient to absorb the heat generated.
Flame arresters are used extensively in the chemical, petrochemical,
petroleum. gas. marine, mining, aircraft and many other industries. They are
0.024 in cell height

Graph Flame arrester size
No. (nominal bore of pipe)
mm in
I 19to25 J;4 to I
2 38 llf2
3 50 2
4 63 21f2
5 76 3
6 100 4
7 127 5
~ 152 6
9 200 K
!0 200 8
II 250 10
Perpendicular or triangular cell 12 300 to 500 12 to 20
Graph No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12
II/ lj
/ v
I v v
I
1/ v
v I
Vl
:::l
0
.s:::
~ J
_j
f1/; I v vv v v vv v I
/ L /
~
'-
I
1/ /; / v
II
v v /
/ v
v v
v
/
/ /
[,/
/ /
v / v vv v v
~. l ~ v v v v _,./
/ ~/
/ "
I / / ___..--- /
() 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 240 280
Air flow cu ft/hr (OO<l's) 20 oc. at atmospheric pressure
For other gases the equivalent air flow is given by multiplying the gas flow by the
square root of its specific grav1ty .
Figure 5. Airflow throHghjlame arrester elements in housings.

also used for purging gas mains, on the air intakes of internal combustion
engines, and in many processes using solvents and gases.
Flame arresters are made in two basic forms : for fitting into pipelines, and
onto the end of a pipe. The elements are made up of two strips of thin foil. one
corrugated and the other plain. The strips are placed together and coiled into
circular elements to give a spiral matrix of triangular cells and the whole
assembly is fitted into an outer case.
Elements are made with various cell sizes and widths depending on the
applications and the gas or vapour concerned. Elements are constructed
either from cupro-nickel with a brass outer case, or stainless steel for both
matrix and casing.
Flame arresters should be inspected frequently as part of routine plant
maintenance and cleaned as necessary, and certainly if excessive pressure
drop is experienced due to fouling of element cells. In the event of a flash-back,
0.018 ir;, cell height

Graph Flame arrester size
No. (nominal boreofpipe)
mm in
19 to 25 314 to I
13
14 38 I V2
15 50 2
16 63 2 1/2
17 76 3
18 100 4
19 127 s
20 152 6
21 200 8
22 200 8
23 250 10
Graph No. 24 300to 500 12 to20
v/ /v
13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
5
v v
I 1/1/ I
I Iv I
v v v v / vv
I I /
/
/i;1/ v
1/
I / / / / /
v
/v v
I I / /
/
I I v I
I
v
/
/ /
~/
V,/ /
./ /
v
~
/ / /
IV I / vv v v y l--"'v ,/ /
v v/
~/
I / / /
__.. /
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 I 2 14 16 18 20 25 10 35 40 50 60 70 80
Air flow cu ft/hr (OOO's) 20 oe, a t atmospheric pressure
For other gases the e quivalent air flow is given by multiplying the gas flow by the
square root of its specific gravity .
Figure 6. Air flow throughjlamr arrester elements in housings.

Fire-Safe F alves 7 53
Fire-sa)(' ball valves to API 607 and BS 5 I 46.
the flame arrester should be inspected immediately and H the element is

damaged or distorted. a replacement should be fitted.
All flame arresters offer some resistance to flow defined as pressure drop.
This value increases with the degree of hazard due to the longer cell sizes and
smaller crimp required in manufacture of the arrester element to absorb heat
or a specific application. To reduce the pressure drop to a minimum, elements
have a straight-through cell construction and the element housing is
increased to an area several times that of the nominal bore of the pipe.
Graphs of pressure drop against airflow are shown for elements with a cell
height of 0 .61 mm (0.024 in) in Figure 5, and a cell height of 0.46 mm (0.0 18
in) in Figure 6.
Fire Hydrant Valves
Fire-hydrant valves comprise straight-way and angle ball valves as well as

screw-down gate or globe valves purpose-designed to meet the requirements
of International Standards, e.g. BS 750:1984 which calls for a delivery of 34
ljs (450 gal/min) at a constant running pressure or l. 7 bar (25 lbr/ in 2 ) . Ease
of operation is also a most important feature of all valves and fittings used in
fire-fighting .
The fixed-valve fire hydrant shown in Figure 1 conforms to BS 7 50:1984
Type 2, screwed-down underground fire hydrant and exceeds the flow-delivery
requirements of 1. 7 bar.
The inlet mounting flange has been designed so that it is suitable for new
and existing installations. The option of fixed or loose valve. either gun metal
or plastic outlet and the choice of packed gland or 0-ring stem seal makes this
type or fire-hydrant valve particularly versatile. A typical flow performance
curve is shown in Table 1.
SLraiglrt-wn.rJ hydrant ball valve.

Fire Hydrant Valves 7 55
Angle hydrant ball valvr.
Figure 1. M11lti-purpose fixed-valve fire llydra11t.

Table 1. Typical performance curve
FLOW PERFORMANCE CURVE

4.0
3.11
3.5
3.21
KEY f -1- ~ --
I
3.0 Extract from S.S. 750:1984 dcJUSe 6.2
t:Jt:. 1 IS 'The Hydrant shall deliver not less than
<
co
....
t:Jt:.
=>
VI
VI
2.SO
2.25
7.0
2000 L/min at a con-stant pressure of
1] BAR at the inlet to ·the Hydrant . l
w
t:Jt:.
1.7 BAR .
a... l.IS
-r-
u Full open Cv = 9-. 511/1 !111hdl· •l
1.25 Z·l
l0
!I Cv~ ~
~I V 6Pi...n.!J
0.71
!5 Q .. flow role in Litres/Sec
0.50
~ J 6P =Pressure drop across valve in metres
~·
0.21
'
0
800 910 1100 1210 1400 lSSO 1100 1850 2000 2150 1300 1450 1600 1710 2900 JOSO 3200 3310 JSOO
FLOW RATE · LITRES/MIN.
If the valve seat and 0-seal to the body cover need to be replaced. it is
important to ensure that the main has been depressurised before the valve is
dismantled.
Depending on local conditions. fire-hydrant valves should be inspected at
least every 3 months for:
1. physical damage to the surface box

2. rubble or silt in the chamber preventing access to the hydrant
3. loss of parts.
Every 12 months, the valve should be tested unless the visual inspection
reveals any damage. The valve should be checked to see that it is free from
leaks and operates correctly when fully open.
Fire landing valves
These valves are designed to meet the technical requirements of wet-rise

systems in high-rise buildings or other structural installations where similar
fire-protection systems are employed. They are typically manufactured with
flanged inlet and instantaneous female outlet connections with metal-to-metal
seating.
Fire Hydrant Valves 75 7
Figure 2. Standard Class F hose pressure regulator.
Pressure-regulating valves
Combined hydrant-stop and pressure-regulating valves are used for a wide range
of fire-protection equipment suitable for refinery, chemical, petrochemical pian ts
and offshore applications.
The Class 'F' valve shown in Figure 2 is a high-pressure regulator.
It is suitable for:
• fire mains systems in high-rise buildings

• high-pressure systems on oil-rig platforms and in oil refineries and
chemical plants
• fixed monitors and hand lines where individual pressure requirements vary
• applications with high pressure drops caused by the length of water
mains
• applications with low-pressure conditions produced by pump
characteristics
This type of valve maintains a uniform fire-fighting pressure at every

hydrant in a fire-protection system, irrespective of location.
The unit incorporates a spring-loaded 'balanced' pressure-reducing valve
combined with a hydrant-stop valve. The stop-valve element is operated in
exactly the same way as a conventional hydrant-stop valve.
The reducing-valve element is opened by the load applied to the pressure-

adjusting spring and closed by the reduced pressure acting upon the
underside of the low-pressure seal.
Under working conditions, the balance of these two forces determines the
degree of valve opening required to maintain a a steady outlet pressure.
Pressure control is achieved by a venturi section in the outlet flow area.
Valves of this type may also be fitted with a set-pressure override device
which , when actuated, allows full opening of the valve without regulating the
downstream pressure, thereby bringing it close to the available inlet pressure.
Marine Services
The main requirement in marine valves is full material compatibility with the
fluid being handled. e.g. gunmetal or nickel- aluminium bronze being a
normal choice for sea-water systems. Corrosion problems are often
aggravated by the fact that many such valves, e.g. sea cocks. can remain open
or closed for long periods. The type of valve used is largely immaterial
provided it performs the required function, but ball valves are genera lly
preferred. Table 1 lists some applications typical of naval vessels where the
highest standards are normally specified.
Environmental pollution caused by a series of oil tanker accidents has
resulted in a number of attempts to improve standards and legislation in the
marine sector. Until legislation is formally established, there will be
uncertainty about requirements for valves and users should always look to
the highest standards ror guidance.
Lloyd:~ and defence approved two-piece fire-safe !Jail valve.

Table 1. Applications for naval vessels
Application and Material Valve Systems Remarks

working pressure type
LP fluid services Gunmetal flanged Sea-water May also be produced

Generall5.86 bar Chilled water in non-magnetic
(230lbf/in.!) Fresh water materials.
Air
Furnace fuel oil
Diesel fuel oil
Lubricating oil
LP fluid services Ni. Al, Screwed Sea-water

General!5.86 bar bronze Female 13SP Chi lieu water
(230 lbf/in 1 ) Air
MP fluid services Furnace fuel oil
34.4 7 bar Diesel fuel oil
(500 lbf/in 2 ) Lubricating oil
LP fluid ~ervices Aluminium Screwed Some cooling systems These valves are
General 15.86 bar Fem<~le BSP Air systems non-magnetic.
(230 lbf/in 2 ) Fuel systems
Lubricating oil
Where weight is at a premium
LP fuel systems Carbon steel Flanged Furnace fuel oil

15.86bar Diesel fuel oil
(230 lbf/in 2 ) Lubricating oil
Fire-sa fp
LP fuel systems Stainless steel Flanged Helicopter fuelling systems May also be produced
15.86 bar and some gas turbine fuel in non-magnetic
(230 lbf/in 2 ) systems where scrupulous materials.
Fire-safe cleanliness is regu ired.
Sea-wat·er displaced fuel
systems where any
possible corrosion risk
is secondary to a fire-safe
requirement
HP fuel systems Carbon steel Flanged Furnace fuel oil or Fire-safe valves.
62.05 bar diesel fuel oil supply
(900 Jbf/io 2 ) to certain types of
Fire-safe steam boilers
MP fuel systems Carbon steel Flanged F'uel supply for certain

27.58 bar ANSI 300 steam <~tomisation
(400 lbf/in 1 ) type of boilers.
Fire-safe Refrigeration gas for
refrigerant systems
l-IP hydreaulic Carbon steel Screwed Missile handling Fire-safe valves.

fluids Female hydraulics
62.05 bar BSPor HP air
(900 lbf/in 1 ) unified Gun turret. general
service hydraulics
Propellor pitch control
Actuators Steel and

5.25 bar aluminium
(RO lbf/ in 1 )
8.27 bar
(120 lbf/in 2 J
LP. low pressure; MP. medium pressure: l-IP. high pressure.

MarineService~ 761
Marine tanker wedge-gate valve.
Globl' valvPs with 11011-turning stems for certain marine service applications.
762 Duties andServices
Marine t.n.nk cleaning valve.
When loading and discharging liquids and gases through port installations,
environmental requirements insist that valves must be leak-tight to avoid
leakage into harbours and docks. There is also a requirement for ancillary
services such as water, fire-fighting. boiler, bilge and tank cleaning , with the
latter having leak-tight requirements. Gas movements in offshore areas a re by
pipeline and tanker and both safety and environmental requirements call for
leak-tight operations.
Vacuum Services
The main types of valves used for vacuum services are butterfly, diaphragm,
globe, gate and ball valves. Typical forms of diaphragm vacuum valves are
shown in Figure 1.
The factor which limits the pressure at which a diaphragm valve can be
used is that a large area of elastomer (usually nitrile rubber) is exposed to the
process. At low pressures, the molecules trapped on the surface of the
elastomer are given off, limiting the ultimate pressure which can be obtained.
Although materials such as Viton and PTFE, which have lower outgassing
rates, can be used, it is more usual to employ different types of valve for
low-pressure applications.
In medium to high applications where automatic or remote control is
required, magnetically-operated valves can be used. These valves have nitrile
rubber \"lasher seals which are kept open under spring load. Air admittance
valves, which automatically open when switched off, are also available. As a
general rule, reinforced diaphragms are used in valves for vacuum services.
The ba II valve shown in Figure 2 is a soft-seated bi-directional sealing valve
suitable for vacuum down to 2 x 10 - l torr. The standard seat-ring material is
virgin PTFE or UHMW Polyethylene.
High-performance butterfly valves using the wafer-type sealing principle
are capable of vacuum tight sealing up to 2.264 x 10- 5 bar (2 x 10- 2 torr)
(Figure 3 ).
Figure I.
Figurp 2. Reduced-bore ball valve for vacuum down to 2 X zo-2 torr.
High-performance butterfly valve.

Vawum Services 765
A simple single-piece, flexible polymeric seat that is pressure-energised

provides positive shut-off. The seat is designed to seal effectively regardless of
direction of flow. Butterfly valves are a useful type for vacuum services.
Vacuum seal-off valves
The vacuum seal-off valve generally offers a highly reliable means of

evacuating a vacuum space and a high degree of resistance to accidental
opening or tampering.
These valves are typically used in conjunction with a 'valve operator'
which opens and closes the seal-off valve (Figure 4).
The valve operator is installed onto the seal-off valve and vacuum applied to
the side port. The valve-operator stem is inserted, and the inner valve unthreaded
and withdrawn into the valve operator. This provides maximum conductance
for evacuation.
One p1ece s1ngle

dtametcr shaft gives
great rtgidity with
mintmal deflection.
Packing take-up w1thout

loading of scat.
PTFE chevron packing

, .- nngs. (Graphite also
PoSI{ive stop cast
in to valve body.
----- ) available).
Body insert protects

/ seat from abrasion
/ and erosion
/
Double eccentnc disc
actio~ prevents p1vormg
/ on seat. reduces torque
,.-/ and seat wear .
/
Dtsc des1gn reduces

torque peaks
experienced with
conventional valves
fhrust washers keep
diSc centered
Spherteal profile
of disc edge.
Pins welded in place to
avotd flow obnruction
and turbulence.
No chance of loosenmg
from vibration. Pinning
of shaft and dtsc to Flextble ltp seat
mtntmize shear stress and assures posttive shut-off.
prevent through leakage self-compensates
for wear.
Stainless steeliPTFE shaft Seat removal without

bearings provide htgh disassembly of shaft
corroston reststance and and disc.
are self-lubncating
Figure 3. Butterfly valve o{'wafer-spiTere' design for vacuum service.

Figure 4. Vawtcm seal-off valve (left) and valve operator ( rigil t).
Table 1. Valves for vacuum services
Vacuum Valve type Remarks
Rough to Diaphragm Outgassing l'rom elastomeric diaphragm limits the

medium ultimate pressure which can be obtained in the system.
Globe With metallic bellows bonnet seal.
Ball Generally more suitable than other types.
Medium to Ball More precisely machined than for medium to rough service.
high
Plate May be preferred to ball or diaphragm valve for services
down to 10-7 torr.
Quarter-turn As pipeline valve, or incorporated in a pumping stack.

swing valve
Gate Higher conductivity than quarter-turn swing valve.
Baffle valves Baffies associated with an isolating valve for isolating a

working vapour diffusion pump when the system is let up
to atmospheric pressure.
Very high Right-angle With non-elastomeric seals.

plate valve
Quarter-swing
valve
Ball valve
Gate valve
Baffle valve
Ultra-high High Special designs and constructions.

conductivity
type
Vacuum Services 767
Following the evacuation process, the handle is re-inserted, the inner

seal tightened into place to establish the seat seal and the valve operator
removed.
The valves described in Table 1 are just a typical basic selection for use in
vacuum conditions.
Cryogenic Valves
Cryogenics is the branch of physics dealing with processes and materials at

very low temperatures, normally below -lOPC (-239°F). The need to
handle very low-temperature liquids and gases is a commonplace
requirement with fluids such as oxygen , liquid hydrogen and nitrogen.
Valves that can provide tight shut-offfor isolation or modulation for control
requirements at temperatures down to -196°C ( -410°F) are an essential
part of process plant.
Valves that are lightweight in construction are better suited to cryogenic
use since the valve mass which must be cooled down from ambient to
cryogenic temperatures on start-up is much reduced . Also, the lower
conductivity of lighter weight valves can assist in reducing heat influx which
can occur in heavier design styles of valve.
The use of valves in low-temperature and cryogenic conditions presents an
array of problems.
Cryogenic triple-offset. butterfly valve.

The definition as to what temperature is to be deemed cryogenic as opposed

to low temperature is to some degree arbitrary, but it is generally accepted
that low temperature refers to temperatures below minimum ambient (about
-30°C) down to -100°C. In considering the types of valves to be used in such
services, it should be borne in mind that leakage rates which may be
acceptable in conventional applications may not be acceptable at cryogenic
temperatures.
Any leakage of fluids, whether to the downstream side of a valve or to the
atmosphere through gland seals or gaskets, will result in instant freezing with
probable adverse effects on the performance of valves and associated
equipment.
Such leakage at the valve stem would lead to increased localised icing,
which could culminate in seizure of the valve-operating mechanism.
Valve types used for handling liquid oxygen, nitrogen. methane. natural
gas. ammonia, etc .. at cryogenic temperatures may be of ball, gate, globe,
butterfly or check type, with an increasing preference for high performance
and true-zero leakage as defined by API598. All are special designs, normally
identified by having extended bonnets to position the valve-stem seals away
from the cold source. This extension can also serve the purpose of providing
an insulation space between the pipeline and the lever or handwheel
operating the valve.
e
Valves for cryogenic services may range in size from 3 to 2240 mm I 8 to 88 in),
with pressure ratings from ultra-high vacuum up to 700 bar (10,000 lbf/ in 2 ),
capable of working down to -254°C ( - 425°F).
PIPE (BODY) CIL
CONE GIL
~
~
0
t:c
:z:
Ill
SEAL OFFSET
Triple-offset geometry.
Construction may be in aluminium, brass, bronze, monel. incoloy, stainless

steel and zirconium, rendered antistatic either by a graphite gland assembly
or external bonding. On ball valves, specially designed seats are required to
minimise the effect of differential expansion by reducing seal volume to a
minimum. Seals are normally made in PTFE.
Valve-stem seals must be of a type not requiring lubrication (lubricants
would freeze; also they could not be tolerated in oxygen systems). Seals used
are normally graphite, TFE or PTFE. Pressure is normally equalised bet\.v een
the valve body and cavity within the extended bonnet. All valves for
cryogenic services need to be cleaned, degreased and finally assembled in a
clean room.
Low-temperature valves
Valves designed for low-temperature but not cryogenic services may follow a
similar form, but not necessarily, the same extended bonnet. Valve bodies may
also be in carbon steel instead of stainless steel. Suitable carbon steels are
available for services down to -73°C ( -100°F).
Triple offset
A typical high-pressure performance valve for cryogenic applications is the

triple-offset butterfly valve. This type of valve has become increasingly
popular over the single- and double-offset design (Figure 1 ).
Figure l. Triple-offset cryogenic butterfly valve.

Cryogenic Valves 7 71
The shall offsets are created by designing the valve with the shaft located
behind the centre-line of the sealing surface and slightly to one side of the pipe
centre-line. The function of these offsets is to reduce the rubbing and thus the
wear between the seat and seal to approximately 20° of travel as well as to
eliminate all seat to seal rubbing throughout the valve's entire 90° of rotation
(Figure 2).
Typically, triple-offset valves (TOSV) of this type used for cryogenic duties
have a resilient stainless-steel ring installed in the disk assembly and it is this
that provides a true 'zero-leakage' seal.
The seal and seat-contact surface is 'cone-in-cone' where both cones are
inclined and the angle of contact between the seal and seat generates a slight
'".redging effect that flexes and radially compresses the disc-seal ring. The valve
is able to shut-off completely, regardless of the direction of flow or line pressure.
Ball valves
Double-seal, reduced- and full-bore ball valves are used for LPG , LNG , thermal
fluids and other cold applica tions including oxygen and nitrogen (Figure 3 ).
Figure 2. Trip/1'-o}]:~et inclined-cone conf iguration.

772 DutiesandServices
Valves of this type incorporate a vapour space of sufficient height to allow

gasification in the area below the gland. This ensures that the gland packing
remains at near ambient temperature.
When standard valves are fitted with actuators, they should be installed
with extensions in the vertical position.
The LNG market has imposed its own demands on valves as the profile of
valve usage changes. Modern LPG operations have meant that pipe and valve
sizes have increased dramatically, with a much larger percentage being fitted
with actuators for remote operation. These factors have lead to increasing
demand for the quarter-turn ball and soft-seated double-eccentric butterfly
valve types which offer easier actuation and lower size/weight ratio combined
with high performance in terms of shut-off capability and lifetime durability.
Gate and globe valves are more difficult and costly to actuate and become less
economical as pipeline size increases. Such valve types tend to be restricted to use
on smaller pipe sizes and applications where remote operation is not required.
High purity
Ultra-clean process technologies require preservation of product cleanliness

throughout the gas-distribution system from cryogen storage to point of use
delivery.
Fig uri' 3. Double-sealed reduced- and full-bore ball vn]vC' for cold applications.
Safety valve for cryogenic duty .
ACME threads
Stainl~s steel
Opt'n stem & yoke
Stem seals- Viton(lo)
Redundant static ~~a is
Optional VCR®
bonne t purge port
E
CLOSED
t - -- - Ophonal vacuum jaC'ket
Non-contacting guide
to reduce conwdive
•nput
KEL-P~ seat seal
3161. barstock body

EP 1nterior finish
I 0 Ra all wett~.od
~urfacc~
- D ---
Figurr 4. Ultra-high purity cryogenic clean valve.

774 DuUesandServices
Ultra-high purity gas valves (Figure 4) are used in a variety of applications

including dewars, vacuum-insulated piping systems, trailers, tanks and cold
boxes.
Typically, the interior surfaces and the bellows which seal the valve stem
are electropolished. This type of valve has no contacting metal surfaces and
may be manually or pneumatically operated with a safety return actuator
which returns the valve to fail-safe position in the event of supply failure.
Nuclear Services
Nuclear valve glands
Most types of valves can be found in a variety of applications in nuclear

services. These include: nuclear power plant, primary. secondary and
auxiliary systems, fuel cycle dangerous fluid (radioactivity), fundamental
research. experimental reactors, test loops, steam-supply systems for the
propulsion of nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers, and a variety of other
applications from saturated or superheated steam to dangerous or corrosive
fluids via special liquids or gasses.
Valve types include: wedge-gate valves. gland or bellows globe valves, plug
and ball valves, check valves and instrumentation valves. Many of these products
can be fitted with actuators. Other valves for special service include high-
performance butterfly valves with PTFE. metallic or elastomer seats and
pressure-relief valves for both primary and secondary systems.
Pressure-balanced safety valves are used extensively for pressurised water
reactor primary service and dual-function valves for automatic or emergency
override operation for boiling water reactors.
Pressure-relief valves for secondary steam systems include power-operated
pressure-relief valves for two-phase flow, large-orifice. pilot-operated and
Adjustable stem
sea ling. Double
Belleville washers:_-----::~~
compensate for
\ Quarter-turn.
wear and temperature Handle indicates direction of flow.
fluctuations.
Resilient seats Compact. safe. blow-out proof stem.

to give bubble- Cannot be removed when valve
tight st·aling. is under pressure.
Smooth two-way O.ow path for
maximumC".
Burst proof body design.
Fully enclosed bolting to prevent exterior corrosion.
Typical ba/1-valvP design for nuclear service.

spring-loaded pressure-relief valves for protection of moisture-separator

reheaters and pressure-relief valves for auxiliary fluid service.
Valve position indicator systems provide direct. continuous, remote indication
of valve-stem position and permits positive monitoring of pressure-relief
valves in nuclear environments.
Typical safety and pressure-relief valves are shown in Figure l.
Electrically powered, rotary-actuated clamp valves are used successfully in
nuclear power plants to provide full-flow on-off or throttling service
(Figure 2).
The system includes an air motor that automatically operates the valve to
the fully closed (or open) position on loss of electric pml\rer.
Isolating and regulating rzllclear valves.

NuclearServices 777
The very highest integrity is an obvious requirement of valve glands in

nuclear plant, demanding satisfactory performance in the following areas:
(i) mechanical: deformation, resistance and recovery

(ii) dynamic: behaviour under spindle movement, under pressure and at
elevated temperatures
(iii) corrosion: elimination of valve steam corrosion.
Figure 1. Press11re-reliej and safety valves for nuclear service.
Figure 2. Electric-powered rotary-actuated clamp valve.

778 Duties nndServices
The main fluids to be handled are demineralised water, saturated steam

(BWR plants) and borated water (PWR plants); but with possibly 1500 pieces
of equipment in each division of a nuclear power plant, the multiplicity of
problems involved can be immense. Desirable features of a nuclear valve
gland are shown in Figure 3.
Sn ndlc
• ,1 SJO~·b&O supponod ou1: de
fill) Ql~nd oli~J
2 or 3 bolt~ • ~rcfully mttctl~.
Ttorcad not too lone hJrd SUrllK:n (JfOJhiO).
surfltoo hrW!ill -
tomooJn na o .19 •~
• rousld - no flats - SJCkt<i
l)llraUel not OOtlltal
• end Ctlamlof 10 a d flltrng of
SpMg washc•s pacl<mg wrthoot d.Jf1\J<j0
• no t;erlt!Chilii or nthBc ,..,,r1,1C'C
(8 0 iiOVIII9 typo)
lor mo3Sunng arod conttOihng d=Jge
the load on the pactunq
(300-400 bar)
Provrde adequate play
W a tch lor p~tailel closrng

progrossi\IO and bdlancud.
Rcrarn space lor t'9htening.
tnrrodocrron or adQrronat tlll9
Chamlttr lo 83S,Sf 1ntroduct10n

of P<JCK•ng nn115 wrthout danl<.ll /(!
Play· ·
should not o•cced
Follower gurde-d on oulStdH Ommotor 0 5 n>m radodl
Cateful m.Jchirtrng of oox to a l11uoh

or Ra t 6 ,, or bolf(lf.
Box tlblghl between 1 5

and 2 hmos tl'lo spondlc dJamutur.
Oonom ot box nat to coinctdo

Wtfh form and prOOOmpt9SSIOO
of pacl<onq nnqs
Olhtlf'WlSO tit fl!tl Or specii•Citlly

metal nng mouldeo Mel
W atct'l conosion. Pf ec:o!'T"'Pf OSSCd nfl9
I Fluid to be sealed.
Water 300-320 •c
Bush 10 reducv htlrghl 170- 180 bar
of overlong gland
Figure 3. Desi rnblefenlures of a nuclear valw alaw/.

NuclearServices 779
The gland material now generally considered the most suitable in application
is nuclear-purity expanded graphite (plus corrosion inhibition, if specifically
called for). This is readily formed in mechanically sound rings from tape to
provide the necessary resilience and deformability to behave as an efficient seal.
To accommodate extrusion of the packing, expanded-graphite rings are
normally combined with plaited rings at the top and bottom of the gland-a
logical choice here for high-temperature working being pure graphite/ asbestos
braided packing which can also incorporate a corrosion inhibitor and a
suitable proportion of anodes material to act as a sacrificial anode. An
alternating arrangement of graphite fibre and expanded-graphite rings does
not produce as satisfactory a seal.
The braided packing rings serve to eliminate the risk of extrusion of the
expanded graphite where radial play at the bottom of the box exceeds 0. 5 and
0 . 3 3 mm ( 0 .02 and 0.01 in) around the gland follower.
This packing arrangement, after extensive laboratory testing by EDF. has
been used successfully in French nuclear power plants for many years and is
rapidly being extended through all primary circuits.
Should it be necessary to avoid asbestos products, rendering even wet-spun,
dust-free product unacceptable, a graphite fibre packing can be employed for anti-
extrusion purposes. This would, however, introduce problems of fragility and of
potential corrosion risks (the stem alloys having to be chosen with extreme care).
Gland dimensions
The dimensional relationship between stem, box and packing rings is of prime
importance. Interference between ring and stem with play between ring and
box is to be avoided as leading to high stem torque and poor sealing. lt is
preferable to begin with a tight fit to the box and a small clearance to the stem,
O.lmm (0.0004 in).
Surface finish is important, particularly on the valve stem, to realise
minimum packing wear and low operating torque. Recommended values are
Ra = 0.4 m for the stem and Ra = 1 . 6 m for the gland surface.
Spring discs
The maintenance of a leak-free seal is directly dependent on the maintenance

of an adequate loading on the gland packing. Spring discs (Belleville-type
washers) can compensate for loss of loading due to:
• relaxation of the packing, very slight for expanded graphite, of the order
of 4% at 3 50 bar ( 5000 lbf/in 2 )
• vvear
• differentia I expansions
• temperature variations
The introduction of spring discs also assist the precision with which gland
loadings can be determined (i.e. by height reduction of disc). The cost of
suitable spring discs is small in relation to the advantages they bring.
Gland geometry
The depth of a valve gland should be 1. 5 to 2 times the stem diameter. A

greater depth serves no purpose. Many glands are too deep. Should the
number of packing rings exceed six to seven, transmission of gland loading
becomes very uneven and stem torque increases disproportionately. Tests
made by the EDF showed that an increased number of rings/depth of gland
could result in increased leakage.
Recommendations for stem diameter/ ring sizes are given in Table 1.
Causes of leakage
The initial cause of leakage developing is not always apparent. particularly as

one fault can lead to another. Experience has indicated that, in order of
seriousness, likely causes are:
(i) The use of braided packings that lose volume too readily and harden in
use.
(ii) Damage to packing rings during fitting.
(iii) Bad meeting of ring ends where cut rings are used .
(iv) Incorrect disposition of ring joints, forming leak path.
(v) Insufficient gland loading.
(vi) Poor support to stem.
(vii) Poor ability of packing to withstand thermal shock.
(viii) Reduction in gland loading owing to packing relaxation, packing
wear/ volume loss.
(ix) Incorrect dimensional tolerances bet\·Veen stem / packing box.
(x) Gland too deep.
(xi) Stem-surface finish of low order.
Table 1. Recommendations for stem dameter/ring size
Stem diameter (mm) Ring square section (mm)
10 4
20 6
30 8
40 8-10
50 10
60 12
Nuclear Savices 781
(xii) Play at bottom and top of box too great.

(xiii) Corrosion of stem and abrasion of packing during stem operation.
(xiv) Too many rings above lantern.
Corrective actions
The following are points to observe, not necessarily in order of significance.

Each one is important in achieving satisfactory gland performance.
l. Correct gland design.

2. Entry to facilitate fitting of packing rings.
3. Optimum gland depth.
4. Correct surface finishes.
5. Adequate capacity for gland loading/adjustment.
6. Spring discs to compensate for wear.
7. Good stem support.
8. Use of expanded-graphite sealing rings particularly recommended
(expanded graphite is permanent, resilient, has better relaxation,
maintains its volume and withstands thermal shock).
9. Correct dimensional tolerances between packings and gland.
10. Correct fitting and loading of gland before service operation.
Nuclear power piping
Special safety standards are required for the design of piping in nuclear plants.
For a proposed British PWR plant, the design is based on the American
Standardised Unit Nuclear Power Plant System (SNUPPS).
The safety-related piping are those pipelines associated with the safe
operation and shut-down of the reactor. These can vary from the main
coolant loop pipelines to the coolant high-pressure injection systems, and the
coolant pipelines necessary for heat removal from the reactor.
In a typical SNUPPS design. the length of safety-related piping can be
approximately 17,100 m (56.090 ft) out of a total length of piping of about
90,000 m (2 9 5.200 ft) . The design code used is the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code Section III and the safety-related piping are class 1, 2 and 3
pipelines. The ANSI B31 .1 Power Piping Code is also used for other piping
within the safety-related buildings, which consist of the reactor. auxiliary.
control, fuel and diesel buildings.
Piping systems are designed to withstand the dead-weight of the pipe and
contents and, where applicable, to ·withstand temperature changes and
pressures up to 197 bar (2856lbf/in 2 ). Design for earthquake and pipe-break
conditions has also to be taken into consideration.
A PWR plant is to be designed to withstand an earthquake at a level of0.2 5 g
free field. The Safe Shutdown Earthquake (SSE) is the level of earthquake at
782 DutiesnndService.s
Seamless pipe bend of the material x 10 CrNiNb 18 9 ( 1.4 5 50) within a piping system in n 1wclenr
power station. Pipe dimensions: 348 mm inside diameter. 40 111m wall thickness: bendillfJ radius
R=I.5 X OD.
which the station is designed to be shut dm·vn safely, with continued capacity
for heat removal from the reactor core, but not necessarily to have the ability
to be started up again. The Operational Shutdown Earthquake (OSE) is a level
set which, if exceeded, will result in the initiation of a controlled shut-down of
the station. This level of earthquake has been set as one fifth of the SSE. As at
the set level of OSE, the piping design is still covered by the analysis carried out
under SSE loading, the only additional piping analysis required is in the
detailed fatigue analysis required for class 1 piping. Sample analyses on
selected class 1 pipes will be carried out to determine the effect of the
additional cycles of OSE events on fatigue usage factor.
Pipe-break conditions are considered in high-energy pipelines containing
fluid at a temperature above 95°C (203°F), and/ or at a pressure exceeding 19
bar (2 7 5 lbf/ in 2 ). Although piping is designed not to break, in order to ensure
the safety of a PWR station under all foreseen circumstances, there is a
requirement that breaks in high-energy pipelines arising from unanticipated
events are considered. Piping \Vhich falls into this category includes the main
reactor coolant piping as \Veil as subsidiary piping systems.
Nuclear Services 78 3
Three main effects should be considered when designing for pipe-break

conditions:
{i) Main-loop piping break: pipes connected to the main-loop piping are
required to continue to function following a loop break. These have to
be designed to withstand movements imparted to them and any
pressure transients involved caused by the sudden efflux of fluid from
the broken loop.
(ii) Pipe whip: caused by the sudden release of fluid when high-energy
pipes break. It is a safety requirement that the whipping pipe does not
cause the failure of other safety-related equipment in the vicinity.
This is carried out either by segregating the system from other safety-
related systems by walls or distance, or by enclosing the pipes in
energy-absorbing devices to catch the pipe and absorb the energy in a
controlled manner.
(iii) Jet impingement: after a high-energy pipe break the high-velocity jet
efflux released can cause damage to surrounding structures. Adjacent
pipelines will therefore be analysed for the effect ofjet impingement.
Other inputs will include water or steam hammer where these are likely to
occur, detailed system transients for class 1 analysis, and general vibration
caused by pumps where this can be identified as a likely occurrence.
High Pressure Services
High pressure can be so classified if it is in excess of 140 bar (2000 lb/ in 2 g).
Some typical high-pressure applications are shown in Table 1.
The units, symbols and conversion methods used in pressure measurement
are as follows:
Unit/ Symbol Unit
lbf/ in 2 pound force per square inch

N/in 2 newton per square metre
Pa pascal
kgf/ cm 2 kilogram force per square
centimetre (technical atmosphere)
bar bar= 10 5 N/m 3
Atm. G. standard atmosphere
1 kgf/cm 2 = 14.2 2 3 lbf/ in 2 (AT) 1 technical atmosphere
1 N/ in 2 = 1.45038 x 10-4 lbf/in 2 1 pascal
High-pressure metal-seated ball vnlvefor severe service.

In common with most other pipe systems, high-pressure systems require

valves to isolate and control flow as well as to vent, drain, check and relieve
the pressured medium. In all cases. the basic function of the valve is the same
as any other standard pattern valve. the main differences being:
(a) wall thickness
(b) selection of materials
(c) greater care in heat treatment and condition of materials
(d) an extremely high standard of non-destructive testing and quality control
(e) finer limits and fits. and surface finishes
(f) closing members are more precisely formed
(g) high manufacturing precision
(h) each valve should have stress checks against application.
High-pressure valves
High-pressure valves fall into specific categories. All valves used on hydraulic
circuits, for example, are high-pressure types, typically designed and
constructed to accommodate working pressures of 140 bar (2000 lbf/in 2 ), or
higher in other specialised systems (e.g. aircraft hydraulics).
Table 1. Typical high-pressure applications
Pressure Medium Application
J 40 bar (2000 lb/in 2 g) Oil Hydraulic systems

Hydrogen Propulsion systems
Steam Boiler plant
Light gases Liquefaction
Natural gas Wellhead
3 50 bar ( 5000 lb/ in 2 g) Drilling fluid (med) Drilling
Urea/carbonate Urea production
Hydrogen Hydrogenation
Synthesis gas Ammonia
Water Oil field: reinjection
Methane Oil field: reinjection
700 bar ( 10,000 lb/in 2 g) Cement Oil well 'kill'
Water Water-jet cutting
Methane Oil field: reinjection
Natural gas Wellhead
Oil/water/gas (mixed) Wellhead
1400 bar(20.000 lb/in 2 g) Oil/gas Wellhead completion
Wellhead choke and kill
2100 bar (30,000 lb/in 2 g) Ethylene Low-density polyethylene
production
10.000 bar (140,000 lb/ in 2 g) MetaJ Hydrostatic extrusion
2
50.000 bar (700.000 lb/in g) Minerals Synthetic diamond production
In fluid handling, certain processes require the use of high-pressure valves,

the most widely known being ammonia synthesis. the oxy process, and
processes for the production of urea and methanol as well as polymerisation
processes for the production of low-density polyethylene. Apart from these,
high-pressure valves are also required in hydrogenation processes , e.g. coal
liquefication or gasification.
The demands on the different items of process equipment vary depending on
the process, operating pressure, operating temperature, and corrosivity of the
media. Handling aggressive coal slurry, for example, which contains up to
30% pulverised coal at 10-30 microns particulate size can lead to enormous
erosion problems in valves. Erosion can also be a problem in other types of
high-pressure valves handling clean fluids. resulting from high localised fluid
velocities. Flow-passage design, as well as material selection. is thus
important in high-pressure valves. Such valves are, therefore. normally
individual designs. not modifications of standard valve types with stronger
components and greater wall thicknesses.
Special materials such as silicon nitride for seats and plugs may also be
required to cope with severe conditions of abrasion and temperature. Special
demand may also be placed on valve-stem seals, particularly as operating
temperature may restrict material choice.
The ultimate test of a high-pressure valve is, however, the same as any
other type of valve. It should be capable of performing its function reliably.
Hydraulic valve sy stem for on/ offslwrc applications.

High Pressure Services 78 7
without leakage, and have an acceptable life. It is only the parameters

that are more arduous.
Valve and pipe connections
in order to ensure sound leak-proof closures, all high-pressure joints should

be precise in terms of concentricity, dimensional correctness, known material
condition and predetermined bolt loading. Figures 1 to 5 show some examples.
In order to generate the high closing forces required for larger valves at
high pressure and to minimise operating time, a variety of actuators are used.
Hydraulic actuators (Figure 6) are ideal for larger valve sizes, although the
hydraulic circuit and power pack can be expensive. Electrical actuators are
Lens ring Cone ring

2000 to JOOO bar 2000 to 3000 bar
I inch and above Smaller sizes, ie instrument lines
Figurl' 1. Figure 2.
Huh and clamp seal Ring joint

Up to 700 bar Up to 400 bar
A II sizes All sizes
fiyurc3. Figurf 4.
78 8 Duties a11d Services
suitable for larger sizes provided torque is then transmitted through a suitable
gearbox. Pneumatic actuators are suitable for smaller valves provided the
mechanical advantage is increased via a suitable gearbox.
No matter what the application , it will be found that, in addition to high
pressures, other conditions invariably prevail, whether it be temperature,
Union joint
2000 to 3000 bar
S ma ll sizes
Figure 5 .
High-pressure check valve rated to 6000 lb/ in2 withflexible seal sent.
Figure 6 . Hydraulic spring-return actuator.

Hydraulical/y-control/ed. combined-function valve for hydro-electric power plant.
erosion, corrosion or a combination of either, resulting in the choice of

materials being vital. Consultation with manufacturers would be advisable in
all cases.
See also the chapters on Valve Actuators and Pipe Joints and Couplings.
For a more comprehensive coverage of high-pressure valves and
applications, refer to the Hydraulic Handbook, also published by Elsevier
Science Limited.
SECTION 9
Engineering Data
Glossary
Standards and Designations
Glossary
ABOVE GROUND: specifically referring to installations associated with a

buried pipeline that are physically above the ground level (e.g. valves, etc.).
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE: pressure above absolute vacuum; or, in practice,
gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
ACME THREAD: square-cut thread form.
ACTUATOR: a device supplying force and motion to the closure member
(ball, disc. plug, etc.) of a valve.
ADAPTOR: coupling or fitting used to connect pipes of different diameter
sizes, join pipes of similar diameter but in different metals, join pipes with ends
fabricated for different types of joints.
AERIAL MARKER: pipeline marker post visible from the air.
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE: temperature of the surrounding atmosphere.
ANCHOR BLOCK: concrete (or similar) block to which a pipe is attached, or
in which it is embedded. to prevent movement.
ANGLE VALVE: type or globe valve with inlet and outlet passages at right
angles. or some other angle {oblique valve).
ANNULAR FILL: material filling the annular space between a pipe and a
sleeve surrounding it.
ANNULUS: annular space between a pipe and surrounding sleeve, or
between two concentric pipes, etc.
ANODE: positive electrode in an electrolytic system (e.g. as in cathodic
protection).
AQUEDUCT: man-made channel or pipe for carrying water.
BACKFILL: soil or other material used to fill in a trench.
BACK-PRESSURE: pressure acting against the outlet side of the valve.
BAG HOLE: hole cut in a pipe for insertion of a gas bag.
BAG PIPE: a hook or device for insertion or removal of an inflated gas bag
from a gas main.
BALL COCK: valvewhosemovementisoperated by afloat attached to the end.
BALL VALVE: type of valve where the valve element is a spherical plug.
BAR: international standard unit of pressure.
BAR HOLE: small-diameter hole made by drilling or driving in a bar to
search for source of leakage from an underground pipeline.
794 Engineering Data
BARREL: measure of volume equal to 42 US gallons: also name given to

wrought-iron or wrought-steel gas-service pipes.
BATTER: sloping sides of a trench.
BED: ground or material on which a buried pipe is first laid.
BELL AND SPIGOT: corresponds to spigot and socket.
BELLOWS SEAL: corrugated seal form providing isolation of a valve stem.
BITUMEN/BITUMINOUS PRODUCTS: petroleum-based products used for
coatings, linings, etc.
BLANK: solid plug, disc or end fitting for sealing an open-pipe end.
BLOW-DOWN: reducing pipeline (usually gas) pressure by venting to
atmosphere.
BONDING: connecting of all metal parts in a system with a conductor.
BODY: the framework that holds together the parts of a valve.
BONNET: the case enclosing the stem on a screw-down valve.
BORE: internal diameter of a pipe or tube.
BRANCH: specifically refers to a connection to or from a main pipe to
secondary pipes. Described under various types and construction. e.g. tee, Y,
etc.; welded, forged. cast, etc.
BRANCH LINE: secondary pipeline(s) related to the main pipeline.
BULL PLUG: temporary closure or plug fitted to a pipeline under construction
to prevent ingestion of dust, etc.
BURSTING DISC: pressure-relief device arranged to rupture and vent excess
pressure to atmosphere.
BTJTTERFLY VALVE: type of valve where the moving element is a disc mounted
at right angles to the flow and pivoted in a place at right angles to the flow .
BUTTERFLY CHECK VALVE: similar geometry to a butterfly valve except
that the disc is hinged about a diameter at right angles to the flow.
BYPASS: alternative flow passage to the main stream.
CAP: fitting which goes over the end of a pipe to seal it.
CAPPING VALVE: in pulp mills. a remotely operated shut-off valve used for
chip feeding on batch digesters.
CARRIER PIPE: describes the pipe carrying the fluid in any installation
where the pipe itself is surrounded by a sleeve or second pipe.
CATALYST: as distinct from a hardener, a catalyst is generally an organic
peroxide which initiates polymerisation of polyester, vinyl ester resins.
CATHODIC PROTECTION: method of inhibiting corrosion by making system
components in the system cathodic and confining corrosion to an attached
sacrificial anode.
CHANGE FITTING: fitting for connecting Imperial (inch) size pipes to near-
equivalent metric size pipes (i.e. nominally equivalent bore sizes).
CHECK VALVE: valves designed to shut off flow in one direction but permit
free flow in the opposite direction. Also known as a non-return valve .
CLOSURE MEMBER: The moving component of a valve that throttles or
shuts off flow through the valve body, such as a disc, a ball, etc.
Glossary 79 5
COCK: general description of a small on-off valve, of which there are several
basic types.
CODES OF PRACTICE: recommendations rather than obligatory requirements
issued by national and international authorities.
COMPACTION: measure of the density of the soil at any given location.
CONDENSATE: liquid formed by wet air or gases, or vapours, when subject
to cooling and/or pressure reduction.
CONTOUR LAYING: laying of underground pipelines at substantially constant
buried depth, i.e. following the contours of the bend.
CONTROL VALVE: general description for a type of valve used for controlling
flow or pressure and usually referred to by function, e.g. throttling valve,
flow-control valve, pressure-control valve, etc.
COUPLING: fitting used to connect pipes.
COVER: the buried depth (i.e. depth below ground level) of a buried pipe or
pipelines.
CRITICAL APPLICATIONS: applications or systems where failure of a pipe
or valve could have serious consequences.
CRUDE LINE: pipeline for conveying crude oil.
CRYOGENIC SYSTEMS: systems whose components are designed to operate
at and withstand extremely low temperatures. Generally descriptive of systems
handling liquefied gases.
DEAD BAND: the range through which an input signal to a valve can be
varied without initiating a response.
DEAD MAIN: a main pipeline not in use, e.g. not yet connected or temporarily
or previously disconnected.
DIAPHRAGM VALVE: valve type in which the moving element is a flexible
diaphragm.
DISC: refers to any disc-shaped element in a valve, as distinct from a plug
shape, ball, poppet, etc.
DOG LEG: abrupt change in the direction of a pipeline.
DOWNSTREAM: any position in the direction of flow distant from the
reference point involved.
EQUIVALENT LENGTH: friction or head loss generated by pipes, fittings, etc.
expressed in termsoflengthofsamediameterpipe having the same frictional losses.
ELBOW: a sharp-bend fitting with less radius than a normal pipe bend for
the same degree of bend.
EXTENSION STEM: extended stem fitted to valves to facilitate operation
under particular circumstances (e.g. on cryogenic valves to remove operating
point from a low temperature region).
FALL: the gradient at which a pipeline is laid.
FEEDER: a main pipeline carrying fluid at a higher pressure than in the
secondary distribution pipes.
FITTING: general description for couplings, etc., used on pipes and tubes. In
some industries this may also include bends, valves, etc.
FLASHING: in liquid service, a phenomenon where the pressure of the medium

falls below vapour pressure and does not recover above vapour pressure.
FLEXIBLE PIPE: any type of pipe which can flex or deform markedly without
fracture.
FLOW CHARACTERISTIC: in control valves, the curve relating percentage
of flow to percentage of valve travel.
FLOW CO-EFFICIENT: a constant, related to the geometry of a valve. for a
given valve opening that is used to calculate the capacity of a control valve.
Flow co-efficient Cv is defined using imperial /US measurement units, Kv using
metric units.
FOOT VALVE: check valve fitted to the end of the suction pipe leading to a
pump.
FULL FLOW: refers to a pipe flowing full of fluid, or more specifically to flow
through a valve offering minimal restriction in the open position.
GATE VALVE: type of valve where the sealing element is in the form of a
sliding plate. disc or 'gate'.
GEAR OPERATORS: type of mechanical actuator employed to assist in the
opening and closing of large valves.
GENERAL PURPOSE VALVE: type of valve which is suitable for use in a
variety of duties, e.g. shut-off, throttling, etc.
GLOBE VALVE- type of valve with a spherical or globe-shaped casing.
HAMMER-BLOW HANDWHEEL: hand wheel with lugs fitted to large valves.
enabling a hammer to be used to start valve opening. or effect tight closure.
HEADER: pipe, tank or fitting interconnecting a number of branch pipes.
HEAD: pressure exerted by a column of fluid expressed in tens of feet or
metres of fluid height above a reference point.
HYDRANT: fitting or connection for attaching a hose to a water main (e.g.
as in fire-fighting equipment) .
HYDRAULIC OPERATOR: valve actuator operated by hydraulic pressure.
HYSTERESIS: the maximum difference in output value for any single input
value during a calibration cycle, excluding errors due to dead band.
IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEM: a form of cathodic protection utilising the
flow of electric current through a bonded metallic system.
INSIDE-SCREW VALVE: screw-down valve where the thread of the spindle
is inside the bonnet.
ISOLATING JOINT: insulating joint between metallic pipes.
JOINT: general description for the various types of joints and couplings used
to connect two pipes, or pipes to fittings, etc.
LIFT-CHECK VALVE: common type of check valve where the valve element
lifts off its seat to open the valve.
LIMIT SWITCH: a device connected to an actuator or valve transmitting a
signal when the valve reaches a pre-established position.
LINE: alternative description (used in the UK) to describe a pipeline.
particularly in compressed air and hydraulic systems.
Glossary 797
LNG: liquefied natural gas.

LPG: liquefied petroleum gas.
LUBRICATED VALVE: valve in which the moving element is lubricated by
something other than the fluid being handled (e.g. lubricated plug valve).
MAIN: a principal or trunk supply pipeline.
MANIFOLD: a component designed to accept and provide interconnection
between a number of pipes and/or valves, etc.
MARKER POST: post erected to show the position of a buried pipeline,
cathodic protection test point, inspection point, etc.
MOLE PLOUGHING: method of making a hole to bury a small-diameter pipe
using a tractor-mounted blade with a bullet-shaped foot.
NETWORK: complete system of transmission or distribution pipelines.
NOMINAL DIAMETER: approximate diameter size of pipes. May be
reference to overall diameter or bore size.
NON-RETURN VALVE: see check valve.
OPERATOR: alternative name for a valve actuator.
OUTSIDE-SCREW VALVE: screw-down valve where the spindle thread is
outside the bonnet and fully exposed.
ON STREAM: descriptive of a plant or system being operational in its
normal way.
ORIFICE: a hole through which fluid can flow.
OVALITY: departure from a true circle in the actual cross-section of a pipe.
Ovality is commonly defined as the difference between maximum and minimum
diameter at a given section, divided by the mean diameter and expressed as a
percentage.
PACKING: general description for the sealing material used in a gland , e.g.
to seal valve stems.
PIG: piston-shaped device drawn through a pipeline to clean, gauge or
inspect it. There are various types and shapes used for different purposes.
PINCH VALVE: type of valve embodying a flexible tube which is pinched
together to close the valve.
PILOT VALVE: a small valve used to control supply to a larger valve to
operate that valve.
PILOT-OPERATEDVALVE: a larger valve operated indirectly fromapilotvalve.
PIPE: general description for any reasonably long length of tubular form
used to convey fluids.
PIPELINE: a continuous length of pipe or pipes forming a fluid transport
system. The description may also include all ancillary equipment.
PLUG VALVE: type of valve where the movable sealing element is in the
form of a plug, particularly descriptive of types oflocl(s.
POSITIONER: a device for varying and keeping the actuator position in
control-valve applications.
PRESSURE RECOVERY: The difference between the minimum pressure at
the valve's vena contracta and the maximum pressure at the valve's outlet.
79 8 Engineering Data
PRESSURE-REDUCING VALVE: a valve specifically designed to reduce

steam, gas or liquid flow to a predetermined lower level.
PRESSURE-RELIEF DEVICE: A device designed to prevent internal fluid
pressure from rising above a predetermined maximum pressure in a pressure
vessel exposed to emergency or abnormal conditions.
PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVE: effectively a safety valve which can be used
both with liquids (non-compressible fluids) and air. gas or vapours
(compressible fluids).
PORT: opening in a valve through which fluid flows when the valve is open.
RUNNER: tool for consolidating backfill in trenches.
RELIEF VALVE: generally a slow-opening valve designed to relieve excess
pressure in a liquid system.
REYNOLDS NUMBER: non-dimensional parameter which can be used to
establish whether fluid flow is laminar or turbulent.
SAFETY VALVE: quick-opening valve providing pressure relief in system
involving compressible fluids.
SEAT: the sealing face against which the moving or controlling element in a
valve closes to provide shut-off.
SLIDE VALVE: valve whose ports are opened and closed by the sliding
movement of a sleeve, disc. gate, etc.
SOCKET: the enlarged end of a pipe which fits over the plain end of a similar
pipe. or a spigot (spigot and socket joint).
SOLENOID VALVE: a valve operated directly by an electromagnet or
solenoid.
STACK PIPE: a vent.
STATIC PRESSURE RATING (pipe): normal operating conditions of pipe
systems when connected to centrifugal or turbine pumps.
STANDPIPE: a vertical pipe used for withdrawing condensate (gas industry),
or for providing a temporary supply of water at uniform pressure (water supply
industry).
STEM: the spindle of a screw-down valve.
STOP COCK: description used specifically in the water industry for a shut-off
valve.
STOPPING OFF: fitting of a temporary plug in a pipeline.
TAKE-OFF: a branch pipeline.
THERMOPLASTIC: a plastic material which can be transformed under the
influence of heat and which solidifies upon cooling.
THERMOSET: a plastic which hardens when heated (and assisted by a chemical
reaction) and which cannot be transformed or modified subsequent to this
reaction .
THRUST BLOCK: an anchor block located against a bend or an end tap to
prevent displacement of a pipe.
THROTTLING VALVE: a type of valve suitable for providing varying degrees
of flow without creating excessive frictional losses.
Glossary 799
TOP ENTRY: a construction of a valve body in which the valve is assembled

and disassembled through the top of the valve.
TRIM: the replaceable parts of a valve.
TRUNNION MOUNTING: a construction used in valves where the trim is
supported with bearings. The upstream spring-loaded seat normally acts as
the primary seat.
TUBE: mainly descriptive of smaller diameter smooth-bore seamless pipe.
UNION: threaded fitting which can be used to connect two pipes without
having to rotate either pipe.
UNION BONNET: type or bonnet used on smaller valves which can be
assembled or disassembled by rotation of the union nut only.
VALVE: virtually any device with a mechanical movement used for controlling
the flow or pressure of fluids.
VALVE ACTUATOR: a mechanism for operating valves which may be
powered by compressed air, hydraulics or an electric motor.
VALVE RANGEABILITY: the ratio of the highest controllable flow coefficient
to the lowest controllable flow coefficient (max Cv/min Cv).
VENA CONTRACT A: the location in a control valve where the cross-sectional
area of the flowstream is at its smallest, fluid velocity at its highest and fluid
pressure at its lowest level.
WALL THICKNESS: the thickness of the walls of a pipe or tube.
WHEEL OPERATOR: a handwheel attached to the top of a valve spindle for
opening or closing the valve manually.
WIRE DRAvVING: premature erosion of a valve seat caused by excessive
flow velocities between the seat and the moving element of the valve.
WRAPPING: an outer layer of material applied to a pipe to protect the pipe
surface.
Standards and Designations
Originators of American Standards
AAR (Association of American Railroads): establishes design and dimensional

standards on bronze valves and 300 lb malleable pipe fittings for use by railroads.
API (American Petroleum Institute): establishes purchasing standards on
valves and fittings for the petrochemical industry.
ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers): establishes codes covering
pressure-temperature ratings. minimum wall thicknesses. metal specifications
and performance, thread specifications. etc .. for valves made of materials
meeting ASTM specifications.
ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials): establishes chemical and
physical requirements of all materials used in the manufacture of valves and
fittings.
A WW A (American Water Works Association): established standards on iron
gate valves to be used in a recognised water supply system.
Federal Specification (Federal Government Specification Standards):
established by US agencies for design. dimensions. materials. and tests on
items for use by the Armed Forces.
FM (AFM) (Associated Factory Mutual): establishes standards similar to UL
but is employed by Mutual Fire Insurance Companies.
MIL Specifications (US Military Specifications and Standards): establishes
design. dimensions. materials. and tests on items for use by the Armed Forces.
MSS (Manufacturers' Standardization Society of the Valves and Fittings
Industry): maintains standards on dimensions. marking, boss locations for
drains and bypasses, testing. and other similar type standards.
NFPA (National Fire Protection Association): establishes design and performance
standards on valves and fittings used in fire protection service.
USASI (USAS) (United States of America Standards Institute): establish es
certain basic dimensions of valves. fittings and threads.
UL (Underwriters Laboratories): establishes design and performance standards
on valves and fittings used in fire protection service and handling of hazardous
liquids.
ASTM metal and alloy designations
Bronzes and brasses Stainless steels

High tensile steam bronze B-61 18.8Scast A-351 gradeCF8
Steam bronze B-62 (type 304)
Cast silicon (Everdur 1000) B-198 grade l2A Wrought A-276 type 304
Silicon brass B-198 grade 13B Wrought A-2 76 type 303
Silicon brass B-371 alloy A 18-8S Mo. cast A-351 gradeCF-8M
Wrought silicon B-98 aUoy D (type 316)
(Everdur 1012) Wrought A-276type316
88-10-2 brom:e B-1 ·':13 class 1A 18-8S Cb. cast A-351 grade Cf-8C
Ampco. grade C-3 B-148 alloy 9C (type 347)
Ampcoloy, grade B-2 B-148 alloy 9B Wrought A-2 76 type 34 7
Brass rod 3-16 11.5- 13.5 Cr steel ;\-182 grade P-6
Naval brass B-21 alloy A 11.5-13.5 Cr steel A-276type416
Brass tubing B-135alloyG Heat-resisting 25-12. cast A-297 grade MI-l
Phosphor bronze B-134 alloy B-2 Heat-resisting 25-20. cast A-297 grade MK
Bronze rod B-134 <llloy B Heat-resisting 25-20. A-182 typeP310
wrought
Heat-resisting 15-35 A-297 grade Ht
Irons
Cast iron A-126 class A
Cast iron A-126clnssB Nickel alloys
High tensile cast iron A-126 class C Nickel. cast A-296 CZlOO
Malleable cast iron A-47 grade 35018 Nickel, wrought B-160
Malleable cast iron A-47 grade 32510 Monel. cast A-2% M-35W
Ni-resist grey cast iron A-346typell Monel. wrought B-164 class A
Hastelloy '8', cast A-296N-l2M
Hastelloy 'C', wrought A-296m CW-l2M
Cast steels
Carbon steel. cast A-126 grade WCB
0.1 5% Moly steel. cast A-217 grade WCl Aluminium
Cr Moly steel. cast A-217 grade WC-6 No 356T. cast B-26 gradeSG70AT6
Cr Moly steel. cast A-217 grnde WC-9
4. 6% Cr Moly steel A-217 grade CS
8-10% Cr Moly steel A-217 grade C-12
Carbon steel. cast A-325 grade LCB
Cnrbon Moly steel. cast A- 352 grade LC-1
3. 5% Nickel steel. cast A-352 gradeLC-3
Standards, Specifications and Codes of Practice
Pipes and pipe fittings: British Standards

BS 21:1973 (1986): Pipe threads for tubes and fittings where pressure-tight
joints are made on the threads (metric dimensions).
BS 6 5:1981: Vitrified clay pipes, fittings and joints.
BS 78: Cast-iron spigot and socket pipes (vertically cast) and spigot and socket
fittings.
BS 78:Part 2:1965 (1981): Fittings.
BS 416:19 73: Cast-iron spigot and socket soil. waste and ventilating pipes
(sand-cast and spun) and fittings.
BS43 7:1978: Specification forcastironspigotand socketdrain pipes and fittings .
BS 486: 1981: Asbestos- cement pressure pipes and joints.
BS 4 9 7: Part 1: 19 7 6: Cast iron and cast steel.
BS 534:1981: Steel pipes and specials for water and sewage.
BS 556:Part 1: 1966: Concrete cylindrical pipes and fittings,.including manholes ,
inspection chambers and street gullies. Part 1: Imperial units.
BS 556:Part 2:1972: Concrete cylindrical pipes and fittings, including
manholes, inspection chambers and street gullies. Part 2: Metric units.
BS 1194:19 69: Concrete porous pipes for under-drainage.
BS 1196:19 71 ( 19 77): Clayware field-drain pipes.
BS 1211 :1958 (1981): Centrifugally-cast (spun) iron pressure pipes for
water, gas and sewage.
BS 1387:1967: Steel tubes and tubulars suitable for screwing to BS 21 pipe
threads.
BS 1737:1951: Jointing materials and compounds for water, town gas and
low-pressure steam installations.
BS 1965: Butt-welding pipe fittings for pressure purposes.
BS 1965:Part 1:1963 (1983): Carbon steel.
BS 19 7 2:196 7: Polythene pipe (type 3 2) for cold-water services.
BS 2494:19 76: Materials for elastomeric joint rings for pipework and
pipelines.
BS 2 760:19 73: Pitch-impregnated fibre pipes and fittings for below and above
ground drainage.
BS 2 815:19 7 3: Compressed asbestos fibre jointing.
BS 28 71 :Part 1:19 71: Copper tubes for water, gas and sanitation.
BS 306 3:196 5: Dimensions of gaskets for pipe flanges. (Note: This BS is used
only in connection with obsolescent BS 10 flanges) .
BS 3284:1 967: Polythenepipe(type 50) for cold-water services.
BS 3 505:1968 (19 82 ): Unplasticised PVC pipe ror cold-water services.
BS 3 506:1969: Unplasticised PVC pipe for industrial purposes.
BS 3656:1981: Specification for asbestos- cement pipes, joints and fittings for
se\.vage and drainage.
BS 4508: Thermally insulated underground piping systems.

BS 4 508:Part 1:1969: Steel-cased systems with air gap.
BS 462 2:19 70: Grey iron pipes and fittings.
BS 462 5:19 70: Pre-stressed concrete pressure pipes (including fittings).
BS 4660:1973: Unplasticised PVC underground drain pipe and fittings.
BS 4 7 7 2: 19 71: Ductile iron pipes and fittings .
BS 49 62:19 8 2: Specification for plastic pipes for use as light sub-soil drains.
BS 5178:1975: Pre-stressed concrete pipes for drainage and sewage.
BS 5911: Pre-cast concrete pipes and fittings for drainage and sewage.
BS 5911 :Part 1:1981: Specification for concrete cylindrical pipes, bends,
junctions and manholes, unreinforced or reinforced with steel cages or hoops.
BS 5911 :Part 2:1982: Specification for inspection chambers and gullies.
BS 5911:Part 3:1982: Specification for ogee-jointed concrete pipes, bends
and junctions, unreinforced or reinforced with steel cages or hoops.
BS 59 55: Code of practice for plastic pipework (thermoplastic materials).
BS 59 5 S:Part 6:19 80: Installation of unplasticised PVC pipework for gravity
drains and sewers.
BS 608 7:1981: Specification for flexible joints for cast-iron drainpipes and
fittings (BS 43 7) and for cast-iron soil, waste and ventilating pipes and fittings
(BS 416).
BS 6464:1984: Specification for reinforced plastic pipes, fittings and joints for
process plants.
CP 2010: Pipelines.
CP 2010:Part 1:1966: Installation of pipelines in land.
CP 201 O:Part 2:19 70: Design and construction of steel pipelines in land.
CP 2010:Part 3:19 7 2: Design and construction of iron pipelines in land.
CP 201 O:Part 4:19 72: Design and construction of asbestos-cement pipelines
in land.
CP 2010:Part 5: 1974: Design and construction of pre-stressed concrete
pressure pipelines in land.
DD 76: Pre-cast concrete pipes of composite construction.
DO 76:Part 1:1981: Precast concrete pipes strengthened by continuous
alkali-resistant glass rovings.
Valves and fittings: British Standards

BS 143 and 1256:1968: Malleable cast iron and cast copper alloy screwed
pipe fittings for steam. air, water, gas and oil.
BS 1010: Draw-offtaps and stop valves for water service (screwdown pattern).
BS 1010:Part 2:1973: Draw-offtaps and above-ground stop valves
BS 112 3:19 76: Specification for safety valves, gauges and other safety fittings
for air receivers and compressed-air installations.
BS 1414:1975 (1983): Steel wedge-gate valve (flanged and butt-welding
ends) for the petroleum, petrochemical and allied industries.
BS 1553:Part 1:1977: Piping systems and plant.

BS 1640:19 62 and 1968: Steel butt-welding pipe fittings for the petrochemical
industry.
BS 165 5:19 50: Flanged automatic control valves for the process control
industry (face-to-face dimensions) .
BS 1868:1975 (1983): Steel check valves (flanged and butt-welding ends) for
the petroleum, petrochemical and allied industries.
BS 1873:1975: Steel globe and globe stop and check valves (flanged and
butt-welding ends) for the petroleum, petrochemical and allied industries.
BS 19 63:19 69: Pressure-operated relay valves for gas-burning appliances.
BS 2080:19 7 4: Face-to-face, centre-to-centre. end-to-end and centre-to-end
dimensions of flanged and butt-welding end steel valves for the petroleum,
petrochemical and allied industries.
BS 2580:1979 : Underground plug cocks for cold-water services.
BS 3016:1983 : Pressure regulators and automatic changeover devices for
liquefied petroleum gases.
BS 3059: Steel boiler and superheater tubes.
BS 3059:Part 1:1978 ±ISO 2604/II. ISO 2604/ III. ISO 1129: Low tensile
carbon steel tubes without specified elevated temperature properties.
BS 3059:Part2:1978 ±ISO 2604/II. ISO 2604/ 3, ISO 1129: Carbon. alloy and
austenitic stainless steel tubes with specified elevated temperature properties.
BS 3600:1976 ~ISO 3 36, ±ISO 64: Dimensions and masses per unit length of
welded and seamless steel pipes and tubes for pressure purposes.
BS 3604:1978 ±ISO 2604/II, ISO 2604/ IIf. ISO 2605/I: Steel pipes and tubes
for pressure purposes: ferritic alloy steel with specific elevated temperature
properties.
BS 3 799:19 74: Steel pipe fittings, screwed and socket-welding for the petroleum
industry.
BS 4504: Flanges and bolting for pipes, valves and fittings. Metric series.
BS 4504:Part 1:1969: Ferrous.
BS 4 5 04:Part 2:19 7 4: Copper alloy and composite flanges.
BS 4 7 40: Method of evaluating control-valve capacity.
BS 4 7 40:Part 1:1971 : Incompressible fluids.
BS 5146:19 7 4: Inspection and test of steel valves for the petroleum,
petrochemical and allied industries.
BS 51 SO:19 7 4: Cast-iron wedge and double-disc ga te valves for general
purposes.
BS 5151 :19 7 4 (19 8 3 ): Cast-iron gate (parallel-slide) valves for general
purposes.
BS 5152:1974 (1983): Cast-iron globe and globe stop and check valves for
general purposes.
BS 5153:1974 (1983) : Castiron check valves for general purposes.
BS 5154:1983: Copper alloy globe. globe stop and check, check, and gate
valves for general purposes.
BS 515 5:19 7 4: Cast-iron and carbon steel butterfly valves for general
purposes.
BS 515 6:19 7 4 ( 19 8 6 ): Screwdown diaphragm valves for general purposes.
BS 515 7:19 74 : Steel gate (parallel slide) valves for general purposes.
BS 515 8:19 7 4: Cast- iron and carbon steel plug valves for general purposes.
BS 5159:1974: Cast-iron and carbon steel ball valves for general purposes.
BS 5160:19 7 4: Flanged steel globe valves, globe stop and check valves.
BS 5 163:1974:Double-flanged cast-iron wedge-gate valves for water-works
purposes.
BS 5351:1986: Steel ball valves for the petroleum. petrochemical and allied
industries.
BS 5352:1981 (1983): Steel wedge-gate, globe and check valves SO mm and
smaller for the petroleum, petrochemical and allied industries.
BS 5353:1980: Plug valves.
BS 5417:19 76: Testing of general purpose industrial valves.
BS 5418:1979 =ISO 5209: Marking of general purpose industrial valves.
BS 5 882:1980 :;i:ISO/DIS 6215: A total quality-assurance programme for
nuclear power plants.
BS 668 3:19 8 6: Guide to the installation and use of valves.
MA 6 5 :Parts 1-11 :19 7 5-19 7 7: General purpose and petroleum industry
valves for use in marine pipeline systems.
Sl units
SI units are the seven basic units and the units derived from them coherently.
i.e. with numerical factor 1.
SI basic units
Basic quantity SI basic unit
Name Symbol Name Symbol
Length Metre m
Mass m Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric curren t Ampere A
Thermodynamic T Kelvin K
temperature
Amount of substance n Mole mol
LuminoliS inte nsity Candela cd

Internationally defined prefixes
Prefix
Meaning Name Symbol Powerof10 Factor as decimal
Trillion ex a E 1018 =1 000 000 000 000 000 000

Thousand billion pet a p 1015 =l 000 000 000 000 000
Billion tera T 10 12 = 1 000 000 000 000
Thousand million gig a G 10 9 = l 000 000 000
Million mega M 10 6 =1000 000
Thousand kilo k w> = 1 000
Hundred hecto h 10 2 = 100
Ten dec a da 10 1 = 10
Tenth deci d w- ' = 0.1
Hundredth centi c w-2 =0.01
Thousandth milli m w-3 =0 .0()1
Millionth micro )l w-6 = 0.000 001
Thousand millionth nano n w-9 = 0 .000 000 001
Billionth pico p 10 - 12
= 0.000 000 000 001
Thousand billionth femto f 10-15 =0.000 000 000 000 001
Trillionth atto a lo - 18 = 0 .000 000 000 000 000 001
Units
Size Symbol Sl units Permissible units Conversion into No longer permissible unit·s
other than SI associated and conversioos
SI unit and ra tios
Length m I" (in = 0.254 m)

I)
(metre ) I nm (nautical mile) = l R52 m
Surface t\ ml l b (barn =
10 - 2~m 2
(square 2)
1 a (arc) = 10 2 m2
metre) 2)
l ha (hectare) = ]04 m2
sq .m .
sq .dm . } N•meollowod.
sq.cm .. etc . symbol nol allowed
Volume v mi I (litre) 11 =10 ) Ill J
(cubic
metre)
Standards and Designations 80 7
Value Symbol Slunils Permissible Conversion into No longer permissible units

units other relevant with conversions
than Sl Slunit and ratio~
Solid angle sr l~r = lm 2 /m 2 J o• tsquaredegreel = 3.U_46·J0· 4 sr
(steradian) I O g(sqnaregrade) = 2.467·10--4 sr
------------------------------~-----
Time min (minute) 1 min = 60s
(second) h (hour) l h = 3600 s
rl (day) I <l 86.400s =
Frequency Hz (ilerlz) 1 Hz = l/s
Rotation spcl·d n !" I
------------------------------
rpm rpm = ( /r,o)s-
1 1 1
rpm 1 rpm == 1 (! / min )

Velo<:ity v km/h 1 km/b = (l/3 .6lm/s
Acceleration (II Normal fall acceleration 1 gal (gall = ro ··l m/s 1
g .. =9.801i65 m /s 2
m kg 1 (tonocl lt = 10 1 kg l q (metric hondredweighl) =100 kg
(kllo~-:ram)
JJen ~ lty p t/ m 1 lt/mJ = 1000kg/m 1

kg/1 lkg/1 = 1000kg/m 1
--~----------~-
Moment ofincrlia kg· m1 lkp·m·s 2 =9.81 kg·m .!
2
f N 1 N = l kg·m/s 1 dyn (dyn) = LO ' N
(Newton) lp(pond) = 9.80665·10-JN
1 kp (kilopond ) :: 9 .iW665 N
Torque XI N·m J kpm=9.80665 Nm
Pressure p Pa 1 Pa =
l N/nt.! 1 atm =
1.0132 5 bar
(Pascali l bar = 10 5 Pa 1 at = 0.980665 bar
1 Torr -1.333224·10- 1 b<Jr
I mCE = 98.0665·10 -J bar
=
1 mm Hg 1.333224 ·1 o- 1 bllr
Mechu nica l R I N/ m 2 =l Pa 1 kp/m ~ ::: 9.80665 N/ro 1
sl re s~ 1i;p/cm 1 = 98.0665·1 0 ~ N/m 2
=
l kp/ mm1 9!1 .0665 · 10-'' N / m 1
Dynamic vi sc.:o~ity X Pu·s 1 Pa·s = 1 N ·s/mz 1 P(polse) = J0- 1 Pa·s
------------------- 2 1 4
Kinematic viscosity I rn / s = l Pn·s·m /kg 1St (stokes) = 10 m 2/ s
---------------------------- ------------------
Work w =
eV lelectronvolt) 1 I = 1 Nm 1 H 2 0 l cal = 4.18681
Enc(gy E (Joule) W·h l W·h = 3.6KJ l kpm = 9.80665 j
l erg = JO - ~ j
Elt·ctric ch arg<' () C (Coulomb) 1 C = 1 A·s
Ell'l:lrk potential lj V (Volt) 1V = 1W/ A
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Elect ric current A (Ampere)
Elect(ic resistance R Q(Ohm) 1Q = 1V/ A 1 Qabs= l Q
Power p W(WHII) l W = 1J/s = 1 Nm/s I PS = 7 35.49!!W
=I V·A lkcal/ h = l.I63W
1 kprn/ s = I 0 W
Ekctric capacitance c F (Farad) 1 P - 1 C/ V
Magnetic field strength H
-------------------------------------
A/111 1 Oe(oerstedi = 79.'i775 A/m
Magnetic flux <l> Wh(Weberl
---------------------------------
1 Wb = 1 V·s 1 Mx (maxwell)= 10 -s \>\'b
4
Mal-:nCiic llux density 13 'f (Tesla) IT = 1 Wb/ m1 !G(gauss) = 10 1'
1ncluctancc L II (Henry)
------------
1H = I Wb/ A
Electric conductanrc
----------------
G S (Siemens) l s= l/Q
Spec. electric r~ ·j ·ra nee cr Qjm
Thl'rmodynamlc 'I' K (Kelvin) AJ • C' = JK

temperature o· c = 273.15K
Temperature ("CI t/"6 ·c A 1" (' = 1 K
(clegree Celsius) OK ::: - 273.15 "C
Tbennal capacity c j /K 1 Kcl/dcgree = 4.1868·10- \ J/K
J Cl (clamius) 4. U~68 1/K
Ball valves
Typical standards of compliance
Specification Description
Design 8S 5351 Specification for steel ball valves for the petroleum.
petrochemical and allied industries
BS 1560 Class designated flanges
BS 4504 Valves: flanged ends
ANSI 816.5 Valves: flanged ends
ANSI 816.24 Valves: flanged ends
ISO 5211 Valve/actuator mating dimensions
API6D Specification for pipeline valves (gate. plug. ball and check
valves)
Test BS 6755 Part 1 Specification for production pressure-testing requirements
BS6755Part2 Specification for fire type-testing requirements
API 6PA Specification for fire type-testing requirements
API 6D Specification for pipeline valves
API 598 Valve inspection and test
API607 Fire test
ISO 5208 Industrial valve pressure testing
NES 729 Requirements for non-destructive examination methods.

Part 1: radiographic
ASME V SE 165 Requirements for non-destructive examination methods.

Dye penetrant
ASTM test methods

c 177-85 Test method for steady-state heat flux measurements and thermal transmisssion
properties by means of the guarded-hot-plate apparatus: 04.06.08.01.14.01.
0149-81 Te::;t methods for dielectric breakdown voltage and dielectric strength of solid
electrical insulating materials at commercial power frequen cies: 08.01,09.02. 10.02.
0150-8 1 Test methods for A-C loss characteristics and permittivity (dielectric constant) of solid
electrical insulating materials: 08.01.09.02.10.02,10.03.
D 256-84 Test methods for impact resistance of plastics and electrical insulating materials:
08.01.09.02.
D 570-81 Test method for water absorption of plastics: 08.01.
D635-81 Test method for rate of burning and/or extent and time of burning or self-supporting
plastics in a horizontal position: 08.0 l.
D 638-84 Test method for tensile properties of plastics: 08 .01 .
0 648-82 Test method for deflection temperature of plastics under flexural load: 08.01.
0695-8 5 Test method for compressive properties of rigid plastics: 08.0 l .
0696-79 Test method for coefficient oClinear thermal expansion of plastics: 08.01.14.01.
0 790-84a Test methods for flexural properties ofunreinforced and reinforced plastics and
electrical insulating materials: 08.01.
0791 Discontinued: replaced byE 308 .
D 792-66 Test methods for specific gravity and density of plastics by displacement: 08.0 1.
(1979)
D 1784-81 Specification for rigid poly( vinyl chloride) {PVC) compounds and chlorinated
poly( vinyl chloride) (CPVC) compounds: 08 .02,08.04.
D 2240-86 Test method for rubber property: durometer hardness: 08.02.09.01.
D 2 766-83 Test method for specific heat of liquids and solids: 05.02 .
D 39 J. 5-80 Specification for poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) and related plastics pipe and fitting
compounds: 08.03.08.04.
E 84-84 Test method for surface burning characteristics of building materials: 04.07.
E 162 -83 Test method for surface flammability of materials using a radiant heat energy source:
04.07.
E 308-85 Method for computing the colours of objects by using the CIE system: 14.02.
list of relevant standards
Polyeth}'lene piping systems
ISO R16l Thermoplastic pipes for the transport of fluids.

ISO 1183 Polyethylene: measuremen I" of density.
ISO 3607 PE pipes: tolerances and o.d. and wall thicknesses.
ISO 3663 PE pressure pipes and fittings: dimensions of flanges.
ISO 443 7 Buried PE pipes for the supply of gaseous fuels.
ISO 4440 PE pipes and fittings: determination of melt flow rate.
ISO 6447 Rubber seals: joint rings used for gas supply pipes and fittings.
DIN 353 5 Seals for gas supply.
DIN 3543 PE-HD valves for pipes made from PE-HD material: dimensions.
DIN 3544 Valves in high-density polyethylene (PE-HD): specification and testing of
tapping valves.
DIN 8074 Pipes in high-density polyethylene (PE-HD): dimensions.
DIN 8075 Pipes in high-density polyethylene (PE-HD). General quality requirements:
testing.
DIN 16963 Pipe joints and piping components for pressure pipelines in high-density
polyethylene (PE-HD).
DIN 19533 Pipes in PE-HD and PE-MD for drinking water supply: pipes. pipe joints, piping
components.
DS 2131.2 Pipes. fittings and joints ofPE-type PEM and PEH for buried gas pipelines.
DVS 2207 Welding of thermoplastic materials. (PE) pipes and pipeline components for
Part 1 gas and water pipelines.
DVGWG477 Manufacture, quality assurance and testing of pipes in rigid PVC and PE-HD
for gas pipelines.
DVGWVP304 Gas tapping valves for PE-HD piping systems.
DVGWVP607 PE-HD fittings for gas and drinking water pipelines.
DVGWVP608 Polyethylene pipes (PESO and PE100) for gas and drinking water lines:
requirements and tests.
ONorm B 5192 Pipes, pipe joints and piping components in PE for buried gas pipelines.
prEN 1555 Plastic piping systems for gas distribution: polyethylene (PE).
prEN 12201 Plastic piping systems for water distribution: polyethylene (PE).
UNI 8849 Raccordi di polietilene (PESO). saldabili per fusione mediante elementi
riscaldanti. per condotte per convogliamento di gas combustibili. Tipi.
dimensioni e requisiti.
UNI8850 Raccordi di polietilene (PESO). saldabili per elettrofusione per condotte
interrate per convogliamento di gas combustibili: tipi. dimensioni e requisiti.
PVC piping systems

ISO 2045 Minimum insertion depth for push-fit sockets.
ISO 3460 PVC adaptor for backing flange.
ISO 3603 Leak test under internal pressure.
ISO/DIN 4422 PVC pipes and fittings for water supply.
StarJdards and Designations 811
DIN 2501 Part 1 Flange: connecting dimensions.

DlN 3441 Part 1 PVC valves: requirements and testing.
DIN 3 543 Part 3 PVC tapping valves: dimensions.
DIN 42 79 Part 7 Internal pressure testing of PVC pressure pipelines for water.
DlN 8061 Part1 PVC pipes: general quality requirements.
DIN 8062 PVC pipes: dimensions.
DIN 8063 Part 4 Pipe joints and components for PVC pressure pipelines: adaptors. flanges,
gaskets, dimensions.
DIN 8063 Part 5 Pipe joints and components for PVC pressure pipelines: general quality
requirements and test methods.
DlN 16450 Fittings for PVC pressure pipelines: designations, symbols.
DfN 16929 Chemical resistance of PVC.
DIN 19532 PVC pipelines for drinking water supply.
KRV A 1.1.2 Push-lit joints on PVC pressure pipes and fittings: dimensions, requirements,
testing.
KIWA BRL K 603 Plasticgatevalvesofnominal sizes from 25 to 150 mm.
Quality Couplings and fittings ofunplasticised
specification No. polyvinyl chloride for water pipes.
53
Criteria No. 23 Doop Spuitgieten vervaardigde PVC-hulpstukken met flensaansluitigen.
BRL2013 Rubberringen and flenspakkringen voor verbindungen in drinkwater en
afva]water!eidin gen.
WJS 4-31-07 Specification for emplasticised PVC pressure fittings and assemblies for cold
potable water (underground use).
Wear- and galling-resistance chart of material combinations
304 SST p p r p p p F p p p F F F F F F F
316 SST p p F p p p F p p p F F F F F F F
Bronze F F s s s s s s s s F F F F F F F
lnconel p p s p p p F p F F F F r F F F S
Monel p p s p p p F F F F F F F S F F S
HastelloyB p p s p p p F F s F F F F S F S S
Hastelloy C F F s F F F F F F F F F F S F S S
Titanium 7 SA p p s p F F F p F F F F F S F F S
Nickel p p s F F s F F p p F F F S F F S
Alloy 20 p p s F F F F F p p F F F S F F S
Type 416 hard F F F F F F F F F F F F F S s s s
Type 440 hard F F F F F F F F F F S F s s s s s
17-4 PH F F F F F F F F F F F S p s s s s
Alloy 6 (Co-Cr) F F' F F s s s s s s s s S s s s
F
ENC. F p p F p F F F p F s s s s p s s
Crplate F F F p F s s s s s s s s s s p s
AI bronze F F F s s s s s s s s s s s s s p
"Eiectroless nickel coating.
S, satisfactory; E fair; P. poor.
Valve-trim material temperature limits
Lower Upper
Material oc op oc op
Type 304 stainless steel -268 -450 316 600

Type 316 stainless steel - 268 - 450 316 600
Bronze -273 -460 232 450
Inconel 1 -240 -400 649 1200
K Monel' - 240 - 400 482 900
Monel -240 -400 482 900
Hastelloy B2 371 700

Hastelloy C2 538 1000
Titanium 316 600
Nickel -198 -325 316 600
Alloy 20 -46 -50 316 600
Type 416 stainless stee l 40RC -29 -20 427 800
CA-6NM -29 -20 427 800

Nitronic 50 3 -198 - 325 538 1000
Type 440 stainless steel 60RC -29 -20 427 800

17-4 PH (CB-7CU) -40 -40 427 800
Alloy 6 (Co- Cr) -273 -460 816 1500
Electroless nickel plating -268 -450 427 800
Chrome plating -2 68 -450 593 1100
Aluminium bronze -2 73 -460 316 600
Nitrile -40 -40 93 200

Fluoroelastomer (Viton 4 and Fluore1 5 ) -23 -10 204 400
TFE - 268 -450 232 450
Nylon -73 -100 93 200
Polyethylene -73 .-100 93 200
Neoprene -40 - 40 82 180
'Trademark of International Nickel Company.

2
Trademark of Stellite Division. Cabot Corporation.
3 Trademark of Armco Steel Corporation.
4
Trademark of E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Company, Inc.
<;Trademark of 3M Company.
US standard materials for trim parts of valves

Minimum physicnl properlic~
l\<lateria l Specification Modulus of Hardness

Tensile Yield Elongation in Reduction da~licity at 70° F (Brine)!)
(lb/ in 2 ) (lb/in 1 I 2in (%) of;tn·;t(%) (lb/in 2 x 10")
Aluminium bnr ASTM 8211 44.000 36.000 15 10.2 1) 5

alloy2011 -'1'3
Yellow brass bar ASTM 816 45.000 15.000 7 50 14

1
h h ard
Nav<t l brass bar AS'fM 821 60.000 27.000 22 'i'i
alloy464
Leaded sttd bar AIS112T.l4 79.000 71.000 16 52 163
Carbon steel bar ASTM A lOR 69.000 48.000 38 62 143

grade 1018
Chrome-moly steel A!SJ 4140 (suitable I 35.000 115.000 22 63 2') .9 25~

for AS'fM A193
grade 137 bolt mat)
Type 302 t\S'fl\•l A2 76 85.000 35.000 60 70 28 150

stainless steel type l02
---
Type 304 t\STJ\•l A276 85.000 35.000 60 70 149
stainless steel type 304
Type 316 ASTM A276 80.000 Hl.OOO 60 70 2S 149

stain less steel type 316
Type H6L ASTi'vl A2 76 81.000 34.000 55 146

stninless steel type 3161.
Type41 0 AS'J'M A276 75.000 40.000 35 70 29 I 55

stainless steel typc41 0
Type 1 7-4Pl-l ASTM A416 lJ 'i.OOO 105.000 16 'j() 2 ') 275-345

stainless steel grade 6 30
Nickel-copper Alloy KSOO 100.000 70.000 ~5 26 17 5-260

alloy bar (KMonell
Nickel-moly ASTM 13335 100 .000 46.000 w

alloy' l3'bar (J-la~te ll oy
'13 ' )
Nickel-moly- chrome ASTM 8336 100.000 46.000

alloy 'C' bnr (Hastelloy 'C')
US standard materials for valve bodies (pressure-containing castings)
Minimum physical properties

Modulus of
Material Specification Temperature Hardness
Tensile Yield Elongation in Reduction elasticity at 70°F
range (°F) (Brine !I)
(lb/in 2 ) (lb/i n 2 ) lin(%) ofarea(%) (lb/i n 2 x 10c, I
Carbon steel ASTMA216 -20 to 1000 70.000 36.000 22 35 27.9 137-187

grade WCB
Carbon steel ASTM A352 -50 to 650 65.000 3 5.000 24 35 27.9 1 37-18 7
grade LCB
Chrome moly ASTM A217 -20 to 1100 90.000 60.000 18 35 27.4 241 max
steel grade C5
Carbon moly ASTMA217 -20 to 850 65.000 35,000 24 35 29.9 215 max
steel grade VVC1
Chrome moly ASTM 217 -20 to 1000 70.000 40.000 20 35 29.9 215 max
steel gradeWC6
Chrome moly ASTMA217 -20 to 1050 70,000 40.000 20 35 29.9 241 max
steel gradeWC9
V)
.....
3 1 / 2 % nickel ASTM A352 -150 to 650 65.000 40,000 24 35 27.9 137 l::l
::::;
steel grade LC3 §-
.....
::::..
Chrome moly ASTM A2 17 -20 to 1100 90.000 60.000 18 35 27.4 180-240 "':::,:::
::::..
steel grade C12 t:j
"'"'
~-
Type 304 ASTM A351 -425 to 1500 65,000 28.000 35 - 28.0 140 ::::;
:::,
stainless steel grade CF-8 .....
c:;·
::::;
Type 316 ASTM A351 - 425 to 1500 70,000 30 .000 30 - 28.3 15 6- 170 "'
stainless steel grade CF-8M 00
,.....
V1
Cast iron ASTMA126 -150 to 450 31,000 - - - - 160-220 00
,.....
0"1
class B
I:Tj
Cast iron ASTM A126 -150to450 41.000 - - - - 160-220 ~
class C s·
"':::!.
""
::;
Ductile iron ASTMA395 -20 to 650 60.000 45,000 15 - 23-26 143-20 7 ~
tj
type 60-45-15 !::)
s
Ductile ASTM A439 -20 to 750 58 ,000 30,000 7 - - 148- 211
Ni-resist · iron type 60-45-15
Standard valve ASTMB62 -325 to 450 30.000 14.000 20 17 13.5 55-65'

bronze
Tin bronze ASTMB143 -32 5 to 400 40.000 18,000 20 20 15 75-85"

alloy 1A
Manganese ASTMB147 -325 to 3 50 65,000 25.000 20 20 15.4 98'

bronze alloy BA
Aluminium ASTMB148 -325to500 75 ,000 30.000 12 min 12 17 150

bronze alloy 9C
Monett alloy 411 (Weldable grade) -325 to 900 65 .000 32.500 25 - 23 120-170
Nickel-moly ASTM A494 -32 5 to 700 72.000 46,000 6

a lloy 'B' (Hastelloy 'B')
Nickel-moly- ASTMA494 -325 to 1000 72,000 46,000 4

chrome alloy ·c (Hastelloy ·c)
Cobalt-base Stellite no. 6 - 121,000 64.000 1 to 2 - 30.4

alloy No.6
--
· 500 kg load:
1for Brinell and material.
Conversion tables
Viscosities
Kinematic Absolute Engler Saybolt Redwood 1 Say bolt Ford Barbey Cup no. 15 Absolute Kinematic
viscosity viscosity unlversal cup no. 4 viscosity viscosity
centistokes sec sec poise
density l.O centipoise 0
sec (standard) fur a\ furol 0
sec density 1.0 m2 / s
1.0 1.0 1.0 31 29 - - - - 0.01 l.Ox1o- 6

2.0 2.0 1.1 34 30 - - 3640 - 0.02 2.0x 10- 6
3.0 3.0 1.2 35 33 - - 2426 - 0.03 3.0x w - 6
4.0 4.0 1.3 37 35 - - 1820 - 0.04 4.0x 10- 6
5.0 5.0 1. 39 42 38 - - 1300 - 0.05 5.0 x 10- 6
6.0 6.0 1.48 45.5 40.5 - - 1085 - 0.06 6.0 x 10- 6
7.0 7.0 1. 57 48 .5 43 - - 930 - 0.07 7.0 x 10- 6
8.0 8.0 1.65 53 46 - - 814 - 0.08 8.0 x 10-6
9.0 9.0 1.74 55 48.5 - - 723 - 0.09 9.0 x 10- 6
10 10 1.84 59 52 - - 650 - 0.10 l.O x 10- 5
20 20 2.9 97 85 15 - 320 - 0 .2 2.0x1o- >
40 40 5.3 185 163 21 - 159 - 0.4 4.0x lo- s
60 60 7.9 280 245 30 18.7 106 5.6 0.6 6.0xlo-s
80 80 10.5 370 322 38 25.9 79 6.7 0.8 8.0x lo-s
100 100 13.2 472 408 47 32 65 7.4 l.O l.O x 10- 4
Cl':l
200 200 26.4 944 816 92 60 32.5 11.2 2.0 2.0 x 10- 4 s
::::!
400 400 52.8 1888 1632 184 111 15.9 18.4 4.0 4.0 x 10- 4 Q..
~
600 600 79.2 2832 2448 276 162 10.6 26.9 6.0 6.0 x lo-4 ""!
Q..
800 800 106 3776 3264 368 217 8.1 35 8.0 8.0 x 10-4 "'::::!s::.
1000 1000 132 7080 4080 460 415 6.6 68 10 l.O x 10- 3 Q..
c::1
5000 5000 660 23.600 20.400 2300 1356 1.23 240 50 5.0 x 10- 3 <'>
10.000 10.000 1320 47.200 40,800 4600 2713 - 481 100 1.0 X 10- l "'
~·
::s
50.000 50,000 6600 236.000 204.000 23.000 13.560 - 2403 500 s.ox 10- 2 ....s::.
(3'
::::!
Absolute viscosity (centipoise)= kinematic viscosity (centistokes) x density. "'
Over 50 centistokes. conversion to SSU: SSU = centistokes x 4.62. 00
.....
-......)
818 Er1gineering Data
Delivery volumes
m 3/ h L/rnin hl/h Imperii! I US gallon/min cu ft/ hr cu ft/sec m 1/ sec

gallon/ min
l.O lfi.667 10.0 3.6667 4.3999 35.315 9.81 x l0- 1 2.7S x 10 -~

0.060 1.0 0.60 0.22 0.2642 2.1189 5.88 x 10- 4 1.6 7x JO- >
0.10 1.6667 1.0 0.3667 0.4399 3.5 3 15 9.81 x w - -~ 2. 78x 1W 5
0.2727 4.546 2.7270 l.O 1.201 9.6326 1.67 x L0 - 1 7.57 x i0- 5
0.2273 3.785 2.27 32 0.832(1 1.0 8.0208 2.2J x 10- 1 6.31 x 1o->
0.0283 0.4719 0.2R32 0.1038 0.1 247 1.0 2. 78x Jo-4 7. 86 x l0->
101.94 Hi99 1019.4 373.73 448.83 3600 1.0 0 .0282
3600.0 6 x 1o -<~. 36.000 1320 15.838 127.208 35 . 315 l.O
hl = hectolitre =litre x 101 .
Pressure and pressure heads
bar kg/ cm 1 lbf/in 2 atm ftH 1 0 mH20 mmHg in Hg kPil
1.0 1.0197 14.504 0.98fi9 33.445 10.19 7 750.oo 29.530 100

0.9807 1.0 14.223 0.9878 32.808 10 ns.5fi 28.959 98 .0
0.0689 0.0 703 1.0 0.0609 2.3067 0.7031 51.715 2.036 6.89
1.013 3 l.0332 l4.69fi 1..0 33.889 10.3 32 760.0 29.921 101.3
0.0299 0.0305 0.4335 0.0295 1.0 0.3048 22.420 0.882 7 2.99
0.0981 0.10 1.422 0.0%8 3.2808 1.0 73.356 2.896 9.81
13.3 x 1o- 4 0.0014 0.0193 l3.2 x 1o- 4 0.0446 0.0136 L.O 0.0394 0. 13 3
0.0339 0.0345 0.4912 0.0334 1.1329 0.3453 25 .40 ].() U9
l.Ox 10- > 10.2 x 1o - ~> 14.5x w- s 9.87x10 - 1' 3.34 x l0- 4 l0. 2x 10 1 75.0 x 10- 4 29.5 x w-s l.O
atm =international standard atmosphere.

kg/cm 1 =metric atmosphere.
Velocity
metre per second foot per second foot per minute kilometre per hour mile per hour
m/s ft/s fl/ m km/ hr mile/hr
1 3.2808 0 .0547 3.6 2.2369

0.3048 1 0.0167 1.097 3 0.6818
18.288 60 I 65.8368 40.9091
0 .2778 0.9113 0.0152 l 0.6214
0.4470 1.4667 0.0245 1.6093 I
Volume
cubic metre cubic centimetre litre cubic inch cubic foot UK gallon US gallon
m3 cm 3 I inJ ft 3 UK gal US gal
.l 1.000.000 999.972 61.023.7 35.3147 219.969 264.172

0.000001 1 0.0009997 0.0610 0.0000353 0.00022 0.00026
0.001 1000.028 1 61.0255 0.0353 0.22 0.2642
0.000016 16.3871 0.0164 1 0.00058 0.0036 0.0043
0.0283 28316.8 28.3161 1728 l 6.2288 7.4805
0.0045 4546.09 4.546 277.419 0.1605 1 1.201
0.0038 3 785.41 3.7853 231 0.133 7 0.8327 1
Mass
kilogram pound hundredweight tonne UK ton US short ton

kg lb cwt sh ton
1 2.2046 0.0197 0.001 0.00098 0.0011

0.4536 1 0.0089 0.000454 0.000446 0.0005
50.802 3 112 1 0.0508 0.05 0.056
1000 2204.62 19.6841 1 0.9842 1.1023
1016.05 2240 20 1.0161 1 1.12
907.185 2000 17.8571 0.9072 0.8929 1
Density
gram per millilitre kilogram per cubic metre pound per cubic root pound per cubic inch
g/ml kg/cm 3 lb/l't 3 lb/ in 3
1 1000 62.428 0.0361

0.001 1 0.062 0.000036
0.016 16.02 1 0.00058
2 7.6807 27679.9 1728 1
Heat flow rate
watts calorie per second kilocalorie per hour British thermal unit per hour
w cal/ s kca[/hr Btu/hr
0.2388 0.8598 3.4121

4.1868 l 3.6 14.286
1.163 0.2778 1 3.9683
0.2931 0.07 0.252 1
Force
kilonewton kilogram force pound force pound a I

kN kgf lbf pdl
1 101.972 224.809 7233.01

0.00981 1 2.2046 70.9316
0.0044 0.4536 1 32.1740
0.000138 0.0141 0.83]] 1
Torque
newton metre kilogram force metre pound force foot pound force inch
Nm kgfm lbf ft lbf/in
1 0.102 0.7376 8.8508

9.8067 1 7.23 30 86.7962
1.3558 0.1383 1 12
0.113 O.Oll5 0.0833 l
Power
watt kilogram force metre metric horse power foot pound force horse power
w per second per second hp
kgfm/sec ft lbf/sec
1 0.102 0.00136 0.7376 0.00134

9.8067 1 0.0133 3 7.2330 0.01315
735.499 75 1. 542.476 0.98632
1.3558 0.1383 0.00184 1 0.00182
745.70 76.0402 0.0139 550.0 l
Mass volumetric rate of flow: liquids

lb/hr
US gal/min= 500 x SGl m3 /h = O.O~~gjh
SG 1 = water= 1 at 60°F SG 2 = water= 1 at 4°Celcius

linear conversions
Fractions to decimals to millimetres
Inch Decimal-inch Millimetre rnch Decimal-inch Nlillimetre
0.003937 0.1 15/32 0.4o875 11.9063

0.007874 0.2 0.472441 12
0.011811 0.3 31/64 0.484375 12.3031
I /64 0.015625 0.3%9 1/2 0.500 12 .700
0.015748 0.4 0 .511811 13
0.01968 5 0.5 33j64 0.515625 13.0969
0.023622 O.fl 17/32 0.53125 - - - 13.4938
0.027559 0.7 35/64 0.546875 13.8906
1/32 0.03125 0.7938 0.551181 14
0.031490 0.8 9/ 16 o.5o25 14.2875
0.035433 0.9 37/64 0.578125 14.6844
0.03937 1 0.590551 15
3/64 o.o4o87S 1.1906 19/32 0.59375 15.0813
1/16 0.0625 1.5875 39/64 0.609375 15.4781
5/64 O.On125 1.9844 5/8 0.625 15.875
0.078740 2 0.629921 16
3/32 0.09375 2.3813 41 /64 0.640625 16.2719
7/64 0.109375 2.7781 21 /32 0.65625 16.6688
0.118110 3 o.o69291 17
1/8 0.] 25 3.175 43/64 o.o71875 17.0656
9/64 0.140625 3.5719 11/16 0.6875 17.4625
5/32 0.15625 3.%88 45/ 64 0.703125 17.8594
0.157480 4 0.708661 18
I 1/64 0.171875 4.3856 23/ 32 0.71875 18.2563
3/16 0.1875 4. 7625 47/64 0 .734375 18.6531
0.196850 5 0.748031 19
13/64 0.203125 5.1594 3/4 0.750 19.050
7/32 0.21875 5.5563 49/64 o.765o25 19.4469
15/64 0.234375 5.9531 25/32 0. 78125 19 .8438
0.236220 6 0.787402 20
1/4 0.250 6.350 51 /64 0.796875 20.2406
17/64 0.265625 6.7469 I 3/ 16 0.8125 20.6375
0 .275591 7 0.826772 21
9/32 0.28125 7.1438 53/64 0.828125 21.0344
19/64 0.296875 7.5406 27/32 0.84375 21.4313
5/16 - 0.3125 7.9375 55/64 0.859375 21.8281
0 .314%1 8 0.86()142 22
21/64 0.328125 8.3344 7/8 0 .875 - - -22.225
11 /32 0.34375 8.7313 57/64 0 .890625 22.6219
0.354331 9 0.905512 23
23/64 0.359375 9.1281 29/32 0.90625 23.0188
3/8 0 ..375 9.525 59/64 0.921875 23.4156
25/64 0 ..390625 9.9219 15/16 0.9375 23.8125
0.393701 10 0.944882 24
13/32 0.40625 10.3188 61 /64 0.953125 24.2094
27/64 0.421875 10.7156 31 /32 0.96875 24.6063
0.433071 11 0.984252 - -- - 25
7/ 16 0.4375 11.1.125 63/64 0 .984375 25 .0031
29/64 0.45312'> 11.5094 I in 1 25.400
Millimetres to inches
Milli- Inches
metres
() 2 3 4 6 7 8 <)
() 0 . 039 ~7 0.07M74 0.11811 0.15748 0 . 1968 5 0.23622 0.27~S':I 0.314.90 0.3 5433
10 0.39370 0.4 3307 0.47244 0.51181 0.55118 0 .59055 0.6299 2 0.66929 o. 7086n 0.74803
20 078740 0.82677 0.86614 0.90551 0.94488 0 .98425 1.02 362 I .06299 1. 10 236 1.14173
30 1.18110 1.22047 1.2 5984 1.29921 1.33858 1.3779 5 1.417 32 I .41669 1.49606 1.53543
40 1.5 7480 1.614 1 7 1.65354 1.69291 ).73 228 1.77165 1.8 ll 02 1.8 SO JY 1.88976 1.92913
50 l. 968 so 2.00787 2.04724 2.086() I 2.12598 2.16535 2.204 72 2.24409 2.21) 346 2. 3228 3
nO 2.36220 2.40157 2. 440')4 2.4803 1 2.5 1969 2.55906 2.59H43 2.63780 2.(>7717 2.71654
70 2.7559 1 2.79528 2.8 3465 2.87402 2.91339 1 95276 2.99213 3.031 50 3.07087 3.11024
80 3.1496 1 3.18898 3. 22835 3.26772 3.30709 3.34646 3.3!!583 3.42 520 3.4645 7 3.503')4
90 3.54331 3.58268 3.62205 3.66142 3.70079 3.7401 6 3.779'i3 3.81890 3.85827 3.89764
roo 3.93701 3.97638 4.01575 4.0551 2 4.09449 4 .13386 4.17323 4.21260 4.25 19 7 4.2'1 I ~4
110 4.33071 4.37008 4.4094 5 4.448 S2 4.488 19 4.5275h 4. 5nn9 3 4.60630 4 .645n 7 4.68'i1H
120 4 72441 4. 76378 4.80315 4.84 252 4.88 l R9 4 .92l26 4. 9606 3 'i.OOOIJO 5.03937 5.07R7-I
130 5. 11811 5.15 741! 'i. 19685 5.23()22 5.27559 5. 314% 5.354.\3 ~.39370 5.4 3 307 '5.47 2-11
140 5.5 1181 5.55llS 5.59055 5.62992 S.!i6929 5.70866 5. 74803 'i.78740 5.82677 ~.X66 14
150 5.905 51 'i.':/4488 5.98425 6.02 362 6.0h299 6.10236 6.14173 h.! X110 6.2204 7 6.2 ~984
160 6.29921 6.33858 6.37795 6.41732 6.4 5669 6.4%0 6 6.53543 6.57480 6.6141 7 6.h5 ~'i4
170 6.69291 6.73228 6.77165 6.81102 6.85039 (i 88976 6.9291 3 h.%850 7.0078 7 7.0'17 24
180 7.08661 7. 12598 7.16535 7.20472 7.24409 7.28346 7.322X3 7.36220 7.4 01~ 7 7.44094
190 7.480 31 7.51969 7 55906 7.59843 7.6 3 780 7.677 17 7.716~4 7.75591 7.7952H 7.83465
200 7 87402 7.9 133':1 7.95276 7.99213 8.03 1 50 8 0708 7 8.1 I ll 24 8.14961 1<. I 88'J8 8.228 j 'i
210 s 26772 8. 30709 8.34646 8.38583 8.425 20 1l46457 IU0\94 tl. 54l31 IL 51<268 IL6221l5
220 8 ri6142 8 .70079 8.74016 8.77953 8.81890 8.8 5827 IL89764 8.93 70 I 8.97h31.i 9.01575
230 9.05512 9.09449 9.1 338(, 9.17323 9.21260 9.25197 'J.29 134 9.33071 9. 37008 9.4094 5
240 9.44S82 9.488 I 9 9. 52 756 9.56693 9.60630 9.64567 9.68504 9.72441 9.76378 9.8031 5
250 9.84252 9 S8189 9.921 26 9.96063 I 0.0000 10.03 94 10.0787 I l l.l 18 I I 0.1 'i 7'i JO.I969
260 lll.2362 10. 2 756 10.3150 10.3543 10.39 37 10.43 31 I 0.4 724 10.51 I 8 10.5 5 I 2 10.5906
170 10.6299 10.6693 10.7087 l0.74XO 10.7874 IO.X268 10.8661 I 0.9055 Ill. 944 y 111.984 3
281) 11.0236 I 1.0630 1 1.1024 11.1417 ll.liJlJ 11.220 5 11.2598 I 1.29':12 1 I. 3 }IJ() I 1.3 780
290 J 1.417 3 1l.45fi7 11.4961 1 I .53 54 11.5 748 11.6142 I I .f15 3S 11 .6929 I 1.7323 11. 7717
300 11.8110 11.8 504 1 1.~89 8 11.9291 I 1.9685 12.(10 79 12.04 72 12.086h 12.1260 I 2.16'>4
310 12.2047 12.2441 12.2835 12.3228 1.2.3622 12.4016 I 2.4409 l2.4S03 12 . 'i I 97 12.:; '>9 1
320 12.5984 12.6378 12 .6772 1.2 .7165 12. 7559 12.7953 12.8346 12.8740 12.9134 12 9521>
330 12 .9921 J 3.031 5 13.0709 I 3 ll02 1 3.14% J 3.1890 13.2283 I 3.2677 I 3.3071 I 3.l465
340 13 .38 58 13.4251 J 3.4 64fi 13.5039 13.5433 13 582 7 13.6220 13.6614 I 3. 7008 13.7402
350 13.7795 13.8189 13.858 3 13 .8976 13.9370 13.97(>4 14.0157 14.0 5'5 I 14.09 45 14.1 )19
360 14.1732 14.2 126 14.2 .520 14.29 13 14.3307 14.3701 14.4094 14.44 8!1 14.48 82 14.'>276
370 14. 56fiY 14.6063 14.64 57 14.6850 14.7244 14.7638 14.803t 14.!!425 14.8X19 14 .':1213
380 14 .9606 15.0000 15.0394 I 'i.0787 15.1181 1 5. 157'5 15 I %9 15.2362 ! S.275f> I 5. 3 1 '50
390 15.3543 15. 3937 15.433 1 15.4724 15.51 18 1 s 5512 15. 5906 I 5.6299 I 'i.6693 15.7087
400 15 .7480 15 .7874 15.8268 15 .86 61 15.9051 15.9449 I 3.9R43 1<>.0236 16.0610 I h. 1024
410 16. 1417 16.1 8 11 I 6.2205 16.259S I 6.2992 16.HH6 16.3 780 16.4 I 7 3 1h.·l5b7 I 6.4%1
420 16.53'54 16. 5748 16.6142 16.6535 lfi.6929 I 6.7 323 16.77 17 16 .8 110 16.8 '5 1'14 I 6.8.~')8
430 16.929 1 16.9685 17.00 7') 17.0472 ]70866 17 1260 17.1654 17.2047 17.2441 17.28 ~5
440 17.322X 17.3622 17.401 6 17.4409 174803 17.5197 I. 7. 559 I l7.'i984 17.6 378 I 7.6772
450 17.7 165 17.7559 17.7953 I 7.8346 I 7 8740 17.91 34 17.9528 17 9921 18.0 .1 15 18 0709
460 18. 1102 .18.1496 18.1 891J 18.2283 18.2677 11U071 18.3465 I 1). 385!! 18.42'i2 18.4646
4 70 18.5039 18.5433 18.5827 18 .6220 18.fih14 1 S. 700X 18.7402 18. 7795 I 8./l 189 I ll.858 3
480 18.89 76 18.9370 18.9764 19.0157 J 9.055 1 I 9 0945 19. I 339 19 .17 32 I 'J.2 12 6 19 2 5 20
490 19.2913 19.3307 1':1.3701 19.4094 19.4488 I 9.481l2 19.5 276 1 ':!.5669 19.6063 19.6457
500 19.6850 19 7244 19.7638 191W3J 19.8425 19 8819 19.921 3 19.9606 20.0000 20.0394
5[() 20.0787 20.1 181 20.1575 20.1969 20.2362 20.275h 20.~150 20.3543 20.3937 20.4 33 I
'>20 20.4 724 20.5118 20.55 12 20.5906 20.6299 20.669 3 20. 7087 20 .7480 20.7874 .W.fi26X
530 208661 20.9055 20.9449 20.9843 21.0236 21.06W 21.1024 21.1417 2 1. I X 1 I 21.220'>
540 21.2 598 2 1.2 992 2 1.3386 21.3 780 21. 41 7 ~ 2 1.4567 21.4%1 21.5 3 54 21.S74S 21.61 42
550 21.6535 21.6929 21.7323 21.7717 21.8110 2 1.85 04 2l.llll98 21.929 1 21.961l5 22.0079
560 22.0472 22.0866 22.1260 22.1654 22.204 7 22.24 41 22 2835 22. 3 228 22.3622 22.4016
570 22.4409 2 2.4803 22.5197 22.5591 22.5984 22.6378 22.6772 22.7 165 22.75 59 2 2 79 53
580 22.8346 22.8740 22.9134 22.9528 22.9':121 23.03 1 5 23.0 709 23.1102 23.14% 2 3. I 890
S90 23.2283 23.2677 23.3071 23.3465 23.3858 23.42 52 23.4646 23.5039 23.5433 2 ~.'>827
600 23.6220 23 .6614 2 3. 7008 23.7402 23 7795 23.8189 .U8583 23.8976 23.9370 23.97h4
610 24.0157 24.05 51 24.0945 24 . 1339 24.1732 24.2126 24.2520 24.291.3 24.3307 24.3701
620 24.4094 24.4488 24.4882 24. 5276 24.5669 24.6063 24.64'>7 24.6850 24.7244 24.7638
630 24.8031 24.842 5 24.8819 24.9213 24.9606 25.0000 2 5.0394 25.0787 2 5.1 18 I 25. 1575
640 25.1969 25.2362 2 5.2756 25.3150 25.3543 25.3937 25.433 I 25.4724 2 'i.51 18 25.5512
650 25 .5906 2 5.6299 2 5.6693 2 5. 7087 2 5. 7480 25.7874 2 '>.ll268 25.8h61 2'i.'J055 2 5.9449
660 25.9843 26.0236 26.06 30 26.1024 26.1417 26.18 11 2h.220~ 26.2 598 26.6992 26.3386
670 26.3780 2 f>.41 37 26.4567 26.4961 26.5354 26.574 8 26.6142 26.6535 26.6929 26. 7 323
680 26.77 17 26.!! 11 0 26.8504 26 8898 26.9291 26.9685 27.0079 27.0472 27.0866 27. 12r>0
690 27. 1fi54 27.2047 27.2441 27.2835 27.3228 27 ..3622 2 7.4016 27.4409 27.41HH 27.5 197
700 27.5591 2 7. 5984 27.6378 27.6772 27.7165 27.7559 27.7953 27.83 46 27.8 740 27.9 134
710 27.9528 27.9921 28.0315 28.0709 28.1102 28.1496 28. I 890 21U283 28.2677 28.3071
720 28.3465 28.3858 28.4252 2fL4646 28.5039 28 54 33 28.5827 28.6220 28.6614 28.7008
730 28.740 2 28 7795 28.8189 28.8583 28.8976 28.'!370 28.97()4 290157 29.0551 29 .0 94 5
740 29.1 339 29. 1732 29.2 126 29. 2 520 29.2913 29.3307 29.3701 29.4094 29.4488 294882
Temperature conversion chart

Celsi us to Fahrenheil
Note: The numbers in boldface refer to temperature in degrees. either Celsius or Fahrenheit. which it is desired to
convert to the ot·her scale. If converting from l'ahrenh.eit to Celsiu~ degrees. the equivalent temperature will be
found in the left column: while if converting from Celsius to Fahrenheit, the answer will be found in the column on
the right.
Celsius Fahrenheit Celsius Fahrenheit Celsius Fahrenheit Celsius Fahrenheit
-7 3. 3 -100 -.14H.O 2.8 37 98.6 33.3 92 197.6 293 560 1040.0

-67.S -90 -130.0 3.3 38 100.4 33.9 93 199.4 299 570 1058.0
-62.2 -80 -112 .0 3.9 39 102.2 34.4 94 201.2 304 580 1076.0
-59.4 -75 -103.0 4.4 40 104.0 35.0 95 203.0 310 590 ] 094.0
-56.7 -70 -94.0 5.0 41 105 .8 3 5.6 96 204.8 316 600 1112.0
-53.9 -65 -85.0 5.6 42 107.6 36.1 97 206.6 321 610 ] 1 30.0
-'il.J -60 -76.0 6.1 43 109 .4 36.7 98 208.4 327 620 1148.0
-48.3 -55 -67.0 6.7 44 111.2 37.2 99 210.2 332 630 1166.0
-45.6 -50 -58.0 7.2 45 113.0 37.8 100 212 .0 338 640 1 184.0
-42.8 -45 -49.0 7.8 46 114.8 43.0 J I0 230.0 343 650 1202.0
-40.0 -40 -40.0 8.3 47 116.6 49 .0 120 248.0 349 660 1220.0
-3 7.2 -35 - 31.0 8.9 48 Il8.4 54.0 130 266.0 354 670 1238.0
-.34.4 -30 -22.0 9.4 49 120.2 60.0 140 284.0 3()() 680 1256.0
-3 .1.7 -25 - 1 3.0 10.0 50 122.0 66.0 150 302.0 366 690 1274.0
-28.9 -20 -4.0 10.6 51 J 23.8 71.0 160 320.0 3 71 700 1292.0
- 26.1 -15 5.0 1 I. J 52 125.6 77.0 170 338.0 377 710 1.310.0
-23.3 -10 14.0 ll.7 53 127.4 82.0 180 3 56.0 382 720 1328.0
-20.6 -5 2 3.0 12.2 54 J 29.2 88.0 190 374.0 388 730 1346.0
-17.8 0 32.0 12.8 55 l3 1.0 93.0 200 392.0 393 740 1364.0
-17.2 I 33.8 13.3 56 132.8 99 .0 210 410.0 399 750 1382.0
-16.7 2 35.6 13.9 57 134.h 100.0 212 414.0 404 760 1400.0
-16.1 3 37.4 14.4 58 13hA 104.0 220 428.0 410 770 1418.0
-I 'i.6 4 39.2 l 5.0 59 138.2 110.0 230 446.0 416 780 1436.0
-15.0 5 4 .I .0 1 5.6 60 140.0 116.0 240 4n4.o 421 790 1454.0
-14.4 6 42.8 16.1 61 141.8 l 2 ].() 250 482.0 427 800 1472.0
- 13.9 7 44.6 16.7 62 143.6 12 7.0 260 500.0 432 810 1490.0
-13.3 8 46.4 17.2 63 145.4 132.0 270 518.0 438 820 1508.0
-12.8 9 4R.2 17.8 64 147.2 138.0 280 536.0 443 830 1526.0
-) 2.2 10 50.0 18.3 65 149 .0 143.0 290 5 54.0 449 840 1544.0
-11.7 I I 51.8 18.9 66 150.8 149.0 300 572.0 454 850 1562.0
-1 J. 1 12 5 3.h 19.4 67 152.6 154.0 310 590.0 460 860 I 580.0
-10.6 13 55.4 20.0 68 154.4 1f>O.O 320 ()08.0 466 870 1598.0
-10.0 14 57.2 20.h 69 156.2 16n.o 330 626.0 471 880 1616.0
-9.4 )5 59.0 21.1 70 158.0 171.0 340 644.0 477 890 1634.0
-8.9 16 oo.8 21.7 71 159.8 177.0 350 662.0 482 900 1652 .0
-8.3 17 62.6 22.2 72 161.6 182.0 360 680.0 488 910 1670.0
- 7.8 18 64.4 22.8 73 163.4 188.0 370 h98.0 493 920 168H.O
- 7.2 19 n6.2 23.3 74 165.2 193.0 380 716.0 499 930 1706.0
-6.7 20 fi8.0 23.9 75 1n7.o 199.0 390 734.0 504 940 1724.0
-6.1 21 h9.8 24.4 76 168.8 204.0 400 752.0 510 950 1742.0
-5.6 22 71.6 25.0 77 170.() 210.0 410 770.0 'il6 960 1760.0
-5.0 23 7 3.4 25.6 78 172.4 216.0 420 788.0 521 970 1778.0
-4.4 24 75.2 26.1 79 174.2 221.0 430 80n.o 527 980 1 796.0
-3.9 25 77.0 26.7 80 176.0 227.0 440 824.0 532 990 1814.0
-1.3 26 78.8 27.2 81 177.8 232.0 450 842.0 538 1000 1832.0
-2.8 27 80.6 27.8 82 179.6 238.0 460 860.0 566 1050 1922.0
-2.2 28 82.4 28.3 83 181.4 243.0 470 878.0 593 1100 2012.0
-.1.7 29 84.2 28.9 84 183.2 249.0 480 896.0 n21 IISO 2102.0
-l.l 30 86.0 29.4 85 1S5.0 254.0 490 914.0 649 1200 2192.0
-0.6 31 R7.S 30.0 86 186.8 2 f>O.O 500 932.0 677 1250 2282.0
0.0 32 89.6 30.6 87 188.6 266.0 510 950.0 704 1300 2372.0
0.6 33 91.4 31.1 88 190.4 271.0 520 968.0 732 1350 2462.0
1.1 34 93.2 31.7 89 192.2 277.0 530 986.0 760 1400 2552.0
1.7 35 95.0 32.2 90 194.0 282.0 540 1004.0 788 1450 2642.0
2.2 36 96.8 32.8 91 195.8 288.0 550 1022.0 816 1500 2732.0
The formulae on the right: may also be

used for converting Celsius or Degrees Cets. oc =~ (°F + 40) - 40 Degrees rilhr. °F = ~ ( C + 40) - 40
Pahrenheit degrees into the other scale. ~
Temperature OF = 9/5 oc + 32
0 0
( = 5/9 ( f - 32)
c· r· c· r· c· f" c· f"
+32 300 900 16SO
(• r•
-213 -419 1100
-410
+100
610
-710 310 610 1100 910
!ISO
100
1110
1800
+700
-200 400 100 1000
1300
1810
-300
800
1310
1900
-1SO
-ISO •ISO ·300 410 ISO 1010
810
1400
1910
-200
•3SO
900
1410
2000
-100 -ISO +200 SOD 1100
•400
9SO
1100
2010
·410
1000
1110
•2SO .ISO 810 liSO 2100
·100
lOSO
1600
7110
•SIO
1100
+11 +300 600 900 1610 1100 1190
Pressure conversions
Pounds per square inch (lbf/in 2 ) to bar
1- 40 41- 80 81-200 205-500 510-900 910-1500
lbf/in 2 bar lbf/in 2 bar lbf/ in 2 bar lbf/in 2 bar lbf/in 2 bar lbf/ in 2 bar
1 0.07 4I 2.83 81 5. 58 205 14.13 510 35.16 910 62.74

2 0.14 42 2.90 82 5.65 210 14.48 520 35.85 920 63.43
3 0.21 43 2. 96 83 5.72 215 14.82 530 36.54 930 64.12
4 0.28 44 3.03 84 5.79 220 15.17 540 37.23 940 64.81
5 0.34 45 1.10 85 5.86 225 15. 51 550 37.92 950 65.50
() 0.41 46 3.17 86 5.93 230 15.86 SfiO 38.61 960 66.19

7 0.4H 47 3.24 87 6.00 235 16.20 570 39.30 970 66.88
8 0.55 48 3.31 88 6.07 240 16.5 5 580 39.99 980 67.57
9 0.62 49 3.38 89 6.14 245 16.89 590 40.68 990 68.26
10 0.69 50 3.45 90 6.21 250 17.24 600 41.37 1000 68.95
ll 0. 76 51 3.52 91 6.27 255 17.58 610 42.06 1010 69.64

12 0 .8 3 52 3.59 92 6.34 260 17.93 620 42.75 1020 70.33
13 0.90 53 3.65 93 6.41 265 18.27 630 43.44 1030 71.02
14 0.97 54 3.72 94 6.48 270 18.62 640 44.13 1040 71.7 J
15 l.03 55 3.79 95 6.55 275 18.96 650 44.82 1050 72.39
16 1.10 56 3.86 96 6.62 280 19.31 660 45 . 51 1060 73.08

17 1.1 7 57 3.93 97 6.69 285 19.65 670 46.19 10 70 73.77
18 ].24 58 4.00 98 6.76 290 19.99 680 46.88 1080 74.46
19 1.31 59 4.07 99 6.83 295 20.34 690 47.57 1090 75.15
20 1.38 60 4.14 100 6.89 300 20.68 700 48.26 llOO 75.84
21 1.4 5 61 4 .2 1 lOS 7.24 310 21.3 7 710 48.95 1120 77.22

22 1.52 62 4.27 110 7.58 320 22.06 720 49.64 1140 78.60
23 1.59 63 4.34 liS 7.93 .330 22.75 730 50.33 1160 79.98
24 1.65 64 4.41 120 8.27 340 23.44 740 51.02 1180 81.36
25 1.72 65 4.48 125 8.62 350 24.13 750 51.71 1200 82.74
26 1. 79 66 4.55 130 8.96 360 24.82 760 52.40 1220 84.12

27 1.86 fi7 4.62 135 9.31 370 25 .51 770 53.09 1240 85.49
28 1.93 68 4.69 140 9.65 380 26.20 780 53.78 1260 86.87
29 2.00 (,9 4.76 14 5 10.00 390 26.89 790 54.47 1280 88.25
30 2.07 70 4.83 1 50 10.34 400 27.58 800 55.16 1300 89.63
31 2.14 71 4.90 155 10.69 410 28.27 810 55.85 1320 91.01
32 2.21 72 4.90 160 11.03 420 28.96 820 56.54 1340 92.39
33 2.28 73 5.03 165 11.38 4.30 29.65 830 57.23 13 60 93.77
34 2.34 74 5.10 170 11.72 440 30.34 840 57.92 1380 95.15
35 2.41 75 5.17 175 12.07 450 31.03 850 58.61 1400 96.53
36 2.48 76 5.24 180 12.41 460 31.72 RoO 59.29 1420 97.91
37 2.55 77 5.31 185 12.76 470 32.41 870 59.98 1440 99 .28
38 2.62 78 5.38 190 13.10 480 33.09 880 60.67 1460 100.66
39 2.69 79 5.45 195 13.44 490 33.78 890 61.36 1480 102.04
40 2.7n 80 5.52 200 13.79 500 34.47 900 62.05 1500 103.42
Steam tables
Metric SI units
Pressure Specillc enthalpy Specific

Temperature volume
W<tter (hr) Evaporation (hrg) Steam (bg) steam (v8 )
bar kPa oc kJ/kg k) / kg k)/kg m 3 /kg
0 .30 30.0 69.10 289.23 2336.1 2625 .3 5.229

0 . 50 50.0 81.33 340.49 2305.4 2645.9 3.240
absolute
0 .75 75.0 91.78 384.39 2278.6 2663.0 2.217
0.95 95.0 98.20 411.43 2261.8 2673.2 1.777
0 () 100.00 419.04 225 7.0 2676.0 1.673
gauge
0.10 10.0 102.66 430.2 2250.2 2680.4 1.533
0 .20 20.0 l05.10 440.8 2243.4 2684.2 1.414
0.30 30.0 107.39 450.4 22 3 7.2 2687.6 1.312
0.40 40.0 109.55 459.7 2231.3 2691.0 1.225
0.50 50.0 111.61 468.3 2225.6 2693.9 1.149
0.()() 60.0 113.56 476.4 2220.4 2696.8 1.083
0.70 70.0 115.40 484 .1 2215.4 2699.5 1.024
0.80 80.0 117.14 491.6 2210.5 2702.1 0.971
0.90 90.0 118.80 498.9 2205.6 2704.5 0.923
1.00 100.0 120.42 505.6 2201.1 2706.7 0.881
1.10 110.0 121.96 512.2 2197.0 2709.2 0.841
1.20 120.0 123.46 518.7 2192.8 2711.5 0.806
1.30 130.0 124.90 524.6 2188.7 2713.3 0.773
1.40 140.0 126.28 530.5 2184.8 2715.3 0.743
l. so 150.0 127.62 536.1 2181.0 2717.1 0.714
1.60 160.0 128.89 541.6 2177.3 2718.9 0 .689
1.70 170.0 130.13 547.1 2173.7 2720.8 0 .6()5
1.80 180.0 131.37 552.3 2170.1 2722.4 0.643
1.90 190.0 132.54 557.3 2l(i6.7 2724.0 0.622
2.00 200.0 133.69 562.2 2Hi3.3 2725.5 O.f>03
2.20 220.0 135.88 571.7 2156.9 2728.6 0.%8
2.40 240.0 138.01 580.7 2 150.7 2731.4 0.531)
2.60 260.0 140.00 589.2 2144.7 2733.9 0.509
2 .80 280.0 141.92 597.4 2139.0 2736.4 0.483
3.00 300.0 143.75 605.3 2133.4 2738.7 0.461
3.20 320.0 145.46 612 .9 2128.1 2741.0 0.440
3.40 340.0 147.20 620.0 2122.9 2742.9 0.422
3.60 360.0 148.84 627.1 2117.8 2744.9 0.405
3.80 380.0 150.44 634.0 2112.9 2746.9 0.389
4 .00 400.0 151.96 640.7 2108.1 2748.8 0.374
4.50 450.0 155.55 655.3 2096.7 2753.0 0.342
5.00 500.0 158.92 670.9 2086.0 2756.9 0.315
5.50 550.0 162.08 684.6 2075.7 2760.3 0.292
6.00 600.0 165.04 697.5 2066.0 2763.5 0.272
6.50 650.0 167.83 709.7 2056.8 2766.5 0.255
7.00 700.0 170.50 721.4 2047.7 2769.1 0.240
7.50 750.0 173 .02 732.5 2039.2 2771.7 0 .227
8.00 800.0 175.43 743.1 2030.9 2774.0 0.215
8.50 850.0 177.75 753.3 2022.9 2776.2 0.204
Steam tables
Metric SI units
Pressure Specific enthalpy Specific

Temperature volume
Water (hr) Evaporation (hr~tl Steam (hg) steam (v~)
bar kPa oc k)/kg kJ/kg kJ!kg m.\/kg
9.00 900.0 179.97 763.0 2015.1 277R.l 0.194

9.50 950.0 182.10 772.5 2007.5 27HO.O 0.185
10.00 1000.0 184.13 781.6 2000.1 2781.7 0.177
10.50 1050.0 186.05 790.1 1993.0 2783.3 0.171
11.00 1100.0 188.02 798.8 1986.0 2784.8 0.163
11.50 1150.0 189.82 807.1 J 979.1 2786.3 0.157
12.00 1200.0 191.68 815.1 1972.5 2787.6 0.151
12.50 1250.0 193.43 822.9 1%5.4 2788.8 0.148
13.00 1300.0 195.10 830.4 1959.6 2790.0 0.141
13.50 1350.0 196.62 837.9 1953.2 2791.1 0.136
14.00 1400.0 198.35 845. 1 1947.1 2792.2 0.132
14.50 1450.0 199.92 852.1 1941.0 2793.1 0.128
15.00 1500.0 201.45 859.0 1935.0 2794.0 0.124
1h.OO 1600.0 204.38 872.3 1923.4 2 79 5. 7 0.117
17.00 1 700.0 207.17 885.0 1912.1 2797.1 0.110
18.00 1800.0 209.90 897.2 1901.3 2798.5 0.105
19.00 1900.0 212.47 909.0 1890.5 2799.5 0.100
20.00 2000.0 214.96 920.3 1880.2 2800.5 0.0949
21.00 2100.0 217.35 931.3 1870.1 2801.4 0 .0906
22.00 2200.0 219.65 941.9 1860.1 2802.0 0.0868
23.00 2300.0 221.85 952.2 1850.4 2802.6 0.0832
24.00 2400.0 224.02 962.2 1804 .9 2803.1 0.0797
25.00 2500.0 226.12 972.1 1 831.4 2803.5 0.0?68
26.00 2f>OO.O 228.15 981.6 1822.2 2803.8 0.0740
27.00 2700.0 230.14 990.7 1813.3 2804.0 0.0714
28.00 2800.0 2 32.05 999.7 1804.4 2R04.1 0.0689
29.00 2900.0 2 33.93 1008.6 J 795.6 2804.2 0.0()66
30.00 3000.0 235.78 1017.0 1787.0 2804.1 0.0645
31.00 3100.0 237.55 102 5.6 1778.5 2R04. I 0.0625
32.00 3200.0 239.28 1033.9 1770.0 2803.9 0.0605
33.00 3 300.0 240.97 1041.9 J 761.8 2803 .7 0.058 7
34.00 3400.0 242.63 1049.7 1753.8 2803.5 0.0571
35.00 3 500.0 244.26 1057.7 1745.5 2803.2 0.0554
36.00 3600.0 245.86 10115.7 1737.2 2802.9 0.0539
37.00 3700.0 247.42 1072.9 1729.5 2802.4 0.0524
38.00 3800.0 248.95 1080.3 1721.6 2801.9 0.0510
39.00 3900.0 250.42 1087.4 1714.1 2 80 l. ') o.o4n
40.00 4000.0 251.94 1094.6 1706.3 2 800.9 0.0485
42.00 4200.0 2'>4.74 1108.6 1691.2 2799.8 0.0461
44.00 4400.0 257.50 LJ22.1 1676.2 2798.2 0.0441
46.00 4600.0 260.13 1 13 5.3 1661.6 27%.9 0.0421
48.00 4800.0 262.73 1148.1 1647.1 2 795.2 0.0403
50.00 5000.0 265.2() 1160.8 1()32. 8 2793.6 0 0386
Imperial units
Volume
Temperature Sensible heat Latent heat Total heat dry saturation
Pressure OF Btu/Lb Btu/lb Btu/lb cu ft/lb
15 179.0 147.0 991.0 1138.0 51.41

Inches of
10 192.0 160.0 983.0 1143.0 39.40
vacuum
5 203.0 171.0 976.0 1147.0 31.80
psig 0 212.0 180.2 970.6 1150.8 26.80

2 218.5 186.8 966.4 1153.2 23.80
4 224.5 192.7 962.6 1155.3 21.40
6 230.0 198.1 959.2 1157.3 19.40
8 234.8 203.1 956.0 1159.1 17.90
10 239.4 207.9 952.9 1160.8 16.50
12 243.7 212.3 950.1 1162.3 15.30
14 247.9 216.4 947.3 1163.7 14.30
16 251.7 220.3 944.8 1165.1 13.40
18 255.4 224.0 942.4 1166.4 12.70
20 258.8 227.5 940.1 1167.6 12.00
22 262.3 230.9 937.8 1168.7 11.40
24 265.3 234.2 935.8 1170.0 10.80
26 268.3 273.3 933.5 1170.8 10.30
28 271.4 240.2 931.6 1171.8 9.87
30 274.0 243.0 929.7 1172.7 9.46
32 276.7 245.9 927.6 1173.5 9.08
34 279.4 248.5 925.8 1174.3 8.73
36 281.9 251.1 924.0 1175.1 8.40
38 284.4 253.7 922.1 1175.8 8.11
40 286.7 256.1 920.4 1176.5 7.83
42 289.0 258.5 918.6 1177.1 7.57
44 291.3 260.8 917.0 1177.8 7.33
46 293.5 263.0 915.4 1178.4 7.10
48 295.6 265.2 913.8 1179.0 6.89
50 297.7 267.4 912.2 1179.6 6.68
52 299.7 269.4 910.7 1180.1 6.50
54 301.7 271.5 909.2 1180.7 6.32
56 303.6 273.5 907.8 1UH.3 6.16
58 305.5 275.3 906.5 1181.8 6.00
()() 307.4 277.1 905.3 1182.4 5.84
62 309.2 279.0 904.0 1183.0 5.70
64 310.9 280.9 902.6 1183.5 5.56
66 312.7 282.8 901.2 1184.0 5.43
fi8 314.3 284.5 900.0 1184.5 5.31
70 316.0 286.2 898.8 1185.0 5.19
72 317.7 288.0 897.5 1185.5 5.08
74 319.3 289.4 896.5 1185.9 4.97
76 320.9 291.2 895.1 1186.3 4.87
78 322.4 292.9 893.9 1186.8 4.77
80 323.9 294.5 892.7 1187.2 4.67
82 325.5 296.1 891.5 1187.6 4.58
84 326.9 297.6 890.3 1187.9 4.49
Imperial units
Volume
Temperature Sensible heat Latent heat Total heat dry saturation
Pressure op Btu/lb Btu/lb Btu/lb cu l't/lb
86 328.4 299.1 889.2 1188.3 4.41

88 329.9 300.6 888.1 1188.7 4.33
90 331.2 302.1 887.0 1189.1 4.25
92 332.6 303.5 885.8 1189.3 4.17
94 333.9 304.9 884.8 1189.7 4.10
96 335.3 306.3 883.7 1190.0 4.03
98 336.6 307.7 882.6 1190.3 3.96
100 337.9 309.0 881.6 1190.6 3.90
lOS 341.1 312.3 879.0 1191.4 3.74
110 344.2 315.5 876.5 1192.0 3.60
115 347.1 318.7 874.0 1192.7 3.46
120 350.1 321.8 871.5 1193.3 3.34
125 3 52.8 324.7 869.3 1194.0 3.23
130 355.6 327.6 866.9 1194.5 3.12
135 358.3 330.6 864.5 1195.1 3.02
140 360.9 333.2 862.5 1195.7 2.93
145 363.5 335.9 860.3 1196.2 2.84
150 365.9 338.6 858.0 1196.6 2.76
160 370.7 343.6 853.9 1197.5 2.61
170 375.2 348.5 849.8 1198.3 2.48
180 379.6 353.2 845.9 1199.1 2.35
190 383.7 357.6 842.2 1199.8 2.24
200 387.7 362.0 838.4 1200.4 2.14
210 391.7 366.2 834.8 1201.0 2.04
220 395.5 370.3 831.2 1201.5 1.96
230 399.1 374.2 827.8 1202.0 1.88
240 402.7 378.0 824.5 1202.5 1.81
250 406.1 381.7 821.2 1202.9 1.74
260 409.3 385.3 817.9 1203.2 1.68
270 412.5 388.8 814.8 1203.6 1.62
280 415.8 392.3 811.6 1203 .9 1.5 7
290 418.8 395.7 808.5 1204.2 1. 52
300 421.7 398.9 805.5 1204.4 1.47
310 424.7 402 .1 802.6 1204.7 1.43
320 427.5 405.2 799.7 1204.9 1.39
330 430.3 408.3 796.7 1205.0 1.35
340 433.0 411.3 793.8 1205.1 1.31
350 435.7 414.3 791.0 1205.3 1.2 7
360 438.3 417.2 788.2 1205.4 1.24
370 440.8 420.0 785.4 1205.4 1.21
380 443.3 422.8 782.7 1205.5 1.18
390 445.7 425.6 779.9 1205.5 1.15
400 448.1 428.2 777.4 1205.6 1.12
~
0.0 S
0.02
2
~~ ~ Laminarflow f = ~~ J~~
[\1-aminarJCritical ~Transition
I I I 1111111
Complete turbulence, rough pipes

I I 0
0
c.
""<
"''
flow 1-
zone•- zone ' ' 0 05
c.
O.D18 1\ , r--:-w. '\ II . ~
I~
C1Q
....,.
0016 I I 0.04
· i\ 1 fij:J -~- ~ , :; I 3
llol
0014 1\ 1 r~ ' , , . o.o3

. \ I ~ ..... Ill r--. ' I I I
0.0 12 i 1 ~· ~.,! -I ; ·'- . 0.02
1 ~~~~ L 1. 1 0.015
oo1 l ll l l \ /~'f:: ~ I ~
. I II \; ~~~~ ~r--·~~ I 0.01
Recrot /_/.~ -.........._ -r-- 1 , I I 0.008
-n
0 008 I I I I '-...; ~v I' t-... . . . ._ . . . . ._ r-1- " 0 006
· w~ ~ '"" w · · · o.oo
· :0
I~ ~~~ t-1-1
n 
0
:J
o.o07 l l l ll
"""~
-'
I
4
-
c;;
OJ \
r-..._ ~t-...
.........1'---r-.
~ "
a
<
n
..,
0
...,
0.0061
0.005 1
II II
II II
I \
I
\,
1.
I "~~
i"t'
~ ~
~r--......
I'
-
t .
0 002
o 001 ~
~
I II i I I 1\ t--~' ~k'-:--l- o:oooa -~
~· -...~I- 0.0006 ~
o.o04 I II II I ~~ : ' ' o.oo04 Cl:
"-'~~ I'
I ~f::: I o.ooo2 V')
0.0031
0.0025
II II I
,,
I ~!::::~ ~
Smooth pipes
~r--uu· i
~~t"::--.-
........ .;...
i .
1 1
•
......
......
,
0.000,001 _:1'--H
i i 0.0001
Ill 0.00005
E'
::s
§-
~
"'
):)
rrf1t
z-...LI;~
~ 0.000,005 ' '
::s
s:::...
b
0.00211111 I I I I I II II I I I I I I I II I I I I I II II I I I I llli0.00001 "'"'
~-
7 9 3 4 561 9 2 3 4 S G 7 9 2 345679 J 4 5 6 7 9 2 J 45679 ::s
10) 1 o• 10 1 10 6 107 10 8 .....
):)
c;·
::s
Reynolds number Re ~ ud "'
v 00
w
,.....
Nomogram for pipe losses
1000
900 Q
800
700 1/s
600
500 Q = flow rate I/ s
400 d. "" internal diameter mm
'
L1pP1 = pressure drop mm/m
300
v = velocity m/ s
200
dl ~P-
pi v
100 mm mm/m m/s
90
80
70 1000 0.01 0,1
900
60 800
700 0,02
50
600 0,04
40 0,06
500 0,2
0,08
400 0.1
30
0,2
''
20'
300 0,4
0,3
0,6
'' 0,8
1
0,4
' 200 0,5

'' - 2 0,6
10
9 '' 4 0,7
0 ,8
8
7
'' 100
'90
6
8
10
0,9
1
~~
6 20
5
60' 40
4 50 ' 60
'' 80
100
2
3 40
' ,200
3
30
40~
2 600
800' 4
20 1000
5
6
1 - 7
8
9
10
Nomograph solution of Manning's formula for discharge of circular pipes

running full (n = 0.011)
L.486
O=A n
where, 0 is the discharge in millions of gallons per day
A is the area of wetted cross-section of the pipe in square feet
n is the empirically derived coefficient used to represent the interior
surface characteristics of the pipe
R is the hydraulic radius of wetted cross-section of the pipe in feet
Sis the slope of hydraulic gradient
Slope of hydraulic gradient, in/ft

~
N
c 0
N
0
100.0
r-r- ~..--""" .,..
/
/
~
v
r- v v / !-'"'
50.0
1-t- t- (:)'
.....-:>
_...,,...... /
_,.,...... v
40.0 v
v~--'
v
v v~--"
/
!--",......
I-' I--' :;~· / !--" !--"
30.0
vv 1.--'~ 1''; v v
v
./
v vv
I--
I-'
1.. v L
v !--"
L
'- r--1-'"r-
!-'"'
20.0 ~b.."
1,\''
...... -- t-1-
r-
L L
~ 10.0
"0 """ ,?;.... v
~
k- L ).;:;
/ v ./_ k"
Vl
t= v ~ ..... \')'" v
.2 5.0
ro
00 4.0
v v~--'" v .. v~--'"
v ..;'
..... L
.....
L
3.0 1---
...,..v v'" L v
v ,......r"' / v

i5 1.0 ?;'
...... ...... -
...... ~
.......
.,...,......
L--"
0.5 ,.....,
...... ~
(:)'
v
0.4
v :,.....
!-'"' .......~--
/
/ v
0.3
!.,.;""" v r-
v ...... L.
v
0.2
b..''
~
1--
1--
0. l
§ 8§
0 0 0
0
,.....
0
0
-
.o
6
Slope of hydraulic gradient
n = 0.011
Notes:
l. Unless otherwise known, a value of 0.013 is recommended for n for pipes of all materials.
2.The velocity of flow (averaged over the wetted cross-section) should be kept between 2ft/sec and
J 0 ft/sec.
Nomograph solution of Manning's formula for discharge of circular pipes

running full (n = 0.013)
1.486
Q=A
n
where, Q is the discharge in millions of gallons per day
A is the area of wetted cross-section of the pipe in square feet
n is the empirically derived coefficient used to represent the interior
surface characteristics of the pipe
R is the hydraulic radius of wetted cross-section of the pipe in feet
S is the slope of hydraulic gradient
Slope of hydraulic gradient, inlft

g 0
N 0
N
0
0
100.0
r- - t- .,.,., r--
~
/
.,., L
_....,r--
~ L
v / v
50.0
40.0 r-- ......
,..-*':JI(:)'
~,·
v /
v
r--
/
/
v
~
30.0 / v / /
v/ v ~..--~~· L ~I--' ~v
20.0
............... v/ 1--- 1.'1'',. / v r--
1-~·
1,\''.: - - ' --: ~

>.
co 10.0 /
-=:> .......
.... / .c.
v
0.
v v I-?)'
I--' \
v
"' v / v
t:
..Q 5.0 .,., / /r-- v /
(;j
Oil
t:
4.0 v
v v
v\:,''
/
""'/
I/
.......
~ 3.0 .........
·e v \"i'""' ""'
..,......r-- .......
.5 2.0 / ....-""'
v
Oil
.... - ~(S' _
co
.c. - r-- - ]- r -
u
6"' 1.0
__.,.
- PL ?)' /
~ .........
v
;.....- ~ I
v v
0.5 /
0.4
v~--" I 6'/v
/ ' v'
0.3 .,., v
0.2
v ....... """ v
- r-- r;'
0.1
r'"l V) 0 N r'"l ..,. V"\ 0
8
0
8
0
$
0
~
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
Slope of hydraulic gradient
n = 0.013
Notes:
1. Unless otherwise known, a value of 0.013 is recommended for n for pipes of all materials .
2. The velocity of flow (averaged overthe wetted cross-section) should be kept between 2ft/sec and
I 0 ft/sec.
Head-loss characteristics of water flow through rigid plastic pipe
This nomograph pro I• ides approximate values for a wide range of plastic pipe sizes . .\lore precise values should be calculated from the Williams and Hazen formula. Experimenral test value of C ta constant
for inside pipe roughness) ran ges from I 55 to 165 for various types of p lastic p1pe. Use of a value of 150 wi U ensure conservative friction-loss values.
Values for bead loss on PVC and CPVC fittmgs and valves arc not available at the present time. Since directional changes and restrictions contribute the most head loss. use of head-loss data for
comparable metal valves and fitt10gs w1li provide conservative values.
• 1,11 0'1 ..... Ol..,:, 0 ;;: "'

0 '"'
0
..
0
0
0
.,
0
"'
0
0
;.,_ ~ :. . , <»"' 0 ;.,
~
ln11de diameter of
P•pe •n 1nches
0
Head lou •n PSI
oer >00 fl. of pipe
Head loss 1n feet

per 100ft. of pipe
V:l
.....
!::.
~
!::....
~
"'0
.. (.,I N tv tV N N------ "'0 "'0 "'0 ..;,., .. "' "' .. 0
;.,
!:1.
0 o e» <71 ~ rv 0\D<D....,Q\\1'~
- 0 0 0 omc-c.Nom"'•~ o ~ V. ia ;_, N ;.... 0
""
!::.
~
THE VA LUES OF THIS GRAPH ARE BASED ON THE WILLIAMS & HAZEN FORMULA
The nomograph is used by lining up values on the scale by means of a ruler or straight edge. Two !::....
independent variables must be set to obtain the other va lues. For example. line ( 1) indicates that 500
gallons per minute may be obtained with a 6-io inside diameter pipe at a head loss of about 0.65
\2
100 1.852 91.852 pounds pa squ<trc inch at a velocity of 6.0 feet per second. Line (2) indicates that a pipe with a 2.1-in
""
~·
I = .2083 I C ) X d4 .8655
::s
inside diameter will give a now of about 60 gallons per minute at a Joss in bead of 2 pounds per square .....
!::.
inch per 100 feet of pipe. Line (3) and dotted line (3) show that in going from a pipe 2.1-in inside c;·
WHERE: f • Friction head in lee! of water per 100 feet. diameter to one of 2-in inside diameter the head loss goes from 3 to 4 pounds per square inch in ;::s
d = Inside diameter of P•pe in •nches. obtaming a flow of 70 gallons per minute. Our raw material supplier does not recommend velocities in ""
Q = flow•ng oallons per m•nute exctss of 5.0 feet per second. 00
w
Vl
Nomograph courtesy of Plastics Pipe Institute. a division of The Society of the Plast ics lndustry.
Weight (mass) density and specific volume of gases

The mass density (p) of a gas or vapour in lb/ ft 3 can be calculated from the
following equations:
-
l44P
p = --
RT
where P= absolute pressure in lb/ in 2
(=gauge pressure+ 14. 7)
R = individual gas constant
T = absolute temperature in °Rankine
-
MP
P = 10.72T
where M = molecular weight

270P X Sg
p = -- - -
T
where Sg is the pecific gravity of the gas or vapour.
Table 1 gives the weight (mass) density for air at various temperatures and
gauge pressures. It can also be used directly for steam. For other gases.
multiply the corresponding mass density figure for air by the specific gravity of
the gas. For example, for the m a ss density of butane at similar temperatures
and pressures, factor table values by 2.06 7.
Table 1. Weight (mass) density of air lb/ft 3 for gauge pressures in lb/in 2
Air lb/ in 2
temperature
op 0 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
30 0.0811 0.1087 0.1363 0.1915 0.247 0.302 0.357 0.412 0.467 0.522 0.578 0.633 0. 688 0.743 0. 798
40 0.0795 0.1065 0.1335 0.1876 0.242 0.295 0.350 0.404 0.458 0.512 0 .56 6 0.620 0.674 0.728 0.7 82
so 0.0782 0.1048 0.1314 0.1846 0.238 0.291 0.344 0.397 0.451 0.504 0.557 0.610 0.663 0.71 7 0.770
60 0.0764 0.1024 0.1284 0.1804 0.232 0.284 0.336 0.388 0.440 0.492 0.544 0.596 0 .648 0 .700 0.752
70 0.07 so 0.1005 0.1260 0.1770 0.228 0.279 0.330 0.381 0.432 0.483 0.534 0.585 0.636 0.687 0 .738
80 0.0736 0.0986 0.1236 0.1737 0.224 0.274 0.324 0.374 0.424 0.474 0.524 0.574 0.624 0.6 74 0 .724
90 0.0722 0.0968 0.1214 0.1705 0.220 0.269 0.318 0.367 0.416 0.465 0.515 0.564 0.613 0.662 0.7 11
100 0 .0709 0.0951 0.1192 0.1675 0.216 0.264 0.312 0.361 0.409 0.457 0.505 0.554 0.602 0 .650 0 .698
110 0.0697 0.0934 0.1171 0.1645 0.212 0.259 0.307 0.354 0.402 0.449 0.497 0.544 0.591 0.639 0.686
120 0.068 5 0.0918 0.1151 0.1617 0.208 0.255 0.302 0.348 0.395 0.441 0.488 0 .535 0.581 0 .628 0.674
130 0.0673 0.0902 0.1131 0.1590 0.205 0.251 0.296 0.342 ().388 0.434 0.480 0.525 0.571 0.61 7 0 .663
140 0.0662 0 .0887 0.1113 0.1563 0.201 0.246 0.291 0 .337 0 .382 0.427 0.472 0.51 7 0.562 0.607 0.652
150 0.0651 0.0873 0.1094 0.1537 0.1981 0.242 0.287 0.331 0.375 0.420 0.464 0. 508 0.553 0.597 0.641
175 0.0626 0.0834 0.1051 0.1477 0.1903 0.233 0.275 0.318 0 .361 0.403 0.446 0.488 0.531 0.573 0.6 16
200 0.0602 0.0807 0.1011 0.1421 0.1831 0.224 0.265 0.306 0.347 0.388 0.429 0 .470 0.511 0.552 0.593
225 0.0580 0 .0777 0.0974 0.1369 0.1764 0.216 0.255 0.295 0.334 0.374 0.413 0 .453 0.492 0.531 0.5 7 1
250 0.05 59 0.07 50 0.0940 0.1321 0.1702 0.208 0.246 0.284 0 .322 0.361 0.399 0.437 0.4 7 5 0.513 0.551 V')
Ei
275 0.0540 0.0724 0.0908 0.1276 0.1644 0.201 0.238 0.275 0.311 0.348 0.385 0.422 0.459 0.495 0.532 ;::J
:;::,...
300 0.0523 0.0700 0.0878 0.1234 0.1590 0.1945 0.230 0.266 0.301 0.337 0.3 72 0.408 0.443 0.479 0.515 ...
)::)
350 0.0490 0.0657 0.0824 0.1158 0.1491 0.1825 0.216 0.249 0.283 0.316 0.349 0.383 0.416 0.449 0.483 ~
:;::,
;::J
400 0.0462 0.0619 0.0776 0.1090 0.1405 0.1719 0.203 0.235 0.266 0.298 0.329 0.360 0.392 0.423 0.455 :;:,...
Cj
450 0.0436 0.0585 0.0733 0.1030 0.1327 0.1624 0.1921 0.222 0 .252 0.281 0.311 0.341 0.370 0.400 0.430 <'>
500 0.0414 0.0555 0.0695 0.0977 0.1258 0.1540 0.1821 0.210 0.238 0.267 0.295 0.323 0.351 0.379 0.40 7 ..."'
r.i:;'
i:5
550 0.0393 0.0527 0.0661 0.0928 0.1196 0.1464 0.1731 0.1999 0.227 0.253 0.280 0.307 0 .334 0.360 0.38 7 ~
c;·
600 0.03 75 0.0502 0.0630 0.0885 0.1140 0.1395 0.1649 0.1904 0.216 0.241 0.267 0.292 0.318 0.343 0.369 ;::J
"'
continued oo
w
"'-..]
00
w
Table 1. -continued 00
tr:l
Air lb/in 2
==
'2.
temperature
OF 140 150 175 200 225 250 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 """"==~.
==
~
30 0.853 0.909 1.047 1.185 1.323 1.460 1. 736 2.29 2.84 3.39 3.94 4.49 5.05 5.60 ~
40 0.836 0.890 1.026 1.161 1.296 1.431 1. 702 2.24 2.78 3.32 3.86 4.40 4.95 5.49 £'
50 0.823 0.876 1.009 1.142 1.275 1.408 1.674 2.21 2.74 3.27 3.80 4.33 4.87 5.40
60 0.804 0.856 0.986 1.116 1.246 1.376 1.636 2.16 2.68 3.20 3.72 4.24 4.76 5.28
70 0.789 0.840 0.968 1.095 1.223 1.3 so 1.605 2.12 2.63 3.14 3.65 4.16 4.67 5.18
80 0.774 0.824 0.950 1.075 1.200 1.325 1.575 2.08 2.58 3.08 3.58 4.08 4.58 5.08
90 0. 760 0.809 0.932 1.055 1.178 1.301 1. 54 7 2.04 2.53 3.02 3.51 4.00 4.50 4.99
100 0.747 0.795 0.916 1.036 1.157 1.278 1.519 2.00 2.48 2.97 3.45 3.93 4.42 4.90
110 0.734 0.781 0.900 1.018 1.137 1.2 55 1.492 1.967 2.44 2.92 3.39 3.86 4.34 4.81
120 0.721 0.768 0.884 1.001 1.117 1.234 1.467 1.933 2.40 2.86 3. 33 3.80 4.26 4.73
130 0. 709 0.755 0.869 0.984 1.098 1.213 1.442 1.900 2.36 2.82 3.27 3.73 4.19 4.65
140 0.697 0.742 0.855 0.967 1.080 1.193 1.418 1.868 2.32 2.77 3.22 3.67 4.12 4.57
150 0.686 0.730 0.841 0.951 1.062 1.173 1.395 1.838 2.28 2.72 3.17 3. 61 4.05 4.50
175 0.659 0.701 0.807 0.914 1.020 1.127 1.340 1.765 2.19 2.62 3.04 3.47 3.89 4 .32
200 0.634 0.675 0.777 0.879 0.982 1.084 1.289 1.698 2.11 2.52 2.93 3.34 3.75 4.16
225 0.610 0.650 0.749 0.847 0.946 1.044 1.242 1.636 2.03 2.43 2.82 3.21 3.61 4.00
250 0.589 0.627 0.722 0.817 0.913 1.008 1.198 1.579 1.959 2.34 2.72 3.10 3.48 3.86
275 0.569 0.606 0.698 0.790 0.881 0.973 1.157 1.525 1.893 2.26 2.63 3.00 3.36 3. 73
300 0.550 0.586 0.675 0.764 0.852 0.941 1.119 1.475 1.830 2.19 2.54 2.90 3.2 5 3.61
350 0.516 0.550 0.633 0.716 0.800 0.883 1.050 1.384 1. 717 2.05 2.38 2.72 3.05 3.39
400 0.486 0.518 0.596 0.675 0.753 0.832 0.989 1.303 1.618 1.932 2.25 2. 56 2.87 3.19
450 0.459 0.489 0.563 0.638 0.712 0.786 0.934 1.232 1. 529 1.826 2.12 2.42 2.72 3.01
500 0.43 6 0.464 0.534 0.604 0.675 0.745 0.886 1.167 1.449 1. 731 2.01 2.29 2.58 2.86
550 0.414 0.441 0.508 0.575 0.641 0.708 0.842 1.110 1.377 1.645 1.912 2.18 2.45 2.72
600 0. 394 0.420 0.484 0.547 0.611 0.675 0.802 1.05 7 1. 312 1.567 1.822 2.08 2.33 2.59
Typical properties of gases
Molecular Ratio or Coefficient Specific Critical Critical

Gas or Vi:! pour wei ~ht specific heats c· gravity pressure temperature ( R)
0
i\11 k(l4.7psia) psi<~ (°F+460)
Acetylene 26.04 1.25 342 0.899 890 555

Air 28.97 1.40 356 1.000 547 240
Ammonia 17.()3 1.30 347 0.588 1638 730
Argon 39.94 1.66 377 1.379 706 272
Benzene 78.11 1.12 329 2.6% 700 1011
N-butane 58.12 1.18 335 2.006 551 766

!so-butane 58.12 1.19 336 2.006 529 735
Carbon dioxide 44.0 l 1.29 346 1.519 1072 548
Carbon disulplude 76.13 1.21 338 2.628 1147 994
Carbon monoxide 28.01 1.40 456 0.967 507 240
Chlorine 70.90 1.35 352 2.447 1118 751

Cyclohexane 84.16 1.08 325 2.905 591 997
Ethane 30.07 1.19 336 1.038 708 550
Ethyl alcohol 46.07 1.13 330 1.590 926 925
Ethyl chloride 64.52 1.19 336 2.227 766 829
Ethylene 28.03 1.24 341 0.968 731 509

Freon 11 137.37 1.14 331 4.742 654 848
Preon J 2 120.92 1.14 331 4.174 612 694
Preon 22 86.48 1.18 335 2.985 737 665
Freon 114 170.93 1.09 326 5.900 495 754
Helium 4.02 1.66 377 0.139 33 10

N-heptetne 100.20 1.05 321 3.459 397 973
Hexane 86.17 1.06 322 2.974 437 914
Hydrochloric acid 36.47 1.41 357 1.259 1198 584
Hydrogen 2.02 1.41 357 0.070 188 60
Hydrogen chloride 36.47 1.41 357 1.259 1205 585

Hydro~en sulphide 34.08 1.32 349 1.176 1306 672
Methaoe 16.04 1.3] 348 0.554 673 344
1\,fethyl alcohol 32.04 1.20 337 1.106 1154 924
Methyl butane 72.15 1.08 325 2.491 490 829
Methyl chlori.de 50.49 1.20 337 1.743 968 749

Natural gas (typical) 19.00 1.27 344 0.65fi 671 375
Nitric oxide 30.00 1.40 356 1.036 956 323
Nitrogen 28.02 1.40 356 0.967 493 227
Nitrous oxide 44.02 1.31 348 1.520 1054 557
N-octane 114.22 1.05 321 3.943 362 1025

Oxygen 32.00 1.40 356 1.105 737 279
N-pentaoe 72.15 1.08 325 2.4n 490 84fi
!so-pentane 72.15 1.08 325 2.491 490 829
Propane 44.09 1.13 330 1.522 617 666
Sulfur dioxide 64.04 1.27 344 2.211 1141 775

Toluene 92.13 1.09 326 3.180 611 1069
·rr ·c· is not known. then use C = 315.

00
H'o
Pipe dimensions 0
BS 3505 for PVC-U pipe: inch CT'j
:::s
~
Diameter Wall thickness s·
~
"'...,
,_.
Class C 9.0 bar Class D 12.0 bar Class E 15.0 bar :::s
~
Nominal Mean Individual c:J
::::,
size outside outside Average Individual value Average Individual value Average Individual value ;::;-
diameter diameter value value value
min. max. min. max. max. min. max. max. min. max. max. min. max.
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
3/ s 17.0 17.3 17.0 17.3 - - - - - - 1.9 1.5 1.9

1
11 21.2 21.5 21.2 21.5 - - - - - - 2.1 1.7 2.1
3/4 26.6 26.9 26.6 26.9 - - - - - - 2.5 1.9 2.5
1 33.4 33.7 3 3.3 3 3.8 - - - - - - 2.7 2.2 2.7
11 /* 42.1 42.4 42.0 42.5 - - - 2 .7 2.2 2.7 3.2 2.7 3.2
1l I 2 4 8.1 48.4 48.0 48.5 - - - 3.0 2.5 3.0 3.7 3.1 3.7
2 60.2 60.5 60.0 60.7 3.0 2.5 3.0 3.7 3.1 3.7 4.5 3.9 4.5
3 88.7 89.1 88.4 89.4 4.1 3.5 4.1 5.3 4.6 5.3 6.5 5.7 6.6
4 114. 1 114.5 113.7 114.9 5.2 4.5 5.2 6.8 6.0 6.9 8.3 7.3 8.4
5 140.0 140.4 139.4 141.0 6.3 5.5 6.4 8.3 7.3 8.4 10.1 9.0 10.4
6 168.0 168.5 167.4 169 .1 7.5 6.6 7.6 9.9 8.8 10.2 12.1 10.8 12.5
8 218.8 219.4 218.0 220.2 8.8 7.8 9.0 11.6 10.3 11.9 14.1 12.6 14.5
10 272.6 273.4 271.6 2 74.4 10.9 9.7 11 .2 14.3 12 .8 14.8 17.5 15.7 18.1
12 323.4 324.3 322 .2 32 5. 5 12.9 11.5 13.3 17.0 15.2 17.5 20.8 18.7 21.6
14 3 55.0 356.0 3 53.7 3 57.3 14.1 12.6 14.5 18.6 16.7 19.2 22.8 20.5 23.6
16 405.9 406.9 404.3 408.5 16.2 14.5 16.7 21.1 19.0 21.9 26.0 23.4 27.0
18 456.7 457.7 454.9 459.5 18.2 16.3 18.8 23.8 21.4 24.6
20 507.5 508.5 505 .4 510.6 20.2 18.1 20.9
24 609.1 610.1 606.5 612.7 24.1 21.7 25.0
BS 5391 for ABS pipe: inch
Diameter \Nail thickness
Nominal Mean outside Individual outside Class B Class C Class D Class E ClassTt
size diameter diameter 6.0 bar 9.0 bar 15.0 bar 15.0bar 12.0bar
min. max. min. max. min. max. min. max. min. max. min. max. min. max.
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
-
3/ '6 17.0 17.3 17.0 17.3 - - - - - - 1.6 1.8 3.4 3.6
lh 21.2 21.5 21.2 21.5 - - - - - - 1.9 2.1 3.5 3.7
3
/4 26.6 26.9 26.6 26.9 - - - - - 2 .4 2.6 3.5 3.7
1 33.4 33.7 33.4 33.7 - - 1.9 2.1 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.3 4.2 4.5
11:4 42.1 42.4 42.0 42.4 - - 2.4 2.6 3.1 3.4 3.8 4.1 5.1 5.5
11 .' 2 48.1 48.4 48.0 48.5 - - 2.7 3.0 3.6 3.9 4.4 4.7 5.8 6.2
2 60.2 60.5 60.0 60.7 - - 3.4 3.7 4.5 4.9 5.4 5.8 7.0 7.4
3 88.7 89 .1 88.4 89 .4 - - 5.0 5.3 6.5 6.9 8.0 8.5
4 114.1 114.5 113.7 114.9 - - 6.4 6.9 8.4 8.9 10.3 10.9
6 168.0 168.5 167.4 169.1 6.1 6.4 9.4 10.4 12.3 13.3
8 218.8 219.4 218.1 220.2 8.4 8.8 12.2 13.2
....
V'J
~
··Mean outside diameter' of a pipe is taken to be the arithmetic mean of any two perpendicularly opposed individual outside diameters. Alternatively, the mean :::
l::l..
~
outside diameter mat be determined by means of a circumference tape. ~
tctass T pipe is intended only for threading. Its maximum sustained working pressure (12 bar) applies when threading is carried out in accordance with BS 21. "'
~
:::
l::l..
~
"'
~-
:::
....
l:l
c;·
:::
"'
00
H:>-
~
PVC-U, PVC-C and ABS metric pipe sizes and tolerances
Size 6 bar 10 bar 16 bar 25 bar Tolerances on wall thickness

o.d. wall wall wall wall o.d. ±
emm emm emm emm
1.0 0.3
6 1.0 1.0 1.2-2 .0 0.4
8 1.0 1.0 2.2-3 .0 0.5
10 1.0 1.0 3.2-4.0 0.6
12 1.0 1.0 4.1-5 .0 0.7
16 1.2 1.8 5. 3-6 .0 0.8
20 1.5 2.3 6.2-7.0 0.9
25 1.5 1.9 2.8 7.2-8 .0 1.0
32 1.8 2.4 8.2- 9.0 l.l
40 1.8 1.9 3.0 9.2-10.0 1.2
50 1.8 2.4 3.7 10.4-11.0 1.3
63 1.9 3.0 4.7 11.7-11.9 1.4
75 2.2 3.6 5.6 12 .3-12.4 1.5
90 2.7 4.3 6.7 13.2-14.0 1.6
110 3.2 5.3 8.2 14.6-15.0 1.7
125 3.7 6.0 9.3 15.6-15. 7 1.8
140 4.1 6.7 10.4 16.4-16.9 1.9
160 4.7 7.7 11.9 17.7-17.8 2.0
180 5.3 8.6 13.4 18.4-18.6 2.1
200 5.9 9.6 14.9 19.1-20.0 2.2
225 6.6 10.8 16.7 20.7-20.8 2.3
250 7.3 11.9 18.6 2 1.5 2.4
280 8.2 13.4 20.8 22.3 2.5
315 9.2 1 5.0 23.4 23.3- 23.9 2.6
355 10.4 16.9 26.3 25 2.7
400 11.7 19.1 29.7 26.3 and 26.7 2.9
2 7. 8 3.0
29.5- 30.0 3.2
Outside dia meter tolerances
o.d. ±
5- 63 0.2
75- 125 0.3
140- 200 0.4
225- 250 0.5
280- 315 0.6
355-400 0.7
PP-H and PE metric pipe sizes and tolerances
-- -
Size 2.5 bar 6 bar lObar Tolerances on wall thickness
o.d. wall wall wall o.d. ±
emm emm e rrun
1.8- 2.0 0.4
16 2.0 2.2-3.0 0.5
20 1.8 2.5 3.1-3.9 0.6
25 1.8 2.7 4.3-4.9 0.7
32 2.0 3.0 5.1-5.8 0.8
40 2.3 3.7 6.1 ·7.0 0.9
50 1.8 2.9 4.6 7.1-8.0 l.O
63 1.8 3.6 5.8 8.2-8. 7 1.1
75 1.9 4.3 6.9 9.1- 10.0 1.2
90 2.2 5.1 8 .2 10.2-11.0 1.3
110 2.7 6.3 10.0 11 .4 1.4
125 3.1 7.1 11 .4 12.2 and 12.8 1.5
140 3.5 8.0 12.8 13.7 1.6
160 3.9 9.1 14.6 14.2 and 14.6 1.7
180 4.4 10.2 16.4 15.4and15.9 1.8
200 4.9 11.4 18.2 16.4 1.9
225 5.5 12.8 20.5 17.4 and 17.9 2.0
250 6.1 14.2 22.8 18.2 2.1
280 6 .9 15.9 25.5 19.3 and 19.6 2.2
315 7.7 17.9 28.7 20.1 and 20.5 2.3
355 8.7 20.1 32.3 21.6 2.4
400 9.8 22.7 36.4 22.0 and 22.8 2.5
24.3 and 24.4 2.7
25.5 2.8
27.4 3.0
28.3 and 28.7 3.1
30.8 3.3
Outside diameter tolerances 31.7 3.4
32.3 3.5
o.d. ± 34.7 3.7
35 .7 3.8
10- 32 0.3 36.4 3.9
40 0.4
50 0.5
63 0.6
75 0.7
90 0.9
110 1.0
125 1.2
140 1.3
160 1.5
180 1.7
200 1.8
225 2.1
250 2.3
280 2.6
315 2.9
355 3.2
400 3.6
Support spacing (ft) for PVC pipe*
Horizontal pipe-systems support spacings are greatly influenced by operating temperature. The charts
show the recommended support spacing according to size. schedule and operating temperatures. Do
not clamp supports tightly- this restricts axia l movement or the pipe. If short spacing is necessary.
continuous supports may be more economical. Charts are based on liquids up to l.OO specific gravity.
but do not include concentrated loads, nor do they include allowance for aggressive reagents.
Pipe $CHEDIJLE40 SCHEDULE 80 SCHEDULE 120

si7.e temperature (0 P)
in 60 80 100 120 140 60 80 100 j 20 140 ()() SO lOU llO 140
4 3'12 3111 2 2 4 4 3 112 2 1/z 2

4 4 3 1/z 2 1
h 2 4 1
/z 4 1
h 4 2 1 1
/z 2 h
4 2 112 2 1h 5 5 4 1h 3 2 112
1 1 1
4 2 12 2 h 5 4 lz 3 3
5 1/z 5 4 1/1 6 S 1h 5 3 112 3 6 5 1h S ! 1h 3

1 1 1 1
1 14 5 h 5h 5 6 6 5 /z 3 lz1
3 1
6 12 6 5 12 3 1h
1
3 1h
6 5 3 1 /z 3 6 1 12 h '> 112 3 112 3 1 i l 6 1 /z 6 112 6 4 3 1 lz

6 5 3 1 lz 3 7 6 1/z 6 4 3 1 /.! 7 1lz 7 f. 1 h 4 3 1 lz
7 6 1h 6 7 112 7 1h 6 ' 12 4 1/z 4 8 7 ' /2 7 4 1 /2 4

1
7 7 () 8 7 /z 7 4 1
12 4 1
8 h 8 1
7 h 4 1 12
7 S 1lz s ? 1 l2 9 8 1 lz 7 1h 4 112
7 9 8 111 7 112 9 1h 9 8 1lz 5 1l2
5 9 11, 9 8
6 10 9 11z 9
8 9 8 5 4l1z 11
1 1 12
10 10 8 l2 5 lz 5
12 13 12
14 13 112 u 11 8 7
16 12 112 11 1 h l0 1h 7 1h 6 ' h 14 13 1 /l ll 1l1

SOR4l SDR 26
18 13 12 11 8 7 14 12 9 8
20 lY/z 12 /z ll' h 8 h
1 1
7 1
/ 1 15 14 1/ 2 12 1 /z 9 1 h 8 11?
22 14 13 12 9 8 15 111 15 13 10 9
'Alt hough support spacing Is shown at 140°1'. consideration should be given to the use o f CPVC or continuous suppo(t abow 120° f.
The possibil ity of temperat\l(e overrides beyond regu lar working temperatures and cost may make either o r the altl'matiws more
desirable.
This chnrt is based on continuou s spans and for iniusulated line carrying nuirls of specific gravily up to 1.00.
Support spacing (ft) for CPVC pipe•
Pipe SCHEDULE40 SCHEDULE 80

size temperature °F temperature °F
in 73 100 120 140 160 180 73 100 120 140 160 180
112 5 4 1lz 4 112 4 2 112 2 1h S1l2 5 4 1lz 41h 3 2 112

314 5 5 4 112 4 21h. 21/z 5 112 1
5 lz 5 41/z 3 21 /-2
l 5 112 1
5 12 5 4 121 3 21/z 6 6 1
5 I2 5 3 1 12 3
1 114 5 112 5 1/z 5J./z 5 3 3 61 /z 6 6 51 /z 3 1h 3
1 1 3 112 3 1
1 I2 6 6 5 h 5 7 6 12 6 51/z 3 112 3 112
1
2 6 6 5 I2 5 31 /z 3 7 7 61 h. 6 4 3 1I z
2 1 12 7 7 61 /z 6 4 31 /z 8 1
7 12 71l z 1
6 I2 41/z 4
3 7 7 7 6 4 Vh 8 8 71/z 7 41 /z 4
3 Iz
1 1
7 lz 1
7 12 7 61/z 4 4 81I 2 1
8 lz 8 71/z 5 1
4 l2
4 7 1h 7 1lz 7 6 1/z 1
4 12 4 8 1I 2 9 81 /z 7 1h 5 4 1 12
1
6 8 1/z 8 7 l2 7 5 4 112 10 9 1/z 9 8 51 /z 5
8 9 1h 9 8 112 71/z 1
5 12 5 11 10 1h 10 9 6 5 1 12
10 10 112 10 9 1h 8 6 5 1/z 11 112 11 10 112 1
9 12 6 112 6
12 1
11 h 10 1 12 10 81/z 1
6 12 6 12 1/z 12 11 1l 2 10 1/z 7 1 l z 6 1 12
This chart is based on continuous spans and for in insulated line carrying fluids of specific gravity up
tol.OO.
·The data furnished herein is based on information furnished by manufacturers of the raw material.
This information may be considered as a basis for recommendation, but not as a guarantee. Materials
should be tested under actual service to determine duitability for a particular purpose.
Pipe-bracket spacing for liquids with a density of < 1 gtcm 3 and for gases
PVC-U
d Pipe bracket intervals Lin em at
mm in 20°C 30°C 40°C 50"C 60°C
16 3/s 80 70 50 Continuous
20 Jh 90 80 60 su pport
25 J/4 95 85 65 55 40
32 1 105 90 70 60 45
40 1 1/4 120 llO 90 70 55
so 11I z 140 130 110 85 65
63 2 150 140 120 95 70
75 21/z 165 155 135 110 80
90 3 180 170 150 125 95
110 4 200 190 170 145 115
125 210 200 185 160 125
140 5 225 215 195 170 140
160 6 240 230 210 185 155
200 7 255 240 220 200 170
225 8 270 260 240 215 185
PVC-C
mm in 20°C 30°C 40°C 50°C 60°C 70°C 80°C
16 3/ s 100 95 90 85 75 67 60
20 liz 115 110 100 95 87 77 70
25 3/4 120 115 110 100 90 80 70
32 1 135 125 120 110 100 90 80
40 1 1/ 4 150 140 130 125 115 105 90
50 1 16.5 160 1.50 140 120 110
1 /2 130
63 2 18.5 175 165 160 150 135 125
75 21/z 205 195 185 175 165 150 135
90 3 225 210 200 190 180 165 150
110 4 250 235 220 210 195 180 165
160 6 300 285 270 255 240 220 200
225 8 355 335 320 300 280 260 235
ABS

mm in 20°C 30°C 40°C sooc 60°C
16 3/ 8 70 65 60 55 45 The bracket spacings shown in
20 liz 80 70 65 60 50 the table are for Class C and PN 10
25 3/4 85 80 75 65 60 pipe and are given in em.
32 1 100 90 85 75 65 For other pipe classes the
40 Jl /4 110 100 95 85 75 figures must be multiplied by the
so 1 1 /2 115 110 100 90 80 following factors:
63 2 130 120 110 100 85
90 3 160 145 135 120 105 Class B 0.90
110 4 180 165 155 135 120 Class C 1.05
160 6 230 210 200 175 155 Class E 1.09
pp
mm 200C 30"C 40°C 50°C 600C 80°C 100°C
16 75 70 70 65 65 55 40
20 80 7') 70 70 65 60 45
25 85 85 85 80 75 70 50
32 100 95 95 90 85 75 55
40 110 110 105 100 95 85 60
50 125 120 115 110 105 90 70
63 140 135 130 125 120 lOS 80
75 155 150 145 135 130 115 85
90 16'> 165 155 150 145 125 95
110 185 180 175 165 160 140 105
125 200 190 185 180 170 150 llO
140 210 205 195 190 180 155 ll5
160 225 225 210 200 190 165 125
180 240 240 225 215 200 170 130
200 250 250 235 225 215 185 135
225 265 260 250 240 230 200 145
250 280 275 265 255 240 210 200
315 315 305 295 285 270 235 225
PB
mm 20°C 30°C 40°C 50°C 60°C 80°C 100°C
16 70 69 68 66 64 60 55
20 78 77 76 74 72 68 61
25 81 80 79 77 75 71 64
32 93 91 90 88 85 80 73
40 103 102 100 98 95 90 81
50 115 114 112 109 106 100 90
63 130 128 126 123 119 112 102
75 141 139 137 133 130 122 llO
90 154 15 2 150 146 142 134 121
llO 188 186 184 179 173 164 148
PE
mm 20°C 30°C 40°C sooc 60°C

20 75 70 65 6S 60
25 80 80 75 70 65
32 90 90 85 80 75
40 100 100 95 90 85
so 115 110 lOS 100 95
63 130 125 120 115 lOS
75 140 135 130 125 llS
90 1S5 lSO 145 135 130
110 170 165 160 150 140
125 185 175 170 160 150
140 195 185 180 170 155
160 210 200 190 180 170
200 235 220 210 200 186
225 2SO 235 220 210 200
- -- -
PVDF
mm 20°C 40°C 60°C 80°C 100°C 120°C 140°C
16 75 70 70 65 65 55 40
20 80 75 70 70 65 60 45
25 85 85 85 80 75 70 50
32 100 95 95 90 85 75 55
40 110 110 lOS 100 95 85 60
so 12 5 120 115 llO 105 90 70
63 140 135 130 125 120 105 80
75 155 150 145 135 130 115 85
90 165 16S 155 150 145 125 95
110 185 180 175 165 160 140 105
125 200 190 185 180 170 150 110
140 210 20S 195 190 180 155 115
160 22S 22 5 210 200 190 165 125
200 2 50 250 235 225 21 5 185 13 5
225 265 260 250 240 230 200 145
SECTION 10
Author's Acknowledgements
Author's Acknowledgments
Abacus Valves Mfg Ltd Hindle Cock burns Ltd

ASCO I Joucomatic Hitachi Valves Ltd
N HBennett IMI Bailey Birkett Ltd
Biwater Industries KSB
British Standards Institute Microfinish Valves Limited
Buracco SA Neles-Jamesbury
BVAMA OMBSpA
Crosby Valve Inc Pipes & Pipelines International
CUES Realm Products Ltd
Dan foss Rotork Controls Ltd
Dow Chemical Company A Searle
Dresser Industries Shafer Products
Durabla Fluid Technology Inc. Spirax-Sarco
Fisher-Rosemount P. Stockford
FMC Corporation Vanessa Srl
George Fischer Victualic International
Griffin Pipe Products T D Williamson Inc
Harvel Plastics Inc.
SECTION 11
Buyer's Guide to Valves and Pipes
Classified Index by Product Category
Alphabetical List of Manufacturers
Trade Names Index
Editorial Index
Advertisers Index
Classified Index by Product Category
Valve & Pipe Equipment Air Valves

Posi-Flate
Valves & Actuators
Angle Seat Valves
Actuated Valves-Electric Asco/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
PCC Flow Technologies
Hindle Cock burns Ltd Automatic Temperature Control Valves
NAFAB Spirax-Sarco Limited
Spirax-Sarco Limited Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Victaulic Company
Georg Fischer AG BaJI Valves
Actuated Valves-Hydraulic
Changdel Industrial Co. Ltd
Hindle Cockburns Ltd
NAFAB
NAFAB
Actuated Valves-Manual Haitima Corporation
PCC FIO\·v Technologies Spirax-Sarco Limited
Hindle Cockburns Ltd Victaulic Company
NAFAB Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Pos i-Flate Georg Fischer AG
Victaulic Company
Georg Fischer AG Ball Float Valves
Hindle Cock burn s Ltd
Actuated Valves-Pneumatic NAFAB
PCC Flow Technologies Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Hindle Cock burns Ltd
NAFAB Block and Bleed Valves
Posi-Flate Hindle Cock burns Ltd
Spirax-Sarco Limited
Victaulic Company
Blow Down Valves
Hattersley Newman Hend er Ltd
Actuated Valves-Portable NAFAB
Hindle Cockburns Ltd Victaulic Company
Actuators
PCC Flow Technologies Butterfly Valves
Auma Werner Riester GmbH & Co KG PCC Flow Technologies
Hindle Cock burns Ltd NAFAB
NAF AB Posi-Plate
Posi-Flate Spirax-Sarco Limited
Hattersley Newm an Hender Ltd Hatte rs ley Newman Hender Ltd
Georg Pischer t\G Georg fischer AG
85 6 Buyer's Guide to Valves and Pipes
Cast Steel Valves Gate Valves

PCC Flow Technologies Hindle Cockburns Ltd
NAFAB NAFAB
Posi-Flate Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Hattersley Newman Render Ltd
Gear Operated Valves
Check Valves PCC Flow Technologies
PCC Flow Technologies NAFAB
Changdel Industrial Co. Ltd Posi-Flate
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) Victaulic Company
Hindle Cockburns Ltd Hattersley Newman Render Ltd
NAFAB
Spirax-Sarco Limited Globe Valves
Victaulic Company Hindle Cockburns Ltd
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd NAFAB
Georg Fischer AG Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
High Pressure Vah•es

Control Valves
NAFAB
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Posi-Flate
Hatters ley Newman Hender Ltd
Victaulic Company High Temperature Valves
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd PCC Flow Technologies
Georg Fischer AG Hindle Cockburns Ltd
ASCO/ Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Diaphragm Valves NAFAB
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) Posi-Fiate
Georg Fischer AG Hydraulically Operated Valves
Diverter Valves
Hindle Cockburns Ltd Intrinsically Safe Valves
Electronically Operated Valves
NAFAB Isolating Valves
NAFAB
Fire Safe Valves
NAFAB Spirax-Sarco Limited
Float Control Valves Level Control Valves
Victaulic Company Rattersley Newman Render Ltd
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Manifold Valves
Flow Valves ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Posi-Fiate
Victaulic Company Metal Valves
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd Hindle Cock burns Ltd
NAFAB
Foot Valves
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd Metering Valves
Gas Valves Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Hindle Cockburns Ltd Mixing Valves
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd Spirax-Sarco Limited
Georg Fischer AG Georg Fischer AG
Classified Index by Product Category 8 57
Motor Operated Valves Regulating Valves

NAFAB NAFAB
Needle Valves
NAFAB Relief Valves
Hattersley Newman Bender Ltd NAFAB
Non-return Valves
PCC Flow Technologies Rotary Valves
Hindle Cockburns Ltd NAFAB
NAFAB
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd Rotary Control Valves
NAFAB
Pinch Valves
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) Safety Valves
Pipeline Valves NAFAB
Hindle Cockburns Ltd Spirax-Sarco Limited
Posi-Flate Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Plastics Valves Screwdown Valves

Georg Pischer AG Hattersley Newman Render Ltd
Plug Valves (Cocks) Segment Control Valves

Victaulic Company NAFAB
Slide Valves
Pneumatic Valves ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
NAFAB
Posi-Flate Solenoid Valves
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Georg Fischer AG Georg Fischer AG
Poppet Valves Spool Valves

ASCO/joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Pressure Control Valves Stainless Steel Valves

NAFAB PCC Flow Technologies
Spirax-Sarco Limited Hindle Cockburns Ltd
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
NAFAB
Pressure Relief Valves Victaulic Company
NAFAB Hattersley Newman Render Ltd
Hatters ley Newman Bender Ltd
Steam Valves
Pressure Operated Valves ASCO!Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
ASCO/joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) NAFAB
Spirax-Sarco Limited Spirax-Sarco Limited
Process Valves
PCC Flow Technologies Stem Guided Valves
Hindle Cock burns Ltd ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
NAFAB
Posi-Plate Stop Valves
Quiet Valves NAFAB
ASCO/joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) Spirax-Sarco Limited
NAFAB Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Swingcheck Valves Pipe Fitt.ings-Piastics

PCC Flow Technologies Victaulic Company
NAFAB Georg Fischer AG
Pipe Fusion Equipment
Tank Valves Georg Fischer AG
ASCO/}oucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Pipe Joints
Temperature Control Valves Georg Fischer AG
NAFAB
Spirax-Sarco Limited Plastic Pipe
Hatters ley Newman Hender Ltd Victaulic Company
Georg Fischer AG
Throttling Valves
NAFAB Pressfit Pipe
Hatters ley Newman Hender Ltd Victaulic Company
Triple Offset Valves PVC-C Pipe

PCC Flow Technologies Georg Fischer 1\G
NArAB
PVC-UPipe
Vacuum Valves Georg Fischer AG
Thermoplastic Pipe
Knife Gate Valves Georg Fischer AG
Pipes & Piping Ancillary Equipment & Services
ABS Pipe Insulated Valves Covers

Georg Fischer AG Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
CPVC Pipe Leak Detection Equipment

Georg Fischer AG Spirax-Sarco Limited
Dual/Double Containment Pipe Noise Control

Georg Fischer AG NAFAB
Flexible Pipe Pad:ings

Georg Fischer AG Latty International SA
PE Pipe Positioners
Pipe Clamps
Georg Fischer AG Process Controllers
NAFAB
Pipelines Couplings
Victaulic Company Regulators
Pipe Cutting Equipment
Georg Fischer AG Seals
Latty International SA
Pipe Fittings- Iron and Steel
Victaulic Company Sealing Materials
Georg Fischer AG Latty International SA
Silencers Food & Beverage

NAFAB
Beverage
Steam Traps PCC Flow Technologies
Spirax-Sarco Limited ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Ratters ley Newman Render Ltd Hindle Cockburns Ltd
Posi-Flate
Traps/Drainers Rattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Rattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Brewery
Valve Position Indicators PCC Flow Technologies
NAFAB Posi-Flate
Dairy
Valve Testing PCC Flow Technologies
Hindle Cock burns Ltd ASCO/ Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Distiller:s
HattersJey Newman Render Ltd
Industries & Applications
General Food
Water PCC Flow Technologies
Boiler Feed NAFAB
Posi-Flate
NAFAB
Sugar
PCC Plow Technologies
NAFAB
Brackish Water
Wine
Cooling Water PCC Flow Technologies
PCC Flow Technologies Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
NAFAB
Chemical & Process
Drinking Water
PCC Flow Technologies Catalysts
ASCO/ Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) Hindle Cock burns Ltd
Posi-Flate
Sea Water
PCC Flow Technologies Chlor Alkali
Sewage NAFAB
Hatters ley Newman Hender Ltd Clarifying
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) PCC Flow Technologies
Waste Water
PCC Flow Technologies Emulsions
Hatters ley Newmao Hender Ltd Hindle Cock burns Ltd
860 Buyer's Guide to Valves and Pipes
Fuel Oil (Heavy) Solvents & Bleaching

PCC Plow Technologies PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) Hindle Cock burns Ltd
Hindle Cockburns Ltd Posi-Flate
Fuel Oil (Light) Pulp & Paper

PCC Plow Technologies NAFAB
Hindle Cockbums Ltd
Gas & Pollution
Grease/Lubricating Oil
PCC Flow Technologies Cryogenic Gas
ASCO/ Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) PCC Flow Technologies
Hindle Cock burns Ltd ASCO/)oucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Hattersley Newman Render Ltd Hindle Cock burns Ltd
Industrial Chemicals Dioxins

PCC Flow Technologies PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) Hindle Cock burns Ltd
NAFAB Effluent
Posi-Flate PCC Flow Technologies
lnl<s & Dyes
PCC Flow Technologies Flue Gas Desulph.
Hindle Cock burns Ltd Hindle Cock burns Ltd
Posi-Flate
Gas
Oils PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) Hindle Cockburns Ltd
Hindle Cockburns Ltd Hattersley Newman Render Ltd
Paints Hot Gas

PCC Flow Technologies PCC Plow Technologies
Posi -Flate Industrial Waste Water
Polymers ASCO/ Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
PCC Flow Technologies Hindle Cock burns Ltd
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Posi-Flate
Public Utility
Process
PCC Flow Technologies Electricity
Hindle Cockburns Ltd ASCO/ Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Posi-Flate Posi-Fiate
Resins
PCC Flow Technologies Gas
Hindle Cock burns Ltd ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Posi-Fiate Hindle Cockburns Ltd
Nuclear Pharmaceutical
ASCO/joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) PCC Flow Technologies
NAFAB Hindle Cock burns Ltd
Posi-Flate
Power Station
Hindle Cock burns Ltd Other Applications
NAFAB
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd Automotive
Water Posi-Flate
PCC Flow Technologies Hattersley Newman Bender Ltd
NAFAB Aviation & Aerospace
Posi-Flate
Sewage & Sludge Cement Slurry

Raw Sewage NAFAB
PCC Flow Technologies Posi-Fiate
Rattersley Newman Render Ltd
Sewage (Sludge)
PCC Flow Technologies Coal Mining
Rattersley Newman Bender Ltd PCC Flow Technologies
NAPAB
Sewage (Treated) Posi-Plate
PCC Flow Technologies Hatters ley Newman Render Ltd
Coal Washing
Slurry PCC Flow Technologies
NAFAB Concrete Handling
Posi-Fiate PCC Flow Technologies
Rattersley Newman Render Ltd Posi-Flate
Ratters ley Newman Bender Ltd
Thick Sludge
PCC Flow Technologies Condensate Extraction
NAFAB PCC Flow Technologies
Oescaling
Pharmaceutical, Medical PCC Flow Technologies
Biotechnology Fire Stationary

ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) Rattersley Newman Render Ltd
Cosmetics Glass
PCC Flow Technologies PCC Flow Tecbnologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) Posi-Plate
Laboratory Heating
PCC Flow Technologies PCC Plow Technologies
ASCO/ Joncomatic (ASCO Controls BV) ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Medical
PCC Flow Technologies High Pressure
Hydro-Pneumatic Petrochemical
Posi-Flate PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (t\SCO Controls BV)
Irrigation (Intake) Hindle Cock burns Ltd
Hattersley Newman Render Ltd Posi-Flate
Printing
Irrigation (Spray)
Posi-Flate
Hattersley Newman Bender Ltd
Pulp & Paper
Land Drainage PCC Flow Technologies
PCC Flow Technologies ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
NAFAB
Machine Tool Coolants Posi-Flate
PCC Flow Technologies Hattersley Newman Render Ltd
Hattersley Newman Bender Ltd
Refining
Marine PCC Flow Technologies
PCC Flow Technologies ASCO/ Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
NAFAB NAFAB
Shipping
Military /Defence Hindle Cockburns Ltd
Hindle Cock burns Ltd NAFAB
Mineral Processing Tar & Liquor

NAFAB
Mining Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Textiles
Mine Drainage & Dewatering PCC Flow Technologies
PCC Flow Technologies ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Cootr:-ols BV)
Tyres & Rubber

Nuclear PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/ Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) NAPAB
Posi-Piate
Oil & Gas
PCC Flow Technologies Viscous Products
Alphabetical List of Manufacturers
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) Hat.tersley Newman Hender Ltd

Industrielaan 21, 392 5 BD. Scherpenzeel. Burscough Road. Ormskirk ,
The Netherlands Lancashire L49 2XG. UK
Tel: +31 33 2 77 7911 Tel: +44 (0) 1695 5 77199
Fax: +31 33 2774561 Fax: +44 (0) 169 55 78 775
E-mail: asco(qJasco.joucoma.nl E-mail: uksales(i1:,hattersley-valves.co.uk
Website: www.ascovalve.com export (~ hattersley-valves.co. uk
Website: www.hattersley-valves.co.uk
Auma Werner Riester GmbH & Co Kg
Renkenrunsstrasse 20, D-79 3 79 Mi.illheim. Hindle Cockburns Ltd
Germany Victoria Road, Leed, LS11 SUG, UK
Tel: +49 7631 8090 Tel: +44 (0) 1132 443 741
Fax: +49 763113218 E-mail: salesbindle@ tyco-valves.com
E-mail: riester(a!auma .com
Website: www.auma.com John-Valve MFG Factory Company Ltd
No 1149-11. Bee San Road. Tsao-Tun Town.
Nan-Tou Hsien. Taiwan 542. ROC
Changdel Industrial Co., Ltd Tel: +886 49 3 780078
3 FL 92-l, Sec.2. Ho-Ping West Road. Taipe i. Fax: +886 49 3754978
Taiwan 100 E-mail: johnvalv@ ms13.hinet.net
Tel: +886 2 2305 32 501 Website: www.johnvalve.com.tw
Fax: +886 6 2 2307 9818
E-mail: changdel@ ms19.binet.net
Lattylii>International SA
EMG Eleldro-Mechanik GmbH Head Office:
Industriestrasse l. D-57482 Wenden . Latty 0·l· International SA. 57 bis Rue de
Germany Versailles. F- 91400 Orsay, France
Tel: +49 7634 5 51320 Tel: + 33 169 861112
Fax: +49 7634 55J 325 fax:+33169869625
E-mail: Ka uaemg (t(aol.com E-mail: sales-market:ing@ latty.com
Website: www.emg-wenden.de Website: www.latty.com
Georg Fischer AG Plant Qffice:

Rohrleitunsyrk, Ebnat Strasse ll. Latty " International SA. l. Rue Xavier-Latty,
BP 13. F-28160 Brou. France
Cl-1-8201 Schaffhausen. Switzerland
Tel: +33 2 37 44 77 77
Tel: +4152 6311111
Fax: +41 52 6312875 Fax: +33 2 37 44 77 99
E-mail: customerservice@latty.com
Website: www.latty.com
Haitima Corporation
SF. No 201 Titing Boulevard Sec2. Latty"<' International Ltd, Westfield Road .
Neihu Area. Taipei, Taiwan 114. ROC Retford, Nottinghamshire. DN22 7BT. UK
Tel: +886 2 26585800 Tel: +44 (0) 1777 708 8368
Fax: +886 2 26582266 Fax: +44 (0) 1777 707 474
E-mail: haitima (£ilms8.binet.net Website: www.latty.co.uk
NAFAB Rotork
Gelbgjntaregatan 2. S-5818 7 Linkoping, Brass Mill Lane, Bath. BA1 3JQ. UK
Sweden Tel: 01225 733261
Tel: +4613 3 316000 Fax: 01225 733539
Fax: +4613 136054
E-mail: info@nar.se Spirax-Sarco Limited
Website: www.naf.se Charlton House. Cheltenham.
Gloucestershire GL53 8ER. UK
PCC Fl.o w Technologies Tel: +441242 521361
Unit C. Ryknild Street. Barton Turn. Pax: +441242 573342
Barton Under Need wood, Staffordshire. E-mail: eng@spiraxuk.attmail.com
DE13 8EB, UK Website: www.spirax-sarco.com
Tel: +441283 713034
Fax: +441283 716930 Victnalic Company of America
Website: www.baronship@valves.com Po Box 31. Easton PA. 18044-0031, USA
Tel: + 1 610 5 59 3 3 00
Fax: +1610 250 8817
Posi-Fiate E-mail: victualic@victualic.com
Website: www.victualic.com
Corporation Headquarters:
Posi-flate, 1125 Willow Lake Boulevard. Wyeco Auto Valves Co Ltd
StPaul. MN 55110. USA 4F No 98 Section 3, Chien Kuo N. Road.
Tel: +1 651484 5800 Taipei. Taiwan 104, ROC
Fax: +1651484 7015 Tel: +886 2 2502 5166
Fax: +886 2 2501 2863
U11ited Kingdom:
Posi-flate, 14 Carters Lane. Kiln Farm, Yih Kuang Metal Corporation
Milton Keynes, MK11 3ER. UK l2F-l, No 51. Fu Hsing N. Road,
Tel: +44 (0) 1908 564455 Taipei 105. ROC
Fax: +44 (0) 1908 564615 Tel: +886 2 277 66455
Website: www. posiflate.com Fax: +886 2 277 66795
Trade Names Index
4-WAY-Four waydivertal valve-Hindle EMG-Eiectric actuators for remote valve

Cockburn Ltd operation-EMG Elektro-Mechanik
AS3-AS50-Electric part-turn actuators- GmbH
Auma Werner Riester GmbH & Co KG GENrE- Butterfly va lves and check valves-
ASCO-Solenoid and pressure operated Changdel Industrial Co., Ltd
valves-ASCO/Joucomatic GILFLo-Fiowmeters- Spirax-Sarco Limited
(ASCO Controls BV) GK10.2-GK 40.2-Bevel gearboxes-
AUMA MA TIC-Actuator Controls-Auma Auma Werner Riester GmbH & Co KG
Werner Riester GmbH & Co KG GS40-GS500-Worm gearboxes-Auma
81-Quick release butterfly valve-PCC Werner Riester GmbH & Co KG
Plow Technologies GST10.1-GST40.1-Spur gearboxes-
810-Split body hygienic butterfly valve- Auma Werner Riester GmbH & Co KG
PCC Flow Technologies HATTERSLEY- Valves for all
811-Wafer type butt:ertly valve-PCC Flow applications-Hattersley Newman
Technologies Hendler Ltd
812- Lugged type butterfly valve-PCC HAITIMA CORPORATION-Ball Valves&
Flow Technologies Pipe Fittings-Haitima Corporation
814-PTFE-BPDM Backed seat butterfly HEPHAISTOS"'-- Insulating products-
valve-PCC Flow Technologies Latty International SA
8 16A- Aluminium vertically split bodied HYPROMA TIK-Humidifiers- Spirax-
butterfly valve-PCC Flow Technologies Sarco Limited
816C-Carbon steel vertically split bodied JOHN-VALVE-Ball/ gate/ globe/check
butterfly valve-PCC Flow Technologies valves-John Valve MFG Factory Co Ltd
8 160-Ductile iron vertically split bodied JOUCOMATIC-Pneumatic valves and
butterfly valve-PCC Flow Technologies components-ASCO / Joucomatic (AS CO
816S-Stainless steel vertically split bodied Controls BV)
butterfly valve-PCC Flow Technologies LATTYCH.'CAR8-Carbon gasket materials-
82-Tablet butterfly valve-PCC Flow Latty International SA
Technologies LATTYct•' FLESE-Spiral wounded gaskets-
820-High performance butterfly valve- Latty International SA
PCC Flow Technologies LATTY 0-°FLON-PTFE packings and/or
825-Wafer check Valve-PCC Flow gasket materials-Latty International SA
Technologies LA TTY 01)GOLD-Asamid/synthetic filter
855F- Two piece full bore ball valve- PCC gasket materials-Latty International SA
Flow Technologies LATTY<!!.lGRAF-Graphite packings or
B55R-One piece full bore ball valve-PCC gasket materials-Latty International SA
Flow Technologies LATTYQ!)PACK-Graphite/ Incond gaskets-
8641 -Three piece full bore ball valve-----PCC Latty International SA
Flow Technologies LA TJY<t.!>SEAL--Mechan ica l Seals-Latty
CHANGDELL-Butterfly valves and check International SA
va lves-Changdel Industrial Co., Ltd LATTY<Il.l SERVICE-Maintenance
DREHME-Electric actuators for remote products-Latty International SA
valve operation- EMG Elektro-Mechanik LATTY 01>TESC-Packings mad e of difficult
GmbH fibres-Latty International SA
METASEAL GENERAL VALVE-Metal TORK-MATE 11 '- Pneumatic Actuator-

seated ball valve-Hindle Cockburn Ltd Posi-flate
MONNIER-Compressed air products- TRAK-LOK0 ' -Limit switch/position
Spirax-Sarco Limited monitor-Posi-Fl ate
NAF-CHECK-Metal seated swing check TRI-SEAL-3 piece lloating ball valve-
valve--NAF AB Hindle Cockburn Ltd
NAF-DUBALL-Metal Seated ball valves- TWIN SEAL GENERAL VALVE-Double
NAFAB block & bleed plug-Hindle Cockburn Ltd
NAF-LINK IT-Intelligent valve ULTRASEAL-Floating ball valve-Hindle
positioner- NAF AB Cockburn Ltd
NAF-SETBALL-Metal seated ball segment VARIOMATIC-Actuator Controls- Auma
valves-NAF AB Werner Riester GmbH & Co KG
NAF-TOREX-Metal seated buttertly VIC-BALV'h - Grooved and ball valve-
valves-NAP AB Victaulic Company
NAF-TRIMBALL-Low-noise ball control VIC-300-Grooved end butterfly valve-
valve-NAF AB Victaulic Company
NAP-TURNEX-Pneumatic controls VIC-PLUG-Grooved end plug valve-
actuator- NAF AB Victaulic Company
POSIFLATE "'-Inflatable seated butterfly YIH-TAl BRAND-Stainless steel ball
valve--Posi-Flate valves, screwed end- Yih Kuang Metal
SA07.1-SA48.1-Eiectric multi-turn Corporation
actuators-Auma Werner Riester GmbH & YIH-T AI BRAND-Stain less steel gate/
Co KG globe/swing check valves- Yib Kuang
SARV07.1-SARVI 05-Electric multi-turn Metal Corporation
actuators-Au rna Werner Riester GmbH & YIH-TAl BRAND-Stainless steel sanitary
Co KG fittings/valves- Yih Kuang Metal
SG05.1-SG12.1-Electric part-turn Corporation
actuators Auma Werner Riester GmbH & YIH-TAI BRAND-Stainless steel screwed
Co KG fittings- Yih Kuang Metal Cot:poration
SPIRAFLO-Flowmeters-Spirax-Sarco YIH-TAl BRAND-Stainless steel/
Limited cast steel ball valves. flanged end-
SPIRATEC-Steam trap monitors- Yih Kuang Metal Corporation
Spirax-Sarco Limited ZERO-FLEX 1!'- Rigid coupling for grooved
SUPASEAL-Morntro ball valves-Hindle pipe
Cockburn Ltd VIC-CHECK1H-Grooved end check valve
Editorial Index
2-way valves 148 Butt fusion 366. 3 70. 3 71. 384,421

3-way valves 149 Butterfly check valves 82
4-way valves 150 Buttedlyvalves 67.185 , 252.254.255,
257,266.663.675.693,699.732. 747.
A 763, 775
Acoustic filters 680
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) 3 73 c
Actuation 15. 76.106.132.173.256. Calculation of condensate flowrates 6 52.
259.266, 750. 772 655
Ad~baticflow 576.579 Capacitance probes 304
Aerodynamic noise 669 Carbon steel pipe 3 3 2, 401
Aggressivecbemicals 337,465.470 Cathodic protection 444.451.453,454.
Air relief valves 236 456.462.472.473,659
Air vents 732. 740 Cavitation 190, 236.286.443.462. 566.
Angular movement of joints 432 600,637,658.669,671,673.675.677.
Askania-type valves 142 696. 702
ASTM test methods 809 Cement mortar lining 328.465
Back-flow preventers and vacuum Cement-buried pipelines 610
breakers 706 Centrifugal casting 345
Chatter 139, 165,554.677
B Check valves 20. 82, 164.185.243.469,
Backfilling of pipes 625.627 492,693,706.731 . 732,744.775
Bacterial corrosion 3 31. 443, 44 7 Chemical resistance 355,359.364.368,
Balancing 46,139,286.676,682 430.469 . 470
Ball check valves 187.189 Choice of energy system 2 59
Ballfloatvalves 63.301 Clamp valves 116. 776
Ball foot valve 245 Class B bedding 62 5
Ball valves 3.19. 41. 47.181.252.254. Class C bedding 624
255.257.259.261.279.492.673.693- Cold-solvent cement welding 3 74
696.698,699.732.747.754.759.763. Colebrook-White equation 549
771. 775. 793. 808 Colour codes for pipeline identification 3 5
Basic valve nomenclature 11 Combined loading 629
Bellows 54. 94. 105. 13 7. 178. 209 . 225. Communication and supervisory
428.430.677 control 271
Bellows seal-gate valves 104 Complex mixture flow 55 7
Boiler-feed calcu Iations 63 7 Compound joints 434
Boiler-feed pump head 6 39 Compressible flow in pipes 5 72
Bonded joints 420 Compression jointing 3 90
Bottom blow-down valves 732 Compression moulding 344
Brazing and soldering 424 Contact or hand lay up mouldings 344
Buckling strength 622 Contractions and enlargements 596
Bmied flexible pipes 618 Control valves 158. 192,199,229.250.
Buried Pipes 352. 610.628 256,261 , 266.275.280. 587.659,663.
Bursting strength 62 2 668.686. 693,699.732
Conversion tables 817 Fire landing valves 756

Corrective actions 781 Fire sprinkler systems 3 73
Corrosion and cathodic protection 44 3 Fire-hydrant valves 754
Corrosion by acids 448 Fire-safeballvalves 747
Corrosion by alkalis 448 Fire-safe valves 743
Corrosion control 462 Fitting of balance pipes 2 3 5
Corrosion control by insulating joints 453 Flame arresters 748
Corrosionofstainlesssteel 457,724 Flanged couplings 408
Corrosion probes 449 Flexibility 432
CPVC 31,210.364,3 72.420.506.626, Float control valves 301
845 Flow characteristics of valves 19
Crevice corrosion 443, 445, 460, 462 Flow coefficient Cv 58 7
Critical deposition velocity 561 E'low from stagnation conditions 5 79
Critical velocity 56 7 E'low of liquids through pipes 533
Crushing strength 622.630 Flow ofmixtures through pipes 556
Cryogenic valves 768 Flow pattern 112. 559. 600
Cylinder actuators 2 51, 2 55 Flow regulators 321. 717
Flow through orifices 599
D E'low values 21
Deflection 352,402.610.618.620 Flow velocity 533. 545, 580
Depth of trench 624 Fluid performance ll5
Desirable features of an insulating Fluoroplastics 4 70
joint 455 Folding plugging head 508
Diaphragm actuators 251.256 Food and beverages 718
Diaphragm valves 118,719 Foot valves 185. 187. 189. 243
Direct-acting valves 151,160,225.229, Frictional factor 56 7
230 Frictional losses 3 74. 541. 563. 567.
Discharge through penstocks 1 70 596
Discharge through pipes and fittings 595 Fusion jointing 380,422
Domestic water-supply valves 715
Double-containment piping 371.527 G
Double-disc valves 100 Galvanic corrosion 444.451.453
Double-seat valves 288. 718 Gasket joints 405
Double-spool vaJves 143 Gate valves 98. 133. 181.257.492.693.
Dual-containment piping 371.527 700, 701.719, 775
Gearoperators 278
E Gland dimensions 779
Eccentric valves 176 Gland geometry 780
Effect of inclined flow 5 51 Glass pipelines 724
Electric control 266 Globe valves 91. 107. 133. 181.231.300.
Electric solenoid 139,251.256 731.742.754.772.775
Electric systems 266 Grooved-end pipe and couplings 401
Electric-motor actuators 2 56 Guided or lift-type disc valves 18 7
Electrical continuity 452
Electromagnetic control valves 2 9 7 H
Electromechanical methods of pipeline Handwheel drives for powered
cleaning 4 79 actuators 2 54
Enhanced cleaning pigs 490 Head loss through valves and fittings 59 3
Epoxy resin-based pipe systems 342. 345 Heterogeneous flow 53 8. 55 8
Erosion-corrosion 461 High-integrity flange 415
Expansion and contraction joints 42 7 Homogeneous flow 538,558.560
External loading 628. 630 Hot tapping and plugging 506
Hybrid jacketing 523
p Hydraulic and pneumatic check valves
Feed-check valves 732 187,195
fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) pipe 3 3 9 Hydraulic systems 2 7. 265. 78 5
Fieldbus control 77,272 Hydrodynamic noise 669
Filament winding ofFRP pipe 344 Hygienic services 718
Editoriallndex 869
Non-return valves in water systems 702

Impressed current systems 4 52 Nozzle flow 580
In-line spring assisted valves 190 Nozzle-flapper spool valves 14 3
Infra-red fusion 423 Nuclear power piping 781
Infra-redsetting 250,269 Nuclear services 775
Inherent and installed flow Nuclear valve glands 775
characteristics 78. 283
Installed exposure to sun 3 79 0
Iron and steel pipes 325.497 Oblique valves 97
Isolating flanges 678 Optimum pipeline cleaning methods 481,
Isothermal flow 57 3 492,495
Overshoot 283
J
Jacketed system design 524 p
Jacketed valves 525 Paperstock(pulp) 571
Jacketing and dual containment 522 Parallel-slide valves 100
jointsmadecold 714 Path treatment for noise control 66 7, 6 76
Joints using heat 713 Penstocks 168
Pharmaceuticals 719
L Pigging 482
Laminar and turbulent flow 5 38 Pilot-operated valve 151. 158, 229
Launchers and receivers 484 Pinch valves llO
Laying conditions 332 Pipe bends 500, 608
Leakde~ction 518 Pipe cutting and bending 49 7
Leak-off 643 Pipe joint sleeves 431
Level probes 303 Pipe sizing 535
Limit switches 2 78 Pipe-wall thickness according to British
Limiting length 5 77 Standards 603
Limiting pressure 5 77 Pipeline cleaning 4 79
Limiting temperature 5 77 Pipeline inspection and evaluation 511
Limiting values 575 Pipeline protection 328,451.471
Limiting velocity 576 Pipeline sizing 741
Line protection 51 9 Pipewraps 473
Location of sub-marine pipelines 520 Piston check valves 188
Long pipelines and tunnels 517 Piston-operated control valves 2 92
Longitudinal strength 622 Pitting corrosion 460, 712
Losses in bends and fittings 584 Plastic bellows 430
Low-temperature valves 770 Plastic coatings 465
Plastic pipes 339.356.436
M Plastic-lined pipe 335,345 . 354.474,
Manual operators 2 51 727
Manual reset valves 150 Plug valves (cocks) 41
Marine services 7 59 Pneumatic control valves 296
Mechanical characteristic of the Pneumatic piston controlled on-off
casing 709 valve 173
Mechanical joints 3 52. 397 Pneumatic actuation systems 259
Metal-seated ball valves 53 Polybutylene (PB) 368,423
Metallic bellows 94. 430 Polyester. vinyl ester and bisphenol
Mitred bends 608 resin-based pipe systems 345
Modulating control valves 292. 300 Polyethylene 354.357,361.371.374,
Multi-turn actuators- modulating duty 402.421 . 467, 471, 763
250 Polyethylene encasement 328.471
Multi-turn actuators-on- off duty 2 50 Polymervalves 178.718
Polypropylene (PP) 123, 178, 336,354.
N 368.371.390,421.442,468
Natural gas regulators 316 Polyvinylchloride(PVC) 178.210,354,
Needle valves 92.107.133.663 357,362.374.377. 379.392,402,405,
Noisecontrol 667 420,467, 470,474.506.626,727
Pulyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) 123. 210, Socket fusion 362 . 368.382.421

336,354.360.366.371.390,421.442. Socket fusion by hand .381
469.471.474.527,529.727 Solenoid enclosures l 56
Poppet lift foot valve 243 Solenoid valves 146
Position surveys 518 Specialist pipe coati ngs 4 69
Post-chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (PVC-C Split-spool valves 141
or CPVC) 364 Spool valves 138.297. 668
Preparation of trench bedding 624 Spring-loaded check valves 190. 199
Pressure-temperature ratings ofvalves 58 Stagnation state 57 7
Pressure-balanced taper-plug valves 45 Stainless steel and speciality alloys for
Production ofFRP pipe systems 344 pipes 334
Proportionate balancing method 68 7 Standard pipe jacketing 522. 523
Protection systems 703 Steam boilers 729. 7 32
Protective coatings and linings 465 Steam-conditioning valves 7 3 5
Protective treatments 471 Steam distribution 225. 728
Puddle flanges 413 Steam flow calculations 645
Pump delivery 640 Steam flow through pipes 646
Pump-energy waste 683 Steam services 226.435. 728
Pyrotechnic jointing 42 5 Steam tracing 742
Steam tra ps 234. 735
R Steam-trap monitors 740
Radii of bends 505 Stop valves 133.231.731
Reducing valves in parallel 231 Stray-current corrosion 446
Reflux valves 185.701 Stress-corrosion cracking 430.458.462
Regulators 314 Superheated steam 220. 234. 646. 655.
Reliefvalves 172.200.2 36.554.6 68 . 7 30. 775
676.735.775 Support of plastic piping 3 7 3
Resistance coefficients 5 84 Surge relievers 321
Return-spring effect 15 5 Surge-prone pipe systems 5 54
Rotary-plate valves 141 Survey methods for pipeline inspection 515
Rotor valves 86, 718 Swaged pipe jacketing 523
Swing check (flap) valves 164
s
Safety and relief valves 200 T
Safety factors 357 Tee junctions and intersections 609
Screw threads 418 Temperature control valves 306
Screw-down valves 133 Temperature measurement method 68 7
Screwed connections 416 Test specifications on non-return
Screwedunions 419 valves 708
Sealed joints 413 Thermal insulation of pipes 380
Segment control valve 286 Thermoplastic inner liners 3 54, 4 74
Self-acting reducing valves 2 2 5 Thermopl astic pipe 356.506.626.726
Self-operated regulator 3 14 Thickness of bends 504
Servo-valves 140 Thrustactuators-on-oiTduty 250
Shock preventers 681 Tilting disc check v alves 18 7
Shock removers 681 Tracking systems for pigs 48 5
Signalling 254 Trench beddings 636
Simple corrosion 443 Trenching 623
Simplified orifice formulae 582 Triple offset butterfl y valve 770
Sizing of condensate-return lines 648 Tube bending 502
Sizing of steam lines 65 5 Tunneldiverter va lve 1 73
Slidevalves 127. 138 Turbulent flow 538.542.574
Sliding-platevalves 141 TV surveyin g of pipelines 513
Sludge 117.128 . 327.538.556,567 Two-stagevalves 142
Sluice valves 102 Two-wire communication systems 2 72
Slurries 73 . 100,111 . 128,137.326.538,
556.560, 562 ()
Smart pigs 490 Ultra-violet light 3 60
Editorial Index 8 71
v Vane actuators 251. 255

Vacuum breakers 706 Vanesystems 262
Vacuum seal-off valves 765
Vacuum services llS. 119. 763 w
Valve actuators 249 Wafercheckvalves 187.194
Valve coefficients and tlow values 16 Water hammer 173.176,185.191.197.
Valve corrosion 462 295,406.551.649. 668,677.731,738,
Valve linings 468 741
Valve positioning 275 Water services 120. 368.463 . 467. 693
Valve sizing 21. 79, 161.282 Wedge-gate valves 100. 775
Valve trim 11.671 Welded pipeline fittings 510
Valve-open or valve-closed test 743 Welded joints 423.510
Valve-spindle corrosion 463 Width of trench 623
Advertisers Index
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV) xvi

Auma Werner Riester GmbH & Co KG Facing page 2 51
Changdel Industrial Co, Ltd Facing page 7 5
EMG Elektro-Mechanik GmbH Facing page 250
Georg Fischer AG vi
Haitima Corporation Facing page 59
Hatters ley Newman Render Ltd viii
Hindle Cock burns Ltd Double page spread between
40 and 41
John- Valve MFG Company Ltd 90
Latty<R' International SA Facing page 283
NAFAB Facing page 58
PCC Flow Technologies 40
Posi-Flate Facing page 7 4
Rotork Facing page 2 51
Spirax-Sarco Limited Facing page 2 8 2
Victaulic Company of America Facing page 410
Wyeco Auto Valves Co Ltd Facing page 2 8 3
Yih Kuang Metal Corporation Facing page 59
www.naf.se
Intelligent valves
When you require an intelligent valve solu- NAF intelligent valve systems combine the
tion in your process there are three main unique experience and vast resources of
points to consider: Better control, the worlds largest intelligent automation
Predictive maintenance and company INVENSYS pic.
Communication. NAF control valves with Within INVENSYS we combine our
the NAF-LinkiT™ intelligent valve positio- knowledge in control systems, instruments
ner provides you with the practical solu- and valves to provide our customers with
tion that makes the vision of the intelligent a closed loop solution.
valve systems come true.
NAFAB
~ensys
SE-581 87 LINKOPING
SWEDEN
Telephone +46 13 31 61 00
Facsimile +46 13 13 60 54
e-mail info@naf.se
webpage www.naf.se Intelligent Automation
· STAINLESS STEEL BALL VALVES,
SCREWED END
·STAINLESS STEEUCAST STEEL BALL
VALVES, FLANGED END
·STAINLESS STEEL SANITARY FITTINGS.
VALVES
· STAINLESS STEEL SCREWED
FITTINGS
· STAINLESS STEEL GATE/GLOBE/SWIN(
CHECK VALVES & Y-STRAINERS
YIH KUANG METAL CORP.

12F-1 , Sun Plaza, 57 Fu Hsing N. Road,
P.O.Box 34-303 TAIPEI,TAIWAN
Tel: 886-2-2776-6455- 9 Fax: 886-2-2776-57
E-mail: yihkuang @ms23.hinet.net
4 HAITIMA
VALVES
[C1:1[~.
'iltil g
,....,..
1 ·. .:, .~oo!
IWI:·.A.
...,..,.
• ~, - CRN
. .!"" REGISTERED
•
•
How It Works:
Closed, unsealed,
depressurized.
Closed, sealed,
pressurized.
Open, unsealed,
depressurized.
www.posiflate.com
pos··flat
butterfly valves
Corporate Headquarters United Kingdom
1125 Willow Lake Blvd. 14 Carters lane, Kiln Farm,
St. Paul, MN 55110 U.S.A. Milton Keynes MK11 3ER, England
Phone (651) 484-5800 • Fax (651) 484-7015 Phone +44 (O) 1908 564455 • Fax +44 (0) 1908 564615
CHECK VALVES WAFER TYPE: DUAL, SINGLE PLATE
BUTTERFLY VALVES: WAFER TYPE, LUG TYPE
Manufacturing:
e Standard: ANSI, ISO, DIN, API, BS, JIS
• Material: Stainless Steel, Carbon Steel, Cast Iron
e Size: 40 MM(l-1/2") - 1200MM(48")
CHANGDEL INDUSTRIAL CO., L TO.

P.O.BOX 37-121 TAIPEI, TAIWAN
JFL 92-1 SEC. 2, HOPING WEST RD., TAIPEI, TAIWAN
FAX: 886-2-23079818 PHONE: 886-2-23053256-1 ISO 9002
EMA.a: cbangdel@mst9.binet.net MORE THAN 18 YEARS
Remote settings
Contactless
measurements
Applications
- Waterworks and waste water treatment plants
- Power stations
- Waste Incinerator
-Chemical and Petrochemical Industry
AUMA CONTROLS THE FLOW!
Valve automation is one of the most impor-
tant considerations in modern industries.
The design of entire plants is based on con-
stant electronic monitoring and control.
Whether for open loop or closed loop con-
trol, modern electric actuators determine
the precise and reliable fulfillment of im-
portant flow control parameters. Electric
actuators with integral or remote motor
cont rols are used in weatherproof or
explosionproof environment.
AUMA manufactures electric valve
actuators. Do not take a chance -
select AUMA.
Werner Riester GmbH & Co KG • Postfach 1362 • D-79373 M OIIhe1m

l ei. 07631/809-0 • Fax 0763 1113218 • e-mail· riester@aurna com
Internet: www auma com ·
... PLUS worldwide support from a company whose pro-active engineering
spirax
advice, education, training and 'lifelong support package' provides
full product guarantees. In addition you will benefit from optimum
standards of service and technical support for as long as you need it.
/sarco
Pipeline Controls & Instrumentation
Spirax-Sarco Limited, Charlton House, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, GL53 8ER. Tel: 01242 521361 Fax: 01 242 573342
lntemct: llttv//www.spirax-sarco.co.uk c-11/flil: enq@spiraxuk.attmail.com
No other product reduces friction and
performs under pressure like LATTY
One compliments the other when solving your
comprehensive valve sealing applications. LATTYgraf 6940
LAITYgraf6940 resolves high pressure and high Easy to Fit
temperature problems while maintening low friction For High-Pressure
characteristics. High-Temperature
LATTY flon 3260 LM has been specially designed
for modulating control valves eliminating hysterists Manual actuated Valves
prob!ems due to stem frict:on operating
at high pressures. LATTYflon 3260 LM
Both materials are capable to withstar.d chemtcal attack. Secure Stem Sealing
In many cases, tn many industries, just the two gland For Modulating
packing materials suHico to cover total plant Inventory
helping to reduce stock and eliminate choices.
Control Valves
LATTY 505 (Save On Sto(k)
LATTY®international s.a.
F01 the bCStln !TlOdern SABIIfi!J :ncluua~;e
PLANT & OFFICES
1. rue Xavier-Laity - F-28160 Brou - nBIICO
Tel +33 (0)2 31 44 77 7 1 - Fax· •J3 (0)2 37 44 77 99
e-mail. customerservicoOiany.com w."Y Iaiiy com
e LATTY. reg<StCfO<f trocJQn\(lfk of LA nv lll1GHW.llar1.1li a a
WYECO AUTO VALVES CO., LTO.

WYECO Office: 4F No.1 Sec.3 Chien Kuo N. Road Taipei, Taiwan
Tel: 886-2-2502-5166.2509-7107 Fax: 886-2-2501-2863
Factory: No.6 Lane 2 Sec.3 Shan lin Rd. Luchu Hsiang Taoyuan Hsien Taiwan
Tel: 886-3-324-5116--7. 324-4056--8 Fax: 886-3-324-5196
E-mail: wyeco@ms 1.hinet.net Home Page: http:// www.wyeco.com.tw
Diaphragm type Control Valve Cylinder Operated Control Valve Y- Type Cylir~der Control Valve Cryogenics Service Valve llyper-Cryoqen<cs Service Volve
Short - Stem loaq ·Stern
With Over 24 years of experience, Wyeco Auto Valves is one of Taiwan's leading valve
manufacturers. We supply:
• Cast Iron, Carbon Steel, Stainless Steel • ANSI, JIS, DIN Standard
• Valve modification • OEM manufacturing
w to cut time and money
out of piping installation.
Victaulic grooved- and plain-end mechanical
piping systems reduce total installed costs 10 to
40%, slash project calendar days, and minimize
subsequent maintenance. You get shorter outage
downtime and faster production changeover
Pioneered 75 years ago and perfected by
Victaulic ever since, these remarkable systems
require no flame and need no alignment.
Installation is easy to make up, fast, and reliable.
For Almost Any Type of Pipe
Victaulic offers a system for most services
from -30° to +230°F, pressures to 1,000 PSI
(higher with special products), in sizes as large
as 144".
Carbon steel - Complete couplings and fit-
tings systems up to 48"; valves and accessories
to 24"; (BS, JIS and other standards).
Stainles~ steel - Rigid or flexible for Type
316/3161 (standard) and 304 (optional) piping 3/4"
through 18"; fittings and
valves for process piping; Tools - Victaulic has tools for in-place, job site,
fluoro -elastomer gaskets or shop roll grooving of pipe from 3/4" through
for process chemicals; 48"; cut grooving; and hole cutting.
white nitrile to FDA Available through worldwide stocking
21CFR. Part 177.2600. distribution. supported by 200 factory -trained
Copper - piping specialists globally.
Complete system of
couplings, fittings, and
- - ·-- valves to CTS sizes (BS,
DIN and AS) 2" through 8". No lead. No flame.
No hassle. Fast. easy installation with hand tools.
HDP plastic- Unique helical teeth bite into
high density poly pipe -no fusing. special
solvents. or adapters. Direct HOP-to-grooved
transitions allow use of standard fittings, valves,
and accessories. Sizes 2" through 20". See us on the web- www.victaulic.com
Aluminum - A coupling and fitting system Or, for full facts: contact your Victaulic distributor
for aluminum pipe from 1" through 8", compatible or piping specialist, requesting catalog G-103.
with standard valves and accessories. Phone: 610/559-3300
Fax: 610/250-8817
PVC plastic - Standard couplings join Write: PO Box 31,
Schedule 40 or 80 roll grooved or cut grooved
Easton,PA
PVC plastic pipe for varied services. to the
18044-0031 USA
working pressure of the pipe.
e-mail: victauliOO.">victaulic.com
Ductile iron - Sewage, waste, water treat-
ment, and underground water supply lines from
3" through 36" (AWWA. BS, others) are easily, ictaulic·~
quickly joined with Victaulic products designed An .jjO 9001 certified company
to ANSI/AWWA C-606 and related standards. Vl~l,;hc IS a leglS!erOO lr.ldcma.tk ol V~etaullc l.;ornt~•llY o! AUlt'J 101
•J 1900 V!Ck•Uitc Company ol Ammrn Allt>',lh\G rose~wxl
36th year of publication: all previous editions sold out
Section One: Introduction Section riVe: Pump Ancillaries
SI Units
Pump Evolution
PUMPING Engines
Electric Morors and Controls
Pump Classification Magnetic Drives
Pump Trends MANUAL Seals and Packaging
Bearings
Section Two: Pump Performance and 9th Edition Gears and Couplings
Characteristics By Christopher Dickenson Control and Measurement
Fluid Characteristics
Pump Performance \\'idL·h recognised a s the Section Six: Pump Operation
Calculations, Type Number tir-.r source of refence o n Pump Installation
and Efficiency .1ll .hpL·ds of pump Pump Start-up
Area Ratio Cavitation and Recirculation
tvL·hn()lt>g\· and
Pipework Calculations Pump Noise
.lplliL·;nions the Pumping
Computer Aided Pump Vibration and Critical Speed
\ Lmu.1i w ill en~1blc \'Oll Condition Monitoring and
Selection
to .. . Maintenance
Section Three: Types of Pumps Pipcwork Installation
Centrifugal Pumps • Sf,L'Ctty th e right pump
Axial and Mixed Flow Pumps tur tlw usk Section Seven: Pump Applications
Submersible Pumps • I k-.ign cost-ctfcctin· Water Pumps
Seal-less Pumps pumf, systems Building Services
Disk Pumps Sewage and Sludge
• l ~tHkr -.und thL·
Positive Displacement Pumps Solids Handling
tcrtnin ology
(General} Irrigation and Drainage
Rotary Pumps (General}
• FthltrL' effective Mine drainage
Rotary Lobe Pumps in:-.ull.n ion, oper.nion Pulp and Paper
Gear Pumps ;111d tll;lintl'nance of <111 Oil and Gas
Screw Pumps your r'umpmg Refinery and Petrochemical
Eccentric Screw Pumps L'q lll ptlh.' Ilt Pumps
Peristaltic Pumps Chemical and Process
.md muc h morl'!
Metering and Proportioning Dosing Pumps
Pumps Power Generation
Vane Pumps Food and Beverage
Flexible Impeller Pumps Viscous products
Liquid Ring Pumps Fire Pumps
Reciprocating Pumps (General} High Pressun: Pumps
Diaphragm Pumps
Piston, Plunger Pumps Section Eight User Information
Self Priming Pumps Standards and Data
Vacuum Pumps Buyers Guide
Editorial Index
Section Four: Pump Materials and Advertisers Index
Construction
Marallic Pumps 1000+ pages
Non Metallic Pumps 1500 figures and tables
Coatings and Linings ISBN: 185617 215 5
State-of-the-art piping systems
Modern piping systems ore on effective A complete system of

port of water trea tm ent a nd distribution fitti ngs, pipes, valves,
measurement and co ntro l
systems.
technology and plastic
They ore equa lly indispensable fo r th e pumps.
anviro nmentol technologies to protect air,
.voter and soil.
Toke advantage of our kn ow-how and
experience in ABS, PVC-U, PVC-C, PB, PP, Excellence
PE, SYGEF'''-PVDF in piping systems
3eorg Fischer Piping Systems Ltd., C H-820 I Schaffhausen/Switzerland

f el. +41 10152-631 I I I I, Fox +4 I 10152-631 28 46
e-mail : info@piping.georgfischer.com, Internet: http:! /www.piping. georgfischer.com
GEORG FISCHER +GF+

...,.,41 .,
~(., Flow Technologies
111
THE PCC ADVANTAGE

BRINGING AEROSPACE QUALITY TO THE VALVE INDUSTRY
PCC Flow Technologies offer a complete range of
Butterfly, Ball and Check Valves, including:
81 - Quick Release Butterfly Valve.
82 - Tablet Butterfly Valve.
810 - Split Body Hygienic Butterfly Valve.
811 - Wafer Type Butterfly Valve.
812 - Lugged Type Butterfly Valve.
814 - PTFE/EPDM Backed Seat Butterfly Valve.
B16A - Aluminium Vertically Split Bodied Butterfly Valve.
8160 - Ductile Iron Vertically Split Bodied Butterfly Valve.
B16C - Carbon Steel Vertically Split Bodied Butterfly Valve.
816S - Stainless Steel Vertically Split Bodied Butterfly Valve.
820 - High Performance Butterfly Valve.
825 - Wafer Check Valve.
855R - One Piece Reduced Bore Ball Valve.
855F - Two Piece Full Bore Ball Valve.
8641 - Three Piece Full Bore Ball Valve.
TechTorq range of Double Acting and Single Acting Quarter Turn Pneumatic Actuators.
Butterflv
... Valve Materials available are:
Body - Aluminium, Cast Iron, Ductile Iron, Carbon Steel and Stainless Steel.
Disc - Ali-Bronze, Cast Iron, Stainless Steel.
Shaft - Stainless Steel.
Seats - EPDM (Black and White), Buna, Silicon, Viton, Nitrile, PTFE
HEAD OFFICE: SALES OFFICE:

Spiersbridge Terrace Unit C, Ryknild Street
Unit 5/6- Block 6 Barton Turn, Barton Under
Thornliebank Industrial Estate Needwood
Glasgow G46 8HZ Nr Burton On Trent
Telephone 0141 638 8138 Staffordshire DE13 8EB
Fax 0141 638 8588 Telephone 01283 713034
Fax 01283 716930
(PCC Flow Technologies Ltd. is a wholly owned subsidiary of Precision Castparts Corp., a
worldwide manufacturer of complex metal components and products serving a wide variety
of aerospace and general industrial applications)

Valves Piping and Pipelines Handbook PDF

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Valves, Piping and

Copyright ©1999 Elsevier Science Ltd.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

ISBN 1 85617 252X

No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or

Printed and bound in Great Britain by

Over recent years, a number of significant developments in the application

T. Christopher Dickenson F.I.Mgt.

Section 2. Valve Types Design and Construction

Section 3. Pressure Valves and Services

r- applications. So for a combination of experience and the latest

u FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CALL OUR

Section 4. Control and Automation

Section 7. Performance and Calculations

Section 8. Duties and Services

Marine Services 759

Section 9. Engineering Data

Section 10. Author's Acknowledgements 851

Section 11. Buyers' Guide to Valves and Pipes

Page Number Company Page Number Company

3 Neles-Jamesbury 74 Figure 6 Neles-Jamesbury

Page Number Company Page Number Company

131 Figure 6 Bush-Wilton 192 Durabla Fluid Technology

Page Number Company Page Number Company

258 Shafer Valve Co 31 5 top left Oycon Oyna m ic Con trois

Page Number Company Page Number Company

Valves may be classified in a number of ways, e.g. by category (general type),

Modular ball valve based on standardised components.

Table 1. Classification of valves

Category Patterns Types of construction Remarks

Cock 1. Plug Tapered plug Also parallel plug.

Plug l. Plain 1. Taper plug Passage through port in rotatable.

Ball 1. Single beat 1. Direct (lever)- Single beCJt--flow through single

Relief I. Direct spring-loaded Also designated by:

Table 2. Some other valve types

Flow-regulating valve For controlling rate of flow in a system.

Classification of valves by function yields the following general list where

(i) On-off service.

General or 'popular' description Standard terminology

Back-pressure valve Check valve

(iv) Pressure control.

Rotary segrnent-control valve with noisl'-control trinr .

Processes are required to be more economical and run uninterrupted for

Fig uri' I. Flangl'd ends.

Flanged ends make a stronger. tighter and more leak-proof connection.

Gate valves-stem, seat ring, wedge. back-seat bushing.

Screwed bonne!. Union bonner. Bolted flanged

Disc valve-disc, disc nut, back-seat bushing.

The following abbreviations are used to describe or designate valve parts.

All iron all parts of iron construction.

Nomenclature covering the individual parts of various different types of

The main parameters concerned in selecting a valve or valves for a typical

In the case of specific services, choice of valve type may be somewhat

Table 1. Valve types-typical applications

Vu lve cutq:ory Gen(•ral app lication(~) c:tuatinn Rt'marks

Air-relief valve t:se<l in wa ter works. etc .. to release t utomatic-rcsponding

Table 2. Valve types for specific services

Service Main Secondary

Liquids, clear up to Butterfly valves

Slurries and liquids Butterfly valves

Valve coefficients and flow values