1.

3 Types of faults

Balanced fault
 Three phase fault

Unbalanced faults
Series fault
 Open conductor (one or two conductors) fault
Shunt faults
 Single line to Ground (L-G) fault
 Line to Line (L-L) fault
 Double line to Ground (L-L-G) fault

1.4 Fundamentals of symmetrical components

They allow unbalanced quantities such as current and voltages to be replaced

by three separate symmetrical components

Figure1.4.1 Representation of symmetrical components

By convention the direction of rotation of phasor is counter clock-wise

The ‘a’ operator causes a counter clock-wise rotation of 120 

It is clear that

1. Positive sequence component consisting of a set of balanced three phase

components with a phase sequence ‘abc’.
2. Negative sequence component consisting of a set of balanced three phase
components with a phase sequence ‘acb’
3. Zero sequence component consisting of a set of balanced three phase
components, all are equal in magnitude but with the same phase angle.

The symmetrical component of three unbalance current is given by

or

we can rewrite the above equation as

where
A=symmetrical components transformation matrix
Similarly we can write

Where inverse of A is given by

and
Therefore,

or

Similarly expression exist for voltages

or

and

or

The complex power can be represented as

 Positive Sequence Network Negative Sequence Network

(1)

Zero Sequence Network Equations representing three Sequences

Positive Sequence Negative Sequence Zero Sequence

The three sequences are Independent

Only positive sequence Only negative sequence Only zero sequence

voltage drop voltage drop voltage drop

Has voltage source No voltage source present

Neutral of the system is the reference Ground is the reference

- - Ground impedance is 3Zn

(2)

(3)
 (4)

(5)

(6)

1.4.1 Single line to Ground (L-G) Fault

Fig.1.4.2 Line to ground fault on phase ‘a’

 Consider a three-phase generator with fault on phase ‘a’ through impedance Zf.
 Assume the generator is initially on no-load.

Boundary conditions at the fault point are

(7)
(8)
Substituting (8) in to (2), we get

(9)

From the above equation

(10)

(11)

Substituting equation (6), we get

(12)

Where

Substituting equation (7), we get

(13)

(14)

The fault current is

(15)

Substituting the symmetrical components of current in equation (1) we get the

symmetrical components voltage and phase voltage at the point of fault.
 Fig.1.4.3. Sequence network for the L-G fault

Note:
 If generator neutral is solidly grounded, then Zn=0
 For bolted faults Zf =0

1.4.2 Line to Line (L-L) Fault

Fig.1.4.4. Line to Line fault between phase ‘b’ and phase ‘c’

 Consider a three-phase generator with a fault between phase ‘b’ and phase ‘c’
through impedance Zf.
 Assume the generator is initially on no-load.

Boundary conditions at the fault point are

(16, 17 & 18)

Substituting (17 & 18) in to (2), we get

(19)

From the above equation we find that

(20, 21 & 22)

From equation (21 & 22), we note that

(23)

From equation (5), we have

(24)

Substituting from equation (1), we get

(25)

Substituting from equation (21), we get

(26)

Since , solving for results in

(27)
The phase currents are

(28)

The fault current is

(29)

or

(30)

Substituting the symmetrical components of current in equation (1) we get the

symmetrical components voltage and phase voltage at the point of fault.

Fig.1.4.5 Sequence network for the L-L fault

Note:
 For bolted faults Zf =0
1.4.3 Double Line to Ground (L-L-G) Fault

Fig.1.4.6. Double line to ground fault

 Consider a three-phase generator with a fault on phase ‘b’ and phase ‘c’
through impedance Zf to ground.
 Assume the generator is initially on no-load.

Boundary conditions at the fault point are

(31 & 32)

From equation (5), the phase voltages Va and Vb are

(33 & 34)

Since Vb = Vc from above we note that

(35)

Substituting for the symmetrical components of currents in equation (31), we get

(36)

Substituting for Vb from (36) and Va2 from (35) into (33), we get
 (37)

Substituting for the symmetrical components of voltage from (1) into (37) and solving
for Ia0

(38)

Also, substituting for the symmetrical components of voltage in (35), we obtain

(39)

Substituting for Ia0 and Ia2 into (32) and solving for Ia1

(40)

The fault current is obtained from

(41)

Fig.6. Sequence network for double line to ground fault.