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Materials and methods for internal curing

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 Internal Curing of Concrete
RILEM TC 196-ICC: State-of-the-Art Report – June 2007

1 CHAPTER 5 - MATERIALS AND METHODS FOR INTERNAL

2 CURING
3 Coordinator: O.M. Jensen (1)*

4 Co-author: P. Lura (1)

5 (1) Dept. of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark

6
7

8 5.1. INTRODUCTION
9 This chapter presents a survey of different techniques for internal curing, i.e. internal
10 sealing and internal water curing. Mitigation of water loss to the surroundings by means of
11 internal curing is addressed, however, the focus of the chapter is the use of internal curing
12 water to control self-desiccation and self-desiccation shrinkage during hydration [1,2].
13 This principle has been debated in the literature for several years [3] and has become
14 particularly relevant due to the increased use of high-performance concrete, HPC. Several
15 techniques may, potentially, be used to establish internal curing of concrete. In the following
16 some of these are presented and commented. Also techniques which at present are not
17 practical are presented in the chapter, since these may be the basis for useful further
18 development in this area. For internal water curing special emphasis is put on techniques with
19 proven applicability: use of saturated lightweight aggregate particles and superabsorbent
20 polymers.
21 A vast number of properties of the internal curing material and how it influences the
22 concrete are important for the use of internal curing techniques. These include water
23 absorption, uniformity and price of the internal curing material and its influence on other
24 properties e.g. concrete rheology. The chapter is not meant to give a full account of this, but
25 primarily to address the most relevant material properties with regard to internal curing.

26 5.2. INTERNAL WATER CURING

27 5.2.1. Water for internal curing

28 Internal water curing of concrete requires some sort of water reservoir that can supply
29 water to the cement paste during the cementitious reactions. Cells and gels are examples of
30 water containers found in nature. A cell membrane provides a boundary to water, whereas a
31 polymer network incorporates water in its interstitial space with its affinity due to interaction
32 energy and polymer entropy. Such containers allow water to be stored as an entity.

* With contribution of K. Kovler (2)

(2) Faculty of Civil and Environ. Eng., Technion - Israel Inst. of Technology, Haifa, Israel

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33 In relation to concrete the water reservoir may be formed either before or after the start of
34 mixing. If encapsulated, liquid water is added to the concrete as particles, they must be strong
35 enough to withstand the mixing process. If the formation of the water reservoir occurs after
36 mixing, it must be completed before setting. Finally, after setting the stored water must be
37 freely accessible for the cement hydration, which means the water must be
38 thermodynamically and kinetically available for the cementitious reactions. This is described
39 in more detail in Chapter 3 (Mechanisms of internal water curing).
40 Despite these partly conflicting demands, several techniques may, potentially, be used for
41 internal water curing. Instinctively, water-absorbing materials may be thought of as the sole
42 group of candidates for this purpose [4]. However, as will be shown other materials may also
43 be used. In general, the water reservoir may function based on several different physical or
44 chemical principles:
45 - chemically bound water, e.g. crystalline water in ettringite,
46 - physically adsorbed water, e.g. water in superabsorbent polymers,
47 - physically held water, e.g. capillary water in fine pores, and
48 - unbound water, e.g. encapsulated water.
49 In the following, examples of internal curing water are presented based on this
50 classification.

51 5.2.2. Internal curing water in normal and recycled aggregate

52 5.2.2.1. Normal aggregate
53 Aggregate used in a normal concrete may contain water which can serve as internal curing
54 water. This water is physically held in natural porosities in the aggregate. Gritstone and
55 limestone may have a porosity of 25% [5]. If this porosity is water-filled and if the aggregate
56 content is 75 vol-%, such aggregate will contain up to 190 l of internal curing water per m3 of
57 concrete. As seen from Chapter 3 (Mechanisms of internal water curing) this is, potentially,
58 much more than needed for any concrete. This reasoning shows that water in normal
59 aggregate is certainly a factor which should be taken into consideration as a potential source
60 of internal curing water. This has also been pointed out by Hammer et al. [6].
61 The porosities in normal aggregate particles, however, may only be partly water-filled. In
62 addition, the spatial distribution of the water in normal aggregate particles is unfavourable;
63 only the fine aggregate fraction may be able to ensure internal curing due to depercolation of
64 the paste fraction [7]. The pore sizes distribution in the aggregate particles is a further
65 important element. Generally speaking, water moves spontaneously only towards a lower
66 energy level, i.e. from a coarse to a fine pore structure. The above mentioned pore size of 100
67 nm may be considered a rough guide for the lower limit of useful pores in aggregate particles.
68 The most important element, however, is the total aggregate porosity. In the self-
69 desiccating concretes where internal curing is particularly relevant – HPC – dense rocks are
70 used because the aggregate strength is the limiting factor for the strength of such concretes.
71 The dense rocks, such as quartzite, granite or bauxite, may contain virtually no porosity, and
72 no internal curing water will thus be induced from the aggregate. In these cases it may be
73 necessary to selectively induce internal curing water through a special additive. These
74 substances will be addressed further on.
75

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76 5.2.2.1. Recycled aggregate

77 Recycled aggregate consists of stone particles with mortar from the original concrete
78 attached to them. The volume fraction of this mortar may amount to 20 to 60%, and results in
79 a significantly higher water absorption of recycled concrete aggregates compared to
80 conventional aggregates [8].
81 The relatively high water absorption of recycled aggregate, however, may be difficult to
82 utilize for internal water curing. The cement paste fraction of recycled aggregate will,
83 typically, have a fine and tight pore structure which cannot supply water to the coarse pore
84 structure of a hydrating cement paste at early ages. In addition, the stone particles in the
85 recycled aggregate, whose porosity can potentially contain internal curing water, are partly
86 covered with cement paste which hampers the exchange of water. This means that both the
87 kinetic and the thermodynamic availability of water in recycled aggregate are hampered.
88 For this reason, recycled aggregate may be less useful than normal aggregate for internal
89 water curing. However, some experiments have shown promising results for recycled
90 aggregate [9]. In addition to the above mentioned reservations recycled aggregate will
91 typically have adverse effects on the mechanical properties of the concrete, such as e.g. a
92 lowering of the elastic modulus.

93 5.3. SUBSTANCES FOR INTERNAL WATER CURING

94 5.3.1. Substances with chemically bound water

95 A large number of chemical substances contain chemically bound water. This water is held
96 by primary chemical bonds within the molecular structure. To serve as a potential candidate
97 for internal water curing the water content of the substance must be high and the water must
98 be easily given off as the surrounding relative humidity drops. In addition, the chemical
99 substance must be compatible with the cementitious system.
100 Some substances which commonly occur in cement pastes do to some extent have such
101 properties, especially the calcium-aluminates. Examples of these are C4AH19 and ettringite,
102 C3A( C S )3H32. They contain about 50% water by weight which can be released if the relative
103 humidity is lowered. However, only a part of the water is released at high relative humidities,
104 and these substances are also linked to deleterious reactions in the cement paste. No attempt
105 to utilize this technique has been identified.

106 5.3.2. Substances with physically adsorbed water

107 5.3.2.1. Bentonite clay
108 Some natural types of clay such as bentonite have a high specific surface, often exceeding
109 100 m2/g, and this enables them to adsorb several molecular layers of water between their
110 platelet structure [10]; such water is held by secondary chemical bonds and the bentonite may
111 swell up to 14 times its volume as a consequence of this water uptake. If the relative humidity
112 in the surroundings is lowered, this water is reversibly released. Potentially, bentonite or other
113 layered clay minerals may be used as a water reservoir for internal water curing. However,
114 this requires at least one important problem to be solved: In high ionic media such as in
115 cementitious materials these clays agglomerate and form a compact structure [11].
116

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117 5.3.2.2. Superabsorbent polymers

118 A superabsorbent polymer, SAP, is a polymeric material which is able to absorb a
119 significant amount of liquid from the surroundings and to retain the liquid within its structure
120 without dissolving [12], see Figure 5.1. SAPs are principally used for absorbing water and
121 aqueous solutions. With the present polymer types the theoretical maximum water absorption
122 is approx. 5000 times their own weight. However, the absorbency of commercially produced
123 SAPs is around 50 g/g in dilute salt solutions such as urine, and in high ionic solutions such as
124 cement paste pore fluid the absorbency may be below 20 g/g [13]. The absorption of water in
125 the SAP is based on secondary chemical bonds, and the water is so loosely held that all of it
126 essentially can be considered bulk water.
127 Most SAPs are cross-linked polyelectrolytes. Because of their ionic nature and
128 interconnected structure, they absorb large quantities of water and other aqueous solutions
129 without dissolving. SAPs have found a widespread use as a high-tech material e.g. for contact
130 lenses, breast implants, fire fighting, drug delivery, in baby diapers and as soil conditioners.
131 Today’s world production exceeds 500,000 tons per year of which about 85% is used for baby
132 diapers [14].
133

134 Figure 5.1: Superabsorbent polymers are swellable substances which can absorb many times
135 their own weight of liquids by forming a gel. The absorbed liquid is not released even under
136 moderate pressure [12]. The picture shows a dry, collapsed and a swollen suspension polyme-
137 rized SAP particle.

138 A description of the use of SAP for internal water curing can be found in the literature
139 [2,13,15]. Compared with lightweight aggregate SAP has some peculiarities. SAP can be used
140 as a dry concrete admixture since it takes up water during the mixing process. Furthermore,
141 the use of SAP permits free design of the pore shape and the pore size distribution of the
142 hardening concrete, however, the pores introduced by the SAP in the concrete may preferably
143 be selected in the range 50-300 µm.

144 5.3.3. Substances with physically held water

145 A large number of naturally occurring or artificially produced materials are potentially
146 useful as a container for internal curing water due to a significant internal, open porosity. As
147 described below, these materials have widely different composition and pore structure, but
148 still they have some common features which will be addressed here. Many of the materials are

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149 used as general lightweight aggregates in concrete. The specific purpose of using them for
150 reservoirs of internal curing water has been researched experimentally for some years [16].
151 To act as an internal water reservoir an initially dry material will need water saturation. By
152 submersion, the porous particles will by themselves take up water, however, complete
153 saturation may take many hours or days since the air in the particles will delay the water
154 ingress [17]. An accelerated water uptake can be achieved by evacuating, boiling or by
155 applying a high pressure, however, from a production point of view these methods have
156 limitations.
157 If the dry material is added to the concrete mixer only partial saturation may be achieved.
158 In addition, particles of cementitious materials may be partly sucked into the pore structure of
159 the material together with the water. This will improve the bond with the surrounding paste
160 structure, but it will also to some extent offset the internal curing effect. This is due to
161 lengthening of the water transport path and due to reduction of the volume available for
162 storage of the internal curing water.
163 The primary mechanism responsible for holding the water in these materials is physical
164 capillary forces. As previously mentioned, only pore sizes above approximately 100 nm are
165 useful for storage of internal curing water. In smaller pores the water is held so tightly that it
166 is not available for the cementitious reactions.
167
168 5.3.3.1. Pumice
169 Pumice is a porous volcanic rock which resembles a sponge, see Figure 5.2. The porous
170 structure is formed by dissolved gases which are precipitated during the cooling as the lava
171 hurtles through the air. All types of magma may form pumice. The connectivity of the pore
172 structure may range from completely closed to completely open. A representative value for
173 the absorption of pumice is 0.27 kg/kg [18].
174

175 Figure 5.2: Left: 5 cm-size pumice stone particle. Smaller particles provide a more efficient
176 water curing. A wide range of pore sizes are seen. Right: For internal water curing mm-size
177 particles . Right: Scanning electron micrograph of a fracture surface of a pumice aggregate
178 particle. The open porosity of this aggregate has been measured to 40%.

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179 5.3.3.2. Perlite

180 Perlite is a naturally occurring silicious, glassy rock which contains 2-6% combined water.
181 When quickly heated to above 900°C, the crude rock expands 4-20 times its original volume
182 as the combined water vaporizes and creates countless tiny bubbles. This results in a bulk
183 density in the range 30-400 kg/m3, and a water absorption of 200-600%. Perlite has found
184 multiple uses such as for filtration, as an abrasive and within horticulture to provide aeration
185 and moisture retention. However, perlite is primarily used within the construction area for
186 example as concrete aggregate and as a cavity-filling insulation. Disintegration of perlite
187 particles has been observed during mixing due to their high porosity and consequently low
188 strength [18]. This may have adverse effects on the concrete. Fully saturated, the water
189 content of perlite may be 4.5 kg/kg [18].
190
191 5.3.3.3. Expanded argillaceous materials
192 Liapor and Leca are brand names for an expanded clay clinker which is burned in a rotary
193 kiln at approx. 1200°C. They are produced from special types of clay which expand during
194 heating due to development of gases from organic material in the clay. This results in ceramic
195 particles with a dense shell surrounding a porous core, see Figure 5.3.
196 The total porosity of the expanded clay clinker may be as high as 90%, however a large
197 part of the pores are closed, and for that reason not available for water absorption. Based on
198 mercury intrusion porosimetry the typical pore size of the open porosity is around 400 µm,
199 and most of the pore volume is in pores with a size above 100 µm. For this reason all the
200 absorbed water in these expanded clay clinkers may be considered freely available as internal
201 curing water [19,20]. The absorbed water in Leca and Liapor may for example be 0.17 kg/kg
202 [17,19].
203

204 Figure 5.3: Left: Cut cross section of a 1 cm-size Liapor particle. The skin zone of the particle
205 has a lower porosity than the core. Right: Scanning electron micrograph of a fracture surface
206 of Liapor showing numerous pores from µm-size and upwards. The total porosity has been
207 measured to be 45% whereas the open porosity is 40%.

208 Stalite is a brand name of another type of expanded argillaceous material (shale). It is
209 produced by processing crushed slate in rotary kilns at temperatures up to approximately
210 1150°C. During the heating, the rock becomes plastic and evolves gases which are entrapped
211 as small unconnected voids in the stone [21]. Compared with other lightweight aggregate,

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212 Stalite has a relatively fine and less continuous pore system – some of the pore water is held
213 down to at least RH=70%. Consequently only a part of the water held in Stalite will be useful
214 for internal curing [6].
215
216 5.3.3.4. Diatomaceous earth
217 Diatomaceous earth originates from the skeletons of prehistoric single celled algae,
218 diatoms, which synthesized shells for themselves out of silica. When the diatoms died the
219 shells settled on the bottom of sea or lake beds and fossilized. The amorphous silica (opaline)
220 content in diatomites ranges from 25 to 100 per cent. The diatom particles have an average
221 size of 5-20 µm in diameter and, generally, exhibit either radial symmetry or line symmetry.
222 The open porosity of the diatoms depends on the type, but may be around 50-70% leading to a
223 water absorption of about 1 kg/kg, see Figure 5.4 [22,23].
224 Diatomaceous earth has multiple uses within e.g. filtration, drilling mud thickener,
225 chromatography, as catalyst carrier and insecticide. Diatomaceous earth has been tested in
226 relation to concrete technology. Diatoms are highly reactive towards lime owing to their high
227 content of amorphous silica and high specific surface area. However, the use of diatoms in
228 concrete is hampered by their particle shape which has an unfavourable effect on the paste
229 consistency and causes the water demand of concrete to increase [24,25]. Diatomaceous earth
230 has previously been suggested as a source of internal curing water [26].
231

232 Figure 5.4: Scanning electron micrograph of pennate (i.e. line symmetric) diatoms in a cement
233 paste matrix. The open porosity of these particles has been measured to 68% [22].

234 5.3.3.5. Wood-derived powders and fibers

235 Kraft and thermomechanical pulp fibers as well as cellulose and wood powders – which
236 vary in size and morphology – have been investigated for use as internal water curing agents
237 in cement-based materials. A water absorption of 1-3.3 kg/kg for these wood-derived powders
238 and fibers has been reported. Further information on the technique can be found in the
239 literature [27].

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240 5.3.4. Substances with unbound water

241 5.3.4.1. Microencapsulation
242 Microencapsulation is a technique by which parcels of a gas, liquid, or solid are packaged
243 inside tiny spheres of a second material. The capsules may be as small as 1 micron [28]. Many
244 different capsule wall materials have been developed as well as techniques by which a
245 substance might be encapsulated. The process may consist of dispersing fine droplets of the
246 active material in an aqueous medium. The droplets are subsequently encapsulated by a
247 polymer formed by a production technique called interfacial surface polycondensation, see
248 Figure 5.5.
249 The core material is released from the microcapsule e.g. due to mechanical rupture of the
250 capsule wall, dissolution of the wall, melting of the wall or by diffusion through the wall.
251 Microencapsulation is used in many different products, examples are: Inks for carbon-free
252 copy paper, chemicals for multi-component adhesives, taste masking of drugs, and pesticides.
253 In relation to cementing materials microencapsulation of water has been previously used.
254 With this technique it was possible to prepare a dry mix of water-filled wax capsules and fast-
255 setting grouting cement. The capsules were crushed and the mixture hardened when an anchor
256 element in a one-step operation was inserted into the mixture. These micro-capsules consisted
257 of 33% shell and had a size of 1-2 mm [29].
258

259 Figure 5.5: Scanning electron micrograph of a microencapsulated ink embedded in a self-
260 copying paper.

261 Another example within concrete related materials is fly ash cenospheres. These are
262 hollow fly ash particles which are produced accidentally together with normal fly ash. If
263 water-filled, the capsule wall could have beneficial pozzolanic properties whereas the water
264 might serve as internal curing water. However, no method to induce the water into the
265 particles or to ensure its proper release when needed seems to be available.
266 Microencapsulated water is a delicate material with regard to internal water curing. The
267 capsule wall has to be both chemically and physically strong enough to remain intact until
268 setting. Thereafter it should allow the release of water.
269

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270 5.3.4.2. Emulsified water

271 A colloid is a dispersion of small particles of one material in another. If both materials are
272 liquid the colloid is termed an emulsion. Many examples of emulsions both natural and
273 artificial can be given, one being milk which is a dispersion of fats in water. An emulsion
274 needs to be stabilized by an emulsifying agent which forms a protective film around the
275 dispersed phase. In the case of milk this emulsifier is a protein, casein.
276 Within concrete technology a similar technique is used to improve the frost resistance of
277 concrete. This is done by introducing 10-250 μm spherical air-voids into the fresh concrete,
278 which is enabled by an air-entraining agent. The air-entraining agent produces a foam by
279 lowering the surface tension of the liquid and forming a stabilizing film in the liquid-air
280 interface.
281 It may be possible to form water inclusions in a similar way, i.e. an emulsion of water in
282 water. The emulsifying agent will have to be rather special, since a natural interface between
283 two different phases does not exist in that case. It has not been possible to identify an existing
284 technique like the one described.

285 5.4. COMPARISON OF TECHNIQUES FOR INTERNAL WATER CURING

286 So far the realistic possibilities for internal water curing of concrete are found within
287 superabsorbent polymers and substances with physically held water, i.e. mainly lightweight
288 aggregates. For comparison, Table 5.1 sums up relevant data for materials in these two
289 groups. It should be strongly noted that the data are only a rough guide; they may depend
290 significantly on the specific material type and usage. As an example the water content of Leca
291 may vary between 0.07 and 0.29 kg/kg depending on how it is allowed to absorb water [6].
292
293 Table 5.1. Examples of water content and useful porosities of different candidates for internal
294 water curing. The figures are only meant for rough comparison since they depend on many
295 factors, e.g. particle size. Also, it should be noted that not all the water may be available for
296 internal curing.
Material Water content Useful porosity
[kg/kg] [-]
Superabsorbent polymer 15 N.A.
Pumice 0.27 40%
Perlite 4.5 90%
Expanded clay (Leca, Liapor) 0.16 40%
Expanded shale (Stalite) 0.06 5%
Diatomaceous earth 1 70%

297 5.5. INTERNAL SEALING

298 Internal sealing of concrete refers to techniques where the water loss from the concrete is
299 mitigated by the addition of a special curing agent. Dhir et al. have suggested that
300 mechanisms active in internal sealing may include lowering of the chemical potential of the
301 pore water or blocking of the surface pores [30]. Dhir et al. have examined a series of
302 substances that potentially may function in this way [30-32]. Some of the additives did lead to
303 a significantly reduced water loss due to drying. However, they also promote hydration, and

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304 consequently the reduced water loss may to some extent be due to this rather than the
305 mechanisms given above.
306 Melbye [33] has also suggested an innovative technique for internal sealing. By adding a
307 paraffin emulsion to the concrete mixture, enhanced water proofing of the concrete was
308 achieved, and by adding a polyethylene oxide the water retention of the concrete was
309 improved. A combination of these two techniques is suggested to be especially useful to
310 prevent plastic shrinkage during shotcreting.
311 To describe the above principle the term “self-curing” has been suggested in the literature
312 [30]. However, this term is very broad – as mentioned by Mather [34] most concretes should
313 be considered self-curing. In order to indicate the physical and chemical mechanism the term
314 internal sealing is preferred.

315 REFERENCES
316 [1] Bentz, D.P. and Jensen, O.M., “Mitigation strategies for autogenous shrinkage cracking”, Cement
317 and Concrete Composites 26 (6) (2004) 677-685
318 [2] Jensen, O.M. and Hansen, P.F., “Water-entrained cement-based materials – I. Principle and
319 theoretical background”, Cement and Concrete Research 31 (4) (2001) 647-654
320 [3] Philleo, R., “Concrete Science and reality” in “Materials Science of Concrete II”, (American
321 Ceramic Society, Westerville, Ohio 1991) 1-8
322 [4] Kaplan, S., “Sorbent material for spills and other liquid pickups”, Report C-133, April 1991,
323 http://www.buscom.com/archive/C133.html, February 2003
324 [5] Neville, A.M., “Properties of concrete” (4th ed.) Prentice Hall, Harlow (2000)
325 [6] Hammer, T.A., Bjøntegaard, Ø. and Sellevold, E.J., “Internal Curing – Role of Absorbed Water in
326 Aggregates”, in Ries, J.P. and Holm, T.A. (eds.) “High-Performance structural lightweight
327 concrete”, American Concrete Institute Special Publication 218 (2004) 131-142.
328 [7] Geiker, M., Bentz, D.P. and Jensen, O.M., “Mitigating autogenous shrinkage by internal curing”,
329 in Ries, J.P. and Holm, T.A. (eds.) “High-Performance structural lightweight concrete”, American
330 Concrete Institute Special Publication 218 (2004) 143-154.
331 [8] RILEM TC-37-DRC, Demolition and recycling of concrete, Recycled aggregates and recycled
332 aggregate concrete, Second State-of-the-art Report, 1985
333 [9] Sato, R., Kawai, K. and Yusuke, B., “Mechanical performance of reinforced recycled concrete
334 beams” in International workshop on recycled concrete, 26 September 2000, Japanese Society for
335 the Promotion of Science, JSPS 76 committee on construction materials, 127-146
336 [10] Torikai, Y., Sato, S. and Ohashi, H., “Thermodynamic properties of water in compacted sodium
337 montmorillonite”, Nuclear Technology 115 (1) (1996) 73-80
338 [11] Lindgreen, H., personal communication (2002)
339 [12] Buchholz, F.L. and Graham, A.T. (eds.) “Modern superabsorbent polymer technology”, WILEY-
340 VCH, New York (1998)
341 [13] Jensen, O.M. and Hansen, P.F., “Water-entrained cement-based materials – II. Implementation
342 and experimental results”, Cement and Concrete Research 32 (6) (2002) 973-978
343 [14] “Absorbent polymers”, http://www.amcol.com/fctbook/absor.htm, February 2003
344 [15] Friedemann, K., Stallmach, F. and Kärger, J., “NMR diffusion and relaxation studies during
345 cement hydration – A non-destructive approach for clarification of the mechanism of internal post
346 curing of cementitious materials”, Cement and Concrete Research 36 (2006) 817-826
347 [16] Weber, S. and Reinhardt, H.W., “A new generation of high performance concrete: Concrete with
348 autogenous curing”, Advanced Cement Based Materials 6 (2) (1997) 59-68
349 [17] Lura, P., “Autogenous deformation and internal curing of concrete”, Ph.D. thesis, Delft University
350 of Technology, Delft (2003)

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351 [18] Zhutovsky, S., Kovler, K. and Bentur, A., “Autogenous curing of high-strength concrete using
352 pre-soaked pumice and perlite sand”, in Persson, B. and Fagerlund, G. (eds.), 3rd International
353 research seminar on self-desiccation and its importance in concrete technology, Lund, 14-15 June
354 2002, Report TVBM-3104, Lund University, Lund, Sweden (2002) 161-173
355 [19] Zhang, M.H. and Gjørv, O.E., “Characteristics of lightweight aggregates for high-strength
356 concrete”, ACI Materials Journal 88 (2) (1991) 150-158
357 [20] Weber, S. and Reinhardt, H.W., “Manipulating the water content and microstructure of high
358 performance concrete using autogenous curing”, in Dhir, R. and Dyer, T.D. (eds.), “Modern con-
359 crete materials: binders, additions and admixtures”, Thomas Telford, London (1999) 568-577
360 [21] “Stalite”, http://www.stalite.com/process.htm, February 2003
361 [22] Calvert, J.B., “Silicon”, http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/silicon.htm, February 2003
362 [23] Tjomstøl, F., “Autogenous shrinkage of high-performance concrete”, 9th semester report,
363 Department of Building Technology and Stuctural Engineering, Aalborg University, Aalborg
364 1999
365 [24] Hewlett, P.C. (ed.), “Lea's chemistry of cement and concrete”, Arnold, London (1998)
366 [25] Powers, T.C., “Properties of fresh concrete”, John Wiley, New York (1968)
367 [26] Smetana, D.A., Wilson, A.L. and Lenczewski, R.J., “Hydrating and plasticizing admixture for
368 dense concrete”, US Patent 5302200, Apr. 12, 1994
369 [27] Mohr, B.J., Premenko, L., Nanko, H. and Kurtis, K.E., “Examination of wood-derived powders
370 and fibers for internal curing of cement-based materials”, in Persson, B., Bentz, D. and Nilsson,
371 L.-O. (eds.), 4rd International research seminar on self-desiccation and its importance in concrete
372 technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA, June 2005, Report TVBM-3126, Lund University,
373 Lund, Sweden (2005) 229-244
374 [28] Franjione, J. and Vasishtha, N., “The art and science of microencapsulation”, Technology Today
375 (Southwest Research Institute), Summer 1995
376 [29] Simpson, R.E., “Cartridge for grouting an anchor element in a hole of a support structure”, US
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