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Third Edition
CHAPTER MECHANICS OF
7 MATERIALS
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf
Lecture Notes:
Transformations of
Stress and Strain
J. Walt Oler
Texas Tech University
© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Edition
Third
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf
Course CLOs
S.No CLO Domain Taxonomy level PLO
Analyse stresses and

1. strains for two- and three- Cognitive 3 2
dimensional cases using and various
technique.
Understand theory of
2. failure of materials Cognitive 1 1
Solve problems related

3. to early failure of materials under Cognitive
special conditions like fatigue creep 2 2
and impact etc
Analyze stresses in thick

4. walled cylinders and columns Cognitive 4
2
© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-2

Edition
Third
Transformations of Stress and Strain
Introduction
Transformation of Plane Stress
Principal Stresses
Maximum Shearing Stress
Example 7.01
Sample Problem 7.1
Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress
Example 7.02
Sample Problem 7.2
General State of Stress
Application of Mohr’s Circle to the Three- Dimensional Analysis of Stress
Yield Criteria for Ductile Materials Under Plane Stress
Fracture Criteria for Brittle Materials Under Plane Stress
Stresses in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

Edition
Third
Introduction
• The most general state of stress at a point may
be represented by 6 components,
 x , y , z normal stresses
 xy ,  yz ,  zx shearing stresses
(Note :  xy   yx ,  yz   zy ,  zx   xz )
• Same state of stress is represented by a

different set of components if axes are rotated.
• The first part of the chapter is concerned with

how the components of stress are transformed
under a rotation of the coordinate axes. The
second part of the chapter is devoted to a
similar analysis of the transformation of the
components of strain.

Edition
Third
Introduction
• Plane Stress - state of stress in which two faces of
the cubic element are free of stress. For the
illustrated example, the state of stress is defined by
 x ,  y ,  xy and  z   zx   zy  0.
• State of plane stress occurs in a thin plate subjected

to forces acting in the midplane of the plate.
• State of plane stress also occurs on the free surface

of a structural element or machine component, i.e.,
at any point of the surface not subjected to an
external force.

Edition
Third
Transformation of Plane Stress

• Consider the conditions for equilibrium of a
prismatic element with faces perpendicular to
the x, y, and x’ axes.
 Fx  0   xA   x A cos  cos   xy A cos sin 
  y A sin  sin    xy A sin   cos
 Fy   0   xy A   x A cos sin    xy A cos  cos
  y A sin   cos   xy A sin  sin 
• The equations may be rewritten to yield

Edition
Third
Principal Stresses
• The previous equations are combined to
yield parametric equations for a circle,
 x   ave 2   x2y  R 2
where
2
 x  y  x  y 
 ave  R      xy
2
2  2 
• Principal stresses occur on the principal

planes of stress with zero shearing stresses.
2
 x  y  x  y 
 max, min       xy
2
2  2 
2 xy
tan 2 p 
 x  y
Note : defines two angles separated by 90 o

Edition
Third
Maximum Shearing Stress

Maximum shearing stress occurs for  x   ave
2
 x  y 
 max  R      xy
2
 2 
 x  y
tan 2 s  
2 xy
Note : defines two angles separated by 90 o and

offset from  p by 45 o
 x  y
    ave 
2

Edition
Third
Example 7.01
SOLUTION:
• Find the element orientation for the principal
stresses from
2 xy
tan 2 p 
 x  y
• Determine the principal stresses from
2
x  y  x  y 
 max, min       xy
2
For the state of plane stress shown, 2  2 
determine (a) the principal panes, • Calculate the maximum shearing stress with
(b) the principal stresses, (c) the 2
maximum shearing stress and the   x   y 
 max      xy
2
corresponding normal stress.  2 
x  y

 
2

Edition
Third
Example 7.01
SOLUTION:
• Find the element orientation for the principal
stresses from
2 xy 2 40 
tan 2 p    1.333
 x  y 50   10 
2 p  53.1, 233.1
 p  26.6, 116.6
 x  50 MPa  xy  40 MPa
 x  10 MPa • Determine the principal stresses from
2
x  y  x  y 
 max, min       xy
2
2  2 
 20  302  402
 max  70 MPa
 min  30 MPa
© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 - 10

Edition
Third
Example 7.01
• Calculate the maximum shearing stress with
2
 x  y 
 max      xy
2
 2 
 30 2  40 2
 max  50 MPa
 x  50 MPa  xy  40 MPa  s   p  45
 x  10 MPa  s  18.4, 71.6
• The corresponding normal stress is

x  y 50  10
    ave  
2 2
   20 MPa

Edition
Third
Sample Problem 7.1

SOLUTION:
• Determine an equivalent force-couple
system at the center of the transverse
section passing through H.
• Evaluate the normal and shearing stresses
at H.
• Determine the principal planes and
calculate the principal stresses.
A single horizontal force P of 150 lb
magnitude is applied to end D of lever
ABD. Determine (a) the normal and
shearing stresses on an element at point
H having sides parallel to the x and y
axes, (b) the principal planes and
principal stresses at the point H.

Edition
Third
Sample Problem 7.1

SOLUTION:
• Determine an equivalent force-couple
system at the center of the transverse
section passing through H.
P  150 lb
T  150 lb18 in   2.7 kip  in
M x  150 lb10 in   1.5 kip  in
• Evaluate the normal and shearing stresses

at H.
y 
Mc

1.5 kip  in 0.6 in 
I 1  0.6 in 4
4
 xy  
Tc

2.7 kip  in 0.6 in 
J 1  0.6 in 4
2
 x  0  y  8.84 ksi  y  7.96 ksi

Edition
Third
Sample Problem 7.1

• Determine the principal planes and
calculate the principal stresses.
2 xy 27.96 
tan 2 p    1.8
 x  y 0  8.84
2 p  61.0,119
 p  30.5, 59.5
2
x  y  x  y 
 max, min       xy
2
2  2 
2
0  8.84  0  8.84 
  7.96 
2
  
2  2 
 max  13.52 ksi
 min  4.68 ksi

Edition
Third

• With the physical significance of Mohr’s circle
for plane stress established, it may be applied
with simple geometric considerations. Critical
values are estimated graphically or calculated.
• For a known state of plane stress  x , y , xy

plot the points X and Y and construct the
circle centered at C.
2
 x  y  x  y 
 ave  R      xy
2
2  2 
• The principal stresses are obtained at A and B.

 max, min   ave  R
2 xy
tan 2 p 
 x  y
The direction of rotation of Ox to Oa is
the same as CX to CA.
Edition
Third

• With Mohr’s circle uniquely defined, the state
of stress at other axes orientations may be
depicted.
• For the state of stress at an angle  with

respect to the xy axes, construct a new
diameter X’Y’ at an angle 2 with respect to
XY.
• Normal and shear stresses are obtained

from the coordinates X’Y’.

Edition
Third

• Mohr’s circle for centric axial loading:
P P
x  ,  y   xy  0  x   y   xy 
A 2A
• Mohr’s circle for torsional loading:
Tc Tc
 x   y  0  xy  x y   xy  0
J J

Edition
Third
Example 7.02
For the state of plane stress shown,

(a) construct Mohr’s circle, determine
(b) the principal planes, (c) the SOLUTION:
principal stresses, (d) the maximum • Construction of Mohr’s circle
shearing stress and the corresponding
 ave 
x  y

50   10  20 MPa
normal stress.
2 2
CF  50  20  30 MPa FX  40 MPa
R  CX  302  402  50 MPa
Edition
Third
Example 7.02
• Principal planes and stresses
 max  OA  OC  CA  20  50
 max  70 MPa
 max  OB  OC  BC  20  50
 max  30 MPa
FX 40
tan 2 p  
CP 30
2 p  53.1
 p  26.6

Edition
Third
Example 7.02
• Maximum shear stress

 s   p  45  max  R     ave
 s  71.6  max  50 MPa    20 MPa

Edition
Third
Sample Problem 7.2
For the state of stress shown,

determine (a) the principal planes
and the principal stresses, (b) the
stress components exerted on the
element obtained by rotating the SOLUTION:
given element counterclockwise • Construct Mohr’s circle
through 30 degrees.  x   y 100  60
 ave    80 MPa
2 2
R CF 2  FX 2  202  482  52 MPa
Edition
Third
Sample Problem 7.2
• Principal planes and stresses

XF 48  max  OA  OC  CA  max  OA  OC  BC
tan 2 p    2.4
CF 20  80  52  80  52
2 p  67.4  max  132 MPa  min  28 MPa
 p  33.7 clockwise

Edition
Third
Sample Problem 7.2
  180  60  67.4  52.6

• Stress components after rotation by 30 o
 x  OK  OC  KC  80  52 cos 52.6
Points X’ and Y’ on Mohr’s circle that  y  OL  OC  CL  80  52 cos 52.6
correspond to stress components on the
 xy  KX   52 sin 52.6
rotated element are obtained by rotating
XY counterclockwise through 2  60  x  48.4 MPa
 y  111.6 MPa
 xy  41.3 MPa

Edition
Third
General State of Stress

• Consider the general 3D state of stress at a point and
the transformation of stress from element rotation
• State of stress at Q defined by:  x , y , z , xy , yz , zx
• Consider tetrahedron with face perpendicular to the

line QN with direction cosines: x ,  y , z
• The requirement  Fn  0 leads to,

 n   x2x   y 2y   z 2z
 2 xyx  y  2 yz y z  2 zxz x
• Form of equation guarantees that an element

orientation can be found such that
 n   a2a   bb2   cc2
These are the principal axes and principal planes
and the normal stresses are the principal stresses.

Edition
Third
Application of Mohr’s Circle to the Three-

Dimensional Analysis of Stress
• Transformation of stress for an element • The three circles represent the

rotated around a principal axis may be normal and shearing stresses for
represented by Mohr’s circle. rotation around each principal axis.
• Points A, B, and C represent the • Radius of the largest circle yields the
principal stresses on the principal planes maximum shearing stress.
(shearing stress is zero) 1
 max   max   min
2
Edition
Third

• In the case of plane stress, the axis
perpendicular to the plane of stress is a
principal axis (shearing stress equal zero).
• If the points A and B (representing the
principal planes) are on opposite sides of
the origin, then
a) the corresponding principal stresses
are the maximum and minimum
normal stresses for the element
b) the maximum shearing stress for the
element is equal to the maximum “in-
plane” shearing stress
c) planes of maximum shearing stress
are at 45o to the principal planes.

Edition
Third

• If A and B are on the same side of the
origin (i.e., have the same sign), then
a) the circle defining max, min, and

max for the element is not the circle
corresponding to transformations within
the plane of stress
b) maximum shearing stress for the

element is equal to half of the
maximum stress
c) planes of maximum shearing stress are

at 45 degrees to the plane of stress

Edition
Third

• Failure of a machine component
subjected to uniaxial stress is directly
predicted from an equivalent tensile test
• Failure of a machine component
subjected to plane stress cannot be
directly predicted from the uniaxial state
of stress in a tensile test specimen
• It is convenient to determine the
principal stresses and to base the failure
criteria on the corresponding biaxial
stress state
• Failure criteria are based on the
mechanism of failure. Allows
comparison of the failure conditions for
a uniaxial stress test and biaxial
component loading

Edition
Third
Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials

Edition
Third

• Mohr’s circle for centric axial loading:
P
x  ,  y   xy  0
A
• Mohr’s circle for torsional loading:
Tc
 x   y  0  xy 
J

Edition
Third

Maximum shearing stress criteria (Tresca):
Structural component is safe as long as the
maximum shearing stress is less than the
maximum shearing stress in a tensile test
specimen at yield, i.e.,
Y
 max   Y 
2
For a and b with the same sign,

a b 
 max  or  Y
2 2 2
For a and b with opposite signs,

 a b  The hexagon associated with the initiation of yield
 max   Y
2 2 is known as Tresca’s hexagon after the French
engineer Henri Edouard Tresca (1814–1885).

Edition
Third

Maximum distortion energy criteria (Von Mises):
distortion energy per unit volume is less than
that occurring in a tensile test specimen at
yield.
The distortion energy of the material is
associated with change in shape of the material.
ud  uY
1 2
6G

 a   a b   b2  
1 2
6G

 Y   Y  0  02 
 a2   a b   b2   Y2
This criterion is also known as the von Mises
criterion after the German-American applied
mathematician Richard von Mises (1883–1953)

Edition
Third
Fracture Criteria for Brittle Materials Under Plane Stress
Brittle materials fail suddenly through rupture

or fracture in a tensile test. The failure
condition is characterized by the ultimate
strength U.
Maximum normal stress criteria (Coulomb’s

Criteria):
maximum normal stress is less than the
 a  U ultimate strength of a tensile test specimen.
 b  U This criterion suffers from an important
shortcoming: it is based on then assumption
that the ultimate strength of the material is the
same in tension and in compression.
The maximum-normal-stress criterion is known as Coulomb’s criterion
after the French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736–1806).
Edition
Third
Mohr’s Criteria for Brittle Material

Suggested by the German engineer Otto Mohr,
this criterion is used to predict the effect of a
given state of plane stress on a brittle material
when the results of various types of tests are
available.
ϬUT and ϬUC is the ultimate strength in tension and
compression.
ϬUT ,ϬUC and O represents state of stress
corresponding to the rupture of the tensile-test
specimen and compressive-test specimen.
If both principal stresses are positive, the state of

stress is safe as long as Ϭa < ϬUT and Ϭb < ϬUT.
If both principal stresses are negative, the state of

stress is safe as long as |Ϭa| < |ϬUC| and |Ϭb| < |ϬUC|.

Edition
Third

When Ϭa and Ϭb have opposite signs,
assume that a torsion test has been
conducted on the material and that its
ultimate strength in shear, τU , has been
determined.
Drawing the circle centered at O
representing the state of stress
corresponding to the failure of the
torsion-test specimen.
Observe that any state of stress represented
by a circle entirely contained in that circle
is also safe.
According to Mohr’s criterion, a state of
stress is safe if it is represented by a circle
located entirely within the area bounded
by the envelope of the circles
corresponding to the available data.

Edition
Third

Edition
Third
Maximum-normal-strain criterion or Saint-Venant’s

criterion
According to this criterion, a given structural
component is safe as long as the maximum
value of the normal strain in that component
remains smaller than the value εU of the strain
at which a tensile-test specimen of the same
material will fail.

Edition
Third

• Cylindrical vessel with principal stresses
1 = hoop stress
2 = longitudinal stress
• Hoop stress:
 Fz  0   12t x   p2r x 
pr
1 
t
• Longitudinal stress:
 
 Fx  0   2 2 rt   p  r
2
pr
2 
2t
1  2 2

Edition
Third

• Points A and B correspond to hoop stress, 1,
and longitudinal stress, 2
• Maximum in-plane shearing stress:

1 pr
 max( in plane )   2 
2 4t
• Maximum out-of-plane shearing stress

corresponds to a 45 o rotation of the plane
stress element around a longitudinal axis
pr
 max   2 
2t

Edition
Third
• Spherical pressure vessel:

pr
1   2 
2t
• Mohr’s circle for in-plane

transformations reduces to a point
  1   2  constant
 max(in -plane)  0
• Maximum out-of-plane shearing

stress
pr
 max  12 1 
4t

Edition
Third
Transformation of Plane Strain

• Plane strain - deformations of the material
take place in parallel planes and are the
same in each of those planes.
• Plane strain occurs in a plate subjected

along its edges to a uniformly distributed
load and restrained from expanding or
contracting laterally by smooth, rigid and
fixed supports
components of strain :
 x  y  xy  z   zx   zy  0
• Example: Consider a long bar subjected
to uniformly distributed transverse loads.
State of plane stress exists in any
transverse section not located too close to
the ends of the bar.
Edition
Third
Transformation of Plane Strain

• State of strain at the point Q results in
different strain components with respect
to the xy and x’y’ reference frames.
     x cos 2    y sin 2    xy sin cos
 OB   45  12  x   y   xy 
 xy  2 OB   x   y 
• Applying the trigonometric relations

used for the transformation of stress,
x   y x   y  xy
 x   cos 2  sin 2
2 2 2
x   y x   y  xy
 y   cos 2  sin 2
2 2 2
 xy x   y  xy
 sin 2  cos 2
2 2 2

Edition
Third
Mohr’s Circle for Plane Strain

• The equations for the transformation of
plane strain are of the same form as the
equations for the transformation of plane
stress - Mohr’s circle techniques apply.
• Abscissa for the center C and radius R ,

2 2
x   y   x   y    xy 
 ave  R      
2  2   2 
• Principal axes of strain and principal strains,

 xy
tan 2 p 
x   y
 max   ave  R  min   ave  R
• Maximum in-plane shearing strain,

 max  2R   x   y 2   xy2
Edition
Third
Three-Dimensional Analysis of Strain

• Previously demonstrated that three principal
axes exist such that the perpendicular
element faces are free of shearing stresses.
• By Hooke’s Law, it follows that the

shearing strains are zero as well and that
the principal planes of stress are also the
principal planes of strain.
• Rotation about the principal axes may be

represented by Mohr’s circles.

Edition
Third

• For the case of plane strain where the x and y
axes are in the plane of strain,
- the z axis is also a principal axis
- the corresponding principal normal strain
is represented by the point Z = 0 or the
origin.
• If the points A and B lie on opposite sides
of the origin, the maximum shearing strain
is the maximum in-plane shearing strain, D
and E.
• If the points A and B lie on the same side of

the origin, the maximum shearing strain is
out of the plane of strain and is represented
by the points D’ and E’.

Edition
Third

• Consider the case of plane stress,
 x  a  y  b  z  0
• Corresponding normal strains,

 a  b
a  
E E
 a
b    b
E E
 
 c    a   b     a   b 
E 1 
• Strain perpendicular to the plane of stress

is not zero.
• If B is located between A and C on the

Mohr-circle diagram, the maximum
shearing strain is equal to the diameter CA.

Edition
Third
Measurements of Strain: Strain Rosette
• Strain gages indicate normal strain through

changes in resistance.
• With a 45o rosette, x and y are measured

directly. xy is obtained indirectly with,
 xy  2 OB   x   y 
• Normal and shearing strains may be

obtained from normal strains in any three
directions,
1   x cos 2 1   y sin 2 1   xy sin1 cos1
 2   x cos 2  2   y sin 2  2   xy sin 2 cos 2
 3   x cos 2 3   y sin 2 3   xy sin3 cos3

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Third Edition

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

S.No CLO Domain Taxonomy level PLO

Analyse stresses and

Solve problems related

Analyze stresses in thick

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-2

Transformations of Stress and Strain

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-3

• Same state of stress is represented by a

• The first part of the chapter is concerned with

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-4

• State of plane stress occurs in a thin plate subjected

• State of plane stress also occurs on the free surface

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-5

Transformation of Plane Stress

• The equations may be rewritten to yield

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-6

• Principal stresses occur on the principal

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-7

Maximum Shearing Stress

Note : defines two angles separated by 90 o and

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-8

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-9

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 - 10

• The corresponding normal stress is

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 - 11

Sample Problem 7.1

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Sample Problem 7.1

• Evaluate the normal and shearing stresses

 x  0  y  8.84 ksi  y  7.96 ksi

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 - 13

Sample Problem 7.1

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 - 14

Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress

• For a known state of plane stress  x , y , xy

• The principal stresses are obtained at A and B.

Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress

• For the state of stress at an angle  with

• Normal and shear stresses are obtained

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 - 16

Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress

• Mohr’s circle for torsional loading:

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 - 17

For the state of plane stress shown,

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 - 19

• Maximum shear stress

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Sample Problem 7.2

For the state of stress shown,

Sample Problem 7.2

• Principal planes and stresses

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 - 22

Sample Problem 7.2

  180  60  67.4  52.6

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 - 23

General State of Stress

• State of stress at Q defined by:  x , y , z , xy , yz , zx

• Consider tetrahedron with face perpendicular to the

• The requirement  Fn  0 leads to,

• Form of equation guarantees that an element

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 - 24