CENTURION UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ANDHRAPRADESH

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY MANUAL

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 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Connection & Measurement of power consumption of a fluorescent lamp.

2. Swinburne’s or No Load test on DC Machine.
3. Connection & Calibration of 1-Ø Energy Meter.
4. Calculation of No-Load losses of a 1-Ø Transformer.
5. Study of 1-Ø induction motor or fan motor.
6. Determination of OCC (Open Circuit Characteristics) of D.C Shunt Generator.
7. No load and blocked rotor tests on 3- Ø Induction Motor.
8. Calculation of current, voltage, power & power factor of series RLC circuit excited by
1-Ø A.C Supply.
9. Starting & Speed Control of D.C Shunt motor by (i) Field flux control method & (ii)
armature voltage control method.
10. V-I Characteristics of Incandescent lamp.
11. Verification of Thevenin’s theorem.
12. Study of DC motor using three point starter.

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 DO’S AND DONT’S IN LABORATORY
Do's:-

 All the switches should be in the OFF position.

 All the connections should be removed after conducting the experiment.
 For conducting the experiments, suitable meters with appropriate ranges need to
be selected.
 Any damages of equipment and potential hazards should be reported then and
there to the in-charge concerned.
 After connecting the circuits the connections should be checked by the faculty.
 When disconnecting the circuit, Switch off the power.
 All patch cords and stools should be placed at their original positions.
 The Electrical meters and equipment should be in safe and dry cabinets.

Don’ts:-

 Don’t make or remove the connections when power is ON.

 Don’t switch ON the supply without verifying by the faculty member.
 Don’t switch OFF the machine/Equipment with loaded conditions.
 Don't Pull the cable, while unplugging a power cord.

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 1. CONNECTION & MEASUREMENT OF POWER CONSUMPTION OF A
FLUORESCENT LAMP
Aim of the Experiment: - To Connect & Measure Power consumption of a Fluorescent
Lamp.
Apparatus Required:-
Type/
Sl. No. Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity
Specification
1. Single Phase Variac AC 0-270V 1
2. Voltmeter MI 0-300V 1
3. Ammeter MI 0-5A 1
4. Wattmeter MI LPF, 300V, 5A 1
5. Fluorescent Tube AC 36/40W, 230V 1
6. Starter (C) AC 20-60W, 220V 1
7. Choke (L) AC 40W, 220V 1
8. Connecting Wires PVC As per Required
Theory:-
A fluorescent lamp or a fluorescent tube is a low pressure mercury-vapour gas-
discharge lamp that uses fluorescence to produce visible light. An electric current in the
gas excites mercury vapour which produces short-wave ultraviolet light that then
causes a phosphor coating on the inside of the bulb to glow. A fluorescent lamp converts
electrical energy into useful light much more efficiently than incandescent lamps.
The luminous efficacy of a fluorescent light bulb can exceed 100 lumens per watt,
several times the efficacy of an incandescent bulb with comparable light output.
Fluorescent lamp fixtures are more costly than incandescent lamps because they
require a ballast to regulate the current through the lamp, but the lower energy cost
typically offsets the higher initial cost.
CONSTRUCTION: The fluorescent lamp is a low pressure mercury discharge lamp. It is
generally consist of a long glass tube (G) with an electrode on each end (E1 & E2). These
electrodes are made of coiled tungsten filament coated with electron emitting material.
The tube is internally coated with a fluorescent powder & contains small amount of
argon with a little mercury at a very low pressure. The control circuit of tube consist of
a starting switch (S) known as starter, an iron cored inductive coil called a choke (L),&
two capacitors C1 & C2.
OPERATION: A starting switch namely the glow type (voltage operated device) is used
in tube operation. The starter is glow type starter (S) shown in fig.1 Consist of two
electrodes sealed in glass tube filled with mixture of Helium & Hydrogen. One electrode
is fixing & another is U-shaped bimetallic strip made up of two different metals having
two different temperatures co-efficient. Contacts are normally open. When the supply is
switched ON, heat is produced due to glow discharge between electrodes of starter is
sufficient to bend bimetallic strip until it makes contact with fixed electrode. Thus
circuit, between two electrode E1 & E2 is completed & relatively large current circulated

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through them. The electrodes are then heated to incandescence by this circulating
current & gas in their immediate vicinity is ionized. After a second or two, due to
absence of glow discharge a bimetallic strip cools sufficiently. This causes to break
contact & sudden reduction of current induces an emf of the order of 800-1000V in
choke coil. This voltage is sufficient to strike an arc between two electrodes E 1 & E2 due
to ionization of Organ. The heat generated in the tube vaporizes mercury & potential
difference across the tube falls to 100-110V. This potential difference is not sufficient to
restart glow in starter.
FUNCTION OF AUXILLARY CIRCUIT COMPONENTS:
CHOKE: It provides a necessary high voltage to start discharge in the tube. Since the
voltage required across the tube during normal operation is small, the excess voltage
drops across the tube. It acts as a stabilizer.
CAPACITOR (C1): The choke lowers a power factor of the circuit C1 connected across
the supply improves this power factor.
CAPACITOR (C2): It is connected across starting switch to suppress radio interference
due to high frequency voltage oscillation which may occur across its contacts.

Figure-1: Fluorescent Lamp

ADVANTAGES:
1. Low power consumption & longer life which is about 3 to 4 times that of the filament
life.
2. Compared to filament lamp efficiency is also about 3 to 4 times, it gives more light for
the same wattage.

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3. Superior quality of light & No warming up period is required as in case of another
discharge lamp.
4. Different colour light can be obtained, by using different types of fluorescent powder.
5. Low heat radiation.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Initial cost of the lamp along with auxiliary equipment needed is very high and With
frequent operation life reduces.
2. Voltage fluctuation affects it but not to the extent that filament lamp is affected. It
Produces radio interference.
3. Fluctuating light output produces undesirable stroboscopic effect with rotating
machinery.
APPLICATION:
They are very popularly used for interior light in residential buildings, shops & hotels.
They are also extensively used with reflectors for street lightings. Due to their glare free
shadow less light, they are ideal for workshop, factories, laboratories & drawing rooms.
The fluorescent tubes are normally manufactured with 20, 40 & 80 watts.

Figure-2: Inner View of Fluorescent Lamp

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Circuit Diagram:-

Procedure:-
1. Do the Connection as per the circuit diagram.
2. Keep the variac in zero position and switch on the power supply.
3. Increase the variac voltage slowly until the fluorescent tube flickers and glows.
4. Take another four set of ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter at different position
of variac while the tube is glowing.
5. Record the reading in observation table.
6. Switch off the power supply.
Observation Table:-

Ammeter Reading Voltmeter Reading Wattmeter Reading Power

Sl. No.
(A) (V) (W) Factor

Calculation:-
Power Factor (Cos ) = W/V*I

Conclusion:-

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 3. CONNECTION & TESTING OF SINGLE PHASE (1-Ø) ENERGY METER.
Aim of the Experiment: - To study the connection and testing of single phase energy
meter.
Apparatus Required:-
Type/
Sl. No. Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity
Specification
1. Ammeter MI (0-5) A 1
2. Voltmeter MI (0-300) V 1
3. Wattmeter DM UPF, 230V, 5/10 A 1
4. Energy Meter Analog 230V, 10/40 A 1
5. Variable Load Rheostat 2kW, 230V 1
6. Variac AC 1-ph, 0-300V,5A 1
7. Connecting Wires PVC 3/20 SWG 1
Theory:-
Energy meter is an instrument which measures electrical energy. It is also known as
watt-hour (Wh) meter. It is an integrating device. There are several types of energy
meters single phase induction type energy meter are very commonly used to measure
electrical energy consumed in domestic and commercial installation. Electrical energy is
measured in kilo watt-hours (kWh) by this energy meter.
Construction: - A single phase induction type energy meter consists of driving system,
moving system, braking system and registering system. Each of the systems is briefly
explained below.
Driving system: - This system of the energy meter consists of two silicon steel
laminated electromagnets. M1 & M2 as shown in fig.1. The electromagnet M1 is called
the series magnet and the electromagnet M2 is called the shunt magnet. The series
magnet M1 carries a coil consisting of a few turns of thick wire. This coil is called the
current coil (CC) and it is connected in series with the circuit. The load current flows
through this coil. The shunt magnet M2 carries a coil consisting many turns of thin wire.
This coil is called the voltage coil (VC) and is connected across the supply it consist of
current proportional to the supply voltage. Short circuited copper bands are provided
on the lower part of the central limb of the shunt magnet. By adjusting the position of
these loops the shunt magnet flux can be made to lag behind the supply voltage exactly
90°. These copper bands are called power factor compensator (PFC). A copper shading
band is provided on each outer limb of the shunt magnet (fc1 &fc2) these band provides
frictional compensation.
Moving system: - The moving system consists of a thin aluminium disc mounted on a
spindle and is placed in the air gap between the series and the shunt magnets. It cuts the
flux of both the magnet forces are produced by the fluxes of each of the magnets with
the eddy current induced in the disc by the flux of the other magnets. Both these forces
act on the disc. These two forces constitute a deflecting torque.

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Braking system: - The braking system consists of a permanent magnet called brake
magnet. It is placed near the edge of the disc as the disc rotates in the field of brake
magnet eddy current are induced in it. These eddies current react with the flux and
exert a torque. This torque acts in direction so that it opposes the motion of disc. The
braking torque is proportional to the speed of the disc.
Registering system: - the disc spindle is connected to a counting mechanism this
mechanism records a number which is proportional to the number of revolutions of the
disc the counter is calibrated to indicate the energy consumed directly in kilo watts-
hour (kWh).

Fig.1
Fc1 = Friction Compensators
PFC = Power factor compensator
CC = Current coil
VC = Voltage coil

Working:-
Let V=Supply voltage
I=Load current lagging behind V by Φ
Cos Φ = Load Power Factor (Lagging)

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 Ish= Current setup by Φsh in disc
Ise= Current setup by Φse in disc

Phase diagram will be as follows

Instantaneous deflecting torque

Circuit Diagram:-

Procedure:-
1. Do the Connections as per the circuit diagram in the figure.
2. Keep the variac in zero position and switch on the power supply.
3. Increase the variac voltage slowly up to the rated voltage. Switch on a particular load.
4. Note the readings of ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter.

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5. Also note the number of revolutions of the energy meter disc for a particular time
interval.
6. Repeat the experiment for different loads and record five sets of readings. Switch of
the Supply.
Tabulation:-
Sl.No. Voltage (V) Current (A) Power (W) Time (Sec) Revolutions

Calculation:-
W1 = (P * t) Joule
W2 = (Revolution * joules per revolution) joule
% error = (W1 - W2)/ W1 * 100

Conclusion:-

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 4. CALCULATION OF NO-LOAD LOSSES OF SINGLE PHASE (1-Ø)
TRANSFORMER
Aim of the Experiment: - To calculate no-load losses in a single phase transformer.
Apparatus Required:-
Sl. Type/
Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity
No. Specification
1. Ammeter MI (0-5) A 1
2. Voltmeter MI (0-300) V 1
3. Wattmeter DM UPF, 230V, 5/10 A 1
4. Variac AC 1-ph, 0-300V,5A 1
5. Single Phase Transformer Core type 0-5 KVA, 1:1 1
Theory:-
Transformer losses are produced by the electrical current flowing in the coils and the
magnetic field alternating in the core. The losses associated with the coils are called the
load losses, while the losses produced in the core are called no-load losses.
What Are Load Losses?
Load losses vary according to the loading on the transformer. They include heat losses
and eddy currents in the primary and secondary conductors of the transformer. Heat
losses, or I 2R losses, in the winding materials contribute the largest part of the load
losses. They are created by resistance of the conductor to the flow of current or
electrons. The electron motion causes the conductor molecules to move and produce
friction and heat. The energy generated by this motion can be calculated using the
formula: Watts = (volts) (amperes) or VI. According to Ohm's law, V=RI, or the
voltage drop across a resistor equals the amount of resistance in the resistor, R,
multiplied by the current, I, flowing in the resistor. Hence, heat losses equal (I)(RI) or
I2R. Transformer designers cannot change I, or the current portion of the I 2R losses,
they can only change the resistance or R part of the I 2R by using a material that has a
low resistance per cross-sectional area without adding significantly to the cost of the
transformer. Most transformer designers have found copper the best conductor
considering the weight, size, cost and resistance of the conductor.
What Are No-load Losses?
No-load losses are caused by the magnetizing current needed to energize the core of the
transformer, and do not vary according to the loading on the transformer. They are
constant and occur 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, regardless of the load, hence the
term no-load losses. They can be categorized into five components: hysteresis losses in
the core laminations, eddy current losses in the core laminations, I 2R losses due to no-
load current, stray eddy current losses in core clamps, bolts and other core components,
and dielectric losses. Hysteresis losses and eddy current losses contribute over 99% of

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the no-load losses, while stray eddy current, dielectric losses, and I 2R losses due to no-
load current are small and consequently often neglected. Thinner lamination of the core
steel reduces eddy current losses. The biggest contributor to no-load losses is hysteresis
losses. Hysteresis losses come from the molecules in the core laminations resisting
being magnetized and demagnetized by the alternating magnetic field. This resistance
by the molecules causes friction that result in heat. The Greek word, hysteresis,
means "to lag" and refers to the fact that the magnetic flux lags behind the
magnetic force. Choice of size and type of core material reduces hysteresis losses.
Hysteresis Loss: Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is
lost due to hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional
to the frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected. We
can find Hysteresis losses by this formula.
Wh = ηB1.6maxf.V watt
Where η is the hysteresis constant depending on the material, Bmax is the maximum flux
density, f is the frequency and V is the volume of the core.
Eddy Current Loss: Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a core
made from such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its
entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the
flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current loss
is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and Inverse Square of the
material thickness. Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of
plates electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block; all transformers
operating at low frequencies use laminated or similar cores. We can find Eddy currents
losses by this formula.
We = KeB2max.f2t2 Watt
Where Ke is the eddy current constant and t is the thickness of the core.
Circuit Diagram:-

Procedure:-

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 1. Do the connection as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the AC supply and adjust the variac to rated output voltage.
3. Keeping secondary as open take one set of reading.
4. Switch off the supply.
Tabulation:-
Voltage V Current I Power P
Sl.No. Power Factor
(Volts) (Amps) (Watts)

Calculation:-
Power Factor (Cos ) = W/V*I
Precautions:-
1. The Supply Switch is off while doing connection.
2. The circuit is properly and tightly connected before giving supply.
Conclusion:-

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 5. STUDY OF SINGLE PHASE (1-Ø) INDUCTION MOTOR
OR CEILING FAN MOTOR OR ANY FRACTIONAL KW MOTOR
Aim of the Experiment: - To study the Fan Motor or Single phase induction motor.
Apparatus Required:-
Name of the
Sl.NO. Type/Specification Range Quantity
Equipment
1. Single Phase Variac AC 0-270V 1
2. Voltmeter MI 0-300V 1
3. Ammeter MI 0-5A 1
4. Wattmeter MI LPF, 300V, 5A 1
5. Fan Motor AC 60W, 230V 1
6. Connecting Wires PVC As per Required
Theory:-
An induction or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which the electric
current in the rotor needed to produce torque is induced by electromagnetic
induction from the magnetic field of the stator winding. An induction motor therefore
does not require mechanical commutation, separate-excitation or self-excitation for all
or part of the energy transferred from stator to rotor, as in universal, DC and
large synchronous motors. This motor is also called as asynchronous motor because it
runs at a speed less than synchronous speed. In this, we need to define what
synchronous speed is. Synchronous speed is the speed of rotation of the magnetic field
in a rotary machine and it depends upon the frequency and number poles of the
machine. An induction motor always runs at a speed less than synchronous speed
because the rotating magnetic field which is produced in the stator will generate flux in
the rotor which will make the rotor to rotate, but due to the lagging of flux current in the
rotor with flux current in the stator, the rotor will never reach to its rotating magnetic
field speed i.e. the synchronous speed. There are basically two types of induction
motor that depend upon the input supply - single phase induction motor and three
phase induction motor. Single phase induction motor is not a self-starting motor
which we will discuss later and three phase induction motor is a self-starting motor.
Why Single Phase Induction Motor is not Self Starting? : It will be having only one
phase still it makes the rotor to rotate, so it is quite interesting. Before that we need to
know why single phase induction motor is not a self-starting motor and how the
problem is overcome. We know that the ac supply is a sinusoidal wave and it produces
pulsating magnetic field in uniformly distributed stator winding. Since pulsating
magnetic field can be assumed as two oppositely rotating magnetic fields, there will be
no resultant torque produced at the starting and due to this the motor does not run.
After giving the supply, if the rotor is made to rotate in either direction by external
force, then the motor will start to run. This problem has been solved by making the
stator winding into two winding, one is main winding and another is auxiliary winding

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and a capacitor is fixed in series with the auxiliary winding. This will make a phase
difference when electric current will flow through the both coils. When there will be
phase difference, the rotor will generate a starting torque and it will start to rotate.
Practically we can see that the fan does not rotate when the capacitor is disconnected
from the motor but if we rotate with hand it will start to rotate. So this is the reason of
using capacitor in the single phase induction motor. There are several advantages of
induction motor which makes this motor to have wider application. It is having good
efficiency up to 97%. But the speed of the motor varies with the load given to the motor
which is a disadvantage of this motor, in single phase motor, the direction can be
reversed by reversing the capacitor terminals in the winding. The single-phase
induction motor is not self-starting and it is undesirable to resort to mechanical
spinning of the shaft or pulling a belt to start it. To make a single-phase induction motor
self-starting, we should somehow produce a revolving stator magnetic field. This may
be achieved by converting a single-phase supply into two-phase supply through the use
of an additional winding. When the motor attains sufficient speed, the starting means
(i.e., additional winding) may be removed depending upon the type of the motor. As a
matter of fact, single-phase induction motors are classified and named according to the
method employed to make them self-starting. Split-phase motors-started by two phase
motor action through the use of an auxiliary or starting winding. Capacitor motors-
started by two-phase motor action through the use of an auxiliary winding and a
capacitor. Shaded-pole motors-started by the motion of the magnetic field produced
by means of a shading coil around a portion of the pole structure.
Circuit Diagram:-

Procedure:-

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1. Do the connection as per the circuit diagram.
2. Variac is kept at zero position initially and then give supply and rotate the variable
nod up to a level of speed.
3. Variac is slowly increased and the three meter readings are measured.
4. Switch off the supply.
Observation Table:-

Ammeter Reading Voltmeter Reading Wattmeter Reading Power

Sl. No.
(A) (V) (W) Factor

Calculation:-
Power Factor (Cos ) = W/V*I

Conclusion:-

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 6. DETERMINATION OF OCC (OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS) OF D.C
SHUNT GENERATOR
Aim of the Experiment: - To obtain the no load or magnetization or open circuit
characteristics of DC shunt generator and to determine
the critical field resistance.
Apparatus Required:-
Type/
Sl. No. Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity
Specification
1. Rheostat Wound 100 ohms, 2A 1
2. Voltmeter PMMC 0-300V 1
3. Ammeter PMMC 0-5A 1
4. Connecting Wires PVC As Per Required
Name Plate Details:-
Sl. No. Characteristics Three Phase Induction Motor DC Generator
1. Power 5 HP 3 kW
2. Speed 1440 RPM 1440 RPM
3. Current 7.5 Amps 9 Amps
4. Voltage 440V 230V
5. Frequency 50 Hz Excitation: 230 V
6. Insulation B Class B Class
Theory:-
Magnetization curve is relation between the magnetizing forces and the flux density B.
this is also expressed as a relation between the field current and the induced emf, in a
D.C machine. Varying the field current and noting corresponding values of induced emf
can determine this. For a self-excited machine the theoretical shape of the
magnetization Curve is as shown in the Model Graph. The induced emf corresponding to
residual magnetism exists when the field current is zero. Hence the curve starts, a little
above the origin on y-axis. The field resistance line Rsh is a straight-line passing through
the origin. The magnetization characteristics also known as “No load” or “Open circuit”
Characteristics is the relation between emf generated and field current at a given speed.
Due to residual magnetism in the poles, some emf is generated even when filed current
is zero. Hence the curve starts a little way up. It is seen that the first part of the curve is
practically straight. This is due the fact that at low flux densities reluctance of iron path
is being negligible, total reluctance is given by air gap reluctance which is constant.
Hence the flux and consequently the generated emf are directly proportional to exciting
current. However at high flux densities iron path reluctance is being appreciable and
straight relation between emf and field current no longer holds good. In other words
saturation of poles starts.

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Circuit Diagram:-

3phase induction motor coupled with DC generator for OCC

Procedure:-
1. Connect the shunt field to armature terminal through the ammeter switch and
rheostat.
2. Connect the multi-range voltmeter across the terminals of generator.
3. Check the connections carefully.
4. Press the upper yellow switch (on) to start the AC Induction Squirrel Cage Motor.
5. Supply the voltage to the motor by the help of 3-ϕAuto Transformer.
6. Closed the field switch and note the reading of voltmeter (voltage due to residual
magnet).
7. Excite the field at the low current and note the voltage again.
8. Increase the field current in steps and note the voltage each time.
9. Take at least 11-12 readings.
10. Tabulate the reading and draw the curve between armature induced e.m.f and
exciting current.
TO FIND CRITICAL FIELD RESISTANCE:
1) Draw the shunt field resistance line
2) Draw tangent to the OCC
3) The slope of this tangent gives the Rc, Critical field resistance, Rc=Eg/ IF =
Tabulation:-
Sl. No. Field Current If (A) No Load Generated EMF Eo (V)

Precaution:-
1. The Supply Switch is off while doing Connection.
2. The circuit is properly and tightly connected before giving supply.
3. Your body is not earthed while performing experiment.

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Model Graph:-
Draw the graph between generated voltage at no load and field current. By taking
Generated voltage Eg in volts on Y axis and field current if in amps on X-axis.

Result:-
1. The curve starts somewhat above the origin. The voltage at zero excitation is due to
residual magnetism of the field, which is necessary for building up the voltage of self-
excitation generator.
2. The voltage increases rapidly at first and then changes a little in value at higher
excitations indicating the effect of the poles saturation.
Conclusion:-

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 8.CALCULATION OF CURRENT, VOLTAGE, POWER & POWER FACTOR OF
SERIES R-L-C CIRCUIT EXCITED BY SINGLE PHASE (1-Ø) A.C SUPPLY
Aim of the Experiment: - To measure Current, Voltage, Power & Power Factor in
Series R-L-C circuit excited by a single phase AC supply.
Apparatus Required:-
Sl.
Name of the Equipment Type/Specification Range Quantity
No.
1. Single Phase Variac Carbon Filament 0-270V 1
2. Voltmeter MI 0-300V 1
3. Ammeter MI 0-2.5-5A 1
4. Wattmeter DM 230V, 5/10A 1
5. Resistance Box Variable 230V, 1.2kW 1
6. Inductance Box Variable 230V, 5A 1
7. Capacitance Box Variable 0-12.5µF 1
8. Connecting Wires PVC As Per Required
Theory:-

The series RLC circuit below has a single loop with the instantaneous current flowing
through the loop being the same for each circuit element. Since the inductive and
capacitive reactance is a function of frequency, the sinusoidal response of a series RLC
circuit will vary with the applied frequency, (ƒ). Therefore the individual voltage drops
across each circuit element of R, L and C will be “out-of-phase” with each other as
defined by: i(t) = Imax sin(ωt).
The instantaneous voltage across a pure resistor, VR is “in-phase” with the current.
The instantaneous voltage across a pure inductor, VL “leads” the current by 90o
The instantaneous voltage across a pure capacitor, VC “lags” the current by 90o
Therefore, VL and VC are 180o “out-of-phase” and in opposition to each other.
Then the amplitude of the source voltage across all three components in a series RLC
circuit is made up of the three individual component voltages, VR, VL and VC with the
current common to all three components. The vector diagrams will therefore have the
current vector as their reference with the three voltage vectors being plotted with
respect to this reference as shown below.

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This means then that we cannot simply add together VR, VL and VC to find the supply
voltage, VS across all three components as all three voltage vectors point in different
directions with regards to the current vector. Therefore we will have to find the supply
voltage, VS as the Phasor Sum of the three component voltages combined together
vector ally.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law ( KVL ) for both loop and nodal circuits states that around any
closed loop the sum of voltage drops around the loop equals the sum of the EMF’s. Then
applying this law to these three voltages will give us the amplitude of the source
voltage, VS as:

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The phasor diagram for a series RLC circuit is produced by combining together the
three individual phasor above and adding these voltages vector ally. Since the current
flowing through the circuit is common to all three circuit elements we can use this as
the reference vector with the three voltage vectors drawn relative to this at their
corresponding angles.
The resulting vector VS is obtained by adding together two of the vectors, VL and VC and
then adding this sum to the remaining vector VR. The resulting angle obtained
between VS and i will be the circuits phase angle as shown below.

We can see from the phasor diagram on the right hand side above that the voltage
vectors produce a rectangular triangle, comprising of hypotenuse VS, horizontal
axis VR and vertical axis VL – VC Hopefully you will notice then, that this forms our old
favourite the Voltage Triangle and we can therefore use Pythagoras’s theorem on this
voltage triangle to mathematically obtain the value of VS as shown.

We know from above that the current has the same amplitude and phase in all the
components of a series RLC circuit. Then the voltage across each component can also be
described mathematically according to the current flowing through and the voltage
across each element as:

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By substituting these values into Pythagoras’s equation above for the voltage triangle
will give us:

So we can see that the amplitude of the source voltage is proportional to the amplitude
of the current flowing through the circuit. This proportionality constant is called
the Impedance of the circuit which ultimately depends upon the resistance and the
inductive and capacitive reactance.
Then in the series RLC circuit above, it can be seen that the opposition to current flow is
made up of three components, XL, XC and R with the reactance, XT of any series RLC
circuit being defined as: XT = XL – XC or XT = XC – XL with the total impedance of the
circuit being thought of as the voltage source required to drive a current through it.
As the three vector voltages are out-of-phase with each other, XL, XC and R must also be
“out-of-phase” with each other with the relationship between R, XL and XC being the
vector sum of these three components thereby giving us the circuits overall
impedance, Z. This circuit impedance’s can be drawn and represented by an Impedance
Triangle as shown below.

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The impedance Z of a series RLC circuit depends upon the angular frequency, ω as
do XL and XC If the capacitive reactance is greater than the inductive
reactance, XC > XL then the overall circuit reactance is capacitive giving a leading phase
angle. Likewise, if the inductive reactance is greater than the capacitive
reactance, XL > XC then the overall circuit reactance is inductive giving the series circuit
a lagging phase angle. If the two reactance’s are the same and XL = XC then the angular
frequency at which this occurs is called the resonant frequency and produces the effect
of resonance which we will look at in more detail in another tutorial.
Then the magnitude of the current depends upon the frequency applied to the series
RLC circuit. When impedance, Z is at its maximum, the current is a minimum and
likewise, when Z is at its minimum, the current is at maximum. So the above equation
for impedance can be re-written as:

The phase angle, θ between the source voltage, VS and the current, i is the same as for
the angle between Z and R in the impedance triangle. This phase angle may be positive
or negative in value depending on whether the source voltage leads or lags the circuit
current and can be calculated mathematically from the ohmic values of the impedance
triangle as:

Circuit Diagram:-

25
Procedure:-
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram & give the supply to circuit.
2. Take the reading of Ammeter, Wattmeter & Voltmeter keeping R is varying, and L & C
as constant & calculate the Power Factor.
3. Take the reading of Ammeter, Wattmeter & Voltmeter keeping L is varying, and R & C
as constant & calculate the Power Factor.
4. Take the reading of Ammeter, Wattmeter & Voltmeter keeping C is varying, R & L as
constant & calculate the Power Factor.
Tabulation-1:-
Sl. Ammeter Voltmeter Wattmeter Power
No. Reading (A) Reading (V) Reading (W) Factor Condition

R is Varying
L & C as Constant

Tabulation-2:-
Sl. Ammeter Voltmeter Wattmeter Power
No. Reading (A) Reading (V) Reading (W) Factor Condition

L is Varying
R & C as Constant

Tabulation-3:-
Sl. Ammeter Voltmeter Wattmeter Power
No. Reading (A) Reading (V) Reading (W) Factor Condition

C is Varying
R & L as Constant

Calculation:-
Power Factor (Cos ):- W/V*I
Conclusion:-

26
 9.SPEED CONTROL OF D.C SHUNT MOTOR BY FIELD FLUX CONTROL METHOD &
ARMATURE VOLTAGE CONTROL METHOD
Aim of the Experiment: - To study the connection and speed control of DC shunt
Motor by (i) Field flux Control method & (ii) Armature
Voltage Control Method.
Apparatus Required:-
Sl. Name of the Type/
Range Quantity
No. Apparatus Specification
1. DC Shunt Motor Shunt 220V, 1500 rpm, 1.2A 1
2. Rheostat Wound 370 ohms, 2 Amps 2
3. Tachometer Analogue 0-5000 RPM 1
4. Ammeter MC 0-2 Amp 1
5. Voltmeter MC 0-300V 1
6. Connecting Wires PVC As Per Required
Theory:-
A resistance is necessary to connect in series of the armature to control initial high
starting current because armature has low resistance. When motor armature rotates,
the armature conductors also rotate and hence cut the flux. According to the laws of
electromagnetic induction, e.m.f. is induced in them whose direction according to the
Fleming's Right Hand Rule, is in opposition to the applied voltage, it is referred as Back
emf ''Eb''. The voltage applied across the motor armature has to overcome the back emf
and supply the armature ohmic drop. Hence
V = Eb+ IaRa
Eb= V - IaRa ------------- (1)
The equation for back emf is: Eb= (N ϕ Z P) / 60 A [Where N is in r.p.m]
Eb= k ϕ N where, k = Z.P / 60A
Putting value of Eb in (1),
k ϕ N = V- IaRa
Therefore,
N = (V - IaRa) / k ϕ ----------------- (2)
The term speed control means intentional speed variation, carried out manually or
automatically. DC motors are most suitable for wide range speed control and are
therefore indispensable for many adjustable speed drives. The speed of a motor is
given by as in eqn (2).
Hence it follows that, for a DC motor, there are basically three methods of speed control
and these are: 1. Variation of resistance in armature circuit, 2. Variation of the field flux
& 3. Variation of armature terminal voltage.

27
Variation of the field flux:
This method of speed control, also called as flux weakening method or filed
current control method gives speeds above the base speed only. Base speed is nothing
but the rated speed of the machine. This is one of the simplest and economical methods
and is, therefore extensively used in modern electric drives. Under steady state running
conditions, if the field circuit resistance is increased, the field current and hence the
field flux are reduced. Since the rotor speed cannot change suddenly due to inertia, a
decrease in field current causes a reduction of counter emf. As a result of it, more
current flows through armature. The percentage increase in armature current is much
more than the percentage decrease in the field current. In view of this, the
electromagnetic torque is increased and this being more than the load torque, the
motor gets accelerated. The disadvantages of this method are:
1. The armature may get over heated at higher speeds, because the increased
armature current results in more ohmic losses whereas cooling by ventilation does
not improve proportionally.
2. If the field flux is weakened considerably, the speed becomes very high and due to
these changes; the motor operation may become unstable.
Variation of armature terminal voltage:
If the voltage applied to the armature changes the speed changes directly with it.
Using this method, speeds below rated speeds are attained.
Circuit Diagram:-

Procedure:-
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Keep the field rheostat in minimum position and armature in maximum
position and close the DPST switch.

28
3. Switch ON the DC supply and start the motor with the help of a STARTER.
4. Bring the motor to rated speed using field rheostat.
5. At this point take a note of the voltmeter and tachometer readings.
6. Now start varying the armature rheostat in steps and for each step note down
the Voltmeter and tachometer readings. Take 10 to 15 such readings and bring back
the Armature rheostat to initial position.
7. Bring back the field rheostat to initial position. Using the armature rheostat set the
motor at rated speed.
8. Vary the field rheostat in steps and for each step note down the ammeter and
tachometer readings. Take 10 to 15 such readings.
9. Set both the rheostats to their initial positions and open the DPST switch.
Tabulation:-
Armature Voltage Control
Sl.No. Va {Armature Voltage (Volts)} N {Speed (RPM)}

Field Flux Control

Sl.No. If {Field Current (Amps)} N {Speed (RPM)}

Model Graphs:-
Armature Voltage Control: Field Flux Control:

Conclusion:-

29
 10.V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF INCANDESCENT LAMP
Aim of the Experiment: - To study the V-I Characteristics of an Incandescent Lamp.
Apparatus Required:-
Type/
Sl. No. Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity
Specification
1. Single Phase Variac AC 0-270V 1
2. Voltmeter MI 0-300V 1
3. Ammeter MI 0-5A 1
4. Incandescent Lamp AC 100W, 230V 1
5. Connecting Wires PVC As per Required
Theory:-
An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is
an electric light which produces light with a wire filament heated to a high temperature
by an electric current passing through it, until it glows. The hot filament is protected
from oxidation with a glass or quartz bulb that is filled with inert gas or evacuated. In
a halogen lamp, filament evaporation is prevented by a chemical process that redeposit
metal vapor onto the filament, extending its life. The light bulb is supplied with
electrical current by feed-through terminals or wires embedded in the glass. Most bulbs
are used in a socket which provides mechanical support and electrical connections.
Incandescent bulbs are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, light output,
and voltage ratings, from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts. They require no external
regulating equipment, have low manufacturing costs, and work equally well on either
alternating current or direct current. As a result, the incandescent lamp is widely used
in household and commercial lighting, for portable lighting such as table lamps,
car headlamps, and flashlights, and for decorative and advertising lighting.
Incandescent bulbs are much less efficient than most other types of electric lighting;
incandescent bulbs convert less than 5% of the energy they use into visible light.
The luminous efficacy of a typical incandescent bulb is 16 lumens per watt, compared
to the 60 lm/W of a compact fluorescent bulb.
Incandescent light bulbs consist of an air-tight glass enclosure (the envelope, or bulb)
with a filament of tungsten wire inside the bulb, through which an electric current is
passed. Contact wires and a base with two (or more) conductors provide electrical
connections to the filament. Incandescent light bulbs usually contain a stem or glass
mount anchored to the bulb's base that allows the electrical contacts to run through the
envelope without air or gas leaks. Small wires embedded in the stem in turn support the
filament and its lead wires.
The bulb is filled with an inert gas such as argon (93%) and nitrogen (7%) to
reduce evaporation of the filament and prevent its oxidation at a pressure of about

30
70 kPa (0.7 atm). Early lamps, and some small modern lamps used only a vacuum to
protect the filament from oxygen.
An electric current heats the filament to typically 2,000 to 3,300 K (3,140 to 5,480 °F),
well below tungsten's melting point of 3,695 K (6,191 °F). Filament temperatures
depend on the filament type, shape, size, and amount of current drawn. The heated
filament emits light that approximates a continuous spectrum. The useful part of the
emitted energy is visible, but most energy is given off as heat in the near-
infrared wavelengths.

Circuit Diagram:-

Figure-1: Incandescent lamp

Procedure:-
1. Connect the device as per circuit diagram.

31
 2. By keeping the variac in zero position supply the current to variac.
3. Increase the variac voltage slowly until the incandescent lamp glows.
4. Then note the voltmeter reading and ammeter reading in tabular form.
5. Record the reading in observation table.
6. Switch off the power supply.
Tabulation:-
Sl. No. Ammeter Reading (A) Voltmeter Reading (V)

Model Graph:-

Conclusion:-

32
 11.VERIFICATION OF
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM & THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Aim of the Experiment: - To Verify the Superposition Theorem & Thevenin’s
Theorem for a given resistive network.
Apparatus Required:-

Sl. No. Name of the Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1 D.C. Regulated Power Supply Analogue 0-30 volt, 0-2 amp 1

2 Fixed Resistance Wax able Coil 1kΩ, 1.5 kΩ, 0.5kΩ 3+1+1
3 Ammeter MC 0-10mA, 0-50mA 3+1
4 Voltmeter MC 0-30v 1
5 Multimeter Digital 1
6 Connecting Wires Flexible/PVC As per required

Theory:-
Superposition Theorem:-
The superposition theorem for electrical circuit states that, for a linear system the
response (voltage or current) in any branch of a bilateral linear circuit having more
than one independent source equals the algebraic sum of the responses caused by each
independent source acting alone, where all the other independent sources are replaced
by their internal impedances. To ascertain the contribution of each individual source, all
of the other sources first must be "turned off" (set to zero) by:
1. Replacing all other independent voltage sources with a short circuit (thereby
eliminating difference of potential i.e. V=0; internal impedance of ideal voltage
source is zero (short circuit)).
2. Replacing all other independent current sources with an open circuit (thereby
eliminating current i.e. I=0; internal impedance of ideal current source is infinite
(open circuit).
This procedure is followed for each source in turn, and then the resultant responses are
added to determine the true operation of the circuit. The resultant circuit operation is
the superposition of the various voltage and current sources. It is used in converting
any circuit into its Norton equivalent or Thevenin’s equivalent. The theorem is
applicable to linear networks (time varying or time invariant) consisting of independent
sources, linear dependent sources, linear passive elements (resistors,
inductors, capacitors) and linear transformers. Another point that should be considered
is that superposition only works for voltage and current but not power. In other
words the sum of the powers of each source with the other sources turned off is not the
real consumed power. To calculate power we should first use superposition to find both
current and voltage of each linear element and then calculate the sum of the multiplied
voltages and currents.

33
Thevenin’s Theorem:-
Thevenin’s theorem holds that: Any linear electrical network with voltage and current
sources and only resistances can be replaced at terminals A-B by an equivalent voltage
source Vth in series connection with an equivalent resistance Rth. This equivalent
voltage Vth is the voltage obtained at terminals A-B of the network with terminals A-
B open circuited. This equivalent resistance Rth is the resistance obtained at terminals
A-B of the network with all its independent current sources open circuited and all its
independent voltage sources short circuited.

In circuit theory terms, the theorem allows any one-port network to be reduced to a
single voltage source and single impedance. Thevenin’s theorem and its dual, Norton's
theorem, are widely used for circuit analysis simplification and to study circuit's initial-
condition and steady-state response. Thevenin’s theorem can be used to convert any
circuit's sources and impedances to a Thevenin’s equivalent; use of the theorem may
in some cases be more convenient than use of Kirchhoff's circuit laws.
Circuit Diagram:-

34
35
Procedure (Superposition Theorem):-
1. First of all assemble the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Apply Source ‘A’ according to Figure-3, remove source ‘B’ & short the terminals.
3. Measure Req according to figure-3 and take the three ammeter readings 𝐈𝟏′ , 𝐈𝟐′ &𝐈𝟑′ .
4. Apply Source ‘B’ according to Figure-4, remove source ‘A’ & short the terminals.
5. Measure Req according to figure-4 and take the three ammeter readings 𝐈𝟏′′ , 𝐈𝟐′′ &𝐈𝟑′′ .
6. Apply both sources ‘A’ & ‘B’, take the three ammeter readings I1, I2 & I3
Observation Table & Calculation (Superposition Theorem):-
𝐈𝟏′ 𝐈𝟐′ 𝐈𝟑′
Source-A (20V)
𝐈𝟏′′ 𝐈𝟐′′ 𝐈𝟑′′
Source-B (10V)
I1 I2 I3
Source-A & B
I1 = 𝐈𝟏′ +(- 𝐈𝟏′′ ) I2 = 𝐈𝟐′′ + (- 𝐈𝟐′ ) I3 = 𝐈𝟑′ + 𝐈𝟑′′
Source- A+B
Source-A &B = Source- A+B
Procedure (Thevenin’s Theorem):-
1. Temporarily remove the resistance whose current is required and it will call as load
Resistance (RL).
2. Find the Open circuit Voltage (Voc) which appears across the two terminals from
where the resistance has been removed. It will be called as Thevenin’s Voltage (Vth).
3. Compute the equivalent resistance by looking into the network from the open
terminals by removing all the voltage and current sources; it will be taken as Rth.
4. Replace the entire network by a single Thevenin’s source whose voltage is Vth with
an internal resistance of Rth.
5. Connect RL back to its terminals from where it was previously removed.
6. Finally Calculate the current flowing through RL by using the formula
IL=Vth/ (Rth + RL)

Observation Table (Thevenin’s Theorem):-

Experimental Values Theoretical Values Percentage Error

Rth
Vth
VL
IL
Conclusion:-

36