Grinding(brušenje)

Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel as the cutting tool.

A wide variety of machines are used for grinding:

• Hand-cranked knife-sharpening stones (grindstones)

• Handheld power tools such as angle grinders and die grinders
• Various kinds of expensive industrial machine tools called grinding machines
• Bench grinders often found in residential garages and basements

Grinding practice is a large and diverse area of manufacturing and toolmaking. It can
produce very fine finishes and very accurate dimensions; yet in mass production contexts
it can also rough out large volumes of metal quite rapidly. It is usually better suited to the
machining of very hard materials than is "regular" machining (that is, cutting larger chips
with cutting tools such as tool bits or milling cutters), and until recent decades it was the
only practical way to machine such materials as hardened steels. Compared to "regular"
machining, it is usually better suited to taking very shallow cuts, such as reducing a
shaft's diameter by half a thousand of an inch (thou).

Technically, grinding is a subset of cutting, as grinding is a true metalcutting process.

Each grain of abrasive functions as a microscopic single-point cutting edge (although of
high negative rake angle), and shears a tiny chip that is analogous to what would
conventionally be called a "cut" chip (turning, milling, drilling, tapping, etc.). However,
among people who work in the machining fields, the term cutting is often understood to
refer to the macroscopic cutting operations, and grinding is often mentally categorized as
a "separate" process. This is why the terms are usually used in contradistinction in shop-
floor practice, even though technically grinding is a subset of cutting.

Similar abrasive cutting processes are lapping and sanding.

Hand operated grinding stone

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The grind of a blade refers to the shape of the cross-section of the blade. It is distinct
from the type of blade (e.g., clip point or drop point knife, sabre or cutlass, axe or chisel,
etc.), though different tools and blades may have lent their name to a particular grind.

Grinding involves removing significant portions of metal from the blade and is thus
distinct from honing and polishing. It is notably done when first sharpening the blade or
when a blade has been significantly damaged or abused (such as breaking a tip, chipping,
or extensive corrosion) A well maintained blade will need less frequent grinding than one
which is not treated well.

The terms edge angle and included angle can be important when talking about grinding.
The edge angle is measured between the surface of an edge and a line running from the
point of the cutting edge to the back edge. The included angle is the sum of the edge
angles. All other things being equal, the smaller the included angle the sharper the blade
and the easier it is to damage the edge.

An appropriate grind will depend upon what the blade is to be used for and the material
from which the blade is made. Knife manufacturers may offer the same model of knife
with different grinds on the blade and owners of a blade may choose to reshape it as a
different grind to obtain different blade properties. A trade off exists between a blade's
ability to take an edge and its ability to keep an edge. Various grinds are easier to

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maintain than others or can provide a better shape over the life of the blade as the blade is
worn away by repeated sharpening.

A sharp object works by concentrating pressure, but high pressures can nick a thin blade
or even cause it to roll over into a rounded tube when it is used against hard materials. An
irregular material or angled cut is also likely to apply much more torque to hollow-
ground blades due to the "lip" formed on either side of the edge. More blade material can
be included directly behind the cutting edge to reinforce it, but during sharpening some
proportion of this material must be removed to reshape the edge, making the process
more time-consuming. Also, any object being cut must be moved aside to make way for
this wider blade section, and any force distributed to the grind surface reduces the
pressure applied at the edge. [1]

One way around this dilemma is to use the blade at an angle, which can make a blade's
grind seem less steep, much as a switchback makes a trail easier to climb. Using the edge
in this way is made easier by introducing a curve in the blade, as seen in sabers, scimitars,
and katana, among many others. Some old European swords (most memorably Hrunting)
and the Indonesian style of kris have a wavelike shape, with much the same effect in
drawing or thrusting cuts.

When speaking of Japanese edged weapons, the term niku (meat) refers to the grind of
the blade: an edge with more niku is more convex and/or steep and therefore tougher,
though it seems less sharp. Katana tend to have much more niku than wakizashi.

Typical grinds

Typical grinds of blades.

1. Hollow ground-a knife blade which has been ground to create a characteristic
concave, beveled edge along the cutting edge of the knife.
2. Flat ground—The blade tapers all the way from the spine to the edge from both
sides. A lot of metal is removed from the blade and is thus more difficult to grind,
one factor that limits its commercial use. It sacrifices edge durability in favor of

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 more sharpness. The Finnish puukko is an example of a flat ground knife. A true,
flat ground knife having only a single bevel is somewhat of a rarity.
3. Sabre ground—Similar to a flat ground blade except that the bevel starts at about
the middle of the blade, not the spine. It produces a more lasting edge at the
expense of some cutting ability and is typical of kitchen knives.
4. Chisel ground—As on a chisel, only one side is ground (often at an edge angle of
about 20 – 30°) whilst the other remains flat all the way to the spine. As many
Japanese culinary knives tend to be chisel ground they are often sharper than a
typical double bevelled Western culinary knife. (A chisel grind has only a single
edge angle. If a sabre ground blade has the same edge angle as a chisel grind, it
still has two edges and thus has twice the included angle.) Knives which are chisel
ground come in left and right-handed varieties, depending upon which side is
ground.
5. Double bevel or compound bevel—A back bevel, similar to a sabre or flat grind,
is put on the blade behind the edge bevel (the bevel which is the foremost cutting
surface). This back bevel keeps the section of blade behind the edge thinner which
improves cutting ability. Being less acute at the edge than a single bevel,
sharpness is sacrificed for resilience: such a grind is much less prone to chipping
or rolling than a single bevel blade. In practice, double bevels are common in a
variety of edge angles and back bevel angles.
6. Convex ground—Rather than tapering with straight lines to the edge, the taper is
curved, though in the opposite manner to a hollow grind. Such a shape keeps a lot
of metal behind the edge making for a stronger edge while still allowing a good
degree of sharpness. This grind can be used on axes and is sometimes called an
axe grind. As the angle of the taper is constantly changing this type of grind
requires some degree of skill to reproduce on a flat stone. Convex blades usually
need to be made from thicker stock than other blades. [1

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It is possible to combine grinds or produce other variations. For example, some blades
may be flat ground for much of the blade but be convex ground towards the edge.

Grinding is a finishing process used to improve surface finish, abrade hard materials, and
tighten the tolerance on flat and cylindrical surfaces by removing a small amount of
material. Information in this section is organized according to the subcategory links in the
menu bar to the left.

In grinding, an abrasive material rubs against the metal part and removes tiny pieces of
material. The abrasive material is typically on the surface of a wheel or belt and abrades
material in a way similar to sanding. On a microscopic scale, the chip formation in
grinding is the same as that found in other machining processes. The abrasive action of
grinding generates excessive heat so that flooding of the cutting area with fluid is
necessary.
Reasons for Grinding

Reasons for grinding are:

1. The material is too hard to be machined economically. (The material may have
been hardened in order to produce a low-wear finish, such as that in a bearing
raceway.)

2. Tolerances required preclude machining. Grinding can produce flatness tolerances

of less than ±0.0025 mm (±0.0001 in) on a 127 x 127 mm (5 x 5 in) steel surface
if the surface is adequately supported.

Machining removes excessive material. Processes

Selecting which of the following grinding operations to be used is determined by the size,
shape, features and desired production rate.

Surface grinding

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Surface grinder
Main article: Surface grinding

Surface grinding is uses a rotating abrasive wheel to smooth the flat surface of metallic or
nonmetallic materials to give them a more refined look or to attain a desired surface for a
functional purpose. The tolerances that are normally achieved with grinding are ± 2 ×
10−4inches for a grinding a flat material, and ± 3 × 10−4inches for a parallel surface.

The surface grinder is composed of an abrasive wheel, a workholding device known as a

chuck, either electromagnetic or vacuum, and a reciprocating table.

Typical workpiece materials include cast iron and minor steel. These two materials don't
tend to clog the grinding wheel while being processed. Other materials are aluminum,
stainless steel, brass and some plastics.

There are many different types of grinding machines available which are used to obtain
very close tolerances and fine finishes. Grinding machines are used for grinding flat
surfaces, external and cylindrical surfaces, tapered surfaces, and irregular surfaces.
Production parts are typically ground to tolerances of plus or minus 0.0001 in and special
parts for precision instruments are ground to plus or minus 0.000020 in (20 microinches).
All grinding machines utilize a rotating abrasive wheel or moving belt in contact with a
workpiece to remove metal. Various combinations of wheel feed, either along or normal
to the axis of wheel rotation, and also rotary or linear workpiece motion, are provided by
the different types of grinding machines. To produce shapes of cylindrical section,
workpiece and wheel both rotate on parallel axes while one or the other is fed along its
own axis of rotation. Contact between workpiece and wheel is on the outside diameter of
the wheel and the work is mounted between centers, chucked, or rotated without centers
by a back-up wheel (this is called "centerless" grinding). To produce flat surfaces, the
workpiece is mounted on a table and traversed along a line parallel to the surface to be
ground or rotated about an axis at right angles to the surface to be ground. The axis of

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grinding wheel rotation can either be parallel or perpendicular to the surface to be
ground, applying either the side or face of the wheel. Complex shapes are routinely
ground such as thread forms, cam contours, gear teeth, and cutting tool edges. The same
basic devices that control motion between the cutting tool and workpiece in other
machine tools are also used in grinding machines such as lead screws, cams, special
fixtures and tracer mechanisms. Grinding machines have limitations as to how fast and
how much material can be removed but modern manufacturing, with the help of more
accurate castings and forgings, is utilizing grinders more and more for both sizing and
finishing operations. Some finished parts are produced by grinding only.

Cylindrical grinding

Cylindrical grinding (also called center-type grinding) is used in the removing the
cylindrical surfaces and shoulders of the workpiece. The workpiece is mounted and
rotated by a workpiece holder, also known as a grinding dog or center driver. Both the
tool and the workpiece are rotated by separate motors and at different speeds. The axes of
rotation tool can be adjusted to produce a variety of shapes.

The five types of cylindrical grinding are: outside diameter (OD) grinding, inside
diameter (ID) grinding, plunge grinding, creep feed grinding, and centerless grinding.[1]

A cylindrical grinder has a grinding (abrasive) wheel, two centers that hold the
workpiece, and a chuck, grinding dog, or other mechanism to drive the machine. Most
cylindrical grinding machines include a swivel to allow for the forming of tapered pieces.
The wheel and workpiece move parallel to one another in both the radial and longitudinal
directions. The abrasive wheel can have many shapes. Standard disk shaped wheels can
be used to create a tapered or straight workpiece geometry while formed wheels are used
to create a shaped workpiece. The process using a formed wheel creates less vibration
than using a regular disk shaped wheel.

Tolerances for cylindrical grinding are held within five ten-thousandths of an inch (+/-
0.0005) for diameter and one ten-thousandth of an inch(+/- 0.0001) for roundness.
Precision work can reach tolerances as high as five hundred-thousandths of an inch (+/-
0.00005) for diameter and one hundred-thousandth of an inch (+/- 0.00001) for
roundness. Surface finishes can range from 2 to 125 microinches, with typical finishes
ranging from 8-32 microinches.

Creep-feed grinding

Creep-feed grinding (CFG) was invented in Germany in the late 1950s by Edmund and
Gerhard Lang. Unlike grinding, which is used primarily to finish surfaces, CFG is used
for high rates of material removal, competing with milling and turning as a

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manufacturing process choice. Depths of cut of up to 6 mm (0.25) inches are used along
with low workpiece speed. Surfaces with a softer-grade resin bond are used to keep
workpiece temperature low and an improved surface finish up to 1.6 micrometres Rmax

With CFG it takes 117 sec to remove 1 in.3 of material, whereas precision grinding would
take more than 200 sec to do the same. CFG has the disadvantage of a wheel that is
constantly degrading, and requires high spindle power, 51 hp (38 kW), and is limited in
the length of part it can machine.[2]

To address the problem of wheel sharpness, continuous-dress creep-feed grinding

(CDCF) was developed in the 1970s. It dresses the wheel constantly during machining,
keeping it in a state of specified sharpness. It takes only 17 sec. to remove 1 in3 of
material, a huge gain in productivity. 38 hp (28 kW) spindle power is required, and runs
at low to conventional spindle speeds. The limit on part length was erased.

High-efficiency deep grinding (HEDG) uses plated superabrasive wheels, which never
need dressing and last longer than other wheels. This reduces capital equipment
investment costs. HEDG can be used on long part lengths, and removes material at a rate
of 1 in3 in 83 sec. It requires high spindle power and high spindle speeds.[3]

Peel grinding, patented under the name of Quickpoint in 1985 by Erwin Junker
Maschinenfabrik, GmbH in Nordrach, Germany, uses a tool with a with superabrasive
nose and can machine cylindrical parts.[4]

VIPER (Very Impressive Performance Extreme Removal), 1999, is a process patented

by Rolls-Royce and is used in aerospace manufacturing to produce turbine blades. It uses
a continuously dressed aluminum oxide grinding wheel running at high speed. CNC-
controlled nozzles apply refrigerated grinding fluid during the cut. VIPER is performed
on equipment similar to a CNC machining center, and uses special wheels.[5]

Ultra-high speed grinding (UHSG) can run at speeds higher than 40,000 fpm (200
m/sec), taking 41 sec to remove 1 in.3 of material, but is still in the R&D stage. It also
requires high spindle power and high spindle speeds.[6]

Others

Form grinding is a specialized type of cylindrical grinding where the grinding wheel has
the exact shape of the final product. The grinding wheel does not traverse the workpiece.
[7]

Internal grinding is used to grind the inside diameter of the workpiece. Tapered holes
can be ground with the use of internal grinders that can swivel on the horizontal.

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Centerless grinding

Centerless grinding is when the workpiece is supported by a blade instead of by centers

or chucks. Two wheels are used. The larger one is used to grind the surface of the
workpiece and the smaller wheel is used to regulate the axial movement of the
workpiece. Types of centerless grinding include through-feed grinding, in-feed/plunge
grinding, and internal centerless grinding.

Pre-grinding When a new tool has been built and has been heat-treated, it is pre-ground
before welding or hardfacing commences. This usually involves grinding the OD slightly
higher than the finish grind OD to ensure the correct finish size.

Electrochemical grinding is a type of grinding in which a positively charged workpiece

in a conductive fluid is eroded by a negatively charged grinding wheel. The pieces from
the workpiece are dissolved into the conductive fluid.

Grinding wheel
A grinding wheel is an expendable wheel used for various grinding and abrasive
machining operations. It is generally made from a matrix of coarse abrasive particles
pressed and bonded together to form a solid, circular shape, various profiles and cross
sections are available depending on the intended usage for the wheel. Grinding wheels
may also be made from a solid steel or aluminium disc with particles bonded to the
surface.

Lubrication
The use of fluids in a grinding process is necessary to cool and lubricate the wheel and
workpiece as well as remove the chips produced in the grinding process. The most
common grinding fluids are water-soluble chemical fluids, water-soluble oils, synthetic
oils, and petroleum-based oils. It is imperative that the fluid be applied directly to the
cutting area to prevent the fluid being blown away from the piece due to rapid rotation of
the wheel.

Work Applicatio
Cutting Fluid
Material n

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Aluminum Light duty oil Flood
Brass Light duty oil Flood
Heavy duty emulsifiable oil, light duty chemical oil,
Cast Iron Flood
synthetic oil
Mild Steel Heavy duty water soluble oil Flood
Heavy duty emulsifiable oil, heavy duty chemical oil,
Stainless Steel Flood
synthetic oil
Water soluble oil, dry, heavy duty emulsifiable oil, dry,
Plastics Flood
light duty chemical oil, synthetic oil

The workpiece
Workholding methods

The workpiece is manually clamped to a lathe dog, powered by the faceplate, that holds
the piece in between two centers and rotates the piece. The piece and the grinding wheel
rotate in opposite directions and small bits of the piece are removed as it passes along the
grinding wheel. In some instances special drive centers may be used to allow the edges to
be ground. The workholding method affects the production time as it changes set up
times.

Workpiece materials

Typical workpiece materials include aluminum, brass, plastics, cast iron, mild steel, and
stainless steel. Aluminum, brass and plastics can have poor to fair machinability
characteristics for cylindrical grinding. Cast Iron and mild steel have very good
characteristics for cylindrical grinding. Stainless steel is very difficult to grind due to its
toughness and ability to work harden, but can be worked with the right grade of grinding
wheels.

Workpiece geometry

The final shape of a workpiece is the mirror image of the grinding wheel, with cylindrical
wheels creating cylindrical pieces and formed wheels creating formed pieces. Typical
sizes on workpieces range from .75 in. to 20 in. and .80 in. to 75 in. in length, although
pieces between .25 in. and 60 in. in diameter and .30 in. and 100 in. in length can be
ground. Resulting shapes can range from straight cylinders, straight edged conical shapes,
or even crankshafts for engines that experience relatively low torque.

Effects on Workpiece Materials

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1.Mechanical properties will change due to stresses put on the part during finishing. High
grinding temperatures may cause a thin martensitic layer to form on the part, which will
lead to reduced material strength from microcracks.

2.Physical property changes include the possible loss of magnetic properties on

ferromagnetic materials.

3.Chemical property changes include an increased susceptibility to corrosion because of

high surface stress.

Literatura:

http://science.jrank.org/pages/4044/Machine-Tools-Grinding-machines.html

http://www.zenithcrusher.com/ver2.0/Products/Grinding/Grinding.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grinding_machine

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