03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.

26 Pagina 161

Queste bozze, corrette debbono essere

ZANCHI
restituite immediatamente alla Segreteria
della Società Geologica Italiana
c/o Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra
Piazzale Aldo Moro, 5 – 00185 ROMA
Ital.J.Geosci. (Boll.Soc.Geol.It.), Vol. 130, No. 2 (2011), pp. 161-262, 91 figs., 97 pls., 2 extra pls. (DOI: 10.3301/IJG.2011.09)
© Società Geologica Italiana, Roma 2011

The geology of the Karakoram range, Pakistan:

the new 1:100,000 geological map of Central-Western Karakoram
ANDREA ZANCHI (*) & MAURIZIO GAETANI (**)

ABSTRACT

A new geological map of the central-western part of the Karako-

ram belt (Northern Areas and North West Frontier Province, Paki-
stan) is presented with its explanatory notes. The map is printed at a
1:100,000 scale, summarizing original field surveys performed at a
1:25,000 scale, which result from the first systematic reconnaissance
of the area. This work represents the synthesis of several years of
exploration studies and is mainly based based on original strati-
graphic and structural field analyses focused on one of the less
known orogenic belts of Central Asia. Original field surveys have
been integrated within a GIS using georeferenced Russian topo-
graphic maps and grey-tone panchromatic SPOT images.
The study area is located along the border between Pakistan
and Afghanistan, extending from the top of the Chapursan Valley
of the Hunza region to the Yarkhun Valley from the Karambar
Pass to Gazin and to the upper part of the Rich Gol, which belong
to Chitral.
Three major tectonic units are exposed in the study area.
From north to south they are: the East Hindu Kush-Wakhan, the
Tirich Boundary Zone and the Karakoram Terrane. The first and
the last units consist of Gondwana-related terranes showing a Pre-
cambrian to earliest Paleozoic basement covered by Paleozoic to
Mesozoic sedimentary successions which record their Late Paleo-
zoic rifting from Gondwana, their drifting, and successive accre-
tion to the Eurasian margin. They both show some similarities
with the S-Parmir ranges, exposed to the north of the Afghan
Wakhan. The Tirich Boundary Zone is a complex assemblage of
high grade metabasites and gneiss with small remnants of sub-con-
tinental peridotites, which separate East Hindu Kush from the Fig. 1 - Position of the mapped area within Pakistan and Central Asia.
Karakoram. Its emplacement has been related to the possible open-
ing of a basin between the two blocks at the end of the Paleozoic,
followed by its deformation during the collision of Karakoram with
East Hindu Kush, dating to the end of Triassic or beginning of the
Jurassic. 1. INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATIONS
Detailed mapping has been carried out in the Karakoram belt,
especially along its northern portion, which consists of a complex This paper contains the explanatory notes of a new
stack of tectono-stratigraphic units, showing peculiar strati-
graphic and structural features. These units were progressively geological map of Central-Western Karakoram (scale
deformed and thrusted during the collision with the Kohistan 1:100,000), which summarizes 15 years of researches in
Paleo-Arc and with India which occurred between the end of the Northern Pakistan (fig. 1; Garzanti, 2011) on the northern
Cretaceous and Paleogene. These collisions were also followed by portion of the Karakoram belt (figs. 2, 3). Our map is the
continuous crustal thickening and by left-lateral shearing, which
was especially active along the western margin of the mapped results of the first systematic reconnaissance work car-
area. ried out in the sedimentary cover of the Northern Karako-
Our map also includes parts of the Karakoram Batholith, ram Terrain and East Hindu Kush (fig. 4) and is based on
mainly Cretaceous in age, and of the Darkot-Gazin Metasedimentary original stratigraphic and structural field work performed
Belt, which is exposed to the south of the main intrusive bodies and
consists of Permo-Triassic metasediments. by the authors. The study area is part of the northern por-
tion of the Karakoram Terrane, a continental block of
KEY WORDS: Karakoram, Hindu Kush, Pakistan, Cartography, Gondwanan affinity which is interposed between the
Geodynamics, Tectonics, Stratigraphy, Collisional belt. S-Pamir ranges to the north, also of Gondwanan origin,
and the Kohistan intraoceanic Paleo-arc to the south
(fig. 4). The mapped area includes the East Hindu Kush
block, which may be part of the southern Pamir ranges
and which is structurally separated from Karakoram by
(*) Dipartimento di Scienze e Geologiche e Geotecnologie, the Tirich Boundary Zone, an important shear zone
Università degli studi di Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza, 4 -
20126 Milano, Italy; andrea.zanchi@unimib.it
exposing sub-continental mantle peridotites.
(**) Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra «A. Desio», Università Several reasons make this area of particular interest
degli studi di Milano, Via Mangiagalli, 34 - 20133 Milano, Italy. for the understanding of the structure of the central Asian
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.26 Pagina 162
162 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 2 - Location map of the study area. The extension of the previous map of the Karakoram by ZANCHI & GAETANI (1994) is shown.
orogenic belts. The northern portion of the Karakoram
range mainly consists of relatively poorly deformed and
metamorphosed sedimentary successions. They include a
pre-Ordovician crystalline basement covered by Paleozoic to
Mesozoic successions which record the rifting and drifting
of Karakoram from Gondwana and its successive Mesozoic
accretion (Cimmerian event) to the Eurasian margin. A
complex polyphase deformation is also testified by the
thrust stack now forming the Northern Karakoram Terrain.
The stack grew during several stages, recording the subse-
quent collisions with the Eurasian margin of the Kohistan
Paleo-arc and India to the south as well as their conse-
quences (extensional collapse and indentation tectonics).
The geodynamic evolution reconstructed in this area can be
thus compared with the history of the Karakoram Metamor-
phic Complex (FRASER et alii, 2001; SEARLE et alii, 2010;
SEARLE, 2011), exposed to the south of the Cretaceous
Karakoram Batholith which was mainly emplaced before
the collision with Kohistan. In addition, the central-western
portion of the Northern Karakoram was almost unknown
before the beginning of our studies. The idea of completing
westward the study of the Northern Karakoram Terrain was
born after the publication of our map of the Hunza Karako-
ram (ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994), in order to explore an
almost unknown region, yet representing a true «blank on
the map», aiming to provide a clue to the understanding of
the complex evolution of Central Asia.
1.1 Location of the mapped area and technical notes
The study area extends from the top of the Chapursan
Valley and precisely from the locality of Babaghundi
Ziarat to the upper Karambar Valley, to the Yarkhun Val-
ley from the Karambar Pass to Gazin and to the upper
part of the Morich Gol (fig. 3). Detailed work was
performed especially in the uppermost Karambar and
Yarkhun valleys, as a general reconnaissance work was
carried out in the Siru Gol, Shah Jinali and Morich areas.
The map was surveyed in the field using a mosaic of
high quality Panchromatic SPOT imagery (pixel size 10 m).
A georeferenced digital SPOT image was used as a topo-
graphic base for the easternmost part of the study area
(Chiantar-Babagundi Ziarat area). West of this area the
map was redrawn using the 1:100,000 Russian topo-
graphic maps of the world. The entire map was firstly
drawn by the first author in a digital format using Ilwis
and was successively imported in Arcview 9.3 and pre-
pared for printing by S. Sironi and S. Zanchetta.
The area directly surveyed in Pakistan was extended
through photo-interpretation of printed Panchromatic
& M. GAETANI
SPOT imagery beyond the Afghan border, also basing on
the map of Wakhan by BUCHROITNER & GAMERITH
(1978). Google Earth has been used during the final
stages of the work.
The southern part of the mapped area, showing the
northern side of the Karakoram Batholith was redrawn
from the original maps drawn by LE FORT & GAETANI
(1998), integrated with original observations and photo-
interpretation (PATRICK LE FORT is warmly thanked for
his contribution).
All the Pakistani people who helped us for several
years during field work are warmly thanked for permit-
ting us to live such an exciting experience.
2. PREVIOUS STUDIES
Previous studies of the area are limited, especially due
to its rough topography and remoteness. Captain GRANT
in 1898 was the first one to collect a few fossils from an
undefined area around Baroghil, later considered to be
Early Devonian in age by REED (1911). HAYDEN (1915)
gave the first geological report on the area along the route
across Mastuj, Ishpirin Gorge, Lasht, Baroghil, Gharil,
and the Darkot Pass to the south. He identified some basic
features, as the Karakoram Batholith, the presence of
Devonian and Permian rocks and other sedimentary suc-
cessions. Part of the collected fossils were illustrated
by REED (1922, 1925). TIPPER made the crossing of
the Karambar Pass in 1923, resulting in a meagre one
page report in PASCOE (1924). No new information was
published on the area up to the short visit in 1973 by
J.A.T. TALENT & H.H. TAHIRKHELI coming from the Darkot
Pass and getting out along the Yarkhun Valley. They
proved the occurrence of Ordovician and Devonian succes-
sions, dating them with conodonts (TALENT et alii, 1982).
H. GAMERITH probably had a short visit along the
Yarkhun Valley up to Kan Khun and to some part of the
Morich Valley during his work for mineral prospecting in
the area. He published a map, mostly based on satellite
imagery, in which the Baroghil-Karambar area is also
included (GAMERITH, 1982). Concerning the southern
part of the region, some general notes on the area of
Darkot are reported by TAHIRKHELI (1982). The area of
Darkot was also considered by IVANAC et alii (1956) in
their reconnaissance on the southern side of the range.
On the Afghan side, along the Wakhan corridor,
reconnaissance geology was given by BUCHROITNER
(1978, 1980), following a mountaineering expedition.
Some information on the intrusive rocks of that part of
the Hindu Kush is found in DEBON et alii (1987a).
 03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.26 Pagina 163

THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN

Fig. 3 - Geographic sketch of the mapped area. Names of localities after the 1:250,000 topographic map of Karakoram by U.S. Corps of Engineers, Sheets NJ 43-13 and NJ 43-14.
163
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.26 Pagina 164
164 A. ZANCHI
The only comprehensive geological study of the
Wakhan corridor was produced within the Soviet-Afghan
cooperation programme. After the presentation of KA-
FARSKYI et alii (1974) internal report, their data were
summarized in KAFARSKYI & ABDULLAH (1976) and espe-
cially in the ABDULLAH & CHMRYOV (1980) comprehen-
sive book and maps on the Geology of Afghanistan
(including a geological map at 1:500,000 scale). New
maps including the Tajik Pamirs and Afghanistan were
recently published (VLASOV et alii, 1991).
Our research activity started in 1990 in the frame of
the Ev-K2 European project in Chitral and Karambar areas,
through seven expeditions, as well by the French team of
P. Le Fort and F. Debon working within the same Euro-
pean project. Our activity resulted in several papers (1).
Published works dealing with neighbouring regions
were of particular interest to unravel the geology of the
study area. The works by DESIO (1959, 1966) on Chitral
should be mentioned for new findings on Cretaceous and
especially for the Devonian of Kuragh and Shogram, as
well as the related paleontological analyses by CITA &
RUSCELLI (1959), SCHOUPPÉ (1965), SARTENAER (1965),
VANDERCAMMEN (1965), and GAETANI (1967). The first
description of the structural setting and of the Reshun
Fault was firstly given by PUDSEY et alii (1985). Very
important are also the contributions by STAUFFER (1975)
and TALENT et alii (1982, 1999).
Concerning the recent studies on the Hunza and Cha-
pursan valleys to the east, the basic geological, strati-
graphic and structural data published by GAETANI et alii
(1) List of published papers by GAETANI & LE FORT teams: AN-
GIOLINI (1995, 1996 a, b; 2001); ANGIOLINI et alii (1999, 2005);
ANGIOLINI & RETTORI (1994); DEBON (1995), DEBON & KHAN
(1996), DEBON et alii (1996); FLÜGEL (1995); FLÜGEL & GAETANI
(1991); GAETANI (1997, 1998, 2009); GAETANI & LEVEN (1993); GAE-
TANI et alii (1995, 1996, 2004a, b, 2008); HUBMANN & GAETANI
(2007); LE FORT & GAETANI (1998); LE FORT et alii (1994); LEVEN et
alii (2007); MUTTONI et alii (2009); QUINTAVALLE et alii (2000);
SCHROEDER (2004); TALENT et alii (1999); TONGIORGI et alii (1994);
ZANCHI et alii (1997, 2000). A paper by PERRI et alii (2004) outside
our research projects can be added.
& M. GAETANI
Fig. 4 - General tectonic scheme of Central
Asia: 1) Quaternary, 2) Cenozoic foredeeps,
3) Paleozoic belts, 4) Terranes of Gondwanan
affinity, 5) Kohistan Paleo-Arc, 6) Waziristan
(WAZ) ophiolites, and Wasser-Panjao suture
zone, 7) Paleozoic Kabul block, 8) Himalayas.
Modified from ZANCHI et alii (2000). WAS:
Wanch-Akbaital Zone, RPZ: Rushan-Pshart
Zone, SW-P: SW-Pamir, SE-P: SE-Pamir, ACM
Alichur Mountains, EHK: East Hindu Kush,
TBZ: Tirich Boundary Zone, KKSZ: Karako-
ram-Kohistan Suture Zone, MMT: Main Man-
tle Thrust, MBT: Main Boundary Thrust, MFT:
Main Frontal Thrust, K: Kabul.
(1990a, 1993), ZANCHI (1993), ZANCHI & GAETANI (1994),
and ZANCHI & GRITTI (1996) were integrated within the
present work. Results of these studies were summarized
in the books of KAZMI & JAN (1997) and KAZMI & ABBASI
(2008). SEARLE & KHAN (1996) also included the area in
their 1:650,000 map of Pakistan, suggesting the occur-
rence of Upper Paleozoic and Triassic successions in the
Baroghil region.
2.1 Geographic setting and the definition of Karakoram
The study area is located along the Afghan-Pakistan
border between the western part of the Great Karakoram
located west of the Hunza Valley, and the Chitral region,
the last being part of the Hindu Raj Belt. The division
between the two geographic areas runs along the Karam-
bar River (fig. 2). From an administrative point of view,
the area includes the former Gilgit Agency, being part of
Jammu and Kashmir, now Northern Area under Pakistani
administration, and the NW Frontier Province, the border
running along the Yarkhun-Karambar river divide.
The entire region is heavily glaciated (fig. 5), due
to its high topographic elevation, usually over-passing
the 3000 meters, with peaks reaching almost 7000 m.
Extended glacial plateaus and long valley glaciers occur,
with the Chiantar Glacier reaching more than 30 kilome-
tres in length (fig. 6). Field surveys have been carried out
only in Pakistan, as the Afghan side of the belt has been
compiled combining information from remote sensing
and previous maps.
The heads of four main river catchments are included
in the area. They comprise, from east to west:
1) the Chapursan Valley from the locality of
Babaghundi Ziarat to the Chillinji and Irshad Uwin
passes;
2) the Karambar Valley from Warghut to the Karam-
bar Pass and a number of minor glaciers;
3) the Yarkhun Valley (fig. 6) down to Paur, beyond
the confluence with the valley coming down from Gazin;
4) the Rich Gol from the Afghan divide to the village
of Uzhnu.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.26 Pagina 165

THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN 165

Fig. 5 - View to the SW of Lake Karambar from the Pakistan-Afghanistan border ridge. September, 1999.

Fig. 6 - View to the west of the upper part of the Yarkhun Valley from the Baroghil ridge with the Chiantar Glacier, Trifika and other peaks
higher than 6000 meters. September, 1999.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.26 Pagina 166
166 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 7 - View to the east to the Koyo Zom (6872 m) from the Yarkhun Valley (July, 2004). Its high rock walls consist of the Darkot Pass
Granite of the Karakoram Batholith.
The Afghan side of the belt is mainly included in the
Ab-i Wakhan/Ab-i Panja (Oxus, Amu Darya) river catch-
ments, reaching the Aral Sea. The uppermost part of the
Darkot Valley is partially included in the map.
The southern and western parts of the area show
the highest peaks, due to the occurrence respectively of
the Karakoram and East Hindu Kush batholiths which
consist of hard intrusive rocks of acidic to intermediate
composition. The highest peaks present to the south are
(fig. 7) the Koyo Zom (6872 m) and several nice moun-
tains over-passing 6000 m, as the Thui 1 (6660 m), Thui 2
(6523 m), and Chikar Zom (6110 m) west of the Darkot
Pass (4575 m), the Garmush Peak (6244 m) east of it, and
the Trifika (6416 m) along the upper Chiantar glacier.
The East Hindu Kush Batholith shows the highest moun-
tains of the area with the Koh-e Baba Tangi (6513 m),
Koh-e Qal’a Ust (6309 m), Lunko (6902 m) and Koh-e
Hevad peaks (6849 m). Along the eastern-central part of
the watershed with Afghanistan, mountains are generally
below 6000 m, due to the occurrence of relatively soft
very low grade meta-sedimentary rocks forming the sedi-
mentary cover of N-Karakoram (fig. 8).
The area is poorly inhabited. Small permanent vil-
lages are located usually below 4000 m along the Yarkhun
Valley, which is now crossed by a stable jeep road reach-
ing Lasht and Kan Khun, reaching also Pechus during the
winter season and, maybe in the future, also the Baroghil
Pass to Afghanistan. The road stopped close to Gazin dur-
ing the time of our survey. Other roads reach the village
& M. GAETANI
of Rua in the Rich Gol, and Babaghundi Ziarat in the
Chapursan Valley. The entire survey was performed with
the help of Pakistani porters using, when possible, the
only available means of transport (fig. 9).
The definition of Karakoram in a geographic sense
(MASON, 1938) hardly coincides with the boundaries of
the «geological» Karakoram. The southern geological
boundary matches to the east with the Shyok Suture
zone, also named Northern Suture (TAHIRKHELI et alii,
1979; HANSON, 1989; SEARLE, 1991), and recently rede-
fined as Karakoram-Kohistan Suture Zone (HEUBERGER
et alii, 2007), separating the Gondwana-related Karako-
ram Terrane from the Mesozoic intra-oceanic Kohistan
Paleo-Arc (fig. 4). The geological boundary should extend
to the west, beyond the geographical one, which follows
the Karambar Valley. The Hindu Raj Range should be
included in within Karakoram, as magmatic and sedi-
mentary units continue, quite regularly, through the
Yarkhun Valley and beyond it. The western boundary of
the «geological» Karakoram is set along the Tirich
Boundary Zone (ZANCHI et alii, 2000). To the north, the
boundary with S-Pamir is poorly defined, but access to
the Wakhan region (Afghan Pamir) is presently problem-
atic. A reasonable boundary can be represented by the
Kilik Fault in the Chapursan Valley (fig. 4), which stacks
the Wakhan Slates on the Paleo-Mesozoic sediments of
the Northern Karakoram Terrain (ZANCHI, 1993; ZANCHI
& GAETANI, 1994). This thrust fault can be traced through
the Wakhan (KAFARSKYI & ABDULLAH, 1976) and across
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.26 Pagina 167

THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN 167

Fig. 8 - View to the NW from the Pakistan-Afghanistan border at about 5100 m. White bafflestone and black marls of the Devonian Shogram
Fm. belonging to the Karambar Unit. September, 1999.

Fig. 9 - Donkeys with local porters crossing

the Chhateboi Glacier, September 1999. The
Chhateboi Granite is exposed along the steep
rock walls flanking the glacier.

East Hindu Kush down to the Tirich Mir (ZANCHI et alii, 3. REGIONAL SETTING
2000). In this interpretation, the East Hindu Kush geolog-
ically lies northwest of Karakoram and merges into the The mapped area includes three main domains
Wakhan and Little Pamir. which are extensively exposed in North-Western Paki-
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 168
168 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 10 - General tectonic framework of Karakoram, after previous authors (ZANCHI et alii, 2000; HILDEBRAND et alii, 2004; HEUBERGER et
alii, 2007) and our original data.
stan north of the Kohistan Palaeo-Island Arc (fig. 10):
1) East Hindu Kush-Wakhan, northwest of the Tirich
Boundary Zone and north of its eastern continuation;
2) the Tirich Boundary Zone (TBZ), a complex associa-
tion of metamorphic rocks separating the Karakoram
from East Hindu Kush-Wakhan; 3) the western part of
Karakoram between the TBZ and the Karakoram-
Kohistan Suture Zone (KKSZ). The main features of
the KKSZ and of the Kohistan Palaeo-Island Arc are
also briefly described at the end of this section, as their
history is closely related to the evolution of the study-
area.
3.1 East Hindu Kush-Wakhan
This block extends across the region of East Hindu
Kush and its eastern continuation in Wakhan (fig. 10). It
includes a possibly Cambrian and Precambrian crys-
talline basement and a Paleozoic to Mesozoic sedimen-
tary succession intruded by Mesozoic plutons (fig. 11).
According to previous works (GAETANI, 1997), this unit is
a Gondwanan fragment with a thinned continental crust
& M. GAETANI
which separated two other Gondwanan blocks, the Kara-
koram and S-Pamir, since the end of the Paleozoic.
The oldest rocks consist of deformed granitoids, pos-
sibly Cambrian in age (DEBON et alii, 1987a), the Qal’a-e
Ust Gneiss (BUCHROITHNER, 1980), which always show
tectonic contacts of an undefined type with a Paleozoic to
Mesozoic meta-sedimentary succession. Most of the belt
consists of the Paleozoic Wakhan Slates, which record
accumulation of thick terrigenous sediments possibly
originating from the Gondwana supercontinent in highly
subsiding extensional basins (GAETANI, 1997). Bryozoans
and brachiopods of Paleozoic affinity were found in Chi-
tral and in the Kan Khun Gol (GAETANI & LEVEN, 1993;
GAETANI et alii, 2004a), although Lower Triassic con-
odonts may occur at the top of the unit in Afghanistan
(KAFARSKY & ABDULLAH, 1976; BUCHROITHNER, 1980).
Late Paleozoic to Triassic shallow water carbonates
partially interfingering with terrigenous beds form two
large thrust sheets within the Wakhan Slates. The first
one, the Kan Khun Unit of LEVEN et alii (2007), extends
in Afghanistan from the upper Kan Khun Gol to the north
of the Baroghil Pass. The second one is the Atark Unit
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 169
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
Fig. 11 - Simplified map of Chitral, modified from ZANCHI et alii (2000). GBC: Ghamu Bar Complex, BZC: Buni Zom Complex, TMP: Tirich
Mir Pluton, KB: Karakoram Batholith.
(GAETANI & LEVEN, 1993), forming a long and continu-
ous carbonate belt between the Tirich Boundary Zone
and the Wakhan Slates, which are all clearly intruded by
the Tirich Mir Granite. The Atark Unit is continuously
exposed from the Arkari Valley west of the Tirich Mir to
Lasht in the Yarkhun Valley across the Atark, Tirich and
Rich Gol (figs. 10, 11, 12). Very low-grade metabasites,
100 to 150 m thick, including lava flows interbedded
within the terrigenous successions of the unit occur in the
upper part of the Atark Valley. The Atark Unit is locally
sealed by a conglomerate similar to the Cretaceous Tupop
conglomerates of central Karakoram (ZANCHI et alii, 1997).
West of the study area, the Wakhan Slates pass to a
composite metamorphic succession reaching medium-
grade conditions, the Arkari Formation of LEAKE et alii
(1989). The formation includes micaschists, phyllite, mar-
ble, quartzite, and feldspatic gneiss, which may derive
from the Wakhan Slates. A few Belemnite remains found
75 years ago (PASCOE, 1924) may suggest a Mesozoic age
169
for at least part of the protholith of the metamorphic
complex.
HILDEBRAND et alii (2000, 2001), concerning the
tectono-metamorphic evolution of the Tirich Mir region,
suggest a Jurassic-Early Cretaceous time interval for
metamorphism and magmatic activity which are possibly
interpreted as the results of the accretion of Karakoram
to East Hindu Kush.
Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous granitoids intrude the
East Hindu Kush units (BUCHROITNER & SCHARBERT,
1979; DEBON et alii, 1987a; GAETANI et alii, 1996) forming
a continuous belt along the Afghan-Pakistan border
which gives rise to some of the highest peaks in the
region. Small isolated and undeformed granitoids also
occur in the Rich Gol, north of Rua and in Wakhan.
The Tirich Mir pluton, possibly related to the SW con-
tinuation of the East Hindu Kush batholith, as well as to
the western part of the Karakoram Batholith (HEUBERGER
et alii, 2007) extensively outcrops southwest of the study
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 170
170 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 12 - Tectonic scheme, directly obtained from mapping, reporting all the tectonostratigraphic units identified in the study area. Re-F:
Reshun Fault; Ch-F: Chiantar-Chillinji Fault; U-Hu-F: Upper Hunza Fault; TA-F: Thui Pass Fault; SJ-An: Shah Jinali Pass; Ba-An: Baroghil
Pass; Ka-An: Karambar Pass; Ch-An: Chillinji Pass.
area. It consists of a coarse grained granite which has
given a Rb-Sr age of 115±4 Ma on a biotite (DESIO et alii,
1964). Recent U-Pb dating on zircons gave 121±1 Ma and
an Ar39-Ar40 age of 110.6±3.2 Ma (HEUBERGER et alii,
2007) which confirm previous estimations. The pluton
intruded both the East Hindu Kush and Karakoram belts,
as well as the TBZ. Stoping, moderate effects on host
rocks, and absence of internal-external foliation indicate
a shallow level of emplacement. In the Tirich Mir region
(fig. 10), the last important metamorphic event is coeval
to the emplacement of the Miocene Gharam Chasma two-
mica leucogranite, giving an U-Pb 24±0.5 age on mon-
azite (HILDEBRAND et alii, 1998).
3.2 The Tirich Boundary Zone (TBZ)
This important boundary zone (in the sense of CONEY,
1989) forms a narrow belt (fig. 10) of amphibolites,
metagabbros (hornblende gabbro, hornblende cumulates
and quartz-diorite), peridotites, serpentinites, gneisses,
and quartzites, extending along the left-lateral strike-slip
Tirich Mir Fault from the Shah Jinali Pass to the Barum
Valley across the Tirich Gol out of the study area, mark-
ing the tectonic boundary between East Hindu Kush and
Karakoram (ZANCHI et alii, 1997, 2000). East of the Shah
Jinali Pass, the TBZ ends and East Hindu Kush is directly
juxtaposed to Karakoram. The fault extends northward
along the western flank of the Yarkhun Valley, merging
into a complex system of NE-SW trending left-lateral
faults and SE-verging thrusts which mark the NW bound-
ary of Karakoram. West of the Tirich Mir pluton, the
same rocks still occur in the Sunitz, Arkari and Lutkho
valleys. From the Lutkho Valley the belt may extend west-
ward into the poorly known mountains of Nuristan,
Afghanistan.
The metamorphic rocks forming the TBZ reached an
upper amphibolite facies conditions, followed by a green-
schist-facies overprinting, and were subsequently thrust
on very low-grade metasediments. They were finally
intruded at shallow levels by the Cretaceous Tirich Mir
& M. GAETANI
pluton. The ultramafic rocks of the TBZ were interpreted
by ZANCHI et alii (2000) as part of a sub-continental
mantle suggested by the relatively low T of equilibration
and by their association with deep crustal rocks. Their
composition, along with the absence of an ophiolitic
sequence, may suggest that the TBZ represents a sheared
lower crust- upper mantle transition associated with an
intensively extended continental margin. The TBZ is part
of a Jurassic-Early Cretaceous orogenic complex formed
due to the accretion of the Karakoram to East Hindu
Kush during the Cimmerian events.
3.3 Karakoram
The Karakoram Terrane, a continental block of Gond-
wanan affinity (GAETANI, 1997), includes a metamorphic
basement consisting of dark-grey meta-siltstones and
quartzites, largely derived from the greenschist-facies
metamorphism of poorly sorted subarkoses intruded by
pre-Ordovician granitoids (LE FORT et alii, 1994). Its sedi-
mentary succession, spanning from Ordovician to Creta-
ceous, records the rifting and opening of the Neo-Tethys
Ocean during Carboniferous-mid Permian, and the north-
ward drifting of the block away from Gondwana during
Late Permian and Triassic. For the first 100 Ma it records
the evolution of a gently subsiding continental platform.
Rifting of this platform started towards the end of Middle
Devonian (Givetian) and the rifting stage persisted for
most of the Carboniferous. Rifting processes possibly
occurred along a normal fault system, subsequently reac-
tivated during the Cretaceous-Cenozoic orogenic phe-
nomena, that now forms the Reshun-Upper Hunza faults.
Devonian and Carboniferous successions are missing or
reduced by sedimentary gaps south of this lineament,
where the Lower Permian Gircha Fm. seals the syn-sedi-
mentary fault activity. The Northern Karakoram was pos-
sibly facing a deeper and more subsiding basin where the
Wakhan Slates were deposited. The rifting eventually led
to the opening of the Neo-Tethys to the south during the
Early Permian, and the consequent northward drifting of
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 171
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
Fig. 13 - Simplified tectonic scheme of the mapped with emphasis on the Reshun and related fault systems, obtained from fig. 12.
the block away from Gondwana during Middle Permian-
Triassic times.
The passive margin succession is covered by Liassic
orogenic sandstones with clasts of serpentinites, radio-
larites, basalts and gneiss, suggesting the erosion of a
nearby, newly-formed orogenic wedge (GAETANI et alii,
1993) probably due to the collision of Karakoram with
the S-Pamir area during the Cimmerian orogeny which
deeply affected Central Asia.
During the Cretaceous, the Karakoram suffered
severe deformation combined with the emplacement of
the Karakoram Batholith. Intrusives are mostly mid-Cre-
taceous in age and have been related to the northward
subduction of the Neo-Tethys oceanic crust below the
Karakoram (DEBON et alii, 1987b). Folds and thrust
sheets are sealed by mid-Cretaceous molassic conglomer-
ates and by Campanian marine sediments (GAETANI et
alii, 1993). This event, possibly coeval to the closure of
the Shyok Suture, has been interpreted in the past as the
final accretion of Kohistan to the Karakoram (GAETANI
et alii, 1993; ZANCHI, 1993; ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994;
ZANCHI & GRITTI, 1996).
Several different stages of magmatism, metamor-
phism and deformation, which will be discussed at the
end of the paper, affected Karakoram since the begin-
ning of Cenozoic, recording the collision of India with
Kohistan and continuous shortening of the region still
ongoing today (SEARLE, 1991; FRASER et alii, 2001;
SEARLE & TRELOAR, 2010; SEARLE et alii, 2010 and ref.
therein).
Karakoram can be separated into five main tectonic
units (fig. 10). They are as follows, from north to south:
1) The Northern Karakoram Terrain forms the
northern, mostly sedimentary belt, which is the main sub-
ject of this paper and has been firstly mapped in detail
during our fieldwork (fig. 12), following our previous
works in the Upper Hunza Valley (GAETANI et alii, 1990a;
ZANCHI, 1993; ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994). This unit con-
sists of a pre-Ordovician crystalline basement covered by
an Ordovician to Cretaceous sedimentary succession up
to 4-6 km thick, bounded to the NW by a belt of Devonian
volcanic basalts and dolostones forming the Tash Kupruk
Unit and by a medium- to low-grade belt of metapelitic
171
rocks, the Shah Jinali Phyllite, widely exposed across the
divide between the Rich Gol and the Yarkhun Valley.
The boundary with East Hindu Kush is defined by
the Tirich Boundary Zone (TBZ), whereas to the NE the
Paleozoic to Mesozoic sedimentary belt is directly over-
thrusted by the Wakhan Slates along the Kilik Fault and
its continuation in the central part of the area. A few
small isolated granitic bodies also occur in this unit
(Chhateboi Granite).
Northern Karakoram consists of several thrust sheets
generally showing a somewhat different stratigraphic
record which suggests a complex paleogeographic setting
of the region during Paleozoic and Mesozoic times. A
major structural subdivision is marked by the Reshun
Fault of Chitral (PUDSEY, 1986; PUDSEY et alii, 1985;
ZANCHI et alii, 1997, 2000), which connects to the Upper
Hunza Fault in the east, over a distance of more than
200 km (fig. 13), showing a lateral continuity with the tec-
tonic structures defined in the upper Chapursan Valley
(GAETANI et alii, 1990a; ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994; ZANCHI
& GRITTI, 1996). The major difference between the tec-
tonic setting recognized in the Hunza and Chitral regions
stays in the occurrence of larger thrust sheets in the lat-
ter, including more extensive Paleozoic to Mesozoic suc-
cessions, whereas in the former, thrust sheets only consist
of Permian to Mesozoic successions showing a different
and more complete Mesozoic stratigraphic succession.
In the area surveyed in our new map, the Cretaceous
Reshun Formation unconformably occurs on successions
which include the pre-Ordovician crystalline basement
and Paleozoic sediments with reduced thickness and poor
fossil evidence. An obvious unconformity between the
Reshun Formation and folded and cleaved Paleozoic
metasediments of the Darkot Group and Chitral Slates,
the latter possibly Permian in age, is described between
Mastuj and Buni along the Yarkhun River (HAYDEN, 1915;
DESIO, 1959; TALENT et alii, 1982; PUDSEY et alii, 1985).
No pre-Ordovician rocks occur to the north of the
Reshun Fault, where the Paleozoic to Mesozoic sedimen-
tary successions are exposed, forming a complex stack of
south-verging imbricates (fig. 12).
North of the Reshun Fault, in the westernmost part of
the Northern Karakoram Terrain (fig. 13), Devonian sedi-
mentary rocks including the Lun Shales, the Shogram
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 172
172 A. ZANCHI
Fm. (DESIO, 1963; TALENT et alii, 1982), and Permian to
Triassic limestones occur. South of the Tirich Mir around
the Owir Pass, BUCHROITHNER & GAMERITH (1986)
describe slates and phyllite with Devonian limestone,
quartzite, volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks, named Owir
Series, in part correlated with the Lun Shales. Along the
Arkari Valley, in the westernmost part of the study area,
LEAKE et alii (1989) define the Sewakht Formation north
of the Cretaceous Krinj Limestone (DESIO, 1959). The
formation includes greenschists, limestone and dolomite
carbonates with sandstones and may correlate with the
western continuation of the Devonian Owir Series. The
same authors introduced the term of Lutkho Formation
for the monotonous greenish phyllite cropping out
between the Sewakht Formation and the Tirich Mir gra-
nite. These rocks have been previously related by PUDSEY
et alii (1985) to the Lun Shales. The same authors have
recognized two main deformational events with an
increase of deformation and metamorphic grade toward
the Tirich Mir area.
The stratigraphy of the SW side of Northern Karako-
ram south of Mastuj is poorly known due to a marked
increase in metamorphic conditions and scarcity of fossil
remains (fig. 10). The occurrence of different tectonic
units below the Reshun unconformity points to an
important pre-Reshun tectonic event occurred in very
low-grade metamorphic conditions. West of Buni the
possibly Permian Chitral Slate which also contains vol-
canic layers (TALENT et alii, 1982; PUDSEY, 1986; LE
FORT & GAETANI, 1998), and the Kogozi greenstone belt
of PUDSEY (1986) are exposed south of the Reshun Fault
between the Gahiret and Lower Cretaceous Krinji Lime-
stone (DESIO, 1959; PUDSEY et alii, 1985). The last one,
which covers the Chitral Slates and contains fragments
of Cretaceous rudists and Orbitolinids, is tectonically
intercalated with the Reshun Fm. (PUDSEY et alii, 1985),
which sharply closes just west of the Reshun village.
HEUBERGER (2004) also mapped a volcanoclastic succes-
sion including a Cretaceous fossiliferous limestone,
which records the development of an active margin along
the southern side of Karakoram. This unit is directly
imbricated with the serpentinites marking the Karako-
ram-Kohistan Suture Zone.
2) The Karakoram Batholith forms one of the
largest association of intrusive bodies of the Karakoram-
Himalayan range, extending more than 600 kilometres
across Northern Pakistan (fig. 13). It is a composite intru-
sive complex made up by the juxtaposition of large plu-
tonic units associated with important dyke swarms, dis-
playing major differences in age, chemical-mineralogical
composition, and deformational to metamorphic history
(DEBON et alii, 1987b; LE FORT & GAETANI, 1998). These
plutonic bodies form the back-bone of the Karakoram
Range. Granitic bodies generally occur in the centre of
the batholith and are flanked to the north and south by
rocks with a more mafic composition. Meta-sediments
are often included as pinched strips and inclusions
(fig. 12). Radiometric ages range from mid-Cretaceous
along the axis of the belt, recording an Andean-type evo-
lution of Karakoram, to the Eocene subalkaline units of
the central part of the belt (DEBON et alii, 1995; DEBON &
KHAN, 1996) and to the latest Oligocene to Early Miocene
ages of the Baltoro and Gharum Chasma granites, which
were intruded along the eastern and western limits of the
& M. GAETANI
batholith. The latest magmatic events are represented by
Neogene leucogranitic intrusions in the southern portion
of Karakoram (FRASER et alii, 2001; SEARLE et alii, 2010).
Different transects through the range cross plutons
with different composition and emplacement age. The
Hunza transect, from south to north, crosses the Hunza
Plutonic Complex, basically a granodiorite, reliably dated
at 95±5 Ma (U-Pb, on zircon) (LE FORT et alii, 1983;
CRAWFORD & SEARLE, 1992). To the north of it, the
Batura Plutonic Complex outcrops with metaluminous or
slighlty peraluminous granites and granodiorites, and
also with quartz-monzodiorites and quartz-monzonites
(DEBON, 1995). A small gabbroic body also occurs. Rb/Sr
isochrons give ages from 63.4±2 Ma to 42.8±5.6 Ma
(DEBON, 1995). Northwards, intruded in the Northern
Karakorum sedimentary belt and in the Wakhan Slates
are bimodal plutons: Mg-K metaluminous granitoids with
biotite and amphibole, and two-mica peraluminous grani-
toids. Dating of this bimodal plutonism by K-Ar amphi-
bole and biotite ages, suggests primary cooling ages
around 110/105 Ma (DEBON et alii, 1996).
The Karambar transect to the west of Hunza also
shows a large development of the non-alkaline Hunza
Plutonic Complex in the southern and central part, fol-
lowed to the north by a subalkaline porphyritic granite
(Warghut Granite) and then by a composite group of fine
grained granitoids with mafic enclaves. Peculiar to this
transect is the Koz-Sar alkaline complex that gave a Rb/Sr
isochron of 88±4 Ma. (DEBON & KHAN, 1996).
The Yarkhun gorge transect also displays three plu-
tonic bodies, the Sakirmul Granodiorite, the Darkot Pass
Granite and the Shulkuch Monzodiorite. The Darkot Pass
porphyritic granite gave a Rb/Sr isochron of 111±6
(DEBON et alii, 1987; LE FORT & GAETANI, 1998), the
other intrusive bodies have never been dated.
3) The Darkot-Gazin Metasedimentary Belt forms a
small sliver exposed to the south of the Karakoram
Batholith (fig. 12). The belt extends E-W from Gazin to
the Karambar Valley, including all the rocks previously
grouped in the Darkot Group. It consists of very low-
grade metasediments, including meta-sandstones, slates,
and recrystallized limestones with Upper Paleozoic bry-
ozoans and brachiopods (HAYDEN, 1915; IVANAC et alii,
1956; TAHIRKHELI, 1982) and Mesozoic bivalves. LE FORT
& GAETANI (1998) defined three major lithostratigraphic
units within the group: the Gum, Barum and Rawat for-
mations. The Darkot Group has been mapped along the
Yarkhun Valley down to Buni by PUDSEY et alii (1985),
who distinguished a continuous strip of massive carbon-
ates with the informal name of Yarkhun Limestone, from
Gazin to 15 km to the east of Mastuj. However, no dis-
tinction was made between these units that are also
exposed to the NW of the Karakoram Batholith, where
the North Karakoram Terrain merges the Darkot-Gazin
Metasedimentary Belt. Out of the mapped area, the same
belt of meta-sediments continues eastward reaching the
Karambar Valley, where it is juxtaposed to the Southern
Metamorphic Belt.
4) The Ghamu Bar Unit is composed of several intru-
sive bodies varying in composition from granite to diorite;
they generally intrude low- to very low-grade meta-sedi-
ments which form the south-western side of Karakoram,
but high-grade metamorphic rocks also occur (DEBON et
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 173
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
alii, 1987b; LE FORT & GAETANI, 1998; HEUBERGER et alii,
2007). This unit disappears moving eastward toward the
Ishkuman Valley south of the Ishkuman Pass and may
represent a southern branch of the Karakoram Batholith,
extending discontinuously along the SW margin of
Karakoram in front of the Kohistan Paleo-Arc. The main
intrusive bodies are also mid-Cretaceous in age as most of
the Karakoram Batholith (Phargam granite: U-Pb zircon
age of 103.8±0.3; HEUBERGER et alii, 2007). They include
also sheared gabbros and diorites (U-Pb zircon age of
105.2±0.3 for a meta-dioritic amphibolite; HEUBERGER et
alii, 2007) and amphibolite-facies deformed intrusives of
intermediate composition which occur in this unit along
the suture with Kohistan (HEUBERGER et alii, 2007).
Along at the southern border of our map, this belt
consists of the Aghost quartzite and migmatitic gneiss, in
which the Cretaceous intrusives were emplaced (fig. 12).
These rocks are separated to the north from the Paleozoic
low-grade meta-sediments of the Darkot-Gazin Metasedi-
mentary Belt by the Thui An Fault (LE FORT & GAETANI,
1998).
5) The Southern Metamorphic Belt includes meta-
morphic rocks which shows a strong increase in meta-
morphic conditions passing from west to east; this unit is
entirely located outside of the mapped area (fig. 10). It
consists of slates and sandstones with intercalations of
conglomerates, containing Paleozoic bryozoan- and bra-
chiopod-bearing limestones. The Nialthi meta-sediments
exposed south of the Ghamu Bar unit form a large part of
it (LE FORT & GAETANI, 1998). They consists of a very
thick package of dark splintery grey slates interbedded
with dark meta-sandstones and mud supported meta-con-
glomerates. In the calcareous intercalations, IVANAC et alii
(1956) reported the occurrence of fusulinids. The slates
are unconformably covered by the Hundur Conglomerate,
inferred to be of Cretaceous age (HUZITA, 1965), possibly
correlating to the Reshun conglomerate (LE FORT & GAE-
TANI, 1998).
Moving to the East, this unit is juxtaposed to the Bar-
rowian medium- to high-grade metamorphic complexes
exposed along the Hunza and Baltoro transects (SEARLE,
1991; FRASER et alii, 2001; LE FORT & PECHER, 2002 and
ref. therein). These units have given 63.3±0.4 Ma, ca. 50-
52 Ma, and 44.0±2.0 Ma U-Pb ages of metamorphic mon-
azites from sillimanite-gneisses of the Hunza Valley, and
monazites from a kyanite-schist from the Baltoro at
28.0±0.5 Ma. Here the last metamorphic event is con-
strained by metamorphic monazites from the Dassu
Gneiss with a crystallization age of 5.4±0.2 Ma (FRASER
et alii, 2001).
3.4 Karakoram-Kohistan Suture Zone (KKSZ)
The Karakoram-Kohistan Suture Zone (figs. 3, 10),
also named in other areas the Northern or Shyok Suture,
consists of a strongly deformed association of imbricate
blocks of serpentinites mostly harzburgitic in composi-
tion, marine turbiditic pelagic sediments and volcanoclas-
tic successions which have been recently reinterpreted as
the remnants of an oceanic basin separating the Kohistan
Paleo-Island Arc from the southern Karakoram (HEU-
BERGER, 2004; HEUBERGER et alii, 2007). Cretaceous
shallow water limestones with rudists and orbitolinids
are also tectonically intercalated within the suture zone in
173
association with andesitic and basaltic volcanic rocks
(HAYDEN, 1915; DESIO, 1959; PUDSEY et alii, 1985).
The suture zone is defined by the occurrence of ser-
pentinites, as no blueschist rocks are present, and no typi-
cal ophiolitic sequences have been found also along its
eastern continuation (e.g. ROBERTSON & COLLINS, 2002).
Serpentinites have been related to the Karakoram sub-
continental mantle which was delaminated during the
opening of the Neo-Tethys ocean due to the occurrence of
ophicarbonates (HEUBERGER, 2004). Serpentinization
occurred before the Barremian, as recorded by the intru-
sion of a 130 Ma quartz monzodiorite cutting an unde-
formed lens of serpentinite (HEUBERGER, 2004).
Detailed mapping, structural analyses and radiomet-
ric data also suggest that the suture began to close during
the Late Cretaceous (HEUBERGER, 2004; HEUBERGER et
alii, 2007), according with previous observations (BROOK-
FIELD & REYNOLDS, 1981; PUDSEY et alii, 1985; PETTER-
SON & WINDLEY, 1985; DEBON et alii, 1986, 1987b; CO-
WARD et alii, 1987; PARRISH & TIRRUL, 1989) and that
most of the intrusions crosscutting the suture zones
derive from Karakoram, where the calc-alkaline mag-
matic activity seems to have stopped at about 100 Ma.
Nevertheless, granitic dykes intruding the Kohistan units
document that the Karakoram-Kohistan Suture Zone was
still deforming also during the Eocene. Polyphase defor-
mation related to folding, thrusting and strike-slip
motions has been recognized in the suture zone and is
attributed to left-lateral convergence since Cretaceous
(HEUBERGER, 2004; HEUBERGER et alii, 2007), as also
suggested by PUDSEY et alii (1985). Left-lateral strike-slip
faults with a reverse component characterize the recent
kinematics of the suture zone (HEUBERGER et alii, 2010).
3.5 The Kohistan Paleo-Arc
The Kohistan Terrane (figs. 4, 10) has been inter-
preted as a Mesozoic Paleo-island Arc (TAHIRKHELI et alii,
1979; BARD, 1983; COWARD et alii, 1987) developed at
equatorial latitude within the Neo-Tethys ocean above a
north-dipping subduction zone (YOSHIDA et alii, 1996;
SEARLE et alii, 1999). Kohistan, which consists of a 30 to
40 km thick coherent crustal section across an island arc,
is now squeezed between the Karakoram belt and the
Indian plate to the south. In the southern part of the
paleo-arc, the obducted ultramafic rocks of the Jijal-
Patan Complex, sharply overlain by calc-alkaline garnet-
plagioclase granulites, record the crustal-mantle bound-
ary of the arc (BURG et alii, 1998). The Kamila
amphibolites, which have given U-Pb radiometric ages on
zircons ranging between 98.9±0.4 and 82.8±1.1 Ma
(SCHALTEGGER et alii, 2002) and the gabbronorites of the
Chilas Complex represent the variously deformed deep
plutonic crust of Kohistan. The northern part of arc, close
to the Karakoram-Kohistan suture, shows volcanic and
volcaniclastic sediments interbedded with turbidites,
passing upward to the fine grained sediments of the Yasin
Group, which contains Aptian-Albian limestones (PUDSEY
et alii, 1985, 1986). Calc-alkaline intermediate to acidic
volcanics (Chalt Volcanics) follow Early Cretaceous
andesitic lavas and tuffs. Primitive island-arc tholeiitic
pillow-lavas, probably developed in a back-arc basin
before the collision of Kohistan with the Asian plate, form
part of an obducted ophiolitic slice. Metasedimentary
successions, exposed to the south, include deep water
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 174
174 A. ZANCHI
sediments associated with calc-alkaline products, which
were deposited in intra-arc basins (Dir, Utror, Kalam
Groups) during Palaeogene.
The Kohistan calc-alkaline composite batholith,
resulting from at least three different plutonic events
intrudes all the described successions. The oldest intru-
sives are dated around 105 Ma and are followed by plu-
tons comprised between 85 and 26 Ma, resulting from
thickening of the arc crust after its suturing to the Asian
plate (PETTERSON & WINDLEY, 1991).
Similarly to the Karakoram-Kohistan Suture Zone, the
northern part of the Kohistan Arc shows a foliation parallel
to the suture with a horizontal mineral/stretching lineation
due to left-lateral strike-slip movements (HEUBERGER,
2004), post-dating a down-dip to oblique lineation possibly
related to previous thrusting/transpression within the
suture zone.
4. THE MAPPED TECTONOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNITS:
STRATIGRAPHIC AND STRUCTURAL SETTING
4.1 East Hindu Kush-Wakhan
The East Hindu Kush-Wakhan Terrane forms the
northern section of the mapped area, which also includes
part of Afghanistan beyond the continental divide. This
area is poorly accessible, as it is characterized by very
high mountains over than 6000 metres in elevation forming
the mountain ridge between Pakistan and Afghanistan,
often covered by large glaciers. Due to these reasons, our
map is here mainly based on satellite image photo-inter-
pretations combined with information derived from pre-
vious maps of the Afghan side of the belt (BUCHROITHNER
& GAMERITH, 1978; GAMERITH, 1982; VLASOV et alii, 1991).
The boundary with Karakoram is defined westward
by the Tirich Boundary Zone, which runs from the Tirich
Mir area to the right side of the Rich Gol Valley, crossing
it south of Rua and continuing along the right side of the
Shah Jinali Valley, ending just to the west of the Shah
Jinali Pass. In this area the TBZ is juxtaposed to the Shah
Jinali Phyllite, a low-grade meta-pelite succession which
has been attributed to Karakoram. From the Shah Jinali
Pass to the village of Inkip along the Yarkhun Valley, the
Atark Unit directly lays along the contact with the Devon-
ian Tash Kupruk Unit of Karakoram, including a charac-
teristic association of yellow dolostones and lava flows.
The Atark Unit consists of a severely deformed succession
of Permian to Triassic shallow water carbonate and slates
(GAETANI & LEVEN, 1993), attributed to the East Hindu
Kush-Wakhan domain, cropping out north of the TBZ
from the Tirich Mir to the Yarkhun Valley. The Atark
Unit also ends tectonically at Inkip, showing a triangular
termination formed by the junction of the major faults
which define the boundaries of the unit. From here to the
Hunza Valley, located 150 kilometres to the east, the
Wakhan Slates, the most extensive unit forming the
EHK-W, directly override southward the North Karako-
ram Terrain (NKT) along a generally N-dipping fault
which follows the regional structural bending of the
Karakoram belt. Overturned folds and thrust duplex
observed in the Jurassic limestones of the underlying Sost
Unit along the Chapursan Valley (ZANCHI, 1993) record a
reverse motion along the fault. Fossils evidence is gener-
ally poor in this thick terrigenous unit, which has been
& M. GAETANI
attributed to the Late Palaeozoic and possibly also to the
Early Triassic. The thrust plane often turns in its western
part, assuming ENE-WSW trends and becoming parallel
to a set of vertical faults and shear zones which show left-
lateral strike-slip components of motion, especially around
the confluence between the Yarkhun and Kan Khun val-
leys. Between Kan Khun and the Baroghil-Sarhad area
in Afghanistan, the Wakhan Slates form a large duplex
structure around the Kan Khun Unit, a previously un-
known succession of Permian to Triassic carbonates
(LEVEN et alii, 2007). The Wakhan Slates widen east
of Sarhad, running along the southern slopes of the
Wakhan Valley, and crossing again the watershed with
Afghanistan at the head of the Chapursan Valley near the
eastern closure of the map 80 km to the east.
Several E-W, N-dipping, possibly south-verging,
imbricates of crystalline rocks, including the Qal’-a-Ust
Gneiss and other undefined units, occur in Afghanistan
along the southern slope of the Ab-i Panja river between
Roruk and Sarhad out of the area which has been directly
surveyed in the field. Crystalline rocks are also exposed
eastward within the Wakhan Slates west and north of the
Sakar Sar. Marble intercalations occur in the upper part
of the Uzhnu and Rich Gol south of the Chundum and
Catch glaciers and in the eastern side of the area north of
the Sakar Sar.
The EHK-W thrust stack is intruded by several plu-
tonic units forming the East Hindu Kush Batholith, by
small isolated bodies exposed along the Rich Gol (Rua
Granodiorite), and possibly in Afghanistan by a small plu-
ton close to Sarhad (DESIO et alii, 1968; BUCHROITHNER
& GAMERITH, 1978; BUCHROITHNER, 1978, 1980; DEBON
et alii, 1987a; GAETANI et alii, 1996; ZANCHI et alii, 1997;
LE FORT & GAETANI, 1998). The batholith mainly consists
of the Lunko-Baba Tangi Granodiorite (DESIO et alii,
1968), which intruded the Wakhan Slates (BUCHROITH-
NER, 1980), and is exposed for more than 60 kilometres
forming the backbone of the East Hindu Kush moun-
tains. Old age determinations for these rocks range
between mid-Cretaceous and Late Jurassic (BUCHROITH-
NER & SCHARBERT, 1979). The Shushar Granite, forming
the eastern portion of the batholith exposed North of
Lasht in the Yarkhun Valley (fig. 12), gave a K-Ar Early
Jurassic age on muscovite (GAETANI et alii, 1996).
4.1.1 East Hindu Kush Batholith
Sarhad Granodiorite (ShGD)
The Sarhad pluton (fig. 12) is a small intrusive body
exposed south of Sarhad. Its occurrence has been inferred
through satellite image photo-interpretation adopting
the similarity of the grey-tone pattern shown by other
intrusive bodies occurring in the area. BUCHROITHNER
& GAMERITH (1978) mapped the same outcrop as part
of the Issik Granodiorite exposed in the Afghan Pamir to
the North.
Rua Granodiorite (RuGD) and related dykes (RuD)
Occurrence. The Rua Granodiorite is exposed in the
upper part of the Rich Gol north of Purgram and Rua
along the right side of the valley, where it is intruded in
the Atark Unit. The same body was already reported in
the map of BUCHROITHNER & GAMERITH (1978).
Lithology. It is a medium to fine-grained granodiorite
with biotite and minor amphibole. Large dykes and
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 175
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
small stocks surrounding the main body, together
with coarse-grained contact marble and low-grade meta-
pelites suggest that it was intruded in the Atark Unit at
shallow depth, post-dating major folding and thrusting
of the unit.
Age. No radiometric ages are available. Cross-cutting
relationships suggest that it was emplaced after the
occurrence of major folding in the Atark Unit. The thrust
surface, which stacks southward the Wakhan Slates on
the Atark carbonates, possibly cross-cuts its northern
intrusive contact (Pl. 1).
Lunkho-Baba Tangi Granodiorite (L-BGD) and related
dykes (L-BD)
Occurrence. The Lunkho-Baba Tangi Granodiorite
(DESIO et alii, 1968; BUCHROITHNER & GAMERITH, 1978;
BUCHROITHNER, 1980) forms the highest mountain peaks
originating from the East Hindu Kush Batholith, which is
broadly exposed for more than 100 kilometres across the
NW border between Afghanistan and Pakistan (Pl. 2). Its
name is related to the two main peaks which are made of
these rocks.
Lithology. The following information is summarized
from BUCHROITHNER (1980), as we did not surveyed
directly this area. It consists of an association of large
plutonic units, mainly granodioritic in composition, rang-
ing from granite to diorite. The unit is mainly intruded in
the Wakhan Slates, which often show obvious contact
phenomena. A contact aureole with migmatitic gneisses,
garnet-bearing banded gneisses and augen-gneisses occur
together with biotite- and garnet-gneiss derived from the
Wakhan Slates, which usually show post-cinematic mus-
covite around the plutons. Aplite and pegmatite dykes can
be also observed and have been reported in the map when
recognizable from our image. Garnet- and chlorite-bear-
ing pegmatite and aplitic dikes, micro-granodiorites to
micro-diorites are intruded into this unit, sending
apophyses also into the surrounding rocks.
Age. The plutonic belt is considered mid-Cretaceous
by DEBON et alii (1987a), based on previous data by
BUCHROITHNER & SCHARBERT (1979), who obtained five
biotite K-Ar and whole rock Rb-Sr radiometric ages
between 103 and 85 Ma. On the other hand, a whole-rock
Rb-Sr isochrone, obtained by the same authors on three
samples, gave a Late Jurassic 151 Ma age.
Shushar Granite (ShGR) and related dykes (ShD)
Occurrence. Named after the Shushar Glacier and
Valley (GAETANI et alii, 1996; LE FORT & GAETANI, 1998),
it is exposed between the Kushrao and Kan Khun An val-
leys, north of Lasht, along the northern slopes of the
Yarkhun Valley.
Lithology. It is a light-coloured heterogranular two-
micas, coarse-grained, granite with K-feldspar mega-
crystals and slightly chloritized nests of biotite; biotite
is more abundant than muscovite. The very elongated
K-feldspar megacrysts (up to 10 × 1.2 cm) are zoned with
frequent cores dotted by biotite.
Contacts. The granite is intrusive into the Wakhan
Slates (Pl. 3). The grade of metamorphism and deforma-
tion of the slates increases towards the contact, especially
in the last 200 to 300 m, where the slates acquire a mica-
ceous lustre and present a crenulation cleavage super-
posed on the regional cleavage. The contact is sharp,
slightly discordant on the almost vertical bedding and
175
open folds of the Wakhan Slates. The granite emanates
dykes of undeformed aplites and granites, some of them
with tourmaline. This can be observed in the first 50 m
from the contact; further off, dykes are only made up of
quartz. The contact is locally faulted.
Age. A muscovite K-Ar age of 171±3.4 Ma was obtained
for this unit (GAETANI et alii, 1996).
4.1.2 Wakhan Crystalline Basement (W)
Qal’a-e Ust Gneiss (Wq)
Name. The unit is named after the type locality of
Qal’a-e Ust along the Ab-i Panja.
Occurrence. The Qal’a-e Ust Gneiss occurs north of
the Afghanistan-Pakistan divide along the northern slope
of East Hindu Kush, extending from the NW corner of
the map to Sarhad.
Lithology. The description is taken from BUCHROITH-
NER (1980), as the unit is entirely exposed in Afghanistan.
It consists of augen-gneiss, migmatitic gneiss with peg-
matite dykes and aplitic veins. Garnet-biotite, muscovite
gneiss is also present. The unit includes deformed grani-
toids, possibly Cambrian in age (DESIO et alii, 1968;
BUCHROITHNER, 1980; DEBON et alii, 1987a) and is well
exposed along the left side of the Ab-i Wakhan River
where it forms a south-verging thrust sheet stacked on
the Wakhan Slates to the west of Sarhad.
Age. A poorly reliable WR Rb-Sr «errorchrone» of
322±87 Ma is given by DEBON et alii (1987a), and also by
a muscovite + WR pair date of 88±24 Ma (BUCHROITH-
NER & SCHARBERT, 1979). Nevertheless, DEBON et alii
(1987a) consider this unit of Early Paleozoic age (ca. 500
Ma), based on petrographic data and isotopic composi-
tion, being related to the magmatic event affecting Gond-
wana at the beginning of the Paleozoic.
Wakhan Marble (Wm)
Metacarbonates stratigraphically and tectonically
intercalated in the Wakhan Slates occur on the east side
of the upper Uzhnu Gol, a tributary valley of the Rich
Gol, and north of the Sakar Sar in Afghanistan to the
east. They are a few hundred meters thick.
Wakhan Crystalline (Wk)
This unit includes undifferentiated intrusive and
metamorphic rocks exposed north of the Ab-i Wakhan
River in Afghanistan. They occur to the S-SE of the
recently described Miocene Shakhdara dome affecting
the basement of SW Pamir (HACKER et alii, 2011), caus-
ing the exhumation of deep crustal rocks. The same com-
plex is intruded by the Wakhan Batholith to the North.
4.1.3 Sedimentary and metasedimentary units
4.1.3.1 Wakhan Slates (Ws)
Name. The Wakhan Slates were firstly defined by
HAYDEN (1915). DESIO (1963) introduced the name of
Misgar Slates for a similar unit in the upper Hunza Val-
ley, that we consider as a lateral equivalent of the
Wakhan Slates. However, the belt of black slates is run-
ning through the Wakhan and we were unable to check
its actual continuity in the field. Correlation is thus
mainly based on satellite imagery interpretation.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 176
176 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 14 - Intercalations of quartzarenitic layers in the Wakhan Slates
along the valley taking to the Kan Khun Pass. September, 1999.
Occurrence. The Wakhan Slates form a continuous
strip along the Eastern Hindu Kush, from Chitral to
Wakhan, largely extending eastward beyond the Hunza
Valley, reaching at least the Shimshal Pass. The unit is
exposed in Pakistan west of the area of Kan Khun (Pl. 3)
north of the Shah Jinali Pass and in the upper part of the
Chapursan Valley to the east along its northern slope.
Lithology. It is a monotonous successions of black
slates, with subordinate intercalations of fine sandstones
with rare parallel laminations and recrystallized calcare-
ous siltstones. Its thickness is difficult to be assessed due
to tectonic deformation, but it might encompass more
than thousand meters. Several intercalations of light
quartzarenitic sandstone layers occur through the unit,
sometimes reaching some tens of meters (e.g.: N of Kan
Khun close to the contact with the Shushar Granite
(fig. 14). In the few reachable outcrops located on the
Pakistan side of the belt, they show a well-developed
steep N-dipping axial plane slaty cleavage related to E-W
south-verging folds, observed, e.g., in the upper part of
the Kan Khun Valley below the tectonic contact with the
Kan Khun Unit.
It is worth noting that these black slates, extending
for hundreds of kilometres along the northern margin of
Karakoram, give the name to the belt, as the word means
in ancient Turkish: «black (kara) terrains (korum)».
Fossil and age. Fossils are extremely rare and strongly
deformed. Fenestellid bryozoans and fairly large Spi-
riferid brachiopods were observed on the trail leading to
the Kan Khun Pass. They can be attributed to the Paleo-
zoic, possibly Devonian to Permian.
Environment. The very thick monotonous lithology
suggests deposition in a highly subsiding, poorly oxy-
genated basin, with an important fine terrigenous supply.
No clear structures due to turbiditic currents have been
observed. However, low energy currents carrying fine
sediments on the apron at the edge of the continental
platform, may be suggested.
4.1.3.2 Atark Unit (AK)
The Atark Unit (GAETANI & LEVEN, 1993) forms a
continuous strip of carbonate rocks lying just North
of the Tirich Boundary Zone, marking the boundary
between East Hindu Kush and Karakoram (Pl. 4), from
& M. GAETANI
the SW edge of the map up to Inkip (Pl. 5) in the Yarkhun
Valley. The unit records the evolution from a continen-
tal/marine terrigenous plane to a carbonate ramp in the
Early Permian, overlain by a wide carbonate platform
bearing large bivalves of Late Triassic age.
Important tectonic repetitions due to thrust stacking
and superposed fold generations can be observed in this
tectonic unit. Due to the impervious morphology given
by this unit, observations have been generally taken
in the distance. Large NNE-SSW to NE-SW trending
recumbent isoclinal folds suggest a dramatic shortening
of the unit. Folding associated to a very low grade
imprint is followed by a second stage of folding often
related to S- to SW-verging thrusts. Well-exposed folds,
associated with the early stage of shortening, enhanced
by chromatic contrasts, can be observed in the upper
part of the Rich Gol and along the Shah Jinali Valley
(Pl. 1). A steep south-verging imbricate fan is evident
along the right side of the gorge in front of the Shah
Jinali summer settlement (Pl. 2), where different facies of
the Atark Unit are tectonically juxtaposed. The antifor-
mal structure exposed in the Atark Unit north of Aliabad
and Inkip (Pl. 4), related to the overthrust of the the
Atark Unit onto the NKT, is due to the second phase of
folding (D2); interference between different fold genera-
tions is exposed in the core of the antiform in well-bed-
ded marly limestones along the deep gorge above the vil-
lage of Inkip (fig. 15). The Atark Unit is intruded by the
Rua granodiorite post-dating at least the first folding
stage (Pl. 1). Extensive exposures of the Atark Unit occur
also along the Uzhnu Valley (Pls. 6, 7).
The SW continuation of the same belt comprising the
Atark Unit, the Wakhan Slates and the TBZ is intruded
by the Lower Cretaceous Tirich Mir Pluton 80 km west-
ward (fig. 11), suggesting that at least part of the defor-
mations affecting these units predates the granite
emplacement.
Three main facies have been mapped: Dolostones
(AK3), Black Limestones (AK2) and Slates (AK1). Uncon-
formable breccias (AKsb), possibly correlating with other
late Mesozoic clastic bodies, have been found along the
Shah Jinali Valley.
Shah Jinali Metabreccia (AKsb)
Occurrence. They crop out along the lower part of the
Shah Jinali gorge within the Atark Unit on the top of the
carbonate peaks occurring on the right side of the valley,
just west of the boundary with the TBZ. The breccias are
severely faulted and deformed within the thrust stack of
the Atark Unit.
Lithology. Breccias observed in large blocks fallen
from the rock walls show coarse-grained poorly rounded,
severely-deformed and monogenic clasts, mainly consist-
ing of strongly flattened carbonate fragments in a red-
dish-violet phyllite matrix showing a very low-grade
metamorphic imprint (Pl. 8).
Age. They are similar to the Cretaceous Tupop Fm. of
central Karakoram or to the Reshun Fm. of Chitral (GAE-
TANI et alii, 1993; ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994; ZANCHI et
alii, 1997; PUDSEY et alii, 1985). A Late Cretaceous to
Palaeogene age is tentatively suggested.
Atark Dolostone (AK3)
Name. The Atark Unit was introduced by BUCH-
ROITHNER (1978, 1980) and later emended by GAETANI &
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 177
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
Fig. 15 - D2 antiformal structure within the Atark Unit, showing D1 folds in the core, Khushrao Valley north of Inkip. September, 1996.
LEVEN (1993) from the name of the Atark Valley, a sec-
ondary stream of the Tirich Gol Valley, located east of the
Tirich Mir.
Occurrence. The dolostone forms a rugged belt from
Inkip/Lasht in the east to the Shah Jinali Pass and along
the northern slope of the Morich Valley.
Lithology. The massive dolostone forms a very thick,
apparently monotonous, succession. Recrystallization is
heavy and along the Morich Valley the dolostones are
incipiently transformed into marbles especially close to
the Rua Granodiorite.
Fossils and age. Badly preserved remnants of mega-
lodontids and dasycladaceans algae, observed in the
debris near Aliabad along the Yarkhun Valley, suggest a
Triassic age. In Chitral, GAETANI & LEVEN (1993, their
fig. 3) found Early Permian fusulinids in the lower part of
the unit within marly intercalations followed upsection
by accumulations of megalodontids, considered Late
Triassic in age. A Permian age for the lower part of the
succession is also tentatively suggested for the study area
especially in the upper Morich Gol.
Atark Black Limestone (AK2)
Occurrence. They form some continuous thrust sheets
within the Atark stack. They can be distinguished from
the massive carbonates north of Aliabad in the Yarkhun
Valley and along the right side of the lower Shah Jinali
Valley.
Lithology. The succession consists of well-bedded
alternating dolomitic dark grey limestones, slates, and
sandstones in 20 to 50 cm-thick layers which may repre-
177
sent a lateral equivalent of the Atark Dolostone. The esti-
mated thickness is >100 m.
Age: ?Permian.
Atark Slates (AK1)
Alternating well-bedded black marls, limestone and
slates are mainly exposed along the upper Rich Gol. A
thrust slice of slates included within the Atark Unit imbri-
cates is exposed north of Lasht in the Yarkhun Valley.
Basing on lithological correlations, they may be Permian
in age.
4.1.3.3 Kan Khun Unit (KK)
The occurrence of a large carbonate thrust sheet
(KK2) including terrigenous sediments (KK1) in this part
of the Eastern Hindu Kush was never reported before.
The map published by KAFARSKYI in ABDULLAH &
CHMYRIOV (1980), at the scale 1:500,000, indicates an
intrusive body, of supposed Triassic age, where we
observed this light carbonate unit. Details on its internal
stratigraphy are given in LEVEN et alii (2007).
The Kan Khun Unit forms a large thrust duplex
within the Wakhan Slates, just north of the tectonic
boundary with Karakoram. The unit is strongly folded
and tectonic repetitions occur particularly on the Paki-
stan side of the belt (fig. 16). South-verging fault-propaga-
tion parallel folds (fig. 17) are exposed in the upper Kan
Khun Valley in the well-stratified beds lying above the
main thrust plane, which stacks the unit upon its terrige-
nous layers and the Wakhan Slates (fig. 16).
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 178
178 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 16 - Thrust faults between the Kan Khun Unit and the Wakhan
Slates along the upper part of the Kan Khun Valley. September, 1999.
Fig. 17 - Fault-propagation folds in the dolomitic limestones of the
Kan Khun Unit, upper part of the Kan Khun Valley. September, 1999.
Kan Khun Carbonates (KK2)
Occurrence. The unit forms the high peaks of the
watershed with Wakhan between the Kan Khun Gol and
the Baroghil Pass and it is well exposed especially along
the Afghan side of the belt.
Lithology. In the lower part, alternating massive and
well-bedded limestones prevail (Pl. 9). The grey thin-bed-
ded packstones contain very abundant fusulinids, subordi-
nate gastropods and fragments of brachiopods. The upper
part is made of light massive dolostone. On the Afghan side
the succession appears less deformed in the distance, and
includes a dark strip of sedimentary layers, several tens of
m-thick, resting below the massive light dolostone (Pl. 10).
Fossil and age. LEVEN et alii (2007) reported from the
lower grey limestones several fusulinids belonging to the
genera: Misellina, Armenina, Chalaroschwagerina, Leeina,
and Skinnerella. Small foraminifers are also present. The
suggested age is Roadian (early Kubergandian), Middle
Permian (Misellina ovalis-Armenina Zone).
Environment. This unit testifies that shallow marine
carbonates transgressed also in that part of the East
Hindu Kush during the Permian.
Kan Khun Clastics (KK1)
Occurrence. They form a discontinuous strip at the
base of Kan Khun Carbonates, in tectonic contact with
the underlying Wakhan Slates.
& M. GAETANI
Lithology. Dark slates and siltstones, with a strong pen-
cil cleavage, with framboids of pyrite, intercalated to grey
fine sandstones in beds up to 1 m-thick with parallel lami-
nation; very subordinated grey sandy limestones occur.
The apparent thickness does not exceed 200 m on the
Pakistani side. Good sections (seen in the distance) occur
on the Afghan side on the east side of the Rez Glacier.
Age. By analogy with other Gircha-like terrigenous
bodies in the Eastern Hindu Kush (Unit 1 and 2 in GAETANI
& LEVEN, 1993) and because of the stratigraphic position,
an Early Permian age is tentatively attributed to this unit.
4.2 Tirich Boundary Zone
This important tectonic unit, now interpreted as the
structural boundary between East Hindu Kush and
Karakoram (ZANCHI et alii, 2000), was partially repre-
sented in previous maps as an association of amphibolites
and sheared serpentinites, cropping out between the
Uzhnu Gol and the Shah Jinali Pass (BUCHROITHNER &
GAMERITH, 1978; GAMERITH, 1982).
The portion of the Tirich Boundary Zone (TBZ)
reported in the map was firstly described by ZANCHI et
alii (1997) as the Rich Gol Metamorphic Complex, an
intricate assemblage of serpentinized peridotites, amphi-
bolites and high-grade gneisses, indicating a sharp jump
in metamorphism with respect to the surrounding units.
All these different rock types have been included in the
same unit due to the complexity of its structure and espe-
cially to its scarce or null accessibility. ENE-WSW verti-
cal faults bound the TBZ from the western boundary of
the mapped area up to the Shah Jinali summer village
(Pl. 11). Left-lateral strike-slip motions have been observed
along faults with the same strike out of the study area and
around Shah Gharil in the Shah Jinali Phyllites. Eastward
the TBZ is delimited by E-W north-dipping high angle
fault planes, possibly suggesting an important reverse-
motion component. The TBZ, extending across the whole
Chitral region from the Tirich Mir area, ends a few kilo-
metres to the west of the Shah Jinali Pass.
According to ZANCHI et alii (1997, 2000), the gneisses
and amphibolites forming the TBZ display remnants of a
prograde temperature path and a complete sequence of
retrogressive metamorphism. Higher pressure conditions
are substantially constrained by the absence of epidote in
textural equilibrium with hornblende and plagioclase in
the metabasites. Maximum temperatures are suggested
by the breakdown of biotite to K-feldspar + sillimanite +
garnet (+ melt?) and by the breakdown of hornblende to
pyroxene. Both facts suggest that these rocks attained
temperatures higher than 800°-850° at pressures higher
than 3-4 kbar, but lower than 10 kbar, suggesting a
regional metamorphism related to a collision event pre-
dating the emplacement of the Tirich Mir granite, which
has given an U-Pb zircon age of 121±1 Ma (HEUBERGER
et alii, 2007). It is also worth noting that the intrusion
occurred after exhumation of the TBZ and its coupling
with the Wakhan Slates and Atark Unit which show a
very low-grade metamorphic imprint.
Tirich Boundary Zone Metamorphic Complex (TBZ)
This complex mainly includes amphibolites, garnet-sil-
limanite- (± k-feldspar) biotite-gneisses and mica schists,
locally displaying migmatitic textures, which are tectoni-
cally associated with small lenses of sheared serpen-
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 179
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
tinites (upper Rich Gol). A leucocratic orthogneiss (Tor)
has been observed in the distance along the right side of
the Rich Gol (ZANCHI et alii, 1997, 2000), whithin domi-
nat metabasites (Pl. 12).
Amphibolites and high-grade metapelites have been
sampled west of the summer settlement of Shah Jinali and
along the left flank of the upper Rich Gol. Metabasites
show well-preserved granoblastic textures, with a roughly
equigranular association of subeuhedral amphibole, pla-
gioclase and quartz, with interstitial magnetite and titan-
ite, showing minor greenschist-facies re-equilibration.
Coarse grained pyroxene-amphibolites, with reaction sym-
plectites of pyroxene and amphibole show a large euhe-
dral green-brown hornblende affected by overgrowths of
pyroxene lamellae, suggesting a prograde breakdown of
amphibole. Amphibolites with peculiar zoning of a ‘blue-
green’ amphibole, possibly barroisitic in composition, also
occur in the upper Rich Gol. Meta-gabbroes with pre-
served magmatic textures also occur in the same place.
Metapelites showing microscopic segregates of perthitic
K-feldspar, plagioclase, quartz and prismatic to fibrolitic
sillimanite grown on relics of red-brown biotite, were
found in the lower Shah Jinali Valley, possibly indicative
of partial melting. Submillimetric garnet is homoge-
neously present in the rock. Muscovite only occurs when
alkali-feldspar is absent and sillimanite is fibrolitic, sug-
gesting a somewhat lower temperature of metamorphism.
The occurrence of inequigranular amoeboid quartz also
indicates a process of high-temperature annealing of
previously foliated rocks.
Serpentinites found in the debris along the upper
Rich Gol, east of Rua and south of the junction with the
Shah Jinali Valley are schistose and contain a few relics
of olivine and bastite pseudomorphs grown on pyroxene.
The TBZ has been encountered also in the Uzhnu Gol,
where mafic schists with a vertical NE-SW banding are
associated with amphibolite-facies metapelites. Mafic
schists here include fine grained well banded amphibo-
lites with hornblende, plagioclase and quartz (fig. 18),
showing a variable extent of greenschist-facies retrogres-
sion recorded by tremolite/actinolite, chlorite and epidote
aggregates. Mica schists with a staurolite + garnet +
biotite + muscovite + quartz assemblage were also found
along the Uzhnu Gol. Biotite porphyroclasts present in
microlithons show a polydeformational history, followed
by a gentle crenulation and folding as in the Shah Jinaly
Phyllites of Karakoram. Due to sparce observations and
poor accessibility of the outcrops in the map area, no
further considerations can be given.
4.3 Karakoram
4.3.1 Northern Karakoram Terrain
The Northern Karakoram Terrain (NKT) consists of a
thick and polyphase stack of thrust sheets exposed north
of the Karakoram Batholith (ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994;
GAETANI et alii, 1996; ZANCHI et alii, 2000; LE FORT &
GAETANI, 1998), including also a large part of Wakhan,
Afghanistan (fig. 12). In the Chitral region, Karakoram is
separated from East Hindu Kush-Wakhan by the Tirich
Boundary Zone. East of the Shah Jinali Pass, the TBZ is
tectonically elided by NE-SW left-lateral strike-slip faults
and the Late Paleozoic Wakhan Slates are directly
stacked to the south on the NKT units.
179
Fig. 18 - Banded amphibolitic gneiss belonging to the Tirich Bound-
ary Zone Metamoprhic Complex along the Uzhnu Gol. Note a small
dextral fault displacing banding. September, 1996.
The southern margin of the NKT generally shows a
main tectonic contact with the Karakoram Batholith (KB)
which is here Cretaceous in age. Primary intrusive relation-
ships are preserved in some places (DEBON & KHAN, 1996;
LE FORT & GAETANI, 1998). To the west, the southern
boundary of the North Karakoram Terrain consists of a
high-angle shear zone with reverse to oblique left-lateral
components, passing to a south-dipping north-verging
thrust plane along the Chiantar Glacier area. Tectonic
slices of the Cretaceous plutons are also included within
the sedimentary cover of the NKT, as well as deformed
meta-sediments occur along some of the main boundaries
displacing the single intrusive units composing the
batholith. A few isolated granitic bodies are present north
of the KB (Chhateboi Granite). A significant difference
between the Hunza region (ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994) and
the Chitral area, up to the upper reaches of the Karambar
river, is that in the western area thrust sheets mostly con-
sist of Paleozoic successions, the youngest sediments being
the Cretaceous Reshun Fm. On the contrary, along the
eastern side of the range, thrust sheets include rocks not
older than Early Permian or possibly Late Carboniferous
(GAETANI et alii, 1990a; ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994), suggest-
ing that a regional detachment developed at the base of the
fine-grained clastic facies of the Gircha Formation. In addi-
tion, another major difference is given by the occurrence in
the study area of a crystalline basement with deformed
low-grade quartzites (Chikar Quartzite) intruded by pre-
Ordovician granitoids. This important character suggests a
thick-skinned style for the NKT thrust stack.
We distinguished several thrust sheets within the
NKT, based on their structural and stratigraphic features
(fig. 19). The recognized units generally show complex
geometrical relationships and different structural evolu-
tion (fig. 12). The Reshun Fault of Chitral (PUDSEY et alii,
1985; PUDSEY, 1986; ZANCHI et alii, 1997, 2000) and its
eastern continuation into the Upper Hunza Fault (DESIO,
1964a), over a distance exceeding 200 km, is the major tec-
tonic lineament of the NKT. Its continuity across the high
mountains of the Chiantar Glacier area is given by thin
slices of the Reshun Fm., which may be correlated with
the Tupop Fm. of the Hunza Valley (GAETANI et alii, 1993;
ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994), forming a continuous strip
across the Chillinji area along the upper Karambar Valley.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 180
180 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 19 - Stratigraphy of the main thrust sheets of the North Karakoram Terrain. Time scale according to GRADSTEIN et alii (2004).
The Reshun Fault, resulting from the inversion of a
Paleozoic normal fault, exposes along its footwall the pre-
Ordovician crystalline basement of Karakoram, which is
covered by a Paleozoic and partially Mesozoic succession,
with internal gaps or locally almost complete, but usually
showing reduced thickness (Axial Unit). Other strongly
deformed units occur to the south of the Axial Unit
(Dobargar-Kotalkash meta-sediments, Guhjal Unit). Most
of these thrust sheets were affected by a very low- to low-
grade metamorphic imprint. The Cretaceous Reshun For-
mation locally occurs with a preserved unconformable
boundary above these units, with a thickness varying
from a few tens to hundreds meters.
The structural setting occurring north of the Reshun
Fault is different. The main dissimilarity is the absence of
the pre-Ordovician crystalline basement of Karakoram.
In fact, most of the floor thrusts bounding these units
propagate from the Ordovician slates of the Baroghil
Group, forming a complex stack of imbricates juxtapos-
ing several tectonic units with thick Paleozoic to Meso-
zoic successions (fig. 12). West of the Baroghil Pass to
& M. GAETANI
Chitral, up to the longitude of Morich, the thrust system
is bounded by the Tash Kupruk Unit (TKU) (KAFARSKIY
& ABDULLAH, 1976; GAETANI et alii, 1996), containing
basalt lava flows interbedded with Devonian carbonates
often showing a low greenschist-facies imprint. This unit
forms a continuous belt reaching Afghanistan north of
Kan Khun and the Baroghil passes with E-W to NE-SW
trends (fig. 13). An isolated klippe of this unit has been
identified also in the impervious peaks dominating Chill-
inji. In the western part of the area the Tash Kupruk Unit
is separated from the Tirich Boundary Zone by the Shah
Jinali Phyllite, a monotonous succession of greenschist-
facies quartzite-bearing, garnet- and chloritoid-phyllite.
South of the Shah Jinali Pass the hanging wall of the
Reshun Fault consists of the Lasht and Siru Gol units
(GAETANI et alii, 1996), which include several thrust sheets
with Devonian to Permian rocks (fig. 13) interposed
between this fault and the TKU to the north. In the central
part of the area the Karambar and Lashkargaz-Baroghil
units, showing the most complete and accessible strati-
graphic section in North Karakoram, dominate, extending
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 181
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
to the Wakhan region across the Afghan border. East of
the Karambar Pass, the Reshun Fault merges into the
Hunza fault system (ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994; ZANCHI &
GRITTI, 1996). This regional structure forms a complex
system of north-verging thrusts stacking the Guhjal Unit
on the western continuation of the Sost Unit, previously
defined in the Chapursan Valley (GAETANI et alii, 1990a),
which consists of a Permian to Jurassic succession uncon-
formably covered by the Cretaceous Tupop Fm. The
Chhateboi Unit, with a low grade meta-sedimentary suc-
cession possibly of Permian to Triassic age, is tectonically
interposed between the Karambar and the Sost thrust
sheets along the uppermost part of the Karambar Valley.
UNITS NORTH OF THE RESHUN-UPPER HUNZA
FAULTS
4.3.1.1 Shah Jinali Unit (SJ)
This large tectonic unit, forming the western bound-
ary of the NKT to the west of the Shah Jinali Pass (Pl. 13),
includes a monotonous succession of greenschist-facies
quartzite rich metapelites, interposed between the TBZ
and the Tash Kupruk Unit (ZANCHI et alii, 1997). This
belt, several kilometres-large, is exposed along the Shah
Jinali and Morich valleys, forming their left-side slopes
up to the Shah Jinali Pass, where it ends tectonically. In
this area, the unit is always coupled with the TBZ, which
also ends up at the Shah Jinali Pass. Due to the strong
difference in metamorphic conditions with respect to the
TBZ and to its western continuation, which seems to
merge with the other Paleozoic units of Chitral, we prefer
to include the Shah Jinali Unit into Karakoram, as it may
derive from the metamorphism of the Lun Shales or
Lutkho Fm. of Chitral. Nevertheless, its metamorphic
imprint and polyphase ductile deformation prevents from
any realistic correlation with these sedimentary units. We
distinguished only one rock type.
Shah Jinali Phyllite (SJph)
They include a garnet-chlorite and chloritoid-chlorite
phyllite with muscovite and quartz, associated to thick
layers of whitish quartzite. At least two deformational
events have been recognized in the unit (fig. 20). An Sl
foliation, defined by muscovite, chlorite, and quartz layers
with garnet porphyroblasts has been successively deformed
by kink bands and tight folds with gently plunging NE-
SW trending sub-horizontal axes (fig. 21). A NE-SW verti-
cal crenulation cleavage (S2) defined by stilpnomelane
needles, associated to rotation and retrogression of gar-
net, is characteristic of this event. Mesoscopic horizontal
chevron folds (F2) with NE-SW trending axes related to
this second event (D2) can be observed everywhere along
the Rich and Uzhnu Gol (fig. 21). Undeformed chloritoid
porphyroblasts grow on the S2 cleavage similarly to what
has been recognized in the Reshun Fm. of the Axial Unit.
Small NE-SW trending left-lateral strike-slip faults with
chlorite fibres cutting the crenulation cleavage occur in
the upper part of the Shah Jinali Valley around Shah
Gharil.
4.3.1.2 Tash Kupruk Unit (TK)
The term of Tash Kupruk Zone, from a locality in Kir-
gyz Wakhan (Tash: stone; Kupruk: bridge) has been intro-
181
Fig. 20 - A strong lineation is defined in the Shah Jinali Phyllite
by fold axes related to refolding of a previous foliation; Uzhnu Gol.
August, 1990.
duced by KAFARSKIY et alii (1974) in an internal report,
later summarized in KAFARSKIY & ABDULLAH (1976) and
especially by ABDULLAH & CHMRYOV (1980). KAFARSKIY
referred this term to all the sedimentary rocks cropping
out to the south of the Wakhan crystalline, i.e. a synonym
of Northern Karakoram. GAETANI et alii (1996) adopted
the term, restricting its meaning to the belt with carbon-
ates and basic volcanic rocks exposed a few kilometres to
the north of the Baroghil Pass from the western side of
the Baroghil Darya in Afghanistan. This unit forms a con-
tinuous belt of about 80 kilometres along the northern
edge of Karakoram, ending to the SW not far from Ma-
stuj, in Chitral (fig. 12). Its lateral continuity west of the
Shah Jinali Pass has been directly observed by us (ZANCHI
et alii, 1997, 2000) along the left-side of the Shah Jinali
and Morich valleys (fig. 13, Pl. 13) to the east of the Shah
Jinali Phyllite. In addition, we also stated a net separation
of this unit from the metabasites of the Uzhnu Gol (GAE-
TANI & LEVEN, 1993), which are directly associated with
the TBZ. In fact this association of gneiss and amphibo-
lites have no relationships with the rock types character-
izing the Tash Kupruk Unit, which is entirely part of the
cover of the Northern Karakoram Terrain.
The unit suffered polyphase deformation, reaching in
a few areas a low greenschist-facies metamorphism,
which is evident along the Yarkhun Valley. In other
portion of the belt (Shah Jinali Gol) original facies are
more preserved and Devonian fossils could be identified
(HUBMANN & GAETANI, 2007).
The Tash Kupruk belt shows a complex structure,
characterized by continuous bends from NE-SW trends
where vertical left-lateral strike-slip faults define its
boundaries (fig. 22), to ENE-WSW trends which show a
transition to high-angle reverse faults with important
throws. Due to its remotness and inaccessibility, few
direct observations have been possible in this unit.
The Tash Kupruk Unit, which forms a continuous
belt a few kilometres large, can be easily recognized in
the landscape also in the distance of kilometres for its
peculiar association of yellow carbonates and dark green
lava flows. It can be clearly followed north of the Baroghil
Pass down to the western side of the Baroghil Darya
(Pl. 14) in Afghanistan also on satellite imagery. Never-
theless, it was not possible to confirm its continuation to
the east of the river. An isolated klippe of this unit has
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 182

182 A. ZANCHI & M. GAETANI

Fig. 21 - Mesoscopic structural data relative to the Shah Jinali Unit; one plot refers to the Wakhan Slates above Kan Khun, stereographic
Schmidt’s projections, lower hemisphere, refer to the measured structural elements. Faults are cyclographic projections with black dots rep-
resenting striations with relative sense of motion; empty circle are poles to bedding, black triangles to axial plane foliations, large black dots
to mylonitic foliation, triangles are poles to axial planes, fold axes are black small circles. Small black dots are fold axes; the relative deforma-
tion stage is also shown.

Fig. 22 - Mesoscopic structural data relative to the Tash Kupruk Unit; symbols as in fig. 21.

been identified within the unreachable peaks above Chill-
inji (Pl. 15), where it is affected by complex polyphase
folds successively cut by the splays of the Hunza Fault,
which make this area a tectonic puzzle (Pl. 16). Folding of
the whole structure of the klippe after its emplacement is
also evident. Folding can be responsible of apparent back-
thrusting of the Guhjal Unit between the Chillinji Pass
and the Chillinji Glacier, whereas the Guhjal Unit is
always exposed in a lower structural position along the
other contacts bounding the Tash Kupruk klippe of Chill-
inji. It is worth noting that at Chillinji the TKU occupies a
different structural position with respect to its western
exposures, as it occurs south of the Hunza-Reshun fault
system on top of the Axial and the Guhjal units. The
occurrence of this klippe may suggest a much larger
extension of this unit with respect to its present exposure.
Superposed folds possibly related to different defor-
mational events affect the TKU; repetitions of similar
layers may be in part due to isoclinal folding, which is
evident from interference patterns on the high peaks to
the east of the Shah Jinali Pass above Shost. Kilometre-
scale synformal structures superposed on the first genera-
tion of folds can be observed in the previous locality and
especially NE of Kan Khun, where a tight to close syn-
form with a vertical axial plane affects the TKU (Pl. 17).
The axial trace of this fold is also deformed by the
regional bending of the structural trends peculiar to this
sector of Karakoram and related to left-lateral shearing of
the belt. E-W trending upright folds are refolded by sub-
sequent vertical kink folds around the Shah Jinali Pass
(fig. 21, Pl. 18).
This thrust sheet includes several different units: yel-
lowish dolostones, Devonian in age (Tc), black limestones
(Tm), basaltic lava flows (Tb), and volcanoclastics (Tv).
Carbonates (Tc)
Occurrence. The unit forms a discontinuous belt from
the Shah Jinali and Siru valleys to Kan Khun (Pl. 17) in
the Pakistani territory, continuing from the Kan Khun
Gol to the Wakhan side south of Sarhad (Pl. 14).
Lithology. Light grey, yellowish when altered, dolo-
stones in thick to massive beds, forming elongated bodies
even 100 m thick, alternating with grey thin-bedded lime-
stone. Usually they are severely recrystallized. However,
ooidal dolostone with stromatolitic laminae, sparse tabu-
late corals and bryozoans were collected in the area to the
north of Inkip, on the east side of the Kushrao Gol, and
also along the Kan Khun Gol at about 4000-4100 m. On
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 183
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
Fig. 23 - Celechephora devonica (SCHLÜTER) of
Givetian age (Middle Devonian), Tash Kupruk
Unit.
the Pakistani side, dolostones are closely associated with
dark green tuffs (Tv) and lava flows (Tb). Their contacts
are often sheared in the study area.
Fossils and age. B. HUBMANN (in HUBMANN & GAE-
TANI, 2007) identified Celechopora devonica (SCHLÜTER),
allowing to assign a Givetian (Middle Devonian) age to
the dolostones (fig. 23).
Environment. Peritidal carbonate platform.
Black limestones and marls (Tm)
Occurrence. Carbonate lenses along the northern limb
of the Kan Khun synform. Slate and marl at the base of
the unit near Chillinji.
Lithology. Grey to brownish well-bedded limestone in
20-30 cm thick beds with fragments of crinoids and
corals. Limestones are often partly dolomitized. Dark silt-
stones and marls, thinly bedded. All the lithologies are
severely deformed and stretched.
Age. No direct data. By analogy with the best devel-
oped successions in other thrust sheets, they could be
equivalent to the Shogram Fm. and thus Middle-Upper
Devonian in age.
Environment. The abundance of crinoids suggests a
not too deep marine environment.
Lava flows (Tb)
Occurrence. They are associated with the carbonates
all along the strip forming the Task Kupruk Unit. The
most important outcrops are in the upper reaches of the
Paur Gol to the west, near Zirch-Lasht-Inkip (Pl. 5), and
from Kan Khun (Pls. 19, 20) to the NE along the Kan
Khun Gol. Massive lavas also occur in the Chillinji klippe
(Pl. 21). They are generally interbedded within the yellow-
ish dolostones (Td) and subordinately with the other
metasediments of the TKU.
Lithology. Massive dark green basaltic to andesitic
flows, often shattered and altered, often associated with
thin volcanoclastic layers. Petrographically (GAETANI et
alii, 1996), the rocks are extremely altered in a dirty
assemblage of quartz-albite-chlorite-amphibole-epidote-
sphene and opaques, due to thorough greenschist-facies
recrystallisation. Mylonitic fabrics in greenschist condi-
tions occur at Inkip along the Yarkhun Valley, whereas
across the Shah Jinali Pass (Pl. 21), effusive textures are
better preserved, still showing pyroxene phenocrystals.
183
According to GAETANI et alii (1996), the variability of
abundance of the Low-Field Strength Elements (LFSE):
K, Rb, Ba (Sr) and Th, reflects the deep alteration, whilst
the less mobile major elements during low-grade meta-
morphism, point out to an association of alkali basalts.
These alkaline characteristics are supported by the high
content in TiO2 and P205, resembling basanites. Trace ele-
ments and REE enforce these alkaline features. The high
Zr, Nb and La compare well with oceanic island basalts
and other alkali basalts from continental rifts.
Ophitic intersertal textures typical of diabase were
found in the area of Chillinji in loose blocks deriving from
the klippe overlying the Axial Unit.
Volcanoclastics (Tv)
Occurrence. Often associated to the lavas, they are
sufficiently thick to be mapped to the north of Inkip and
in the klippe of Chillinji.
Lithology. Fine grained dark to light green volcan-
oclastics interbedded with the other units of the TK. Sub-
ordinated packages of dark red fine volcanoclastic sedi-
ments and tuffs. Few coarser graded intercalations, 3-4 m
thick also occur. All the rocks are severely altered, tecton-
ically shattered, and chloritized. Apparent thickness is up
to 300 m at Inkip, but repetitions cannot be ruled out.
Reddish volcanoclastic layers interbedded with grey lime-
stones can be observed in the klippe of Chillinji. Complex
folding hampers the reconnaissance of stratigraphic rela-
tionships with the other units. A low greenschist facies
metamorphism is suggested by the abundance of chlorite.
4.3.1.3 Siru Gol Unit (SG)
The Siru Gol Unit (SG) is exposed from the upper
part of the Paur Gol (fig. 24) along the Siru Gol (Pl. 22)
from the southern border of the mapped area, ending
north just west of Lasht, where the Reshun Fault joins the
thrust plane defining the N-NW boundary of this unit.
Several stratigraphic characters of the unit, as the occur-
rence of the Devonian Chilmarabad and Shogram forma-
tions, of Carboniferous limestones, Permian fusulinid
limestones of the Lashkargaz Fm., massive carbonates,
and Gharil-like red beds make it partly comparable to the
Lashkargaz-Baroghil Unit and to the nearby Lasht Unit
(GAETANI et alii, 1996). The main reasons for the separa-
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 184
184 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 24 - The Isperu Dok massive carbonates of the Lasht Unit over-
thrust the Gircha Fm. of the Siru Gol Unit just west of Lasht; view to
the W-NW, September, 1996.
tion of this unit from the Lasht one are related to differ-
ences in the stratigraphic succession and to the occur-
rence of the large E-W thrust fault stacking the massive
Isperu Dok Carbonates (Lic) of the Lasht Unit on a folded
terrigenous succession attributed to the Gircha Fm. of the
Siru Gol Unit (fig. 24).
The Siru Gol Unit forms the hanging wall of the
Reshun Fault, being directly stacked on the Reshun Fm.
of the Axial Unit all along its southern contact. The fault
shows a complex evolution suggesting repeated inver-
sions. The fault was active during sedimentation as a nor-
mal fault separating the Axial Unit with a reduced succes-
sion from the thicker Paleozoic successions now exposed
to the NW. During shortening, the fault was inverted
forming an ENE-WSW to NE-SW thrust plane dipping
45° to NW, which has been reactivated once again with
normal oblique motions, showing important inversion
phenomena. The occurrence of tectonic slices of the
Chilmarabad Fm. along the eastern side of the Paur Gol,
between the Reshun Fm. and the Permian succession,
which suggest a normal displacement along the fault, can
be related to the final process of inversion.
High-angle E-W to ENE-WSW, N- to NNW-dipping
thrusts bound the Lasht Unit to the NE, stacking massive
carbonates of the Lasht Unit in the hanging wall on the
Gircha Fm. of the Siru Gol Unit in the footwall, which
forms a large overturned footwall syncline, complicated
by thickening and tectonic repetitions of the Gircha Fm.,
due to S-verging thrust motion (Pl. 23). Duplex struc-
tures, defined by light carbonate lenses, occur along the
main thrust surface. Vertical NE-SW strike slip-faults
interact with previous thrust structures, especially in the
western portion of the unit (Pl. 24).
Ailak Formation (SGai)
Occurrence. It forms the high rock walls around
round the Siru Pass and in the upper reaches of the
Paur Gol.
Lithology. Light grey dolostone, in massive layers. It is
often heavily recrystallized and karstified with internal
cavities and widespread cements.
Thickness. Several hundreds meters.
Age. A Permian to Triassic age is suggested, being
correlated to the Ailak Fm. of the other units.
& M. GAETANI
Gharil Formation (SGg)
Sporadic occurrence of red siltstones with iron/phos-
phatic nodules has been observed along the southern
slopes of the Siru An. Thickness: 4-10 m. (?Middle-Upper
Permian).
Lashkargaz Formation (SGl)
Occurrence. It is widely exposed in the upper reaches
of the Siru and Paur gols.
Lithology. In the lower part (about 50 m-thick) black-
ish slates and marls with concoidal fracture prevail, with
poorly preserved brachiopods, mainly represented by pro-
ductids. Thin to medium bedded arenitic intercalations
also occur. They are overlain by grey limestones (bioclas-
tic packstone) forming small coarsening-upwards cycles,
with poorly preserved fusulinids, dasycladaceans, frag-
ments of gastropods and brachiopods, few algal coatings
and sparse angular quartz grains (LEVEN et alii, 2007).
Hybrid arenites with parallel lamination are intercalated,
and partly dolomitized. Thickness about 24 m. The top of
the unit is represented by light thick bedded grey dolo-
stones, about 20 m-thick. The described section may be
correlated with members 2 and 3 of the Lashkargaz Fm.
in the type-area, where the whole thickness is at least five
times more.
Fossils and age. The fusulinid genera Reitlingerina,
Staffella, Nankinella, Schubertella, Misellina, and the small
foraminifers Glomospira sp., Tuberitina sp., and Nodo-
saria sp. have been identified (LEVEN et alii, 2007). The
age is uppermost Early Permian for the calcareous inter-
mediate part (Bolorian in the Tethyan scale) with possi-
bly a lowermost Middle Permian in the topmost part.
Environment. Shallow marine carbonate platform,
with periodic terrigenous spillover.
Gircha Formation (SGgr)
Occurrence. It forms a large overturned syncline on the
northern side of the Siru Gol and a thin strip in the upper
reaches of the Paur Gol. In the eastern part of the unit,
the Ribat Fm. (Lower Carboniferous) is missing and the
Gircha Fm. directly lies on the Shogram Fm, whereas to
the west Carboniferous marls occur below the Gircha Fm.
Lithology. The lower part (about 150 m thick) consists
of dark siltstone and shale in packages up to 10 m thick,
with minor arenitic intercalations. Subordinates are
medium light quartzarenite in beds 10-50 cm amalga-
mated to form layers of 3-5 m, with parallel laminations.
The upper part, about 150 m thick, is formed by thick
banks of light quartzarenite, with minor shaly and silt-
stone intercalations.
Age. No fossils were found. An Early Permian age is
assumed by analogy to the same successions in other
thrust sheets.
Environment. A generic alluvial to marginal and shore
facies environment is assumed. No detailed observations
have been done.
Carboniferous marls (SGmr)
Occurrence. The unit forms a fairly small outcrop on
the northern side of the flat at 4100 m of altitude, where
the Siru creek is dammed by the Siru Glacier (Pl. 22).
Lithology. Well-bedded dark grey marly limestones in
40-70 cm thick layers, often bioturbated by Zoophycos-
like structures. Sparse crinoids at the base and few pro-
ductids and rhynchonellids. The marly limestone forms
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 185

THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN 185

packages 20-30 m thick, intercalated in splintery blackish

marls and siltstones. Thickness 70-150 m.
Fossils and age. The brachiopod Cubacula sp. ind., a
Dictyoclostinae gen. et sp. indet., and a Tolmatchoffini
gen. et sp. ind., identified in this unique calcareous hori-
zon within a mostly terrigenous succession, indicate a
Kasimovian age (Pennsylvanian, Carboniferous) (ANGIO-
LINI in GAETANI et alii, 2004b).
Environment. Shallow water, mixed carbonate/muddy
ramp.

Shogram Formation (SGsh)

Occurrence. It forms a strip between the Ishpirin
Gorge and Siru Shel.
Lithology. The lower two major litho-horizons of the
Shogran Fm. may be recognized (GAETANI et alii, 2008).
The lower sandstone and conglomerates unit bears abun-
dant medium to fine conglomerate with fairly well
rounded pebbles of black cherts (fig. 25). The upper unit
contains thin bedded slightly dolomitized limestones,
quartzarenitic intercalations and shaly/marly layers,
locally very rich in corals and brachiopods. No coral baf-
flestones occur in this area, possibly due to the abun-
dance of terrigenous sediments. Thickness possibly >150 m.
Fossils and age. In the Siru Gol section (GAETANI et alii,
2008), brachiopods and corals were collected. Several
corals have been described by SCHRÖDER (2004), belonging
to the genera Pseudozaphrentis, Macgeea, Disphyllum, and
Hexagonaria. The age may be late Givetian or Frasnian
(Middle-Late Devonian).
Environment. The abundance of terrigenous supply,
the size of the basal conglomerates and the absence of the
coral bafflestone should suggest a deposition setting near
to the entry point of a channel with terrigenous input.
Fig. 25 - Medium to small sized conglomerates typically with black
chert pebbles occur at the base of the Shogram Formation, as well as
Chilmarabad Formation (SGch) in the lower member of the Chilmarabad Fm. Black cherts are un-
Occurrence. It forms a narrow strip on the northern known in the sedimentary succession of the Northern Karakoram
side of the Siru Gol, bounded at the base by the Reshun Terrain. They should originate from an unknown Precambrian unit.
September, 1996.
Fault. Tectonic slices of this unit occur along the Reshun
Fault in the Paur Gol.
Lithology. The lower part, about 50 m-thick, consists
of thin bedded light sandstones with small ripples and der of the map area along the western side of the Siru
subordinate dark siltstones and marls. It is overlain by Gol, crossing the upper part of the Paur Gol (Pl. 25). The
70 m of light sucrosic dolostones in thick beds, with unit mainly consists of Permian and possibly Mesozoic
layers still rich in terrigenous components and ghosts of carbonate to terrigenous successions (GAETANI et alii,
tabulate corals and bryozoans. A conspicuous terrigenous 1996). Carboniferous beds have been recognized at the
content of the Chilmarabad Fm. is to be noted in the area base of the successions in a few outcrops.
east of Siru Shel. Thickness: >150 m. The unit is separated to the southwest from the Siru
Fossils and age. No fossils have been identified. A Gol Unit, exposed west of Lasht, by a NE-SW trending
Middle Devonian age is supposed by analogy to other thrust system, which is cross-cut by the Reshun Fault to
thrust sheets. the east along the Yarkhun Valley, directly juxtaposing
Environment. Peritidal flat with an important terrige- the Lasht Unit to the Axial Unit. The Tash Kupruk is
nous supply. stacked on the Lasht Unit to the north along a north-dip-
ping thrust fault (Pl. 26). To the east of the village of
Dolomitic lenses (SGdb) Lasht, this fault directly joins the Reshun Fault causing a
In the upper reaches of the Siru Gol, slices of cata- tectonic closure of the Lasht Unit. The central part of the
clastic light grey dolostones form lenses up to 50-70 m- unit is dominated by an open ramp anticline, deforming
thick, developed for some km in length. They were sepa- the massive Isperu Dok carbonates. The fold is related to
rated in the map for their structural significance, but the thrust fault which juxtaposes these rocks on the Gir-
their lithostratigraphic attribution is uncertain. cha Fm. of the Siru Gol Unit to the south which in turn is
deformed in a closed footwall syncline complicated by
duplexes. This thrust fault also shows a lateral ramp at
4.3.1.4 Lasht Unit (L)
the termination of the Siru Gol Unit. To the west it forms
The Lasht Unit extends around the village of Lasht a NE-SW trending vertical strip consisting of anastomos-
along the Yarkhun Valley and reaches the southern bor- ing lenses of massive carbonates in tectonic contact with
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 186
186 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 26 - Mesoscopic structural data relative to the Lasht Unit; sym-
bols as in fig. 21.
thick slices of the Lashkargaz Fm. and of the Black Marls,
separating the Tash Kupruk from the Siru Gol Unit. The
main tectonic boundaries are generally represented by
vertical faults, possibly with a left-lateral strike motion, in
agreement with the regional faults kinematics, forming
positive flower structures. E-W trending S-verging thrusts
and high-angle reverse faults associated to complex folds
in the carbonate layers are also exposed in the intermedi-
ate part of the Siru Gol. Mesoscopic E-W trending reverse
faults and a complex association of NE-SW left-lateral
and NNW-SSE dextral have been measured along the
Isperu Dok Gol at the base of the massive carbonates
(Lic) of this unit (fig. 26).
Isperu Dok Massive Carbonates (Lic)
Massive and poorly bedded grey to yellowish carbon-
ates forming a conspicuous strip from Lashkargaz to the
upper reaches of the Paur Gol to the SW, and further to
the SSW. In the lower part in the distance we observed a
strip of black limestones (Pl. 22), several tens of meters
thick (Lbl). Thickness >600 m. (?Permian-?Triassic)
Isperu Dok Marly Limestone (Lit)
Well bedded limestone and marl crop out along the
Isperu Dok gorge at the base of the Isperu Dok Carbon-
ates (Lic). Their thickness is close to 100 m. (?Permian-
?Triassic)
Lashkargaz Formation (Ll)
Occurrence. Small outcrops along the west bank of
the Yarkhun Valley and folded stuff high up above Ali-
abad. Isolated outcrops also occur in the upper reaches of
the Siru Gol and Paur Gol.
Lithology. Grey dark limestone and marly limestone,
with crinoids and fusulinids; hybrid arenites with abun-
dant bioclasts alternating with splintery dark shales and
marls. More calcareous and massive layers crop out up in
the slope above Lasht.
Fossils and age. From loose blocks on the west side of
the Siru An, approximately at 4500 m a.s.l., the fusulinid
genera Leeina, Chalaroschwagerina, Pseudofusulina, and
Praeskinnerella were obtained (LEVEN et alii, 2007),
together with fragments of crinoids, brachiopods and
algal lumps. Age: latest Early Permian.
Environment. The collected samples indicate the pres-
ence of reworked carbonate crusts in a high-energy envi-
ronment. The shaly interval testifies to low energy tempo-
& M. GAETANI
rary conditions. Fine terrigenous to carbonate ramps,
below storm wave level.
Gircha Formation (Lgr)
Occurrence. Outcrops are rare and sparse along the
bottom of the Yarkhun Valley, especially NW of Rukut;
other outcrops are in the tectonic slices NW of Shost-
Aliabad.
Lithology. A thin veneer of sublitharenites occurs at
the base with an unconformable contact on the Ribat
Fm.; they are overlaid by >100 m-thick package of slates
with sparse subarkose or feldspatic quartzarenites. Fur-
ther development of the stratigraphic succession is hin-
dered by folding and faulting.
Fossils and age. Fragments of Spiriferids have been
observed. A ?Late Carboniferous-Early Permian age is
assigned by comparison to other thrust sheets.
Environment. Muddy shelf mostly under marine con-
ditions.
Ribat Formation (Lri)
Occurrence. Carboniferous rocks irregularly outcrop
along the Yarkhun Valley, because of tectonics and thick
superficial deposits. A partial section crops out near
Rukut along an isolated relief forming a characteristic
bump at the centre of the valley (GAETANI et alii, 1996).
Lithology. The lowermost beds contains lithic quartzare-
nites interbedded to fining upwards cycles of crinoidal
packstone/grainstone. The main body of the unit consists
of mudstone/wackestone and at a minor extent of pack-
stone/grainstone with crinoid, bryozoan, and brachiopods
bioclasts. At the top, dissolution cavities were observed.
The thickness is >200 m.
Fossils and age. No fossils were identified; a Lower
Carboniferous age is assigned by comparisons to other
sections of the Ribat Fm.
Environment. Muddy shelf, occasionally swept by
storm deposits and with coarser terrigenous inputs.
Black slates (Lbs)
Occurrence. They form large outcrops on a large slope
in the upper reaches of the Siru Gol. They might repre-
sent a local facies of the Gircha Fm., but their thickness is
unusually high.
Lithology. Grey dark splintery slates, green when
altered. Minor arenitic layers are occasionally interca-
lated. The thickness exceeds 300 m.
Fossil and age. No fossils were collected and a generic
Paleozoic age is attributed.
4.3.1.5 Lashkargaz-Baroghil Unit (LB)
This unit contains one of the most complete, less
deformed and better exposed sedimentary succession
occurring in the mapped area. Detailed stratigraphic
analyses have been carried out especially in this area and
in the nearby Karambar Unit, where several type-sections
of the described lithostratigraphic units occur. Due to this
reason, the description of its stratigraphic setting is par-
ticularly extended.
The Lashkargaz-Baroghil Unit occurs in the central
part of the map around the Baroghil Pass and the small
village of Lashkargaz, extending toward the Karambar
Pass up to Ribat (Pl. 27). The sedimentary succession
spans the interval from the upper part of the Baroghil
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 187
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
Fig. 27 - Mesoscopic structural data relative to the Lashkargaz-Baroghil Unit; symbols as in fig. 21.
Group (Ordovician-Silurian) to the Early Jurassic (Dar-
waz An Fm.) with a total thickness of about 4-6 kilome-
ters (GAETANI et alii, 1996; TALENT et alii, 1999). Several
stratigraphic gaps have been detected. The Upper Car-
boniferous is missing and the Gircha Fm. unconformably
overlies the limestones of the Ribat Fm. (Tournaisian).
The Lower Permian sedimentary succession is the most
complete in western Karakoram; it is remarkably exposed
and easily accessible between Baroghil and Lashkargaz,
whilst minor gaps are present in the Middle and Upper
Permian. The dolostone of the Ailak Fm. contains the Per-
mian/Triassic boundary, but due to the coarse recrystal-
lized facies, any detail is prevented as well as the internal
stratigraphy of the Triassic part of the succession, in
which gaps should occur.
The Lashkargaz-Baroghil Unit is separated to the
south from the Axial Unit by the Reshun Fault, a com-
plex system of E-W trending S-dipping reverse-oblique
faults including tectonic slices of deformed conglomer-
ates and sandstones belonging to the Reshun Fm. and
lenses of massive strongly recrystallized carbonates pos-
sibly Permian in age (Pl. 28). In the Vidiakot ridge area
the fault is very steep, and its dip is close to the one of
the layers in both the fault blocks, propagating from the
mechanically weak Ordovician layers. In the same area
the lower part of the Paleozoic sucession is doubled tec-
tonically forming a duplex along the lower part of the
hanging wall of the Reshun Fault. The two units are here
separated by a horse of white recrystallized limestones
possibly Permian to Triassic in age and which can be
related to the Axial Unit. In this case the lower fault may
suggest a normal throw with the Ordovician succession
of the LB Unit. In most of the other areas, the occurrence
of the Reshun Fm. in the footwall and of older rocks in
the hanging wall always indicates a reverse motion. This
is often followed in time by a subsequent inversion with
a normal slip. A more detailed discussion on the signifi-
cance and evolution of the Reshun Fault is given in a
specific section.
The Garmush Granite directly overthrusts the unit
along the southern flank of the Chiantar Glacier along
dip-slip reverse and oblique left-lateral reverse faults
(fig. 27). The central-southern part of this unit is less
deformed, showing continuous sedimentary successions
including the Jurassic Darwaz An Formation (Pl. 29) dis-
placed by small dextral NW-SE and sinistral NE-SW con-
jugate strike-slip faults. The LB Unit is directly overthrust
187
by the Tash Kupruk west of the Baroghil Pass (Pl. 30) up
to the divide with the Bazhdung Gol, and by the Karam-
bar Unit from the Baroghil Pass to the east (fig. 28,
Pl. 30). East of the pass the thrust plane runs in
Afghanistan, reaching again the Pakistani area north of
Lashkargaz. The fault dips to the north and follows an
E-W trend, crossing the Ribat Bar Valley and reaching
the lower part of the Chiantar Glacier close to its conflu-
ence with the Garmush Glacier. The entire northern part
of the unit is intensively deformed, showing E-W trending
overturned and recumbent fault-propagation folds in the
Chilmarabad and Shogram formations (figs. 22, 27),
related to an imbricate south-verging thrust system. A
major duplex is exposed north of Lashkargaz, causing the
repetition of the Devonian to Permian succession (fig. 28;
Pl. 29, 31). The floor thrust is complicated by small
duplexes formed within the Permian limestones, causing
intensive shortening and tectonic repetition especially of
the Lower Permian carbonates of Member 4 of the
Lashkargaz Fm. (Pl. 32). Folds have horizontal axes and
show a steep N-dipping axial plane cleavage developed
especially in the marly layers of the Lashkargaz Fm. The
north-eastern boundary with the Karambar Unit, exposed
along the Chiantar Glacier, is also very complex, showing
intensive folding and shortening of the Permian units and
also post-thrust folds deforming the tectonic contact,
clearly suggesting complex polyphase deformation of this
area. Moderately plunging to vertical parasitic folds have
been measured close to the snout of the Chiantar Glacier
(fig. 27), where they are associated with a large E-W
trending plunging syncline folding the Lashkargaz and
Gircha Fms. The fold forms the tip of the ridge separating
the glacier from the Ribat Valley (Pl. 33). Steeply plung-
ing fold axes may result by distortion of previous
structures due to traspressive deformations along the
Chiantar-Chillinji fault system.
Darwaz An Formation (LBdw)
Occurrence. This new name is proposed for the dark
grey limestone occurring just east of the Darwaz Pass,
forming a strip between the top of the Ailak and the
Devonian Chilmarabad dolostones thrusting over them.
This unit is the only dated Jurassic succession identified
in the upper Yarkhun Valley (fig. 29).
Lithology. At the very base, few meters of thin grey
brown sandstones may be present, overlaid by medium
bedded grey limestone (wackestone to packstone) with
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 188

188 A. ZANCHI & M. GAETANI

Fig. 28 - South-verging fault propagation-fold below the main thrust surface between the Karambar Unit (hanging wall) in the background
and the Lashkargaz-Baroghil Unit in the footwall. View to the north from the right side of the upper Yarkhun Valley in front of Podshal near
Lashkargaz, September, 1999.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 189

THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN 189

Fig. 29 - Large bivalves characterized by a very thick shell suggest-

ing an Early Jurassic age for the Darwaz An Fm., Lashkargaz-
Baroghil Unit.

seams of fragmentary bivalves and some layers with tur-

riculate gastropods and foraminifers. The upper part of
this unit contains a medium to thick bedded recrystallized
limestone, spectacularly crowded by large to giant bivalves
(up to 40 cm in length), including pernids and ostreids
(fig. 29). Some of them may be similar to Mytiloperna sp.,
a form very common in the Lower Jurassic Calcari Grigi
Fm. of the Southern Alps, NE Italy (ident. by R. POSE-
NATO, Ferrara) occurring in the Lithiotis-facies. The pre-
served thickness is slightly less thick than 100 m.
Fossils and age. The microfacies contains Thauma-
toporella parvovesiculifera, Amijiella amiji, Pseudocyclam-
mina liasica, Siphovalvulina variabilis, Planinvoluta cari-
nata (microfacies by R. RETTORI, Perugia). The fora-
minifers in the lower part are of Pliensbachian age, as
usually are also the assemblages of the Lithiotis-facies
along the shores of the Tethys.
Environment. The high faunal density with low diver-
sity is paradigmatic for restricted environments. A con-
fined lagoon within the wider carbonate platform is rep-
resented by this isolated outcrop. The basal sandstones
are interpreted as the transgressive tract of the sequence
on the dolostones of the Ailak Fm.
Fig. 30 - Stratigraphic logs in the Ailak and Darwaz An formations.
Ailak Formation (LBai) The Ailak section is the type section of this formation.
Name and occurrence. The term was introduced by
GAETANI et alii (1996) to designate the massive dolostones
which form the ridge of the continental divide between
the Baroghil and the Darwaz passes (Pl. 27, fig. 30). The
lower part of the type-section was described in LEVEN et
alii (2007).
Lithology. The Ailak Formation consists chiefly of
thick bedded dolostones. The lower part includes light-
grey calcareous dolostone and dolostone with stroma-
tolitic laminae, in 20-50 cm thick beds (fig. 31). When not
totally transformed in a sucrosic dolostone, it consists of
a bioclastic fine to coarse packstone with micritic matrix,
occasionally with gastropods, fragments of bivalves and
coated grains. Thickness near to 150 m.
They are overlain by light sucrosic dolostone and cal-
careous dolostone, in 30-70 cm thick beds with poorly
preserved fragments of bivalves and gastropods. The
upper part consists of a sucrosic light dolostone, often Fig. 31 - Domal to planar stromatolitic layers in the mid part of the
with stromatolitic laminae. Internal discontinuities occur Ailak Fm. along the Baroghil W section.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 190
190 A. ZANCHI
within this unit, because at the Baroghil Pass (E side)
there is striking evidence of huge paleokarst cavities, up
to 100 m deep and 70-80 m wide, with polyphase infill-
ings. Total thickness >550 m.
Fossil and age. The heavy dolomitization destroyed
most of the microfacies. In the lower part we found with
Tubiphytes sp., ostracodes, rare sphinctozoans, ghosts of
small foraminifers, and the fusulinids Nankinella and
Sphaerulina. Dasycladacean algae (Permocalculus sp.)
also are present. Their age is Late Permian. Upwards, in
the prevailing stromatolitic dolostones no fossils have
been found. Only towards the top, some ghosts of
foraminifers could suggest a Late Triassic age. Instead we
didn’t find megalodontid remains, fairly common in suc-
cessions referred to the Upper Triassic in other thrust
sheets. Roughly it may be said that the Permian part of
the dolostones is grey and the Triassic part is lighter.
Internal gaps should be present especially in the Triassic
part of the succession.
Environment. The Ailak Formation represents a peri-
tidal carbonate platform, with low subsidence rate and
frequent emersion surfaces. Several subfacies of the car-
bonate platform should be present, but the dolomitiza-
tion prevents a more detailed analysis.
Gharil Formation (LBg)
Name. The Gharil Formation was introduced by GAE-
TANI et alii (1995) to identify a thin, but very continuous
terrigenous horizon. It corresponds to the Ironstone Hori-
zon of HAYDEN (1915).
Lithology. The unit is typically bipartite. A lower part
consists of medium to fine grained red conglomerate with
poorly rounded pebbles, often angular, supported by red
Fe-enriched matrix, overlaid by coarse arenites and thin
conglomerates, with well-rounded quartzitic clasts and
opaque grains interbedded with poorly laminated dark
red siltstones. Clay chips and cross laminations may be
present. They forms one or two fining-upward cycles,
each about 5 to 10 m-thick. The basal cycle may infill
erosion channels up to 7 m deep.
The upper part consists of finely laminated dark red
siltstones Fe-enriched with reworked grains of lateritic
soil. The presence of chamositic/illitic ooids or goethitic/
hematitic peloids nodules and small spherical concretions
is very significant. This part may be up to 15 m thick.
Low paleomagnetic latitudes around Equator have been
obtained from this horizon (MUTTONI et alii, 2009).
Age. No fossils were found. A latest Middle Permian
or earliest Late Permian age might be proposed by the
stratigraphic position. Should be the regression linked to
the end-Guadalupian low-standing, the age of the Gharil
Fm. should be mostly earliest Late Permian.
Environment. The Gharil Formation represents a con-
tinental interval in the succession. The substrate emerged
and was eroded and incised, then covered by alluvial
braided streams spreading on the alluvial plain. The
upper part represents the lateritization of the alluvial
plain, with partial reworking of soils.
Ini Sar Formation (LBis)
Name and occurrence. The unit, firstly identified in
LEVEN et alii (2007), was previously merged erroneously
with the Ailak Fm. (GAETANI et alii, 1996). It forms a strip
from Lashkargaz to the Baroghil Pass, where it is drasti-
cally reduced in thickness (Pl. 27).
& M. GAETANI
Lithology. At the base a few metres of polymictic con-
glomerate may be present, with prevailing carbonate peb-
bles up to 15 cm at the base, progressively smaller
upwards and with parallel laminations. They are overlaid
by coarse grey calcarenites, in beds 20-50 cm thick, with
some siltstone intercalations. The microfacies consists of
coarse grainstone with sparitic cement, and well-rounded
bioclasts. Occasional fine well-rounded quartz grains
occur. This basal part do not exceed 15 m. The bulk of the
unit is represented by monotonous light grey sucrosic
dolostones in massive beds, with rare ghosts of thin-
shelled bioclasts. Thickness up to 370 m (figs. 32, 33).
Fossils and age. In the lower calcarenites, fusulinids,
brachiopods, crinoids, bryozoans, and sphinctozoans
occur. The fusulinid Schubertella, Yangchienia, Chusenella,
and several species of Neoschwagerina were identified by
LEVEN et alii (2007). The assemblage is typical for the
Neoschwagerina simplex Zone of Guadalupian (early Mur-
gabian age in the Tethyan scale), i.e. the middle part of
the Middle Permian.
Environment. The Ini Sar Formation represents a sed-
imentary sequence bracketed by two unconformities. At
the base a transgression on a gently eroded surface
occurred, with conglomerates possibly of marginal-shore
context, followed by shore-facies calcarenites. In turn
they are overlaid by shallow water carbonates, heavily
dolomitized, in a context of lateral significant changes in
subsidence rate and accommodation.
Lashkargaz Formation (LBl) – Member 1-4 (LBl1-4) –
Member 5 (LBl5)
Name and occurrence. The unit, firstly recognized in
the Lashkargaz-Baroghil Unit (fig. 34), was established
in GAETANI et alii (1995) and later emended by LEVEN et
alii (2007).
Lithology. Five members have been identified in the
type-area to the south-west of Lashkargaz, along the cliffs
leading towards the Ini Sar hillock.
The Member 1, about 300 m-thick, consists of an alter-
nation of calcareous siltstone and a few quartzarenites,
yielding fragments of foraminifers. In the upper part they
are replaced by calcareous siltstone with well-washed
crinoidal lenses and marls with calcareous nodules, con-
taining brachiopods and bryozoans. The quartzarenite
layers have mostly parallel laminations in contrast to the
underlying Gircha Fm., where high-angle cross-lamina-
tions prevail.
Member 2 is dominated by calcareous sediments,
more washed and coarser westwards and richer in clay
eastwards, where it reaches 368 m in the Lashkargaz sec-
tion. In the lower part packstones dominate, abundant in
fusulinids. Whilst around Baroghil dolomitization may be
fairly spread, in Lashkargaz instead, it prevails a continu-
ous alternation of dark grey wackestone/packstone, rich
in oncoids and with abundant fossils. They are interbed-
ded with marly layers.
Member 3 is characterized by a reappearance of ter-
rigenous detritus. In Baroghil there are two major
arenitic horizons separated by oncoidal packstones and
marly limestones, for a total thickness of 144 m. At
Lashkargaz arenitic intercalations are rarer and intermin-
gled with shaly and marly horizons.
The base of Member 4 is characterized by the appear-
ance of well-bedded grey wackestone/packstones, locally
extremely rich in fusulinids and with dark chert nodules
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 191
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
Fig. 32 - The type section of the Ini Sar Forma-
tion (Modified from LEVEN et alii, 2007).
Fig. 33 - The type section of the Ini Sar Fm.; at the base the conglomer-
atic layer and the fusulinid levels; view to the north. September, 1999.
(fig. 35). Corals and brachiopods, as well as crinoids and
bivalves may be abundant in the lower part. Wackestone
with dark cherts, as well as packstone rich in Tubiphytes,
are largely developed at Lashkargaz, where the member
reaches 450 m in thickness. Its thickness is drastically
reduced to the west. The topmost dolomitized 40 m in the
Baroghil East section were erroneously referred by GAE-
TANI et alii (1995, fig. 10) to this member. They should be
referred to the Ini Sar Fm.
Member 5. Dark grey calcareous siltstones, extensively
burrowed and with rare brachiopod fragments. About
191
Fig. 34 - The Lashkargaz Formation at Gharil. Yarkhun Valley, view to
the NW, September, 1996. Lucia Angiolini for scale. September, 1996.
50 m thick. This unit was attributed to the Gharil Fm.
in GAETANI et alii (1995, fig. 9).
Fossil and age. The Lashkargaz Formation is one of
the richest units in fossils of the Western Karakoram
(GAETANI et alii, 1995; ANGIOLINI 1995, 1996a, 2001).
The first member contains a brachiopod assemblage
of Sakmarian age and the conodont Adetognathus paralau-
tus. The second member yields an abundant fusulinid and
brachiopod fauna of Artinskian-Kungurian age. Three
fusulinid assemblages have been identified. The lower-
most is dominated by the genera Pseudofusulina and Pseu-
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 192
192 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 35 - Chert nodule in the Mb 4 of the Laskargaz Formation in the
type-section at Lashkargaz.
Fig. 36 - Decametric festoons in the sandstones the Gircha Forma-
tion to the W of Gharil. Patrick Le Fort as scale on the left. Septem-
ber, 1992.
doendothyra. The intermediate fauna is characterized by
the fusulinid genera Chalaroschwagerina, Pseudofusulina,
and Pamirina. The upper one is still dominated by species
of Pseudofusulina associated to Darvasites. Several bra-
chiopods are associated with the upper assemblage. The
arenaceous spillover of Member 3 should have occurred
during the late Kungurian. At the base of the Mb. 4 a rich
brachiopod assemblage [Waagenoconcha (Gruntoconcha)
macrotuberculata/Callytharrrella sinensis] is associated
with the fusulinid genera Parafusulina and Misellina,
allowing to assign to the fourth member a Kungurian-
Roadian age. For details refer to the papers by GAETANI et
alii (1995) and ANGIOLINI (1995, 1996a, 2001). No direct
dating of the Member 5 is available.
Environment. The Lashkargaz Formation was depo-
sited under marine conditions. Three members were
deposited under a prevailing carbonate regime. In the
lowermost member, cross bedding suggests shore condi-
tions progressively deepening under the fair wave base.
Algal activity with oncoids, and bioclastic packstones are
widespread. To be noted the fairly large occurrence of
micheliniid tabulate-corals in Mb. 2. Cherts increase
upwards and they are more abundant eastwards. The 3rd
and 5th members consists mostly of fine to very fine
terrigenous material. The sandstones are invariably
& M. GAETANI
quartzarenites, which may appear also intercalated to
carbonates in the 1st member. The scenario is thus of a
progressively deeper carbonate ramp, intermittently fed
by fine terrigenous inputs. Significant is also the subsi-
dence rate, almost double to the east, where it
approached 100 m/Ma. To the east the deposition depth
was also higher, especially for members 4 and 5.
Gircha (LBgr)
Name. DESIO (1963) introduced this unit, with type
area on the eastern side of the Hunza Valley, to the east
and NE of the Gircha village, where it forms a succession
of tight folds (ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994). Due to the
occurrence of these structures, DESIO (1963) reported an
unrealistic thickness of 6000 m. DESIO & MARTINA (1972)
later described the type-section in the Gircha area, with a
thickness of 4600 m, including in fact most of the Per-
mian succession. The formation was redefined by GAE-
TANI et alii (1990a) and its actual thickness in the type-
area was evaluated about 1000 m.
Occurrence. The term is extended to the western
Karakorum, where the most complete development and
less deformed exposures are in the Karambar and
Baroghil areas.
Lithology. In the Baroghil area, the formation consists
of medium-grained quartzarenits with high-angle cross-
bedding, forming festoon-shaped bodies several m-thick
(fig. 36), followed by coarsening upwards parasequences
of dark burrowed siltstones, in turn overlain by very fine-
grained feldspathic quartzarenites. These arenitic layers
overlies with a gentle angular unconformity the dark grey
well bedded limestone of the Ribat Fm.
Fossils and age. No fossils were found in the Gircha
Fm. in this tectonic unit. The underlying Ribat Fm., cov-
ered with angular unconformity, is late Tournaisian in
age. The top is constrained by the brachiopod assemblage
in the lower most part of the overlying Lashkargaz For-
mation, Sakmarian in age. Most of the development of
the Gircha Fm. should have occurred during the earliest
Permian.
Environment. The Gircha Fm. was deposited mostly
under marine conditions. Ripple and parallel laminations
in the lower part suggest deposition in shallow-water
storm dominated environment. The increasing of coarser
beds suggests influence of fluvial to deltaic conditions
with festoon-shaped sandstone banks.
Ribat Formation (LBri)
Occurrence. This unit has been detected along the
Yarkhun River and on the cliffs dominating to the north
the valley from Lashkargaz to Showar Shur. On the west
slope of the Yarkhun, west of Gharil, the Gircha Fm.
overlies with a gentle angular unconformity the Ribat
Fm. (GAETANI et alii, 2004b).
Lithology. Grey to dark-grey limestones and marls.
The lowermost part is characterized by hybrid crinoidal
limestones, cross-bedded and with topset laminations,
suggesting a transport direction towards the N-NE in pre-
sent coordinates. Fossils are abundant, with crinoid ossi-
cles and small fragmented solitary corals. The thickness is
reduced to less than 100 m, but often deformation pre-
vents a precise evaluation.
Fossils and age. Along the northern river bank of the
Yarkhun, about 10 m below the top of the Ribat Forma-
tion, the conodonts Gnathodus semiglaber, G. delicatus, G.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 193
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
cuneiformis, G. typicus, and Siphonodella lobata, were
identified (GAETANI et alii, 2004b). The age of the Ribat
Formation spans in that section the middle-late Tour-
naisian, being the upper part eroded or non deposited
before the deposition of the Gircha Fm.
Environment. The Ribat Formation represents a fully
marine interval, dominated by high productivity of car-
bonates, which were transported towards the basin, as
suggested by displaced crinoid ossicles, brachiopod shell
fragments, and solitary corals.
Margach Formation (LBma)
Occurrence. This soft unit is easily eroded, thus often
covered by scree, and sheared by tectonics. Good out-
crops are rare. It has been identified only on the west side
of the Yarkhun River and on the mountain ridge to the
west of the Baroghil Pass.
Lithology. Main lithologies are dark grey to black
splintery siltstones and slates, with bioturbated horizons.
Fine- to very fine-grained arenites in beds 20 to 40 cm
thick occur, locally displaying parallel lamination; some
arenitic intercalations show dish-and-pillar structures.
Estimated thickness is about 150 m.
Fossils and age. No fossils have been detected in this
formation. The age (?Famennian-earliest Tournaisian) is
inferred with reference to the type-section in the Karam-
bar Unit.
Environment. The Margach Formation records sedi-
mentation on a muddy shallow-marine flat, with signifi-
cant terrigenous input under low-energy conditions,
mainly sheltered from waves.
Shogram Formation (LBsh)
Name: The section of Mt. Shogram in front of
Kuragh, Chitral, was originally proposed by DESIO (1963,
1966) as the type-section. However, the classical section
of the Kuragh Spur (HAYDEN, 1915), redescribed by
TALENT et alii (1999), is a good reference section, being
much richer in fossils.
Occurrence. The Shogram Fm. is present in the
Yarkhun Valley east of the Baroghil village, and along the
Pakistan-Afghan border, with well exposed sections.
Lithology. Five lithozones can be identified (GAETANI
et alii, 2008, fig. 12).
1) The unit invariably begins with a terrigenous litho-
zone, made of fine conglomerates and coarse arenites
(sublitharenites with calcitic/siliceous cement), 25-40 m
thick. In the present unit, no major conglomeratic bodies
have been observed.
2) The second lithozone consists of fine arenites
(subarkoses) in thin to medium layers with faint parallel
laminations, burrowed and containing rare bioclasts,
cyclically overlaid by bioclastic calcarenites (mostly pack-
stones) with parallel and high angle cross-lamination. The
cycles are several m thick. The bioclastic layers may be
very rich in fossils, especially brachiopods and crinoids.
Corals and coralgal are also locally present in the lower
part of this lithozone, whilst conodonts are extremely
rare. The thickness of this lithozone ranges from 70 to
120-130 m.
3) Coral bafflestone, forming usually one ridge in the
landscape, rarely two. The rocks may be crowded by colo-
nial corals (fig. 37), tabulates, bryozoans, and, at minor
extent in the lower part, also brachiopods are preserved.
Coral colonies up to 50 cm high may be preserved in life
193
Fig. 37 - Devonian bryozoan and coral colonies in the Shogram Fm.
position. Local interruption of sedimentation with lithi-
fied surfaces may be present. Thickness, from less then 10
to more than 40 m.
4) Nodular grey limestone in medium to thin beds,
with increasing shaly intercalations and siltstone. Arena-
ceous limestone and bioclastic calcarenite with bra-
chiopods also occur. Thickness from 5 to 20 m.
5) The uppermost litho-interval consists mostly of
very fine terrigenous sediments – fine arenites, silt-
stones and shales – with gentle parallel lamination and
diffuse burrowing of Rhizocorallium type or with
limonitized nodules. Cross laminations are rarer. Rare
occurrence of calcareous siltstone crowded with bra-
chiopods. The thickness varies from less than 20 m up
to 45 m. Transition upwards to the Margach Fm. is
gradual with almost complete disappearance of lime-
stone intercalations.
Fossils and age. The Shogram Fm. is the most fossilif-
erous unit of the Devonian of Karakoram.
The lower coral, coralline algae and brachiopod hori-
zon at the base of the second litho-interval, contains
corals identified by SCHRÖDER (2004), and tabulates iden-
tified by HUBMANN in HUBMANN & GAETANI (2007).
These are consistent with a Givetian age.
In the second litho-interval, several layers are rich in
brachiopods (TALENT & CHEN in GAETANI et alii, 2008), as
well as rugosans (SCHRÖDER, 2004). Their age is Frasnian.
The coral bafflestone is Frasnian in age according to
the corals (SCHRÖDER, 2004), and tabulates (HUBMANN &
GAETANI, 2007). The fourth litho-interval is still Frasnian
with conodonts Icriodus alternatus alternatus, morph 2,
and Polygnathus decorosus. Co-occurrence of the two
forms in question indicates probable Late rhenana Zone.
The presence of atrypid brachiopods above this sample is
consistent with this allocation (GAETANI et alii, 2008).
Also the fifth litho-interval should be Frasnian in age
because of the abundant atrypidid brachiopods. We have
no evidence of Famennian, but in the Yarkhun River sec-
tion, TALENT et alii (1999) identified in samples from the
lithozone 2 an Icriodus conodont fauna that could reach
the Famennian. This fauna is problematic and it is dis-
cussed in GAETANI et alii (2008).
Environment. During the Givetian a very important
rifting event occurred over a wide area. The carbonate
platform – homogeneous under peritidal conditions (bed-
ded stromatolitic dolostones) – rifted and emerged. The
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 194
194 A. ZANCHI
shoulders of the rift were vigorously eroded. A blanket of
terrigenous sediments, 10 to 30 m thick, spread over the
entire area, deposited at least in part under alluvial condi-
tions, with channels and cross-laminated festoons. The
sea gradually transgressed once more, initially with mar-
ginal mixed carbonate-clastic facies, then with prevailing
packstone, rarely grainstone sediments rich in bioclasts.
The benthic invertebrate community was dominated by
brachiopods, sometimes in gregarious patches or accu-
mulated by bottom currents in lenses along the shelf. On
well-washed, clean bottoms during the Frasnian, corals
and bryozoans flourished, building thick bindstones and
bafflestones. Fine terrigenous input gradually recovered
during the Frasnian, and the area received coarser inputs
of arenites, mostly litharenites, with carbonate sedimen-
tation becoming gradually subordinate.
Chilmarabad Formation (LBch)
Name and Occurrence. The unit is widely exposed
across the Yarkhun Valley, where the type-section was
measured to the north of the Chilmarabad village (Pl. 34),
and on the plateau NW of Lashkargaz (GAETANI et alii,
1996, 2008).
Lithology. Two members may be identified.
Doloarenitic lower member: it is characterized by a
significant terrigenous content, mostly arenitic, but also
microconglomeratic, interfingering with light grey dolo-
stones. The terrigenous content is characterized by grey,
light-brown fine to coarse sandstones with dolomitic
matrix in 10 to 100 cm-thick beds, mostly with parallel
laminations or gently low angle cross-laminations. On the
Vidiakot ridge, above Baroghil, the lower part of this unit,
some 80 m-thick, consists of metric packages of coarser
conglomerates with angular to poorly rounded clasts of
black cherts up to 5-6 cm in size and quartzarenitic layers
interbedded with hybrid grey, yellow when weathered,
dolostones. The dolostones are light grey, mostly without
obvious structures, in 20-40 cm-thick beds, usually subor-
dinated to the arenites and hybrid arenites. Total thick-
ness of the member: about 125 m.
The upper dolostone member is monotonously domi-
nated by light grey dolostones, usually in 20-50 cm beds,
with parallel lamination, stromatolitic laminations and
local enrichments of Tabulata, bivalves, gastropods, and
algae. The dolostones of the Tash Kupruk Unit are similar
to this member. The thickness is about 110 m.
Fossils and age. No direct age evidence for the lower
doloarenitic member. The upper member contains locally
algae and tabulate corals. HUBMANN & GAETANI (2007)
report from the ridge to the east of the Darwaz An, at an
altitude of about 4300 m, along the Afghan-Pakistan bor-
der: Pseudopalaeoporella, Thamnopora, Pachycanalicula,
and «Caunopora». The age is Eifelian to ? Givetian.
Environment. The Chilmarabad Fm. was deposited on
a wide peritidal flat on which occasional input of mature
terrigenous clasts spread. The clastic spells were coarser
and more abundant in the south (in present coordinates)
and disappeared to the north. In the upper member the
clastic input system was almost completely deactivated.
Baroghil Group
The complete development of the Baroghil Group is
exposed only to the south of the Reshun Fault in the Axial
Unit, in front of Ishkarwaz, on the Vidiakot ridge. The
Group consists of two formations: the Yarkhun Forma-
& M. GAETANI
tion below, characterized by alternating arenites and
shales/slates with very rare carbonate layers, and the Vidi-
akot Formation above, with a monotonous succession of
black shales and slates, with rare arenitic intercalations,
and a growing carbonate development in the topmost
part. The lower formation crops out only to the south of
the Reshun Fault, where its primary contact with the
crystalline basement of Karakoram is often preserved. In
all the other units the basal part is tectonically elided, and
only the Vidiakot Formation is preserved.
Baroghil Group (Vidiakot Fm.) (LBba)
Occurrence. From the Yarkhun Valley up to the
Vidiakot gully.
Lithology. The black splintery shales dominating the
Vidiakot Fm. contain in the upper part of the unit, espe-
cially to the NE of the Baroghil village, intercalations of
grey light recrystallized dolostones, some tens of m-thick,
that have a somewhat lenticular shape. They may contain
heavily recrystallized cephalopod orthocones. The upper-
most 80 m of the formation consists of grey carbonate
siltstone in thick packages.
Fossil and age. The poorly preserved orthoceratids
might suggest a Silurian age, but the evidence is poor.
Environment. Muddy marine shelf with carbonate
shoals.
4.3.1.6 Karambar Unit (K)
The Karambar Unit extends north and east of the
Lashkargaz-Baroghil Unit, between the Chiantar Glacier
and southern Wakhan, largely occurring across the
Afghan border. North of the watershed with Afghanistan,
a large part of the Karambar Unit has been attributed to
the undefined Afghan Unit.
The Karambar Unit includes the thickest and most
complete Devonian to Carboniferous succession of the
whole Karakoram Range (Pl. 35). At the base, the Ordovi-
cian Vidiakot slates and quartzarenites are overlaid by the
Vandanil Fm., a thick carbonate unit ?Late Silurian-Early
Devonian in age. The dolostones of the Chilmarabad Fm.
follow upward and are in turn covered by the Shogram
Fm., with conglomerates at the base and sandstones pass-
ing to bioclastic limestones, Middle to Late Devonian in
age. The Shogram Fm. contains a bafflestone about 30 m-
thick, near its top. It is overlaid by about 300 m of black
shales and fine sandstones (Margach Formation) rich in
detrital muscovite (latest Devonian-earliest Carbonifer-
ous). The occurrence of a thick Carboniferous succession
is peculiar to the Karambar Unit; the succession is
broadly exposed around Lake Karambar and along the
Afghan border, extending westward (Pl. 36) to the Ribat
area (ANGIOLINI et alii, 1999, 2001; GAETANI et alii,
2004b). Four different stratigraphic units, displaying
complex interfingering, have been identified. The Car-
boniferous beds are covered by the Gircha Fm. (Pl. 37),
Early Permian in age, which exceeds 1000 m in thickness.
This succession represents the unique complete strati-
graphic section across the Late Paleozoic in Karakoram.
In fact, in other areas of the belt the Gircha Fm. is tecton-
ically detached from older units, or part of the Carbonif-
erous was not deposited or eroded in the pre-Gircha time,
as in the Lashkargaz-Baroghil thrust sheet.
The Gircha Fm. is covered by a thick mainly carbonate
Permian succession attributed to the Chapursan Group,
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 195
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
Fig. 38 - Stereographic projections of folds and faults occurring in the Karambar Unit; symbols as in previous projections.
well exposed south of Shuinj along the eastern flank of the
Shuinj Glacier (Pls. 38, 39, 40). The upper part of this suc-
cession may be Triassic in age. The succession above the
Gircha Fm. is poorly accessible, cropping out only along
the slopes of high glaciers and steep rock walls.
Most of the stratigraphic sections in the Paleozoic
units have been measured along the SE side of the Ribat
Valley taking to the Karambar Pass, as the exposed out-
crops are continuous and only gently deformed (Pl. 35).
The southern sector of the Karambar Unit is inten-
sively folded and is stacked onto the Lashkargaz-Baroghil
Unit between the Baroghil Pass and the Chiantar Glacier.
Duplex and fault propagation folds occur along the main
thrust surface between Lashkargaz and Ribat especially
in the footwall (fig. 28, Pls. 41, 42). Duplexes consisting of
cliff-forming massive carbonates of unknown age occur
along the main thrust surface.
The entire Paleozoic succession is well exposed along
the northern flank of the Chiantar Glacier but is usually
poorly accessible. A large recumbent antiform with sec-
ond order parasitic folds dominates the high slopes along
the right side of the glacier, forming a tight anticline in
the Paleozoic succession. This fold is cross-cut by the
Reshun Fault (Pl. 43), and also affects the underlying
Lashkargaz-Baroghil Unit, here consisting of light Per-
mian carbonates of the Lashkargaz Fm., which are
exposed in the core of the antiformal structure. East of
the glacier the Reshun Fault juxtaposes the very low-
grade metasediments of the Guhjal Unit to the Permian
successions of the Karambar Unit; thin tectonic slices
consisting of the Garmush Granite, and Reshun-like con-
glomerates occur along the fault (Pl. 43).
The northeastern contact with the Chhateboi Unit is
poorly defined east of the Karambar Pass, due to the
imperviousness of the area and to the intrusion of the
Chatteboi Granite. Its contact aureole, in fact, masks pri-
mary relationships between the two units. The boundary
has been established along a NNE-verging high-angle
reverse fault which runs along the southern slopes of the
Karambar Valley (Pl. 42). The possible meaning of this
structure is discussed under the description of the
Chhateboi Unit.
The western and the northern parts of the Karambar
Unit show NNW-SSE to NW-SE trending open to close
SW-verging non cilindrical folds related to thrust propa-
gation (fig. 28, Pl. 44) deforming the Carboniferous and
195
Permian successions (fig. 38); the easternmost part of the
unit is delimited by E-W S-dipping thrust planes.
The Karambar Unit is split by a large NNE-SSW
trending tear fault extending from the Chiantar Glacier
to the east of Lake Karambar with a left-lateral lateral
throw of some kilometres; the fault is associated to
conjugate mesoscopic E-W trending right-lateral faults
(fig. 38). This fault displaces also the Permian limestones
of the Lashkargaz-Baroghil Unit, suggesting that it was
active after thrust stacking and related folding.
Massive carbonates (Kmc)
This uit includes massive carbonates resting on top of
the Chapursan Group in the remote peaks between the
Shuinj and Chhateboi glaciers. They may be Permian or
Triassic in age.
Chapursan Group (KCh)
This succession is well exposed along the suspended
glacier occurring just south of Shuinj and here named
Shuinj Glacier. Outcrops are very remote and most of
them are unreachable. General observations have been
done on the right side of the glacier at the foot of high
cliffs.
The base of the succession, stratigraphically overlying
the Gircha Fm., consists of brownish well-bedded and
massive limestones (100-200 m) passing to characteristic
well bedded, platy black limestones (Pl. 39) with a thick-
ness of about 200 m (KCh1). Massive white limestones
with large fusulinids pass upward to grey-black well bed-
ded limestones (KCh2), about 150 m thick (Pl. 40). In the
distance, on the previous unit, we have observed a succes-
sion of brownish to grey slates and marls at the base
(150 m), passing to cyclic repetitions of marlstones and
massive limestones (KCh3), with a total thickness of
more than 500 m. Massive carbonates (KCh4), ranging in
thickness between 200 and 500 m, forming the rock walls
above the glacier seem to interfinger laterally with KCh3.
A thick successions of undifferentiated black slates and
marlstones (400 m) occur at the top (KCh5) (Permian-?
Mesozoic).
Gircha Formation (Kgr)
Name. A discussion on the origin of the name pro-
posed by DESIO (1963) is given under the Lashkargaz-
Baroghil unit.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 196
196 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 39 - An open syncline folding the intermediate part of the Gircha Fm. close to the Karambar Pass (to the left). View to the SE,
September, 1999.
Lithology. Three major lithozones can be identified.
From the base upwards they are:
1) Alternations of well-bedded grey fine arenites
(arkoses) and dark siltstones. Occasionally they are
lighter and contain thicker arenitic packages, up to 6 m
thick. Thickness: 165 m.
2) Monotonous grey siltstones and dark grey splin-
tery slates with rare m-thick arenitic intercalations. The
slates are occasionally bioturbated. The thickness exceeds
360 m up to the glacier rim. The western branch of the
Karambar Glacier flowing towards the Karambar Pass
covers the remaining part of the section.
3) In the core of the syncline between the western
branches of the Karambar Glacier (fig. 39), an unit of
thick-bedded and lighter arenitic beds crops out, over
100 m thick. They also crop out along the Pakistan-
Afghanistan border to the N of the small lakes west of the
Karambar Pass. Some of them are fine-grained, moder-
ately to well-sorted subarkose, containing rare granitoid
to hypabyssal – as well as volcanic – rock fragments, and
some intrabasinal pseudomatrix (DICKINSON, 1970).
At the present stage of knowledge, the lower bound-
ary of the Gircha Formation is rather easily defined in the
field where the base of the Gircha is rich in sandstone lay-
ers. Where instead, as in the Karambar area, the basal
part consists of alternating arenites and siltstones, the
position of the boundary remains uncertain. The change
from hybrid quartzarenites, commonly barren in lithics,
to lithic-bearing arkoses, subarkoses and quartzarenites,
with sharply decreasing intrabasinal grains, is the most
reliable distinctive criterion, not always easily recogniz-
able in the field.
Fossils and age. In the lower lithozone, ANGIOLINI et
alii (2005) described, on the south side of the Ribat Valley
at 4550 m, a 2 m-thick siltstone layer, packed with bra-
chiopods, referred to the Asselian stage. As this horizon is
not exactly at the base of the unit, we cannot exclude that
the Gircha Fm. starts in the latest Carboniferous, even if
we have no evidence at present. The top is constrained by
the brachiopod assemblage in the lower most part of the
overlying formation, Sakmarian in age. Most of the depo-
sition of the Gircha Fm. occurred during the earliest
Permian.
Environment. The Gircha Fm. was deposed mostly
under marine conditions. Ripple and parallel laminations
and the shell lags in the lower part suggest deposition
in a shallow-water storm dominated environment. The
& M. GAETANI
increase of coarser beds in the upper part suggests influ-
ence of fluvial to deltaic conditions with festoon-shaped
sandstones banks.
Lupsuk Formation (Kl)
Name and Occurrence. This unit has been detected
only in the present thrust sheet, on both sides of the
upper Ribat Valley (Pls. 44, 45). Introduced by GAETANI et
alii (2004b), the type-section is not yet formally proposed.
Lithology. Thick package of fine arenites, siltstones,
slates, hybrid calcarenites and thin conglomerates, inter-
posed between the limestones and marls of the underly-
ing Ribat Fm. and the basal quartzarenites of the overly-
ing Gircha Fm. In the Lupsuk Glacier area, the unit
begins with coarse, thick-bedded quartzarenites and
microconglomerates, with cross-lamination and N-dip-
ping foresets. Upwards, they pass to hybrid sandstones,
still with microconglomeratic intercalations. This basal
part is about 40 m thick. It is overlain by grey hybrid
arenites and arenaceous limestones, frequently very rich
in crinoid ossicles, in 10-30 cm thick beds, often amalga-
mated. The thickness of the horizon reaches 20 m. The
upper part of the succession consists of grey arenaceous
limestones, very rich in crinoid ossicles, with parallel
lamination, forming amalgamated packages up to 10 m
thick. The thickness of this interval exceeds 100 m. The
unit ends with approximately 30 m of grey-green silt-
stones with sulphate nodules.
On the southern side of the Ribat Valley, the section
is dominated by medium to fine arenites in the lower
part, more than 150 m thick. By contrast, siltstones with
rare arenitic intercalations dominate in the middle part
and upper parts (240 m thick). Rare crinoidal limestone
intercalations are interspersed through the section, in
beds exceptionally reaching 2 m in thickness. In addition,
fragments of marine fossils are present throughout the
section. Total thickness about 400 m.
Fossils and age. Two major brachiopod assemblages
have been detected (ANGIOLINI et alii, 1999; GAETANI et
alii, 2004b). The basal one, dominated by spiriferids, is
Serpukhovian in age, whilst the upper assemblage should
be referred to the latest Carboniferous.
Environment. The onset of the formation seems to be
characterized by a renewal of erosion, coarser terrigenous
input to the basin and shore-face to fore-delta environ-
ments. Upwards, the northern sector seems to be proxi-
mal to banks or ramps, allowing the flourishing of crinoid
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.27 Pagina 197

THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN 197

«meadows», whose ossicles were swept in by the currents

to a mixed arenaceous/carbonate ramp. To the south,
however, bottom energy rapidly decreased and only spo-
radic arenitic or biocalcarenitic episodes occurred. The
whole succession seems to consist of marine deposits.

(Kltw) Twin Valleys Member

Name and Occurrence. GAETANI et alii (2004b) identi-
fied a cliff-forming carbonate unit within the Lupsuk For-
mation to the north-east of the Karambar lake (Pl. 46). Its
reference section has been described in ANGIOLINI et alii
(1999).
Lithology. The Twin Valleys Member comprises 30 to
100 m of massive bioclastic limestones containing bry-
ozoans, crinoids, recrystallized brachiopods and corals.
This calcareous unit shows sharp lateral variations in
thickness and is capped by a terrigenous unit, comprising
black slates, sandstones and, more rarely, conglomerates,
ascribed to the Gircha Formation.
Fossils and age. No macrofossils have been detected.
A Late Carboniferous age is supposed because the mem-
ber lies above a Moscovian or Kasimovian brachiopod
fauna (ANGIOLINI et alii, 1999).
Environment. The Twin Valleys Member represents a
local enrichment of bioclastic sands, accumulated under
tractive load-carrying current conditions. The tendency
towards a higher bioclastic content and higher energy in
the northern part of the Karambar Unit, already observed
in the Ribat and Lupsuk fms., is seen also here.

Ribat Formation (Kri)

Name and Occurrence. The best development of this
unit has been detected in the Ribat Valley, where the type-
section has been measured (GAETANI et alii, 2004b) (fig. 40).
Lithology. Grey to dark-grey limestones and marls.
The lowermost part is characterized by hybrid crinoidal
limestones, cross-bedded and with topset laminations,
suggesting a transport direction towards the N-NE in pre-
sent coordinates. Fossils are abundant, with crinoid ossi-
cles and small fragmented solitary corals. This basal
interval is overlain by grey limestones, in beds 20-40 cm
thick, often very rich in crinoid ossicles, locally graded or
with parallel lamination. This lithology is rather monoto-
Fig. 40 - The stratigraphic sections measured in the Carboniferous of
nous along the type-section, with recurrent facies rich in the Karambar Unit. To the left the type-sections of the Ribat and
crinoid ossicles and, locally, also fragmentary Spiriferid Margach formations.
and Productoid brachiopods.
The Ribat Formation exhibits significant lateral varia-
tion showing interfingering with massive facies (Krim).
In the Lupsuk Glacier area, the unit forms the core of an whereas Anthracospirifer and Permasyrinxinae were iden-
anticline and the lower exposed part consists of thick- tified 30 m higher in the succession. In the upper part of
bedded to massive crinoidal limestones, overlain by well- the unit, in several sections, the following brachiopod ge-
bedded crinoidal limestones with sparse Productoid and nera were collected: Buxtonioides, Rhipidomella sp., Mar-
Spiriferid brachiopods. In the northern part of the tiniopsis, Spirifer, Afghanospirifer, Choristites, Gypospirifer,
Karambar Unit, above the bedded crinoidal limestone, Syringothyris, and Composita. The age of the Ribat Forma-
dark marly limestones, alternating locally with chert and tion spans the late Tournaisian-Bashkirian.
marls, are at least 150 m thick. The upper part is gener- Environment. The Ribat Formation represents a fully
ally more varied, including marls, marly and hybrid lime- marine interval, dominated by high productivity of car-
stones, and calcareous sandstones. The unit may be more bonates, which were transported towards the basin. Dis-
than 300 m-thick. placed crinoid ossicles and brachiopod shells are abun-
Fossils and age. A single sample (35 m above the base) dant in places, both in the lower part, representing the
yielded the conodonts: Gnathodus pseudosemiglaber, transition from shore-face to open shelf environments,
Gnathodus typicus morph. 2, and Polygnathus bischoffi. and in the overlying well-bedded, locally graded beds
In the middle part of the unit, where marls are more which represent the deeper parts of the depositional sys-
frequently intercalated in the limestone beds, the bra- tem. A gradual increase of clay input is recorded from the
chiopods Sajakella and Ectochoristites have been collected, middle part upwards.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 198
198 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 41 - The stratigraphic sections measured in the Shogram Formation in different tectono-stratigraphic units, both north and south of the
Reshun Fault (Modified from GAETANI et alii, 2008). The thrust sheets where sections were measured are also indicated.
Margach Formation (Kma)
Name and Occurrence. Its type-section (fig. 40) has
been measured on the southeast side of the Ribat Valley
(GAETANI et alii, 2004b).
Lithology. Three lithozones are distinguished in its
type-section, Bottom to top, they are:
1) Dark grey to dark green splintery siltstones inter-
calated with thin-bedded arenites, rarely with parallel
laminations; rare intercalations of bioclastic limestones
bearing brachiopods and crinoid fragments, and a single
0.5 m-thick bed with Receptaculites. Thickness 92 m.
2) Dark grey to black splintery siltstones and slates,
with bioturbated horizons. Rare arenitic intercalations
with dish-and-pillar structures. Thickness 118 m.
3) Fine- to very fine-grained arenites in beds 20 to
40 cm thick, locally displaying parallel lamination, domi-
nate in the lower part, whereas coarser sandstone beds,
also displaying microconglomerate lags and erosional
channels, tend to prevail upwards. Asymmetric ripple
marks indicate progradation from S to N. Bioturbation
is more common in the thinner bedded arenites; hybrid
biocalcarenites and biocalcirudites are also present.
Thickness 84 m.
& M. GAETANI
Fossils and age. Receptaculites cf. chardini is not age
diagnostic (HUBMANN & GAETANI, 2007). No fossils were
discovered in the second lithozone, but in the third litho-
zone a small brachiopod assemblage suggests an early-
middle Tournaisian age (GAETANI et alii, 2004b). Evi-
dence for the Famennian is presently missing.
Environment. The Margach Fm. records sedimentation
on a muddy shallow-marine flat, with significant terrige-
nous input under low-energy conditions, mainly sheltered
from waves. No significant emersion was detected. No
ironstones were noted, though these are present in the
Kuragh Spur and Mt. Shogram sections in Chitral (TALENT
et alii, 1982, 1999; KLOOTWICK & CONAGHAN, 1979). A gen-
eral increase in energy was observed at the beginning of
the Carboniferous (GAETANI et alii, 2004) with traction cur-
rents, erosional channels and coarser-grained detritus doc-
umenting a general fore-stepping of more proximal facies.
Shogram Formation (Ksh)
Occurrence. The Shogram Fm. is present across the
Ribat Valley, with a well exposed section (fig. 41).
Lithology. Five lithozones can be identified (GAETANI
et alii, 2008).
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 199

THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN 199

The unit invariably starts with a terrigenous litho-

zone, including conglomerates and coarse arenites (sub-
litharenites with calcitic/siliceous cement), up to 35 m
thick (Pl. 47). In the Ribat section, conglomerates form
bodies 1-2 m thick, eroding the previous conglomeratic or
arenitic layer. High angle cross laminations arranged in
festoons are common. Pebbles are up to 8 cm in size, con-
sisting of white quartzite and black chert angular clasts,
similar to that observed in the lower member of the
Chilmarabad Fm.
The second lithozone consists of fine arenites
(subarkoses) in thin to medium layers with faint parallel
laminations, burrowed and containing rare bioclasts,
cyclically overlaid by bioclastic calcarenites (mostly pack-
stones) with parallel and high angle cross-lamination. The
cycles are several m thick. The bioclastic layers may be
Fig. 42 - Tepee structures at the top of the Chilmarabad Fm. Van-
very rich in fossils, especially brachiopods and crinoids. danil, Ribat Bar (head of the hammer for scale: 2 cm).
Corals and coralgal are also locally present in the lower
part of this lithozone. The thickness of this lithozone is
about 110-120 m.
The coral bafflestone forms a prominent ridge in the
landscape (Pl. 48). It is crowded by colonial corals, tabu-
lates, bryozoans, and, at minor extent in the lower part,
also brachiopods are preserved. Coral colonies up to
50 cm high are preserved in life position. Unfortunately, in
the Ribat section a strong recrystallization prevents useful
collection. Local interruption of sedimentation with lithi-
fied surfaces may be present. Thickness up to 34 m.
Nodular grey limestone in medium to thin beds, with
increasing shaly intercalations and siltstone follow
upward. Arenaceous limestone and bioclastic calcarenite
with brachiopods also occur. Thickness up to 20 m.
The uppermost litho-interval consists mostly of very
fine terrigenous sediments – fine arenites, siltstones and
shales – with gentle parallel lamination and diffuse bur-
rowing of Rhizocorallium type or with limonitized nodules, Fig. 43 - The lower part of the type section of the Vandanil Fm. at
probably originally pyrite. Cross laminations are rare. Spo- Vandanil, Ribat Bar. View to the E-NE, September, 1999.
radic occurrences of calcareous siltstone are crowded with
brachiopods. Thickness up to 45 m. Transition upwards to
the Margach Fm. is gradual with an almost complete dis-
appearance of limestone intercalations following a basal tion or no visible structures. At the top, the stromatolitic
package of 45 m of siltstones and fine arenites. laminae may be deformed by tepee structures (fig. 42).
Fossils and age. Corals are too recrystallized in the The thickness was estimated, not measured, up to 450 m.
Karambar Unit to be studied. Brachiopods are presently Fossils and age. No direct evidence of age. By correla-
still under study and only a preliminary list has been pro- tion to the Baroghil-Lashkargaz Unit, an ?Early to Middle
duced (TALENT & CHEN in GAETANI et alii, 2008). In Devonian age is assigned.
the second litho-interval, several layers are rich in bra- Environment. The Chilmarabad Fm. was deposed on
chiopods as Douvillina, Schuchertella, Schizophoria, a wide carbonatic peritidal flat on which the clastic input
Rugosatrypa, Athyris, and Ambocoelia suggests a Givetian- system was almost completely deactivated.
Frasnian age. Also the fifth litho-interval should be Frasn-
ian in age because of the abundant brachiopods including Vandanil Formation (Kv)
Gypidula (Devonogypa), Sinotectirostrum., Uncinulus, Name and Occurrence. It is a new name, introduced in
Nalivkinaria, «Spinatrypa», and Waiotrypa. On the whole GAETANI et alii (2008). The unit has been recognized only
it spans the interval Givetian-Frasnian. We have no evi- in the Karambar Unit, on both sides of the Ribat Bar,
dence for the Famennian. where the type-section was measured along its southeast
Environment. The same as for the Shogram Forma- side (fig. 43), above the summer meadows of Vandanil.
tion in the Lashkargaz-Baroghil Unit. Lithology: Five lithozones were identified, from bot-
tom to top they are as follows.
Chilmarabad Formation (Kch) 1) Grey limestone, slightly dolomitized, with parallel
Occurrence. The unit crops out in the middle Ribat lamination or gentle ripple-marks. Thinly bedded, subdi-
Valley. vided by shaly interbeds or alternated with thicker amal-
Lithology. The doloarenitic lower member seems to be gamated beds. Surface of bedding plane or gently wavy.
absent in the Karambar Unit. The upper dolostone mem- Fossils are rather abundant with crinoid ossicles and frag-
ber is monotonously dominated by light grey dolostones, ments of brachiopods and tabulate corals (fig. 44). Recrys-
usually in 20-50 cm or thicker beds, with parallel lamina- tallization is heavy with fossil cavities transformed as cal-
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 200
200 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 44 - Tabulate corals at the base of the Vandanil section (not
sampled).
cite geoids. In the uppermost part, spells of well rounded
quartz grains up to 2-3 mm in size. Thickness: 135 m.
2) Light grey dolostones in 20-40 cm thick beds.
About 50 m thick.
3) Grey to dark grey carbonatic siltstones, brownish
when altered, with intercalations, up to 20 m thick, of
well bedded, grey nodular limestones, slightly arena-
ceous, and few dolostone banks. This lithozone is capped
by about 30 m of calcareous brownish slates with
crinoids and deformed fragmentary brachiopods. Thick-
ness uncertain due to the broken slope, about 150 m.
4) Grey nodular limestones with shaly interbeds, rich
in brachiopods, corals, crinoids and nautiloids, all
strongly recrystallized and sheared. They are overlain by
light grey dolostones, or packstone partly dolomitized in
30-40 cm thick beds, overlaid by thinner platy bedded
dolomitic limestones, still rich in crinoids. The units is
capped by nodular amalgamated beds, meter-thick, with
ghost of bioclasts and some shaly intercalations. Thick-
ness about 120 m.
5) Grey dolostones in 30-50 cm beds alternating with
massive dolostones forming mounds – up to 15 m thick in
the lower part – built by dendroid to phacelloid colonies
of rugosans, tabulates, and calcareous algae. Up-sequence
the mounds, very rich in corals, are as much as 3-5 m in
thickness and are interbedded with thinner bioclastic
dolomitic limestones. Because of heavy recrystallization,
no sampling was undertaken. The mound complex
interfingers with thin-bedded grey crinoidal limestones,
forming along section intercalated packages 2-4 m-thick.
Thickness estimated to be about 170 m.
Total thickness about 625 m.
Fossil and age. Due to incipient metamorphism, the
fossil content, even when fairly abundant, is too poorly
preserved for identification. Conodonts have been
obtained from litho-interval 3 and 4 by R. MAWSON in
GAETANI et alii (2008). In the litho-interval 3 a sample
produced a single specimen of Pandorinellina steinhor-
nensis miae, indicative of Pragian-early Emsian. Cono-
donts from litho-interval 4 include Ozarkodina excavata
excavata, Oz. remscheidensis remscheidensis, Pandorinel-
lina steinhornensis miae, Amydrotaxis druceana and Amy-
drotaxis n. sp. The age-range indicated for this fauna is
Early Devonian; the last three conodont taxa refine the
age to Pragian.
& M. GAETANI
Environment. The Vandanil Fm. testify to a carbonate
ramp with several subenvironments. The lower part of the
succession was characterized by fairly high energy, with
bioclastic carbonatic sands, in which occasionally some
spells of mature quartz sands were swept. More sheltered
conditions followed upwards. This slow trend to deepen-
ing was locally interrupted where a coral-algal mound
was able to grow. The sheltered muddier conditions con-
tinued and developed laterally, interfingering with the
mound. At the top, shallower conditions prevailed and the
peritidal flats of the Chilmarabad spread over the area.
Baroghil Group (Kba)
Heavily disrupted outcrops of splintery black shales,
exposed in the side valleys to the south of the Vandanil
meadows and on the northern slope of the Chiantar Glac-
ier, can be referred to the Vidiakot Fm. of the Baroghil
Group. They form the core of the antiformal structure
exposed along the Chiantar Glacier east of the large NE-
SW left-lateral transfer fault displacing the Karambar
Unit. Thich layers of quartzarenites are here interbedded
with the shales.
4.3.1.7 Chhateboi Unit (C)
This unit includes a large poorly accessible area
located across the Chhateboi Glacier in the upper part of
the Karambar Valley. It consists of thick, poorly fossilifer-
ous terrigenous to carbonate meta-sediments showing
lithological characters similar to the other well-dated Per-
mian successions. In addition, part of the unit is intruded
by the Chhateboi Granite (CGR), forming a domal
antiform with a well-defined contact aureole (Pl. 49). The
tectonic boundaries of the unit are poorly defined, and it
is not excluded that the Chhateboi Unit may be part of
the Sost Unit.
This thrust sheet is bounded to the south by a north-
verging thrust fault which can be followed across the
southern slope of the Karambar Valley from Khora Bhurt
to the Shuinj Glacier. The eastern sector of this thrust
plane belongs to the Upper Hunza fault system, directly
stacking the crystalline basement of the Axial Unit on the
massive metacarbonates of the Chhateboi Unit. To the
west of the Chhateboi Glacier the northern boundary of
this thrust sheet is less defined, as the thrust fault occurs
between terrigenous facies attributed to the Gircha Fm.
in both the Chhateboi and the Karambar units. The con-
tact has been tentatively traced along the large valley
coming down from the Pakistan-Afghanistan divide west
of Shuinj.
Sparse slices of the Reshun Fm. which uncon-
formably covers in some places the massive carbonates
of the unit (Cca) occur along the Hunza fault system.
The north-eastern boundary of the unit is also poorly
defined. We suggest the occurrence of a fault which sep-
arates the thick carbonate succession in front of Khora
Bhurt from the meta-carbonates which are intruded by
the Chhateboi Granite, passing across the Qalandar
Uwin Pass. Deformed black marls exposed at the pass
may support this interpretation.
A sharp separation of the Chhateboi Unit from the sur-
rounding ones is also suggested by its stratigraphic com-
position, as it shows peculiar stratigraphic characters
which partially differ from those of the Karambar and
Sost units. In fact, the transition from the Gircha Fm.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 201

THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN 201

(Cgr) to carbonate facies (Cca) occurs through the occur-

rence of a transitional facies (Cmr), which differs from the
succession exposed in the other two units (fig. 45). On the
other hand, it strictly recalls the Guhjal Unit. Contact
metamorphism may partially obscure the original features
of the succession, hampering stratigraphic correlations.
In addition to the broad antiformal structure produced
by the intrusion of the Chhateboi Granite, WNW-ESE folds
occur in the Gircha Fm. north of Shuinj (Pl. 50), showing a
different trend from the ones affecting to the north the Car-
boniferous outcrops of the Karambar Unit.

Tupop Formation (Ct)

Red conglomerates and sandstones unconformably
resting on the massive carbonates of this thrust sheet
(Cca) west of Chillinji. The unit has been correlated with
Fig. 45 - Strongly deformed intercalations of limestones and slates
the Tupop Formation of the Chapursan Valley, occurring along the Chhateboi Glacier. Isoclinal folds are refolded by a second
entirely in the Sost Unit due to its similarity. deformational event. September, 1996.

Chhateboi Carbonates (Cca)

Massive carbonates more than 1000 meters thick
form the high cliffs along the snout of the Chhateboi
Glacier. They are often severely recrystallized around the
Chhateboi Granite and generally show a pervasive cata-
clastic fabric. (?Permian-Mesozoic).

Chhateboi Marly Limestone (Cmr)

Well bedded limestones, marls and shales occur
between the Gircha Fm. and the overlying massive car-
bonates. They show polyphase recumbent and isoclinal
folds exposed along the Chhateboi Glacier close to the
Chhateboi Granite. Their original thickness may reach a
few hundred meters. (?Permian).

Gircha Formation (Cgr)

Very thick monotonous succession of shales and
sandstones. Thick quartzarenite layers occur especially
north of Shuinj (Cqz). According to its composition and
stratigraphic position, it has been directly correlated with
the Permian Gircha Fm. of the nearby units. Its original
thickness is obscured by faulted contacts and intensive
folding; it may be several hundred meters thick.
Crinoid Limestone (Cc)
Grey bioclastic massive limestones, about 50 meters
thick, with crinoid ossicles are exposed along the upper
part of the Shuinj Valley close to the Afghan border.
According to their stratigraphic position, laying appar-
ently under the Gircha Fm., they may represent a Car-
boniferous facies possibly correlatable with the Ribat Fm.
of the Karambar Unit.
4.3.1.8 Sost Unit (S)
This thrust sheet forms the westward extension of the
same unit defined by us in the Chapursan and Hunza val-
leys (GAETANI et alii, 1990a; ZANCHI, 1993; ZANCHI &
GAETANI, 1994; ZANCHI & GRITTI, 1996). It is exposed
from the Chapursan Valley to the Qalandar Uwin Pass in
the upper Karambar Valley west of Chillinji. The unit
shows a comprehensive Permian to Cretaceous succes-
sion including several formations, from the Permian Gir-
cha Fm. to the Triassic Aghil Fm. and related facies (Hid-
den Gorge limestone and Khora Bhurt marls), also
containing the Jurassic Yashkuk and Reshit fms., and the
Fig. 46 - Stereographic projections of folds measured in the Sost and
Guhjal units; symbols as in previous projections.
Cretaceous Tupop and Darband fms. The most extended
outcrops mainly consist of the Triassic carbonates of the
Aghil Fm. unconformably covered by the Tupop Fm.,
which is largely exposed with a well-preserved unconfor-
mity north of Buattar and to the west, across the Paki-
stan-Afghanistan divide. The Campanian marls of the
Darband Fm. crop out close to Buattar along the western
flank of the Koz Yaz Glacier. Ignimbrites occur at the
base of the Tupop Fm. along the Hidden Gorge Glacier
and along the western flank of the Koz Yaz Glacier.
The units is bounded to the south by the N-verging
E-W trending and S-dipping Upper Hunza fault system
causing the overthrust of the Guhjal thrust sheet to the
north onto the Sost Unit (Pl. 51). Several thrust faults,
often including slices of the Tupop Fm., duplicate the
succession in its southern sector (fig. 46). Complex rela-
tionships resulting from the repetition of the Tupop Fm.
within thrust slices may be due to delamination occurring
along the Tupop basal unconformity as a consequence of
strong competence contrasts. E-W horizontal folds often
showing overturned limbs and a N-vergence occur in the
Tupop Fm. along the right side of the Chapursan Valley.
They also suggest a post-Cretaceous age for this thrust
system. In addition, NW-plunging mesoscopic folds with
a metric wavelength have been measured in the Darband
Fm. along the Koz Yaz Glacier.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 202
202 A. ZANCHI
South-verging ENE-WSW thrust faults deforming the
Triassic and Jurassic successions characterize the left-side
flank of the Chapursan, which are in turn overthrusted by
the Wakhan Slates along the Kilik Fault, running close to
the boundary with Afghanistan (Pl. 52). The same situa-
tion has been described eastward along the Chapursan
Valley (ZANCHI, 1993; ZANCHI & GRITTI, 1996). The Sost
Unit clearly continues into Wakhan, where it has been
included in the undifferentiated Afghan Unit.
The western portion of the Sost Unit is problematical,
and has been poorly investigated. It surely reaches the
Qalandar Uwin Pass, forming a carbonate massif showing
at least a 1.5 kilometre thick succession with inaccessible
rock walls, where Triassic dasycladacean algae have been
found in its lower part. As different successions are
exposed west of the Qalandar Uwin Pass, showing car-
bonates passing progressively at the base to terrigenous
sediments of unknown age, we have preferred to interrupt
here the Sost Unit and separate it from the Chhateboi
Unit occurring between the Chillinji and Karambar areas.
The Aghil carbonates and the Tutpop conglomerates
(Pl. 53) are deeply involved in the thrust stack of Chillinji,
showing intricate out-of-sequence duplex thrust struc-
tures possibly post-dating the emplacement of the Tash
Kupruk thrust sheet. These high-angle reverse faults
duplicating the Aghil and Tupop formations form a relay
structure between the upper Hunza Fault and the Chi-
antar-Chillinji Fault (Pl. 15).
Tupop Formation (St)
Name and Occurrence. The Tupop Formation (GAETANI
et alii, 1990a; GAETANI et alii, 1993; ZANCHI & GAETANI,
1994) widely outcrops west and south of Babaghundi
Ziarat in the Chapursan Valley, along the valley of Buattar
and to the north along the Irshad Uwin Valley.
Lithology. It consists of channelized red cobble and
pebble conglomerates, forming amalgamated beds sev-
eral m-thick, interbedded with sandstone and red shales.
The conglomerate is usually clast-supported with carbon-
ate cement. Clasts are predominantly of carbonate com-
position; subordinate terrigenous and few volcanic rocks
also occur (Pl. 54). We observed also two significant
intercalations along the western flank of the Koz Yaz
Glacier: 1) pinkish mudstones in 2-5 cm thick beds,
slightly nodular, with thin red chert lenses referred to
the Campanian Darband Fm. (GAETANI et alii, 1993);
2) a dark red ignimbrite about 10 m thick including car-
bonate pebbles covered by an ignimbrite breccia also
containing several carbonate pebbles. Rhyolitic ign-
imbrites have been found also at the top of the Hidden
Gorge at the base of the Tupop Fm. (Pl. 53).
Age. No fossils were found. A Cretaceous age is attrib-
uted because of the correlation to the ages obtained in the
Chapursan Valley.
Environment. The Tupop Fm. was deposited under
fluviatile conditions. Marine intercalations occurred tem-
porarily in a highly mobile geodynamic context.
Reshit Formation (Sre)
Name and Occurrence. Name introduced by GAETANI
et alii (1990a) for a succession cropping out mainly in the
Chapursan Valley. It forms a rather continuous strip from
the Irshad Uwin Pass to the east, connecting with the out-
crops along the northern flank of the Chapursan Valley
(ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994).
& M. GAETANI
Lithology. Dark grey, oncolitic to oolitic packstone,
medium- to thick-bedded and dark grey well bedded
mudstone and wackestone, locally with chert nodules,
forming rather imposing steep slopes, about 300 m in
thickness. Outside the map, in the Chapursan Valley, gyp-
sum layers occur in the central part of the formation. In
the same area, thin layers of coal have been recently
mined (DONNELLY, 2004).
Fossils and age. GAETANI et alii (1993) reported nan-
nofossils of Aalenian-Bajocian ages from outcrops lying
to the east of the present map.
Environment. Open carbonate shelf, with evaporitic
episodes and restricted marshy lagoon.
Yashkuk Formation (Sy)
Name and Occurrence. Name introduced by GAETANI
et alii (1990a) for a succession cropping out mainly along
the Chapursan Valley. It forms a strip a few km in length
on the southern slopes of the Sakar Sar in the upper
reaches of the Sakar Jerab, in the upper Chapursan Val-
ley, north of Babaghundi Ziarat.
Lithology. Fine grained, red and green litharenites and
siltstones, mostly thin-bedded, alternating with red to
greenish shales, often poorly exposed. Its thickness
ranges between 10 and 300 m
Fossil and age. According to GAETANI et alii (1993) the
unit should be Toarcian-Aalenian in age.
Environment. Continental distal alluvial fans record-
ing the dismantling of the Cimmerian orogenic belt.
Aghil Formation (Sag)
Name and Occurrence. The name was introduced by
DESIO (1963), who resumed the term Aghil Limestone
introduced by AUDEN (1938), in the Aghil Range, where,
however, it was poorly defined. GAETANI et alii (1990a)
adopted the term for the equivalent carbonatic layers in
Hunza and Chapursan, preferring the more general
spelling of Aghil Formation. These massive carbonates
form imposing steep slopes and walls in the upper Cha-
pursan, in the Chillinji area and to the east of the Khora
Bhurt Pass.
Lithology. To the east of the Khora Bhurt the carbon-
ates (both limestone and dolostone) are in massive cyclic
beds. The total thickness may exceed 1500 m.
Fossil and age. Deformed megalodontids sections and
Dasycladacean fragments have been observed respectively
west of Chillinji along the Karambar Valley and the Hid-
den Gorge, suggesting a Late Triassic age. Outside the
area, south of Reshit in the Chapursan Valley, the top of
the Aghil contains reworked scleractinian corals and badly
preserved ammonoids, suggesting a latest Triassic age.
Environment. Peritidal carbonate platform in the
lower and middle parts, shifting to prevailing subtidal
and deeper conditions in the topmost part, before the
deposition of the terrigenous sediments linked to the
Cimmerian orogeny.
Hidden Gorge Limestone (Sbl)
The unit is named after a deep gorge cutting through
the carbonate massifs west of Chillinji. It consists of
well-bedded platy black bioclastic limestones with black
marls layers, intercalated in the Aghil Fm., suggesting an
internal lagoonal environment with restricted circula-
tion. They are a few tens of metres thick and show lim-
ited outcrops.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 203
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
Qalandar Uwin Marls (Skb)
They consist of terrigenous tectonic slices cropping
out at the Qalandar Uwin Pass, possibly marking the
occurrence of an important thrust fault separating the
Sost Unit from the Chhateboi Unit.
Gircha Formation (Sgr)
Occurrence. Elongated strips in the upper reaches of
the Chapursan Valley and towards the Irshad Uwin Pass.
Lithology. Dark pelites alternating with cross-lami-
nated channelized sandstones, forming lenticular bodies
up to 10 m thick in the upper part. Superb bidirectional
ripple marks (fig. 47).
Fossil and age. The occurrence of conglomerate inter-
calations bearing pebbles with Devonian corals is pecu-
liar to the Gircha Fm. of this thrust sheet also out of the
mapped area. FLÜGEL (1995) identified Aphyllum sp.
from the west side of the Yashkuk Glacier. HUBMANN &
GAETANI (2007) recognized the Alveolites (Alveolites)
hudlestoni tabulate coral in a pebble from the Irshad
Uwin Valley. According to its stratigraphic position, the
unit should be of Early Permian age. Thickness >1000 m.
Environment. Distal alluvial fan, with meander chan-
nels and even braided channels conditions in the upper
part. However, significant part of the unit has been
deposited under shallow marine conditions.
4.3.1.9 Afghan Unit (AF)
The northern part of the North Karakoram Terrain
exposed in Afghanistan has been mapped on the base of
satellite imagery photo-interpretation and on observations
in the distance taken from the high peaks along the conti-
nental divide (Pl. 55). Therefore, we only have general
information on the nature, composition, and age of these
rocks. The ages are tentatively inferred by reference to
similar units extending on the Pakistani side of the range.
Nevertheless, we have included these rocks in the NKT, as
they clearly outcrop south of the Wakhan Slates, which can
be easily recognized also through photo-interpretation.
Structural features defined in this area are also tentative.
Afghan Red Conglomerates (AFrh)
A few isolated tectonic slices, up to 100 hundred
meters thick, of reddish conglomerates have been
observed in the distance north of the Karamabar Pass
area. They may represent the lateral equivalent of the
Tupop/Reshun conglomerates observed in Pakistan.
Afghan Massive Carbonates (AFmc)
This unit include massive carbonates often with a
thickness exceeding 1000 m, which may correspond to
the western continuation of the Aghil Fm. of the Sost
Unit. Complex thrust faults prevent from a direct correla-
tion with this unit. In alternative, they may represent Per-
mian, shallow water limestones. They are especially evi-
dent along the northern margin of the NKT, where they
form large isolated carbonate masses bounded by south-
verging thrust surfaces. In the central part they are asso-
ciated with black slates (AFbs), showing several repeti-
tions probably due to thrust stacking and/or folding.
A huge south-verging duplex structure extending in
Afghanistan for several tens of kilometres up to the
Irshad Uwin Pass is evident in the northeast part of the
mapped area just south of the Wakhan Slates.
203
Fig. 47 - Ripple marks in the intermediate part of the Gircha Fm.,
upper Chapursan Valley, Sost Unit.
Afghan Carbonates and Clastics (AFct)
This unit includes outcrops characterized by a greyish
tone in the Panchromatic spot image, suggesting the
occurrence of marls, limestones and sandstones. Their
separation from the black slates (AFbs) must be consid-
ered cautiously due to the similarity between the two
facies in the SPOT imagery. They may correspond to
Upper Paleozoic-Mesozoic successions of the NKT. Their
thickness can reach several hundred meters or more.
Afghan Black Slates (AFbs)
Outcrops marked by a noticeably dark colour have
been classified within this unit, which may correspond to
terrigenous sediments of the Paleozoic succession, espe-
cially to the Gircha Fm. or to the Baroghil Group.
UNITS SOUTH OF THE RESHUN-UPPER HUNZA
FAULTS
4.3.1.10 Axial Unit (A)
The Axial Unit, firstly defined by GAETANI et alii
(1996), is one of the most important tectonic unit of the
Northern Karakoram Terrain, extending for about 100
kilometres in the central and western regions covered by
the map. An isolated portion of the same unit has been
recognized in the Chillinji area, where it occurs in a com-
plex structural setting below the Guhjal and the Tash
Kupruk units (Pls. 15, 16).
The Axial Unit shows several peculiar characters,
which make it unique for the definition of the evolution
of the Karakoram block. Its most important feature is the
occurrence of a pre-Ordovician crystalline basement con-
sisting of the Chikar Quartzite (Ack), which is in turn
intruded by pre-Ordovician magmatic bodies (Ishkarwaz-
type Granodiorite: AGR), possibly related to the final
magmatic events of the Pan-African orogeny. The crys-
talline basement is covered by the terrigenous sediments
of the Baroghil Group, still showing a preserved basal
non-conformity, which is well exposed close to the
Baroghil village area (fig. 48) and near Chillinji (LE FORT
et alii, 1994; TONGIORGI et alii, 1994). A Paleozoic succes-
sion, Ordovician in age at the base, follows upwards
showing stratigraphic units directly correlated with those
of the Karambar and Lashkargaz-Baroghil thrust sheets
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 204
204 A. ZANCHI
occurring to the north of the Reshun Fault. Another pecu-
liar character of this unit is related to the reduced thick-
ness of the whole Paleozoic section (Pl. 56), suggesting
deposition on a structural high, with respect to the suc-
cessions preserved in the nearby structural units, which
were deposited in more subsiding basins. Massive car-
bonates (Pl. 57) of Permian to Triassic age (PERRI et alii,
2004) close the Paleozoic succession at the top. The
Paleozoic to Triassic units are covered by the Upper Cre-
taceous Reshun Fm., generally showing a low angle angu-
lar unconformity up to 15° (Pl. 58). The unconformity
testifies to an important deformational event followed by
a marked uplift and erosion which has been related by
most of the authors to the collision of Karakoram with
Kohistan (PUDSEY et alii, 1985; COWARD et alii, 1986;
PUDSEY, 1986; GAETANI et alii, 1990a, 1993; SEARLE,
1991; ZANCHI, 1993; ZANCHI & GRITTI, 1996).
The Axial Unit forms the footwall of the Reshun Fault.
The Axial Unit is progressively overthrust from west to
east by the Siru Gol, Lasht, Tash Kupruk and Lashkargaz-
Baroghil thrust sheets. East of the snout of the Chiantar
Glacier, the unit is elided by a N-verging thrust fault stack-
ing directly the Karakoram Batholith on the Karambar
Unit. The southern boundary of the unit is also complex
and generally consists of high-angle shear zones separat-
ing the Lower Paleozoic units of the pre-Ordovician crys-
talline basement from the Karakoram Batholith. In the
western sector, the Sakirmul Granodiorite is often sheared
along the contact with the Axial Unit. Between the Madit
and Ponarillo glaciers, LE FORT & GAETANI (1998) report
a complex structural setting including a N-verging over-
thrust juxtaposing the Ordovician slates of the Baroghil
Group on the Chikar Quartzite, as well as an important
N-NW trending S-dipping low-angle normal fault delami-
nating the stratigraphic boundary between the two units
(section 6.1). From the Madit Glacier up to the Darkot Pass
to the east, the Axial Unit is separated from the Karakoram
Batholith by the Dobargar-Kotalkash metasediments.
Differences in thickness of the Paleozoic successions
across the Reshun Fault suggest that it was probably a
Paleozoic to Mesozoic normal fault which was inverted
during the formation of the Karakoram belt. In addition,
& M. GAETANI
Fig. 48 - Basal non-conformity between the in-
tensively cleaved pre-Ordovician Ishkarwaz-
type Granodiorite and the base of the Baroghil
Group at Baroghil, July 2004. People on the
outcrop are part of the members of the Pres-
tige Excursion, XXXII International Geological
Congress.
the Reshun Fault has been finally reactivated with a nor-
mal to oblique slip, which is especially evident south of
Shost and in the Baroghil area. Evidence is given for
example by the younger-on-older relationships occurring
along the footwall of the fault. These features will be
discussed further on in the section on the Reshun Fault.
Polyphase deformation is also recorded within the
Reshun Formation, where two different generations of
axial plane cleavages occur. This also suggests that most
of the deformation affecting the Axial Unit can occurred
between the end of the Cretaceous and the Cenozoic.
The structural setting of the Axial Unit exposed in the
Chillinji area is more complex, being part of the system of
N-verging imbricates marking the Chiantar-Chillinji Fault
which represents the linkage system between the Reshun
and the Upper Hunza faults (Pl. 16). In this area the Axial
Unit forms a duplex between the Guhjal and Chhateboi
thrust sheets. It is also intruded by an isolated portion of
the Garmush Granite, displaced by the thrust faults
bounding the unit. Steeply plunging to vertical mesoscopic
folds with NE-SW trending axial plane cleavages occur in
the Upper Paleozoic succession at Chillinji (fig. 49).
SEDIMENTARY COVER
Reshun Formation (Arh)
Name and occurrence. The conglomerate cropping out
around Reshun (Chitral) was firstly identified by HAYDEN
(1915) and studied in more detail by PUDSEY et alii (1985)
and PUDSEY (1986). In the considered area, it forms a
fairly continuous strip from Chillinji across the Chiantar
Glacier to the Paur Gol. The formation is often severely
deformed as it lies in the footwall of the Reshun Fault.
Lithology. In the basal part coarse reddish sandstones
and red shales prevail (Pl. 59), whilst upwards also con-
glomeratic layers are present (Pl. 60). Clasts of felsic vol-
canic rocks mainly consisting of reddish ignimbrites have
been observed at the base of the unit in the Baroghil area
above the Chilmarabad Fm. The clast-supported Reshun
Fm. consists of moderately rounded pebbles of sedimen-
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 205
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
Fig. 49 - Stereographic projections of structures measured in the Axial Unit; symbols as in previous projections.
tary rocks, with average clast size between 5 and 15 cm
to the west. In the Paur Gol pebbles and cobbles and
blocks up to 30-40 cm in size have been observed, form-
ing 10-20 m-thick layers. However, the usual bedding is
m-thick in the conglomerates, thinner in the sandstones.
Carbonate pebbles of local provenance commonly prevail
over sandstone pebbles. The matrix is mostly red. At the
base there is an erosion surface. However, no spectacular
angular unconformity (max 10°-15°) is observed around
Shost (Pl. 59), where reddish marly layers occur at the
base of the unit. Its thickness increases to the west, where
it may reach >500 m along the Paur Gol; a precise evalua-
tion of its maximum thickness is usually hampered by
strong tectonic deformation.
At least two major deformational events related to the
evolution of the Reshun Fault have been identified within
this unit (fig. 49). A strong pervasive axial plane foliation
related to tight E-W trending folds with sericite growth, is
often crenulated by a second axial plane foliation, which
can be observed in the field around Shost and Kan Khun.
A strong flattening and elongation of the clasts related to
the first folding event is commonly observed in the con-
glomerates of the succession, especially close to the
Reshun Fault at Kan Khun (Pl. 61). Post-deformation
chloritoid overgrowth occurs around Shost close to the
fault zone, indicating an important increase in tempera-
ture conditions. Around Shost, the Reshun Fm. is deeply
involved within large-scale close folds and thrust struc-
tures (Pl. 62). Further details on the deformation of the
Reshun Formation are given in the final section concern-
ing the evolution of the Reshun Fault.
Age and fossils. No direct age assignment could be
made, the search for pollens resulted negative. We con-
sider the conglomerate to be Late Cretaceous in age,
205
younger than the Orbitolina limestones, since clasts con-
taining those foraminifers have been observed in loose
blocks along the Yarkhun River at Gharil. In the area of
Nal, near Reshun, and at Krinji, Chitral, limestones and
arenites with orbitolinids and small rudist fragments,
lying below the Reshun Conglomerate were collected by
DESIO (1959) and TALENT et alii (1982). Close re-exami-
nation of the DESIO’ samples with orbitolinids from Nal by
R. SCHROEDER (Frankfurt a.M.) refers the samples to
species of the genus Mesorbitolina, indicating a late Aptian
age, thus excluding the potential Barremian age suggested
by CITA & RUSCELLI (1959) (Pers. communication, 2009).
Environment. The Reshun Fm. conglomerate was depo-
sited in a fluvial context, from high energy fans evolving
in a braided river plain. The irregular distribution of the
conglomerates testifies to the lateral migrations of the
distributaries high energy channels.
Massive Carbonates (Amc)
Occurrence. They form a discontinuous strip with iso-
lated outcrops in the central part of the map. West of Kan
Khun they are continuously exposed up to Shost. Another
large outcrop is the area of Chillinji.
Lithology. In the upper Yarkhun area, the lower part
consists of grey thick-bedded dolostones overlain by dark
grey limestones (packstone to wackestone) in 40-60 cm-
thick beds often amalgamated to form banks exceeding
2 m; thickness about 250-300 m. They are overlaid by
light thick-bedded peritidal dolostones (>500 m) in the
upper part (Siru Gol) with stromatolitic laminae and fen-
estrae. At Chillinji, the lower 100 m consists of grey
recrystallized limestone in metric layers, alternating with
thin to medium bedded, dark grey mudstone/wackestone
beds, with gastropods and stromatolitic laminae. Gradu-
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 206
206 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 50 - A megalodontid on the south bank of the Yarkhun River,
just to the left of the bridge from Zirch. The presence of megalodon-
tids in the Axial Unit is rare.
Fig. 51 - Wavy ripples and lithified clasts disrupted by bottom currents
at the top of a coral mound. Shogram Fm., Chillinji, Karambar Valley.
ally, up in the section, thick bedded grey to light grey
dolostones prevail. The overlying part, more than 300 m-
thick, is made of massive bedded peritidal dolostone,
heavily recrystallized, with frequent stromatolitic layers.
The steep wall prevents further observations. Thickness in
the Chillinji area: >400 m
Fossils and age. A very rich fauna of small foraminifers,
Late Permian in age, was identified to the north of
Shakirmul, along the river (GAETANI et alii, 1995).
Unidentifiable corals were also observed. Along the new
jeep road in the same area near the Shost bridge, PERRI et
alii (2004) found a conodont fauna of Early Triassic age
in the dark grey bedded limestones. No age evidence is
usually available for the upper massive part of the unit,
but to the south of the bridge on the Yarkhun river, where
Megalodontids have been observed (fig. 50).
Environment. The lower part of the unit was deposited
under wave base on a carbonate ramp. The upper part
instead was deposited under peritidal conditions on a
carbonate flat.
Gircha Formation (Agr)
Occurrence. It forms a narrow strip crossing the
Yarkhun river north of Shakirmul, directly overlapping
the slates of the Baroghil Group.
& M. GAETANI
Lithology. Fine conglomerates in thick beds at the
base, overlain by well bedded quartzarenites, alternating
with dark splintery slates. To be noted the very high
quartz content. Thickness: a few tens of meters.
Fossils and age. No fossils being recovered. A Permian
age is assigned by analogy with other thrust sheets.
Environment. Distal alluvial fan.
Permo-Carboniferous clastics (Apc)
Occurrence. In the area of Chillinji all the terrigenous
rocks interposed between the Shogram Fm. and the Mas-
sive Carbonates (Amc) are grouped in this unit.
Lithology. Fairly monotonous succession of dark grey
slates, siltstones and fine arenites (Pl. 63), often with car-
bonate cement with few brachiopods at the base. Thin to
medium bedded litharenites, and hybrid sandstones
occur subordinately. In the upper part the sandstones are
richer in quartz. The outcrops are crossed by thick por-
phyritic dykes, dark red in colour. Thickness >300 m, but
measures are uncertain as the succession is severely dis-
rupted by faults.
Fossils and age. In the lowermost part, immediately
above the Shogram Fm., the brachiopod Rhipidomella has
been collected, suggesting an Early Carboniferous age.
The unit may represent a lateral terrigenous equivalent of
the more complete successions from the Margach to the
Gircha formations of the Karambar Unit.
Environment. Distal terrigenous fan, largely deposited
under marine conditions.
Shogram Formation (Ash)
Occurrence. The unit crops out at Chillinji. A section
has been measured on the northern side of the river (GAE-
TANI et alii, 2008).
Lithology. Coarse sandstones and microconglomerates
in amalgamated graded beds of 10-20 cm-thick occur at
the base, overlaid by alternating graded litharenites or
hybrid sandstones with brachiopod shelly layers at the
base, and calcareous intercalations and fossiliferous lay-
ers rich in well-preserved brachiopod faunas (fig. 51).
Small meter-thick mounds with Rugosa and Tabulata.
Thickness: 60 m.
Fossils and age. SCHRÖDER (2004) identified Temno-
phyllum sp. and HUBMANN in HUBMANN & GAETANI
(2007) Thamnopora grandis, suggesting a possible Middle
Devonian age. The presence of the Frasnian (Upper
Devonian) cannot be excluded.
Environment. Above the basal transgressive conglom-
erate layers, the carbonate shelf was frequently swept by
terrigenous inputs, which stopped the growth of the coral
mounds.
Chilmarabad Formation (Ach)
Occurrence. The unit forms a small belt across the
Karambar River in the Chillinji area.
Lithology. Both members of the Chilmarabad Fm.
may be recognized. At the base, especially in the lower
30 m, the transition from the underlying unit occurs with
a gradual increase of the dolomitic layers and nodules in
20-50 cm layers. The terrigenous layers are made of mi-
croconglomerates with typical dark chert clasts (fig. 52).
The upper member consists of grey dolostones, yellow
brown when altered, in m-thick beds. Peritidal cycles,
erosional surfaces lined by thin veneers of sandstone,
nodular dolomitized limestones, affected by small syn-
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 207

THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN 207

genetic extensional faults (fig. 53) may also be observed.

Thickness: 130 m
Fossils and age. No fossils have been observed and a
?Lower-Middle Devonian age is assigned by analogy to
other outcrops.
Environment. Peritidal carbonate flat, with significant
terrigenous input in the lower part.

Chilmarabad Conglomerate (Acg) – Medium to fine

conglomerates and quartzarenite with abundant clasts of
black chert. Thickness >200 m. (?Silurian-?Devonian).
Occurrence. Small outcrop along the left side of the
uppermost part of Yarkhun Valley, in front of Lashkargaz.
Lithology. Well sorted fine-bedded yellowish conglom-
erates, either clast and matrix supported, in 20-40 cm-
thick amalgamated beds, with thin sandstone or siltstone
Fig. 52 - Fine grained conglomerates with chert pebbles at the base
intercalations. Dark chert clasts are typical. It rests of the Chilmarabad Fm., Chillinji, Yarkhun Valley.
unconformably on the slates of the Baroghil Group,
showing a reduced thickness (Pls. 56, 57). Thickness: at
least 200 m.
Fossil and age. This unit may be correlated to the basal
clastic portion of the Shogram Fm. It may also be tenta-
tively correlated to the Charun Quartzite of Chitral (STAUF-
FER, 1975). The age is assigned by stratigraphic position.
Environment. Distal alluvial environment.

Baroghil Group (Aba)

Name. This unit was first recognized and named by
THAKIRKHELI (1982), without formalization. GAETANI et
alii (1996) introduced the formational term Yarkhun for
the same unit. KAZMI & QASIM (1997) claimed the prior-
ity for the name Baroghil. This opinion was accepted in
TALENT et alii (1999) and QUINTAVALLE et alii (2000), rais-
ing the name Baroghil to group rank and introducing as
formations the names Vidiakot (Avd) and Yarkhun (Aya)
to better detail the upper and lower part of the succession
(Pl. 64). The name Baroghil appears as an useful compre- Fig. 53 - Chillinji, lower part of the Chilmarabad Fm. A syn-sedimen-
tary fault in the alternating dolostone/arenitic layers is sealed in the
hensive term when it is not possible to separate the two upper part of the outcrop.
formations, especially when the succession is severely
affected by tectonics. Basically, the Yarkhun Formation
consists of arenitic and shaly packages with occasional
carbonatic layers, capped by a microconglomeratic hori-
zon. The overlying Vidiakot Formation mostly includes
black shales and siltstones with rare coarser terrigenous
intercalations. As this last formation is mechanically
weak, thrust surfaces often propagate from this portion of
the succession.
Occurrence. In the Axial Unit, the crystalline base-
ment of the NKT is also present and the basal contact of
the Baroghil Group can be observed (LE FORT et alii,
1994; TONGIORGI et alii, 1994; QUINTAVALLE et alii, 2000),
allowing to give the most complete description (fig. 48). It
forms an almost continuous belt between the west side of
the map (Paur Gol) to the Baroghil area.
At Chillinji, it consists of lithic sandstones and micro-
conglomerates at the base, non conformably covering the
Ishkarwaz-type Granodiorite. Towards the top, black Fig. 54 - The type-section of the Vidiakot Fm. in severely cleaved
splintery slates with small limestone nodules occur. The slates along the Vidiakot ridge; the Koyo Zom in the background.
best outcrops are in front of Chillinji on the opposite side The Reshun Fault passes through the saddle in the foreground. Sep-
tember, 1996.
of the Valley close to Khora Bhurt. Thickness >50 m.

Vidiakot Formation (Avd)

Occurrence. It crops out continuously between the (fig. 54, Pl. 28). However, several faults affect the succes-
Paur Gol and Chilmarabad. A section was measured sion and the upper part of the unit is truncated by the
along the Vidiakot Ridge, mostly on the Baroghil side Reshun Fault.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 208
208 A. ZANCHI
a vided by two major intercalations of black splintery slates
b
Fig. 55 - A: Cruziana trace fossils in the Yarkhun Fm. along the sec-
tion of the Vidiakot ridge, B: Planolites trace fossils in the Yarkhun
Fm. along the section of the Vidiakot ridge.
Lithology. The lower boundary is defined at the top of
the microconglomerate horizon that seals the Yarkhun
Formation. The unit mainly consists of a monotonous
succession of black splintery slates with rare coarser silt-
stone packages. Due to the very low-grade metamorphic
imprint, they are usually transformed in slates showing a
strong cleavage. Rare arenitic intercalations in the middle
part and dolostone and dolomitic limestone lenses, up to
10 m thick, occur in the upper part.
From Lasht to the Paur Valley, the slates are dark
green and progressively became more metamorphosed
westwards, developing a significant slaty cleavage. The
thickness is supposed of at least 400-500 m, but no
definite measure may be done.
Fossils and age. Acritarchs were found only in the
basal part, where QUINTAVALLE et alii (2000) identified
the fossil assemblages VK3, probably assignable within
the Arenig-Llanvirn boundary interval. No further signifi-
cant acritarchs were obtained upwards, in spite of sys-
tematic sampling. Most of the outcrops are not far from
the Reshun Fault and suffered heavy recrystallization. It
is supposed that the rest of the Ordovician and at least
part of the Silurian are present, because towards the top
of the Vidiakot Fm. in the Baroghil-Lashkargaz Unit
carbonate intercalations with ortoconids were observed,
suggesting a Siluran age.
& M. GAETANI
Environment. Outer shelf below the storm wave base,
with fairly abundant clay supply. Sporadic spells of
fine sands and silt. More favourable conditions allowed
gradual reappraisal of a limited carbonate production
towards the top, where isolated carbonate lenses may
locally occur.
Yarkhun Formation (Aya)
Occurrence. Between the Yarkhun river and the Vidi-
akot ridge, the Vidiakot gully and the very rugged area to
the west. The type-section (Pl. 64) has been measured on
the SE side of the Vidiakot ridge (QUINTAVALLE et alii,
2000).
Lithology. Grey arenites (subarkoses and litharenites)
in medium to thick beds, with gentle low angle cross-lam-
inations, forming packages 10-20 m thick. They are subdi-
and dark grey siltites. These intercalations are particu-
larly rich in trace fossils, including burrows of Cruziana
(fig. 55a) and Planolites (fig. 55b). Asymmetrical ripples
are also widespread. Towards the top single hybrid aren-
ites and arenitic limestone beds may occur. It lies with
non conformity on the crystalline basement. On the trail
from Ishkarwaz to the Baroghil Pass, the surface of the
contact is flat at the outcrop scale. On the Vidiakot ridge,
the contact appears instead sheared. The unit is capped
by a layer of 10-12 m thick light grey microconglomerates
and coarse arenites, richer in quartz grains. Thickness
about 180 m.
Fossils and age. The unit contains a fairly rich acritarch
flora (TONGIORGI et alii, 1994; QUINTAVALLE et alii, 2000)
and rare conodonts (TALENT et alii, 1982; 1999) with frag-
ments of brachiopods and cephalopods. Several zones of
the Arenig Series are documented and apparently the for-
mation is restricted to this Series. Amongst acritarchs,
2 assemblages (VK) have been identified in the type section.
The available palynological evidence dates the lowermost
VK 1 as Arenig, within an interval extending from the
British nitidus to the middle-upper hirundo graptolite
Zones. The age of the assemblage VK2 probably falls
entirely within the early late Arenig hirundo graptolite
Zone. The overlaying conodont level JAT 1 contains Balto-
niodus sp. cf. B. medius (DZIK, 1976) and possibly indi-
cates an interval ranging from variabilis to upper suecicus
conodont Zones (latest Arenig-lower Llanvirn). The
assemblage of acritarchs belongs to the Peri-Gondwana
biogeographic province (LE FORT et alii, 1994; TONGIORGI
et alii, 1994; QUINTAVALLE et alii, 2000).
Environment. The unit testifies to the transgression
on a peneplaned surface of metamorphic and magmatic
rocks of unknown age. Due to the presence of brachiopod
fragments already in the first meters of the succession,
the whole unit was deposited in a shallow marine envi-
ronment, periodically below the storm wave base, in
which a rich community of burrowing and crawler ani-
mals was dwelling. Important amount of silicoclastic sed-
iments were introduced in the coastal shelf.
CRYSTALLINE BASEMENT
Ishkarwaz-type Granodiorite (AGR)
Name and Occurrence. It has been first described by
LE FORT et alii (1994) in the surroundings of Ishkarwaz;
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 209
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
Fig. 56 - Stereographic projections left-lateral fault planes and ductile shear zones measured at Kan Khun within the Ishkarwaz-type Gran-
odiorite, Axial Unit; symbols as in previous projections.
other similar intrusions occur between Kan Khun and
Kishmanja, in the upper part of the Barbin Glacier Valley
and around Chillinji.
Lithology. The Ishkarwaz Granodiorite (LE FORT et
alii, 1994; LE FORT & GAETANI, 1998) intrudes the Chikar
Quartzite and is non-conformably covered by the sedi-
ments of the Baroghil Group (fig. 48, Pl. 64). It is a mid-
dle-grained dark rock with biotite and amphibole almost
totally altered in chlorite. Enclaves are mainly of micro-
granular type, but close to the rim of the intrusions,
enclaves of quartzite and folded mica schists are frequent.
The granodiorite usually shows a dark rusty to purple
patina. The whole pluton is often severely deformed and
transformed into a phyllonitic rock along cataclastic
shear zones; fractures are often accompanied by millime-
tre-thick veins of quartz, calcite, chlorite, and sometimes
barytine. The contact with the sedimentary cover of the
Axial Unit crops out below the Baroghil meadows (fig. 48)
(LE FORT et alii, 1994; TONGIORGI et alii, 1994) and along
the steep slopes located a few hundred meters above the
eastern flank of the Barbin Glacier. In this area it is also
sheared along an E-W vertical mylonitic contact with the
Garmush Granite (fig. 49). Left-lateral shear is suggested
by SC structures and faint horizontal lineations. Impor-
tant shear zones with similar features are exposed on the
right-side of the glacier and along the boundary with the
Lower Paleozoic successions of the Axial Unit along the
small valley located to the east of the glacier. Complex
populations of conjugate strike-slip faults cross-cut the
mylonitic layers developed along the fault zone (fig. 49).
In the Baroghil area, where it can be easily observed,
the contact surface is rather flat, and the granodiorite has
no alteration cap. A steep S1 foliation, dipping 70° to the
north, affects both the granite and the sandstones and
slates of the Baroghil Group, the dip of the bedding
planes S0 being some 20° lower (fig. 49). LE FORT & GAE-
TANI (1998) describe here two small thrust slices, with
cataclastic granodiorite about 25 m thick, in which the
first one shows the upper transgressive contact with a
conglomeratic sandstone.
From the geochemical point of view, the Ishkarwaz
Granodiorite forms an alumino-cafemic ferriferous associ-
ation with a calc-alkaline affinity (GAETANI et alii, 1996).
A large granodioritic body, very similar in composi-
tion to the granodiorite exposed between Ishkarwaz and
Baroghil, has been mapped across the Yarkhun Valley,
209
between Kishmanja and the tip of the Shetor Glacier,
close to Kan Khun, intruding the Chikar Quartzite
around Kishmanja. This intrusion resembles very much
that of Ishkarwaz. In particular, the chemical composi-
tion, including REE patterns, is exactly the same for both.
In the other areas, the granodiorite is in tectonic contact
with the surrounding units, being sheared along the high-
angle NE-SW trending contact with the Baroghil Group
and transformed in a strongly foliated phyllonite some
tens of meters thick with a strong cataclastic overprint-
ing, often hampering its reconnaissance. SC foliations
suggest left-lateral motions, although no clear lineations
have been recognized. NE-SW left-lateral strike-slip faults
crosscut the shear zone and can be observed along the
main path from Kan Khun to Kishmanja (fig. 56). N-S to
NNE-SSW trending left-lateral faults in association with
minor E-W dextral faults, representing a local variation of
the major NE-SW shear zones, also occur in the same
area within the Ishkarwaz-type Granodiorite along the
new road cuts.
Another small outcrop of this rock has been observed
by LE FORT & GAETANI (1998) across the divide between
the Barbin and the Darkot glaciers, where the granodio-
rite seems to overthrust the Garmush Granite.
A small outcrop of altered granodiorites related to
this unit has been found at Sorkh Rabat near Chillinji,
where it is also non-conformably covered by a conglomer-
atic layer belonging to the basal lithozone of the Yarkhun
Fm. (Ayb).
Age. No radiometric dating has been yet performed.
Being covered by Ordovician sedimentary rocks, its age is
pre-Ordovician.
Chikar Quartzite (Ack)
Name and Occurrence. Described for the first time by
LE FORT et alii (1994), this unit forms a continuous belt
from the northern slopes of the Yarkhun Valley (Pl. 65)
SE of Lasht to the Darkot Pass. It takes name from a
small mountain village south of Baroghil at the foot of the
Darkot Glacier (Pl. 66).
Lithology. It consists of dark-grey meta-siltstones
and quartzites, in layers 30-60 cm-thick, largely derived
from greenschist-facies metamorphism of poorly sorted
subarkoses. Preserved sedimentary features are rare due
to strong tectonic transposition; anyway, between Kish-
manja and Vidiakot, primary parallel laminations and
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 210
210 A. ZANCHI
small ripples have been observed. This meta-terrigenous
unit is severely deformed, often showing superposed
folds. A rough schistosity related to layers richer in phyl-
losilicates is locally observed especially around Chikar.
Kilometre-wide open folds have been described by LE
FORT & GAETANI (1998). In addition, metric to decamet-
ric scale E-W trending parallel folds are exposed along
the cliffs in front of the path taking to the Baroghil vil-
lage. Vertical folds with an E-W trending axial plane,
possibly related to a different deformational event,
occur along the right side of the Yarkhun Valley in front
of the Pechus Glacier and between Pechus and Kish-
manja (fig. 57).
The unit is locally transformed into hard spotted
schist and massive hornfels-like rocks close to the contact
with the Ishkarwaz-type granodiorite (Acks) around
Kishmanja. Granitic dykes intrude the meta-sediments
along the eastern side of the Chhateboi Glacier. LE FORT
& GAETANI (1998) describe the occurrence of migmatites
to the SE of Chikar, and up the right bank of the Darkot
Glacier, where the meta-sediments become increasingly
intruded by granitic dykes. According to the same
authors, in a few km, the injected meta-sediments seem
to gradually give way to migmatites, and into anatectic
granite engulfing masses of nebulitic gneisses and
agmatitic amphibolites.
A few hundred meters east of Kishmanja, spotted
slates and quartzites with possible pseudomorphs of
andalusite suggest the occurrence of a contact aureole
around the intrusion, due to the occurrence of small
apophyses cropping out in this area. This unit, together
with the Ishkarwaz-type Granodiorite which is clearly
intruded within the Chikar Quartzite, form the crystalline
basement of Karakoram.
4.3.1.11 Upper Hunza Fault tectonic slices (H)
At least three important tectonic slices occur along
the Upper Hunza thrust system south of Buattar, west of
the Koz Yaz Glacier. These thrust sheets form a duplex
structure between two main thrust surfaces developed on
top of the upper Hunza fault. Due to the peculiar compo-
sition of these small horses, including a Carboniferous
& M. GAETANI
Fig. 57 - Folds in the Chikar Quartzite along
the Yarkhun Valley between Kishmanja and
Pechus. September, 1996.
Limestone (Hc), the Buattar White Marble (Hm), and the
Chillinji Pass Dolostone (Hd), they have been distin-
guished from the surrounding units.
Carboniferous Limestone (Hc)
The lowermost thrust sheet is about 200 meters thick
and consists of well bedded grey-bluish marly limestones
with a small Carboniferous brachiopod fauna including
Rhipidomella sp. This unit is exposed south of Buattar
along the way to the Chillinji Pass and represents the
easternmost Carboniferous outcrop of the study area.
Age: earliest middle Tournaisian (ANGIOLINI et alii, 1999).
Buattar White Marble (Hm)
Tectonic slices of white massive marble up to hun-
dred meters in thickness form the intermediate horse
along the Upper Hunza fault south of Buattar. The same
unit is stacked with the Carboniferous Limestone, form-
ing further tectonic repetitions.
Chillinji Pass Dolostone (Hd)
Massive and bedded grey dolostones (Hd) with subor-
dinate shales and sandstones (Ht), cropping out just to
the east and north of the Chillinji Pass, form the struc-
turally highest duplex. Due to the remoteness of the out-
crops, this unit has been only observed in the distance.
No age constraints are available for this unit, which may
be part of an Upper Paleozoic succession. Based on its
structural position, it might be part of the Tash Kupruk
Unit, although no volcanic intercalations have been noted
within the carbonate layers.
4.3.1.12 Guhjal Unit (G)
It represents the western continuation of the Guhjal
thrust sheet defined by GAETANI et alii (1990a) and
mapped by ZANCHI & GAETANI (1994) from the Hunza
Valley to the Yashkuk Glacier in the Chapursan Valley.
It forms a continuous belt 70 kilometres long, reaching
the Chikar Glacier across the Chiantar area. Due to
the imperviousness of the area, a large part of this unit
has been mapped through the analysis of satellite SPOT
imagery.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 211
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
Fig. 58 - The northern tectonic contact between the Guhjal and the Axial units seen from the ridge above Sorkh Rabat (4500 m). The Chillinji
Glacier and the Koz Sar group are in the background; view to the west, September, 1999.
The unit consists of a terrigenous succession at the
base, attributed to the Gircha Fm. by ZANCHI & GAETANI
(1994), overlain by a thick succession of massive carbon-
ates. An intermediate facies has been defined around
Buattar in the upper part of the Chapursan Valley.
It is bounded to the north by the N-verging Upper
Hunza Fault from the Chapursan Valley (Pl. 51) to Chil-
linji. From the Chillinji Pass to the Chillinji Glacier the
unit is partially refolded or back-thrusted on the Tash
Kupruk Unit. Above Chillinji a thin slice of slates and
marls possibly part of the Guhjal Unit separates the Tash
Kupruk Unit occupying an upper structural position from
the Axial Unit in a lower position. From the western side
of the Karambar Valley, the Guhjal Unit is stacked on the
Axial Unit (fig. 58) and further westward the same fault
stacks the Guhjal Unit on an isolated tectonic slice of the
Karakoram Batholith, consisting of the Garmush Granite.
Its southern boundary mainly shows intrusive relation-
ships with the Karakoram Batholith, which is represented
by the Koz Sar Glacier Granite, the Chiantar Granodiorite
and the Garmush Granite. West of the Garmush Glacier
the unit is clearly intruded by the Garmush Granite caus-
ing its ultimate closure. Isolated septa of the Guhjal Unit
also occur in the upper part of the Garmush Glacier
within the same pluton.
A very low-grade metamorphic imprint is evident
through the unit, hampering fossil remnants and sedi-
mentary structures. In addition, the unit is severely
deformed, showing superposed folds and tectonic repeti-
tions due to thrust stacking, especially evident along its
211
boundaries. Nice examples of superposed folds can be
observed around Chillinji and Buattar, where large isocli-
nal folds with SE-dipping axial planes are refolded by
open E-W trending upright horizontal folds (Pl. 67).
These structures are clearly intruded by the Koz Yaz
Glacier Granite, postdating deformation. No radiometric
ages are available for this pluton, which can be tentatively
correlated to the Koz Sar alkaline complex (DEBON &
KHAN, 1996), which has given a Rb/Sr isochrone of 88±4
Ma, or alternatively to the youger lower Tertiary Batura
intrusive unit (DEBON, 1995). Interference patterns due to
superposed folding have been observed through satellite
photo-interpretation west of the Garmush Glacier. Super-
posed mesoscopic folds occur also in the metapelitic por-
tion of the unit close to the tectonic boundary with the
Axial Unit west of Chillinji.
Guhjal Formation (Ggu)
The name has been introduced by MCMAHON (1900)
as Guhjal Limestone and moved to Guhjal Dolomite by
DESIO (1963). We adopt the more general term of forma-
tion (GAETANI et alii, 1990a; ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994).
The name derives from Hunza guhjal, which means
«upper part of the Hunza Valley». There, in fact, this unit
is widely exposed forming the high peaks south of Sost,
Hunza Valley.
It consists of generally massive whitish-yellowish
dolostone and calcite marble with subordinate terrige-
nous intercalations, which stratigraphically overlay the
Gircha Fm. of the same unit. No precise stratigraphy of
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 212
212 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 59 - The highest peaks of the Karakoram Batholith within the Darkot Pass Granite (Koyo Zom, 6872 m). September, 1999.
this unit has been possible due to intensive deformation,
metamorphism and poor ease of access of the outcrops.
According to ZANCHI & GAETANI (1994), this unit is Per-
mian in age, and may possibly cover part of the Mesozoic,
because DESIO (1963) mentions the presence of deformed
megalodontids.
Buattar Limestone (Gb)
It consists of well-bedded limestones, marls and shaly
sandstones interbedded with the Guhjal and the Gircha
Fms. It is exposed south of Buattar between the Upper
Hunza Fault and the Karakoram Batholith. According to
its stratigraphic position, it should be Permian in age.
Gircha Formation (Ggr)
This unit, firstly named as Pasu Slate by DESIO
(1963) from the name of a village in the upper Hunza
Valley, has been later correlated to the Gircha Fm.
(ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994), due to findings of Middle
Permian fusulinids (Parafusulina sp.) close to the strati-
graphic boundary with the Guhjal Fm. It consists of
black slates and sandstones at the base of the Guhjal
Fm. (Ggu). The original thickness of the succession is
obscured by intensive folding; it may encompass several
hundred meters.
4.3.2 Karakoram Batholith
The Karakoram Batholith (KB) forms a long and con-
tinuous belt following an E-W trend to the south of the
& M. GAETANI
Northern Karakoram Terrain (NKT) from the Yarkhun to
the Karambar valleys and also further eastward. It is
large up to 20 kilometres in a N-S direction, separating
the NKT from the Darkot-Gazin Metasedimentary Belt.
Most of the highest peaks of the Hindu Raj, exceeding
6000 metres, are shaped within this unit (fig. 59).
The Karakoram Batholith here shows two main dis-
tinct lozenge-shaped intrusive massifs, which are sepa-
rated by the NW-SE Darkot Pass strike-slip fault zone
(LE FORT & GAETANI, 1998). West of this fault the main
intrusive body is represented by the Darkot Pass Granite
(DPG), which is bordered to the north by the Sakirmul
Granodiorite (SGD), forming the NW margin of the
batholith. This unit is always in tectonic contact with
the DPG and also includes tectonically a large strip of
strongly deformed metasediments along its northern
contact with the NKT. The DPG is discontinuously
flanked to the SW by the Shulkuch Monzodiorite
(SKMD), which has been interpreted as the injected
corona of the DPG. Its southern contact is intrusive
within the Darkot-Gazin Metasedimentary Belt. East of
the Darkot Pass, the DPG is progressively sheared and
another large intrusive body very similar to the previous
one, the Garmush Granite (GaGR), becomes the main
component of the KB. Although its boundaries are
strongly affected by subsequent deformations, it
intrudes the Axial and the Guhjal units of the NKT. The
GaGR crosses the highest part of the Garmush Glacier
passing to the Hunza Granodiorite, which has been rec-
ognized along the Karambar Valley section (DEBON &
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 213
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
KHAN, 1996). The northern boundary of the GaGR lays
on the continuation of the Reshun Fault, which passes
to an E-W strike-slip fault across the Chiantar Glacier,
merging into the Upper Hunza fault system west of
Chillinji. Some minor intrusions, the Chiantar and the
Koz Yaz Glacier units, the latter possibly related the Koz
Sar alkaline complex of DEBON & KHAN (1996), have
been distinguished in this region. The Chhateboi Gran-
ite, a small pluton intruding the NKT sedimentary units
is described in this section, due to its affinity with the
Karakoram Batholith, although it forms an isolated out-
crop within the sedimentary cover.
The description of the units forming the KB is based
on previous works (DEBON, 1995; DEBON & KHAN, 1996;
GAETANI et alii, 1996; LE FORT & GAETANI, 1998); original
information has been also added in some cases. Concern-
ing the area west of the Darkot Pass, our map is mainly
based on the original geological surveys used for the com-
pilation of the 1:250,000 Geological Map of Western
Karakoram published by LE FORT & GAETANI (1998),
which has been integrated through photo-interpretation
of SPOT imagery and original surveys.
4.3.2.1 Intra-batholith Mestasedimentary Tectonic
Slices (IB)
The western-central part of the Karakoram Batholith
is bordered to the north by a meta-sedimentary strip of
strongly deformed marbles and terrigenous meta-sedi-
ments, which can be followed for more than 50 kilome-
ters from the Unawich Valley up to the left side of the
Darkot Glacier. The occurrence of this belt of meta-sedi-
ments enhances the tectonic nature of the northern
boundary of the Karakoram Batholith all over the studied
region.
The largest exposure of this belt occurs east of the vil-
lage of Dobargar in the Yarkhun Valley (Pl. 68), from
which it has been named. Here its thickness exceeds
1 kilometre. This belt shows a regular vertical attitude
and an E-W trend passing to NE-SW between the Madit
and Dobargar glaciers and again turning to E-W along the
Unawich Valley. It marks the northern boundary of the
KB between the Darkot and the Madit glaciers (Pl. 69),
whereas to the west it is entirely included in the Sakirmul
Granodiorite, which closes before reaching the Puch Uz
Valley. The unit ends eastward along the western side of
the Darkot Glacier.
Two main rock associations have been mapped: the
Dobargar Marble (IBdm) and the Dobargar-Kotalkash
Clastics (IBds), which might be both Paleozoic in age,
although no direct evidence was found. These rocks are
strongly affected by boudinage, branching out and then,
with intensive shearing affecting also the surrounding
rocks for several tens of meters. LE FORT & GAETANI
(1998) show nice examples of mylonites deriving from the
Darkot Pass Granite along the Pechus Glacier, where they
also describe a deep phyllonitization and cataclasis of the
granitic mass around this unit. They also report two
detailed sections along the Darkot and the Pechus glaciers
including a deformed association of grey bedded dolo-
stones with crinoids, grey marble boudins, slates, dark
schists and massive reddish to white quartzites. LE FORT
& GAETANI (1998) describe the continuation of the
Dobargar marble layers also east of the Darkot Pass out
of the mapped area along the Neo Bar Valley. Here, a
213
30 metres thick marble layer still separates a small strip
of sheared Darkot Pass Granite to the south from the
Neo Bar Monzodiorite to the north.
Dobargar Marble (IBdm)
It consists of strongly recrystallized white to grey
marble and dolomite-marble, forming a narrow tectonic
band between the Sakirmul Granodiorite and the Darkot
Pass Granite (Pls. 68, 69). Ghosts of crinoids have been
observed along the Darkot Glacier section. Marble layers
are both bedded and massive. The presence of crinoid
rich layers may suggest a Paleozoic age.
Dobargar-Kotalkash Clastics (IBds)
They include mainly slates with meta-sandstones and
quartzites tectonically associated to the Dobargar Marble
(Pls. 68, 69); black schists occur in minor amounts.
4.3.2.2 Karakoram Batholith and Northern Intrusives
Chhateboi Granite (CGR)
The Chhateboi pluton is a round, dome-shaped
body, about 5 km in length exposed along the bottom of
the upper Karambar Valley between Shuinj and the
tip of the Chhateboi Glacier. It is intruded into the
dolomitic meta-carbonates and folded successions of
quartzarenites and slates, possibly Permian in age, of
the Chhateboi Unit of the North Karakoram Terrain
(Pls. 49, 70, 71). The granite is deeply cut by the Chhateboi
Glacier (Pl. 70) and by the Karambar river, showing
its internal features and intrusive contacts. The country
rocks are deformed by the intrusion into a broad
antiform bending previous structures. GAETANI et alii
(1996) describe the occurrence of a clear metamorphic
aureole with cordierite spotted schists, hornfels facies,
and coarse grained marble layers. The granite shows
a characteristic texture with large usually twinned and
zoned K-feldspar, and often rounded crystals up to
7×2.5 cm. A gentle magmatic foliation is given by the
K-feldspar. Microgranular enclaves and biotite schlieren
often occur along the foliation.
LE FORT & GAETANI (1998) suggest that its chemical
composition is that of a slightly peraluminous granodior-
ite, with a normal iron to magnesium ratio, and with a
steady sub-alkaline flavour. It is chemically more similar
to the Cretaceous Darkot Pass Granite than to the lower
Cenozoic Batura unit (DEBON et alii, 1987b).
Dykes of Chillinji (CHD)
Several acidic dykes with a NE-SW trend intrude the
carbonates of the Axial Unit of the NKT around Chillinji
(Pl. 72). They are generally vertical, and a few meters
thick, but can be more than one kilometre in length. They
show a porphyritic texture with quartz, feldspars and
biotite as phenocrysts and have been emplaced after the
main deformation affecting the cover.
Koz Yaz Glacier Granite (KGR)
This large pluton, intruded between the southern
margin of the NKT and the KB, consists of a light-
coloured to grey massive intrusive with biotite. It is
exposed in the NE part of the map, along the eastern side
of the Koz Yaz Glacier, extending eastward along the
southern flank of the Chapursan Valley toward the
Yashkuk area.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 214
214 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 60 - Telephoto of the Koz Sar from a ridge in front of Chillinji. Dolostones of the Tash Kupruk Unit in the foreground and dark metasedi-
ments belonging to the Guhjal Unit. September, 1996.
It shows clear intrusive contacts in the sedimentary
cover of Northern Karakoram, indicated by dykes and
apophyses injected into the slates of the Guhjal Unit
(Pl. 73). According to cross-cutting relationships, it
clearly postdates the deformation and emplacement of
the Guhjal thrust sheet. This pluton can represent the
northern part of the Koz Sar Unit of DEBON & KHAN
(1996), possibly extending up to the summit of the Koz
Sar Peak (Pl. 74, fig. 60).
Chiantar Granodiorite (CGD)
It is a grey biotite- and amphibole-bearing unde-
formed granodioritic body exposed along the southern
flank of the Chiantar Glacier east of the confluence with
the Garmush Glacier (Pl. 75). It shows intrusive contacts
with deformed marbles and slates of the Guhjal Unit
(Pl. 76). It is also deformed by the eastern continuation
of the E-W trending N-verging thrusts affecting the south-
ern margin of the Karakoram Batholith. A high-angle
E-W normal fault dipping to the north cross cuts the
thrust system.
The unit is very similar to the Paleogene Batura-type
intrusions exposed along the Yashkuk Glacier (ZANCHI,
1993; ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994; DEBON, 1995), and also
to the Koz Yaz Glacier Granite.
Garmush Granite (GaGR)
This large granitic body forms most of the high peaks
to the east of the Darkot Pass and south of the Chiantar
& M. GAETANI
Glacier, including the Garmush peak (6244 m). This unit
forms a large lozenge-shaped granitic belt extending for
more than 60 kilometres from the left side of the upper
Yarkhun Valley eastward into the upper part of Chiantar
Glacier and to the Chillinji area. East of the Chikar Glac-
ier the unit shows two separate branches, the southern
one probably passing to the Warghut Granite, described
by DEBON & KHAN (1996) along the Karambar Valley.
Due to the inaccessibility and high elevation of this exten-
sively glaciated area, its SE boundary has not been
directly observed by us and most of the outcrops of intru-
sive bodies recognized through the analyses of satellite
imagery have been classified in the undifferentiated unit
of the Karakoram Batholith.
The Garmush Granite is a heterogranular, slightly
pinkish biotite-granite with an often bluish K-feldspar
ranging from 0.4 to 1.5 cm and rare amphibole, similar to
the Darkot Pass Granite. Quartz is often rounded and
slightly purple. Microgranular and meta-sedimentary
enclaves are present.
Its western contact is always tectonic with the pre-
Ordovician crystalline basement of Karakoram, consist-
ing of the Chikar Quartzite and the Ishkarwaz-type Gra-
nodiorite. Vertical E-W mylonitic shear zones showing
left-lateral motions suggested by horizontal stretching lin-
eations and SC shear bands, with superimposed cataclas-
tic fabrics with a similar kinematics, have been observed
along the right side of the snout of the Barbin Glacier. LE
FORT & GAETANI (1998) still observed a tectonic contact
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 215
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
SW of Chikar, where they suggest that the Garmush
Granite may intrude east of the Darkot Pass into the Neo
Bar Monzodiorite, sending pegmatite dykes into this one.
Its northern boundary is continuously exposed along
the rock walls flanking the Chiantar Glacier on the left,
where the granite is stacked on the Devonian to Permian
sediments of the Lashkargaz-Baroghil Unit (Pl. 77). The
thrust fault marking the boundary overlaps the western
continuation of the Reshun Fault, which is marked by a
thick slice of the deformed Cretaceous sandstones and
conglomerates of the Reshun Fm. Small vertical tectonic
slices of this unit have been found also along the northern
side of the Chiantar Glacier in association with a thin
band of strongly deformed conglomerates of the Reshun
Fm. which mark the occurrence of the Reshun Fault in
the central part of Karakoram. The same structural situa-
tion occurs along the Shuinj Glacier south of the upper-
most Karambar Valley. The Garmush Granite is exposed
again west of Chillinji, where it is intruded in both the
cover and crystalline basement of the Axial Unit. The
southeastern boundary seems to be again represented by
a N-verging thrust fault stacking the Guhjal Unit on top of
the granite, as observed along the Chiantar Glacier at the
confluence with the Garmush Glacier (Pl. 78). South of
this area toward the Chiantar Peak, satellite imagery
interpretation suggests that the southern branch of the
magmatic complex preserves original intrusive contacts
with the units of the Northern Karakoram Terrain,
although no direct observations have been possible. Left-
lateral shear zones separating this unit from the Ishkar-
waz Granodiorite and the sedimentary cover of the Axial
Unit occur to the east of the Barbin Glacier, east of
Chikar (fig. 49).
LE FORT & GAETANI (1998) indicate peculiar geo-
chemical features for this granite, as it shows a metalumi-
nous to peraluminous composition with a strong ferrifer-
ous character and a high content of mafic minerals. It
shows a calc-alkaline affinity, very similar to the Hunza
plutonic unit (DEBON et alii, 1987b), whereas its high fer-
riferous contents is closer to the one of the Warghut
Granite of DEBON & KHAN (1996).
Neo Bar Monzodiorite (NBMD)
It is a medium- to fine-grained monzodiorite with
altered amphibole and biotite, cropping out in the upper-
most part of the Darkot Glacier, separating the Garmush
Granite from the Darkot Pass Granite (LE FORT & GAE-
TANI, 1998). These author describe the outcrops as
strongly cataclastic, being crossed by several E-W left-lat-
eral strike-slip faults with horizontal striations, possibly
related to the large fault crossing the Karakoram
Batholith in the Darkot area.
Sakirmul Granodiorite (SGD)
This granodiorite forms a 50 km long band north of
the Darkot Pass Granite, showing tectonic contacts along
its southern and northern margin (LE FORT & GAETANI,
1998). It has been named after a village located along the
Yarkhun Valley (GAETANI et alii, 1996), where the unit
shows its largest extension. Moving eastward it is pro-
gressively sheared, to disappear below the Darkot Glacier.
The granodiorite is medium-grained with quartz, pla-
gioclase, biotite, amphibole, and pyroxene, with abundant
microgranular enclaves; it is extremely heterogeneous
and appears to be shattered at all scales. The granodior-
215
Fig. 61 - Stereographic projections of left-lateral faults and shear
zone deforming the northern margin of the Sakirmul Granodiorite,
Yarkhun Valley; symbols as in previous projections.
ite, when fresh, contains nests of euhedral green horn-
blende and biotite, and abundant microgranular enclaves
and xenoliths. It contains numerous magmatic and meta-
sedimentary inclusions, as a large pinched refolded slice
of marbles and quartzites (Pls. 68, 69) forming the Dobar-
gar-Kotalkash meta-sediments, which can be followed
eastward up to the Pechus Glacier. On the outcrop scale,
the granodiorite contains abundant xenoliths of fine-
grained psammitic banded quartzites and minor amphi-
bolite intercalations cut by dykes and veins of clear-
coloured granitic material. A strong deformation has
transformed most of the body in meter-thick alternations
of mylonitic orthogneiss and quartzites. Several faults
accompanied by quartz and calcite veins cross-cut the
granodiorite, causing widespread foliation, and a green-
schist facies retrogression.
The northern contact of this unit forms the northern
margin of the Karakoram Batholith which is always
marked by a steep, often vertical, shear zone (fig. 61).
Nevertheless, the total amount of movement along it is
difficult to determine. Along the left side of the Yarkhun
Valley, it shows a thick E-W mylonitic and ultractaclastic
shear zone often with a phyllonitic fabric displaying left-
lateral strike-slip motions. These foliation are often
crenulated. LE FORT & GAETANI (1998) describe along the
Madit Glacier a north-dipping fault plane marking the
boundary with the Chikar Quartzite, possibly represent-
ing a normal fault.
To the south the granodiorite is always in tectonic
contact with the Darkot Pass Granite showing, as well,
thick mylonitic shear bands. LE FORT & GAETANI (1998)
suggest a calc-alkaline character with a sub-alkaline affin-
ity similar to the Hunza plutonic unit.
Darkot Pass Granite (DPGR)
The Darkot Pass Granite, firstly defined in DEBON et
alii (1987b), forms the back bone of the Hindu Raj range
and some of its major peaks from the Chikar Zom to the
Koyo Zom (6871 m), the Thui I (6660 m), the Thui II
(6523 m) extending for 50 kilometres from the Darkot
Pass (figs. 7, 59; Pl. 66) to the Yarkun Valley. It consists of
a generally fresh amphibole- and biotite-bearing light
coloured monzogranite with K-feldspar megacrysts.
The massive granite is lighter-coloured towards the
centre of the body. The megacrysts of K-feldspar are a
few centimetres long and often zoned. The granite bears
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 216
216 A. ZANCHI
abundant microgranular enclaves usually a centimetre- to
a half-meter in length. A magmatic foliation is always
present, generally marked by biotite, but sometimes also
by the alignments of feldspar megacrysts. Mylonitic fab-
rics are often present along shear zones marking its
northern contact with the sedimentary successions of the
NKT. In addition to this magmatic foliation, most out-
crops show a pervasive schistosity linked to its advanced
chloritization. The granite is cross-cut by leucocratic
dykes, as can be observed from the distance along the
northern face of the Koyo Zom (fig. 59).
Its southern contact can be followed for kilometers
and seems to be generally intrusive. In the Darkot area, it
dips about 70° being concordant with the main foliation
of the country rock and is underlined by aplitic dykes.
NW-SE mylonitic shear bands occur and also subsequent
E-W trending left-lateral strike-slip faults south of
Unawich along the Yarkhun Valley (fig. 61). Along this
valley it intrudes the Shulkuch Monzodiorite as shown by
the numerous dykes and pods of granite cross-cutting the
monzodiorite, becoming progressively more abundant
and voluminous southwards.
The northern contact of this unit is always of tectonic
origin. It has been directly observed along the left bank of
the Yarkhun Valley, where it shows vertical WNW-ESE
trending mylonitic layers with SC shear bands indicating
a pure upward component of the Sakirmul Granodiorite
with no lateral motions (LE FORT & GAETANI, 1998). To
the west the contact is not clear and may continue along
the right bank of the Unawich Gol. The northern bound-
ary seems to be always tectonic also eastward, crossing
the left side glacier valleys of the Yarkhun Valley. Along
the Pechus Glacier, it is strongly sheared and cut along
the Dobargar Metasediments. The southern contact with
the Gazin-Darkot Metasedimentary Belt is mostly intru-
sive (Pl. 79).
A lens of this unit, intruding the Sakirmul Granodior-
ite, has been observed at the confluence between the Gazin
and the Yarkhun valleys just close to the main bridge.
A Rb-Sr age of 111±6 Ma was obtained by DEBON et
alii (1987b) on four whole-rock samples and a 109±4 Ma
from two leucocratic samples collected in the Darkot area.
Chemical analyses in LE FORT & GAETANI (1998) indicate
a peraluminous to metaluminos character.
Shulkuch Monzodiorite (SKMD)
It is a heterogeneous and irregular medium-grained
to microgranular dark biotite- amphibole-bearing monzo-
diorite, generally with a conspicuous foliation and with
an irregular scattering of K-feldspar crystals, and flames
of porphyritic granite. It is named after a village located
along the Yarkhun Valley south of the confluence with
the Gazin Valley. It forms the SW part of the Karakoram
Batholith, probably representing the injected halo of the
Darkot Pass Granite. An isolated mass of this unit is
exposed south of Thui 1 along the Barum Glacier, as sug-
gested by boulders observed along the moraines of the
glacier (LE FORT & GAETANI, 1998).
At the scale of the outcrop, the unit looks like an
irregular mixture of clear-coloured porphyritic granite-
forming puffs or flames of K-feldspar-rich material in
dark-coloured micaceous material. In some places, clear-
coloured veinlets show a continuous film of micas at the
contact with the dark-coloured granitoid, forming a sort
of restitic selvage, as if partial melting had occurred at
& M. GAETANI
the contact. In other cases, small pegmatite veins develop.
In general, the contact between the two different coloured
granitoids is diffuse and it is difficult to tell which one is
younger. The most mafic rock, a diorite, bears a mag-
matic association of quartz, plagioclase, biotite, amphi-
bole, and pyroxen.
The northern boundary with the Darkot Pass Granite
may be tectonic, although it has not been directly
observed. LE FORT & GAETANI (1998) define a geochemi-
cal subalkaline affinity of the unit, which shows interme-
diate features between the Hunza calc-alkaline and the
Koz Sar alkaline trends (DEBON & KHAN, 1996).
Karakoram Batholith (KB)
We comprise in this unit all the granitoids forming
the Karakoram Batholith, which have not been directly
surveyed between the Koz Yaz and the Chiantar glaciers
(fig. 62). A section across this part of the batholith is
described along the Karambar Valley by DEBON & KHAN
(1996), who have distinguished four main groups of plu-
tonic rocks.
1) The largest group is represented by the western
continuation of the mid-Cretaceous calc-alkaline Hunza
plutonic unit, including strongly foliated locally blasto-
mylonitic granodiorites, quartz monzodiorites and gab-
bros, with biotite ± amphibole. It is exposed between
Warghut, which is located a few kilometres to the south
of Chillinji and Bhurt about 20 kilometres to the south
along the Karambar Valley, showing a marked reverse
zoning from gabbro to granodiorite.
2) The Warghut porphyritic granite forms a 2 kilome-
tres wide stock of coarse-grained foliated rocks showing
complex intrusive relations with the previous unit. It
could be an eastward prolongation of the mid-Cretaceous
subalkaline Darkot Pass Granite.
3) The Koz-Sar alkaline complex includes fine-grained
granites, monzonites and quartz monzonites, with amphi-
bole and biotite ± clinopyroxene, exposed between Pekhin
and Warghut west of the Koz Sar massif along a 6 kilome-
ters wide section. It corresponds to a highly ferriferous
alkaline association including a few mildly peralkaline
rocks peculiar of this section across the Karakoram
Batholith. Monzonite and quartz monzonites have given a
Rb/Sr isochrone of 88±4 Ma (DEBON & KHAN, 1996).
4) Diversified and variously foliated fine grained grey
granitoids of acidic and intermediate composition, with
biotite ± amphibole intrude the Hunza plutonic unit
forming dykes and masses of biotite-, and allanite-bearing
granites. They originate a 6 km wide complex of foliated
rocks south of Pekhin.
The foliation of the batholith usually trend WNW-
ESE, i.e. parallel to its elongation, and steeply dips north
in its southern part, and generally south elsewhere. Sev-
eral leucocratic dykes of various composition cross-cut
the batholith. At least part of them were emplaced during
or before the deformation responsible for the foliation of
their host granitoids. The northern margin of the Karako-
ram Batholith and related dikes show a marked E-W to
NE-SW trending foliation along the Karambar Valley and
the right side of the Chillinji Glacier (Pl. 80).
4.3.3 Darkot-Gazin Metasedimentary Belt
We introduce this new term, to more precisely iden-
tify the Darkot Group of IVANAC et alii (1956) and the
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 217
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
Fig. 62 - High peaks at the top of the Chiantar Glacier formed within the Karakoram Batholith. Intrusive relationships with the country rocks
are exposed in the foreground. View to the E from the Chiantar Glacier. September, 1999.
Intermediate Sedimentary Belt of GAETANI (1997). It cor-
responds, to some extent, to the Central unit of PUDSEY et
alii (1985) and to the Darkot Group of PUDSEY (1986)
who, however, included sedimentary rocks lying south of
the Reshun Fault, but north of the Karakoram Batholith,
and meta-sedimentary rocks cropping out south of the
Karakoram Batholith.
The Darkot-Gazin Metasedimentary Belt consists of
metasedimentary rocks with a very low-grade metamor-
phic imprint occurring between the Karakoram Batholith
and the Ghamu Bar unit between Gazin to the west, and
the Karambar Valley to the east. The belt progressively
thins out west of Gazin, where its metamorphic grade also
increases, as well as to the east of the Karambar Valley,
where it is juxtaposed to the medium- to high-grade meta-
morphic complexes exposed along the Hunza Valley. The
Darkot area is thus the place where this belt is better
exposed and may be better studied. However, no detailed
studies are available on this region. After the reconnais-
sance by HAYDEN (1915), IVANAC et alii (1956) made a gen-
eral survey of the Gilgit Agency, mostly to the south of the
Karakoram Batholith and they introduced the name of
Darkot Group, without further subdivisions. HUZHITA
(1965), TAHIRKHELI (1972), CASNEDI (1975), PUDSEY et alii
(1985), and PUDSEY (1986) made further short observa-
tions on this belt. TALENT & MAWSON (1979) in a review
paper quote the evidence of Upper Carboniferous con-
odonts in the Darkot Group, without a precise location
along the Yasin Valley. PUDSEY & GUPTA (1985) published
a cross section from Darkot to Darband, recognizing the
main metasedimentary units. A fairly larger report is by
LE FORT & GAETANI (1998). They distinguished three
217
major units within the Darkot Group. The Gum Fm. con-
sists of a thick succession of well bedded grey strongly
recrystallized limestones, Permian to Triassic in age, the
Barum Fm. with dark litharenites and microconglomer-
ates without fossils, and the Rawat Fm., which includes
dark slates with terrigenous limestones with possible ?Per-
mian fossils. Other lithologies, as massive marble layers
and black slates related to this unit have been also distin-
guished in the map. The structure consists of several
imbricates, showing pre-thrusting tight to isoclinal folds,
preserving an apparent stratigraphy from perhaps older
formations to the south, to progressively younger ones
northwards. However, strong deformation hampered the
reconstruction of stratigraphic relationships.
The units shows a northern intrusive aureole with the
Karakoram Batholith, in particular with the Darkot Pass
Granite (Pl. 79), whereas to the south it is separated by
the Ghamu Bar unit by the Thui An normal fault, forming
an half-graben structure, which accounts for the presence
of these low-grade meta-sedimentary rocks between the
two main intrusive massifs.
Rawat Formation (Drw)
Occurrence. It forms a continuous strip to the south
of the Karakoram Batholith, from Gazin to the east,
and takes name from a small village in the upper Darkot
Valley.
Lithology. It consists of splintery dark slates and dark
limestones, locally interbedded with silty to fine arenitic
dm-thick layers, which thicken and become more fre-
quent eastward. Its thickness may encompass several
hundreds of meters, although tectonic repetitions due to
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 218
218 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 63 - Massive carbonates of the Gum Fm. belonging to the Darkot-Gazin Metasedimentary Belt from the Thui Pass, September 1996, view
to the NW.
Fig. 64 - Upper Triassic megalodontids from a loose block coming
from the Gum Formation along the Gazin Valley.
folding are evident. At the boundary with the Darkot Pass
Granite, in the Darkot area the unit shows a contact
aureole accompanied by the growth of garnet, muscovite,
staurolite and dotted slates.
Fossils and age. Fragments of bryozoans and bra-
chiopods have been observed in the limestones. In the
Darkot area, also Permian fusulinids have been reported
(HAYDEN, 1915). The Darband Fm. of PUDSEY & GUPTA
(1985) is here included as a member in the Rawat Fm. A
correlation with the Chapursan Group of the Hunza
region seems to be reasonable.
& M. GAETANI
Environment. Marine shelf with substantial terrige-
nous input.
White Marble (Dm)
Occurrence. It forms a lens to the NE of Gazin,
becoming thicker to the east, outside the map in the Gum
Glacier section.
Lithology. Strongly recrystallized, coarse grained sucrose
whitish, yellow when altered, marble in massive layers.
Intercalations of slates and dark meta-sandstones locally
occur. Its thickness may be up to >150 m.
Age. Being apparently interbedded in the Rawat Fm.,
it should be Late Paleozoic in age.
Gum Formation, Member 2 (Dg2)
Occurrence. It forms an imposing belt of cliffs from
the south-eastern slope of the Yarkhun Valley to the
south of Gazin eastwards (fig. 63). It takes name from the
Qalandar Gum Glacier.
Lithology. Light massive limestone and dolostones,
often saccharoid, and subordinate platy thin grey lime-
stones (Pl. 81), in amalgamated thickened layers often
intercalated with slates and marls, in packages of some
50-100 m, with a very low-grade metamorphic imprint.
Its thickness is uncertain, due to intensive folding. It
might be >700 m.
Fossils and age. Megalodontids, indicating a Late Tri-
assic age, have been observed south of Gazin and in the
upper reaches of the Gazin Valley (fig. 64).
Environment. Carbonate platform. This unit should
be correlative with other Triassic carbonate peritidal plat-
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 219
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
Fig. 65 - The Thui Pass with the Thui An Fault
separating the Aghost Quartzite of the Ghamu
Bar crystalline basement from the Darkot-
Gazin Metasediments; marble boudins occur
towards the base of the Darkot Basal Shales.
View to the west from the Aghost Valley, Sep-
tember, 1996.
forms like the ones of the Aghil and the Ailak fms. belong-
ing to the NKT.
Gum Formation, Member 1 (Dg1)
Occurrence. It is exposed mostly to the east of the
Thui Glacier along the Qalandar Gum Glacier, outside the
map. To the west it forms a squeezed strip within the
thick-bedded carbonates of the Gum Fm., Mb. 2.
Lithology. Dark grey limestone, thin bedded, amalga-
mated in thicker layers, interbedded with splintery slates,
and very subordinate arenites, at least 300 m in thickness.
It appears more calcareous than the Rawat Fm. with
which could be a lateral equivalent.
Fossils and age. On the left side of the Qalandar Gum
Glacier a badly preserved fauna dominated by bryozoans
and subordinate brachiopods of Permian aspect was found.
Environment. Marine mixed shelf, with silicoclastic
and carbonate sedimentation.
Barum Formation (Dbm)
Occurrence. The Barum Fm. takes name from the Barum
Glacier, a tributary of the Aghost Glacier; it is exposed
from the upper reaches of the Gazin Valley to the east.
Lithology. Slightly metamorphosed grey dark sand-
stones, mostly litharenites, in 10-50 cm-thick beds, with
seams of microconglomerates. The coarser beds prevails
in the northern part of the outcrops, whilst slaty interca-
lations increase in the southern part. Rare dark grey
marly limestone intercalations also occur. The unit is
strongly deformed and at least two folding events have
been recognized by LE FORT & GAETANI (1998). These
authors describe the occurrence of a penetrative axial
plane foliation crenulated by a second folding event char-
acterised by E-W trending axes gently plunging to the
east. The total thickness is uncertain for internal folding,
but a figure between 300 and 500 m could be suggested.
No fossils have been found.
Age. A Paleozoic age is suggested by analogy with the
terrigenous successions of the Northern Karakoram.
Darkot Basal Shales (Dbs)
Occurrence. The unit forms a continuous belt appar-
ently forming the base of the previous units from the
219
upper reaches of the Gazin Valley to the east, laying
directly in the hanging wall of the Thui An Fault.
Lithology. Monotonous succession of dark slates, and
phyllite in the southern (lower?) part, with increasing of
arenitic, mostly quartzarenitic, layers in the northern
part, with very rare fine conglomeratic intercalations.
Whitish marble lenses up to 50 m thick occur in the
southernmost part of the unit at 50-100 m of distance
from the basal tectonic contact, in several sections along
Thui Glacier, Thui Pass (An) and Kalandar Gum Glacier
(fig. 65). Mylonitic textures occur along the Thui Pass
fault as well as abundant pseudotachylyte veins. N-verg-
ing tight to isoclinal folds are described along the hanging
wall of the fault (LE FORT & GAETANI, 1998).
Age. No direct evidence is available. A generic Paleo-
zoic age is suggested.
4.3.4 Ghamu Bar Complex
This large tectonic unit forms an E-W belt including
Cretaceous intrusive bodies located south of the Karako-
ram Batholith, forming the high ridges of the Ghamu
Bar and Buni Zom peaks, which are also associated to
rocks often with a high-grade metamorphic imprint. It
forms the footwall of the Thui An (Pass) Fault south of
the Darkot-Gazin Metasedimentary Belt (fig. 66). In the
mapped area, this unit is present only to the east of
Gazin along the southern border of the map, including
the Aghost Quartzites and Migmatitic Gneiss. The
description of this unit is reported from LE FORT & GAE-
TANI (1998).
Aghost Quartzite and Migmatitic Gneiss – (AGqm)
Occurrence. They form a strip about 5 kilometrers
wide rimming the Darkot-Gazin Metasedimentary Belt
south of the Thui Pass normal fault. The unit is deeply
cut by the Gazin and Thui glaciers.
Lithology. It consists of two different portions includ-
ing a meta-sedimentary unit with quartzite and high-
grade gneiss and migmatites (LE FORT & GAETANI, 1998).
The quartzites are more abundant to the north towards
the contact with the Darkot-Gazin metasediments; they
are fine-grained and well banded, with occasionally still
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 220
220 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 66 - A section in the Gazin-Darkot Metasedimentary Belt as seen
from west towards the Golpigol camping ground. Marble boudins
(m) occur in the hanging wall of the normal fault.
Fig. 67 - Aghost Gneiss of the Ghamu Bar Complex showing super-
posed folds at the base of the walls before the Golpigol camping
ground.
preserved primary cross-laminations. They are cut by
strongly foliated two-micas aplite and pegmatite dykes.
Metasomatic euhedral K-feldspar crystals occur along the
northern margin of the unit and are generally deformed
by left-lateral shearing. Sillimanite is locally present
along the main foliation and isoclinal folds with horizon-
tal axes occur in the quartzites.
The high-grade gneisses are generally banded, con-
taining both clear-coloured orthogneiss and darker parag-
neiss (fig. 67). The orthogneiss is usually medium grained
and contains biotite ± muscovite and garnet. The parag-
neiss is an heterogeneous mixture of quartzite, biotite
gneiss and mica schists with thin layers of marble, and
minor amphibolite. Migmatization is irregular with copi-
ous injection of granite and pegmatite dykes. Fibrolitic
sillimanite often occurs in metapelites and garnet is pre-
sent in metabasites. Shear bands and mylonites can be
recognized in several outcrops. The main foliation dips
70° north and shows a marked stretching lineation. The
foliation is deformed by subsequent NW-SE trending
crenulation folds and is cut by the Thui Pass (An) fault
zone. A continuous marble layer occurs at the top of the
gneiss between the Thui Pass and the Karun Bar Valley.
& M. GAETANI
Age. Although some K-Ar radiometric ages have been
obtained for the Aghost Migmatitic Gneiss by CASNEDI
et alii (1978) on whole-rock (62.5±1.9 Ma), K-feldspar
(49.9±1.5 Ma), and biotite (81.4±2.4 Ma), they are younger
than that of the Ghamu Bar Granite which intrudes this
unit, suggesting a complex, still unsolved, evolution of the
migmatitic complex (LE FORT & GAETANI, 1998).
5. QUATERNARY DEPOSITS AND GEOMORPHOLOGY
A general description of recent deposits and other
geomorphic features including glaciers and lakes is given
in the following section. Due to the large size of the
mapped area and given the focus of our map, that is the
reconstruction of the structural and stratigraphic setting
of the pre-Quaternary substratum, recent deposits have
been classified using general criteria based on their com-
position and origin. A more detailed description of their
characters is beyond the purposes of this work and would
be an interesting challenge for the reconstruction of the
recent geomorphologic evolution of the range.
A recent synthesis on the glacial evolution of the
Hunza Valley was given by DERBYSHIRE (1996), and DER-
BYSHIRE et alii (1984, 1997), who defined several stages of
glacial advance and retreat (tab. 1). OWEN et alii (2002)
were able to date more precisely four of these glacial
advances via cosmogenic radionuclide dating of moraines.
Glacial oscillations have been related by these authors to
fluctuations in the southwest Asian monsoonal circulation
system. The post-glacial evolution of the northern areas of
Pakistan has been described by ITURRIZAGA (2008).
Lake
A number of natural lakes are located in the area
between the Karambar Pass and Lashkargaz. Lake Karam-
bar, located 4200 m a.s.l. east of the Karambar Pass (fig. 5),
is the largest. It is dammed by ancient glacial deposits and
extends for a few square kilometres. Other small lakes,
ranging in size from a few tens to hundred metres, sit along
the upper part of the Ribat Bar, and S and W of Showar
Shur, filling up glacial depressions. In addition, a cluster of
glacial lakes is also present in the Ailak Fm. around the Dar-
waz Pass, and west of Lashkargaz in the Lashkargaz Fm.
Glaciers
The study area is heavily glaciated, more than 30%
of the area being covered by snow fields and large valley
glaciers. The Karakoram and the East Hindu Kush
Batholiths, reaching about 7000 m a.s.l., show the largest
apparatuses that form small plateau-like features (Darkot
Pass, upper part of Chiantar Glacier), and especially long
and entrenched valley glaciers that flow along the valley
bottoms down to about 3000 m a.s.l. (figs. 68, 69). Large
glaciers occupy the northern slopes of the Karakoram
Batholith (Pl. 82, fig. 70) and flow down to about 4000 m
a.s.l. By contrast, the southern slopes of the peaks carved
in the NKT show minor ice accumulations above 5000 m
only. The Chiantar Glacier is the largest in the area: about
30 kilometres long and more than 2 kilometres wide
(fig. 6, Pl. 83). During fieldwork we have surveyed its first
15 kilometres. Most of the glaciers descending from the
KB are very steep, with deep crevasses and ice falls. The
extension of the glaciers’ fronts reported in the map refer
to the relevant positions observed from satellite imagery; a
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 221

THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN 221

Fig. 69 - The snout of the Chhateboi Glacier from the bridge on the Fig. 68 - The snouts of the Chhateboi and Pechus glaciers descending
Yarkhun river W of Chikar. September, 1992. from the northern slopes of Koyo Zom, from the Vidiakot ridge
(4500 m), July 2004.

Fig. 70 - Unnamed glacier south of Sorkh Rabat along the right side Fig. 71 - Stacked alluvial fans along the right side of the Yarkhun
of the Karambar Valley. September, 1999. Valley downstream of Kishmanja. September, 1999.

limited number of field visits have been conducted for the

main glaciers only, between 1996 and 2004.

Recent alluvial deposits (ra)

This unit includes all the recent deposits adjacent to
the active channel beds (Pl. 84) that become completely
flooded during heavy rainfall events and the spring
snowmelt season. Bed materials consist of coarse gravels,
including cobbles and big boulders reworked from land-
slides and glacial deposits, and sand.

Alluvial Fans (af)

Recent, active alluvial, and mixed fans occupy the
main valley bottoms. They are particularly common
along the Yarkhun Valley, where they extend for more
than two kilometres in length and one in width. The top
Fig. 72 - Alluvial fans at Sorkh Rabat, cutting terraced alluvial de-
surface, which dips gently (max 10°), is smooth and in posits (September, 1999). An active fan consisting of coarse-grained
places has been incised by abandoned river tracts. Allu- deposits mainly due to debris-flow accumulations occurs on the
vial fans are often eroded and terraced at the confluence other side of the Karambar Valley.
with river mainstems (fig. 71). They consist of poorly-
sorted coarse deposits, often related to debris flow accu-
mulations (fig. 72). Several villages have been built in the Debris Fans (df)
most stable portions of these fans, which represent the Mixed snow avalanche and gravity-related debris
only arable land. Alluvial fans developed at the mouth of accumulation form very hazardous active fans at the foot
several glaciers have been included in the unit. of the highest slopes of the area. They are generally
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 222
222 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 73 - Supraglacial deposits on the upper part of the Shuinj Glacier. September, 1999.
devoid of soil covers and vegetation. Often, small rock
falls take place along these fans during the warmest hours
of the day.
Slope deposits (sd)
Loose talus and other gravity-related deposits cover
the lower parts of the steep slopes consisting of hard
lithologies such as massive carbonates or intrusive types.
Due to the peculiar dry conditions of the area, slope
deposits can rest at up to 35°. Their representation in the
map refers to the largest accumulations.
Recent Swamp Deposits (sw)
Thin layers of silty and shaly deposits forming bogs
and peats occur in the upper part of the Yarkhun Valley
between Lashkargaz and Showar Shur, and in the Ribat
Bar. Typically, they occupy areas close to small lakes, and
are related to the infilling of marshes.
Recent Lacustrine Deposits (ld)
South of Unawich, a few metres thick lacustrine lay-
ers, consisting of finely laminated whitish and grey clay
and silty layers, occur for several kilometres. They proba-
bly testify a major phase of valley damming due to the fall
of a large landslide occurred along the deep gorge north
of the confluence with the Gazin Valley.
Recent Glacial and Peri-glacial Deposits (rg)
This unit comprises active and sub-active moraine
apparatuses and periglacial deposits, mainly including
rock glaciers. Most of the large glaciers in the area show
& M. GAETANI
fresh frontal and lateral moraines related to the latest
glacial advance, presumably occurred during the last cen-
tury (Pasu II stage in the Hunza Valley, DERBYSHIRE et
alii, 1984). At the time of survey, most of the glaciers
showed noticeable retreat, which seemed to be less pro-
nounced in the largest ones (fig. 68, Pl. 82). Supraglacial
deposits often representing large rock avalanches are
included in this unit (fig. 73, Pl. 85). Similar examples of
this kind have been mentioned by HEWITT (1999), con-
cerning the area just east of the Lake Karambar, where
accumulation of yellowish carbonates of the Chilmarabad
Fm. derived from the high rock walls occurring upslope is
evident (Pl. 85). In addition, a large accumulation of
debris covers the lower part of the Chillinji Glacier, and
causes a recent advance of the snout (fig. 5, Pl. 86).
A few glacial apparatuses forming frontal and lateral
moraines located downstream of the active systems (Pl. 87)
have been reported within this unit. These landforms are
probably related to previous advances, corresponding to
the Pasu I or Batura stages of DERBYSHIRE et alii (1984),
occurring up to 10 ka ago (tab. 1). The precise age of these
deposits should be evaluated carefully, case by case.
Rock glaciers are common features in Northern
Karakoram. They often develop within formerly active
glacial apparatuses. Prominent examples occur along
the southern slopes of the Ribat Bar (Pl. 88). They
formed in the Gircha Fm. of the Karambar Unit and
may reach several kilometres in length. The rock glacier
formed above Kan Khun in the Wakhan Slates (Pl. 89)
and along the upper reaches of the Paur and Siru gols in
the western part of the area, reaches a similar size.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 223

THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN 223

TABLE 1
The main glacial stages recognized in the Hunza Valley of Karakoram. Compiled from previous authors.

Tentative date in ka New date in ka

Till unit Stage name Description of glaciations
(Derbyshire et al., 1984) (Owen et al., 2002)

A minor advance of a few hundred meters –

t8 Pasu II Historical (XIX and XX) sharpcrested, unstable, and sometimes ice-cored
moraines with fresh boulders that have no rock varnish

A minor advance of 1 km, restricted to tributary

t7 Pasu I 0.83±0.06; 0.325±0.06 valleys – high, sharp-crested moraines with boulders
that have a light yellow surface color

A glacial advance of 1-2 km – well-defined moraines

t6 Batura No dates ca. 10.8 – 9.0
with strong varnished and weathered boulders

Minor glacier advance of several kilometers – a

multiple series of rounded moraine ridges with deeply
t5 Ghulkin II No dates ca. 18.4 – 15.3 weathered boulders having a strong to postmaximal
rock varnish, and a weak carbonate development
beneath boulders

Minor valley glaciation, expanding into diffluence cols

and into the main Hunza Valley – well-defined
t4 Ghulkin I 47±2.35 ca. 25.7 – 21.8 moraines with deeply weathered (cavernous) boulders
having very strong to postmaximal rock varnish, and
incipient calcrete and pendant growth of carbonate

Main valley glaciations with tributary valley glaciers

filling and locally overtopping diffluence cols – highly
t3 Borit Jheel 65±3.3; 50±2.5 ca. 54.7 – 43.2 eroded moraines with deeply weathered boulders
having a very strong to postmaximal shiny-black rock
varnish, and an extensive underlying calcrete

Extensive main valley glaciation – deeply weathered till

remnants on benches in the main Hunza Valley at an
t2 Yunz 139±12.5
altitude of 3900 m asl on the upper western slopes of
the Pasu-Ghulkin diffluence col

Extensive broad valley glaciation – deeply weathered

t1 Shanoz No dates
erratics on summit surfaces at an altitude of 4150 m asl

Large rock glaciers are exposed along the northern
slopes of the Chiantar Glacier. Most of them are still
active, although a detailed analysis was beyond the pur-
pose of the present work (fig. 74).
Landslide Deposits (ls)
A small number of active landslides have been identi-
fied in the study area. Their limited number is probably
related to the slope steepness and to the predominance
of rock falls with respect to rotational and sliding types.
The largest event has been observed south of Chillinji (in
front of the settlement), within the shales of the Baroghil
Group, which give rise to a complex slide that affects the
entire slope (Pl. 90). Small slides occur also in the
Wakhan Slates and in the Shah Jinali Phyllite along the
Morich Gol.
Terraced Alluvial Deposits (ta)
Terraced loose sands and gravels bordering active
rivers occur along the main valleys. They have been
mapped along the Yarkhun Valley and in the lower
Morich Gol, and mainly consist of reworked old glacial
deposits. No precise age can be attributed to this unit
(late Pleistocene-Holocene).
Ancient Glacial Deposits (ag)
Undifferentiated glacial deposits unrelated to active
glacial systems cover the bottom of the major valleys of
the mapped area. They mainly consist of undifferentiated,
often consolidated, till deposits, generally representing
subglacial deposits. Good examples of these landforms in
accumulations of this kind occur north of Inkip (fig. 75).
According to DERBYSHIRE et alii (1984), they can be ten-
tatively ascribed to the Borit Jheel or to the previous
Yunz stage of the Hunza Valley, which were character-
ized by main valley glaciations (tab. 1).
Ancient glacial deposits mainly occur in the Baroghil
area, across the border and along the main valleys from
the Karambar Pass to the southern border of the map
(Pls. 14, 28). They are also present along the upper part of
the Shah Jinali Valley and along the Morich Gol. In these
areas landforms are dominated by glacial erosion, espe-
cially around the Baroghil Pass, suggesting an extended
glacial cover all across the Wakhan-Karakoram region.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 224
224 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 74 - Active rock glacier in a hanging valley in front of Baroghil. Location in Pl. 93.
Fig. 75 - Earth pillars developed on a glacial till related to a relict ice
flow presumably descending from the Yarkhun Valley. View to the
north from Inkip, Kushrao Valley. July, 2004.
Fig. 76 - General view to the west toward Lake Karambar from
Shuinj. Recent glacial and minor periglacial deposits are visible.
September, 1999.
The development of an extended ice cover is recorded in
this area by the occurrence of big granitic boulders origi-
nating from the Karakoram Batholith, which can be
found up to some 600 m above the Baroghil Pass. They
& M. GAETANI
testify to the activity of a transfluent glacier flowing
towards the Ab-i Wakhan basin. Other evidence for the
occurrence of large glaciers was found in the middle
Ribat Bar, where erratic cobbles with Permian fusulinids
have been transported upwards along the valley, where
fusulinid bearing-rocks are not present.
Old glacial deposits are mainly preserved in the
Karambar Valley only west of Shuinj (fig. 76), as in its
lower part the activity of present glaciers is dominant.
Also in the upper Chapursan Valley, west of Babaghundi
Ziarat old glacial deposits are rare.
These deposits can be related to different stages of
major glacial advance, which have not been distinguished
in the course of this work. Their age can span from Late
Pleistocene to the beginning of Holocene (see DER-
BYSHIRE, 1996 for a general classification of major glacial
stages in the region).
6. THE MAIN FAULT SYSTEMS
6.1 The Reshun Fault
The Reshun Fault was firstly defined and described
by PUDSEY et alii (1985) in Chitral up to the Paur Gol in
the southern part of the mapped area. It is a major NE-
SW trending thrust fault marked by the occurrence of the
Reshun Fm. in its footwall. The fault dips to NW and rep-
resents one of the main tectonic lineament in the North-
ern Karakoram Terrain (figs. 11, 12, 13). In the study
area, the Reshun Fault reactivates an important system of
Paleozoic and possibly also Mesozoic syn-sedimentary
normal faults, which were severely inverted during the
Cenozoic. South of this fault, in fact, the crystalline base-
ment is exposed with a reduced Paleozoic to Mesozoic
sedimentary succession deposited on a structural high,
whereas to the north of the fault the equivalent succes-
sions show a marked thickness increase, and no rocks
older than Ordovician occur. The involvement of the pre-
Ordovician crystalline basement in the Karakoram thrust
stack suggests a thick-skinned tectonic style also in this
sector of the range.
This complex fault can be separated into two different
sectors from W to E: the first one extending between the
Paur Gol and Kan Khun, the second one between Kan
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 225
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
Fig. 77 - Superposed foliations in the Reshun
Formation around the Shost bridge and at Kan
Khun: a) refolded isoclinal folds at the Shost
bridge, Yarkhun Valley; b) D2 folds refolding
an S1 foliation; NW low-angle dipping axial
planes are consistent with a normal reactiva-
tion of the Reshun thrust fault; c) an S1 folia-
tions overprinting S0 lamination is in turn re-
folded by a D2 folding event, Kan Khun,
Yarkhun Valley; d) transposed S0 foliation at
Kan Khun; S1 is a spaced crenulation cleavage
accompanied by growth of fine grained white
micas. September, 1999.
Khun and the snout of the Chiantar Glacier. Moving fur-
ther to the east, the fault can be followed across the
whole area with different characters, joining the Upper
Hunza Fault east of the Chillinji Pass around Buattar.
For this reason we suggest the name of Chiantar-Chillinji
Fault for this intermediate segment, which will be
described in the next section.
The first segment of the fault trends NE-SW and
essentially consists of a reverse fault system successively
reactivated as a normal and strike-slip fault. The footwall
of the fault uniformly consists of the Reshun Formation
which covers with a low angle unconformity the Paleozoic
to Mesozoic succession of the Axial Unit. Shearing of the
unconformity is described by PUDSEY et alii (1985) along
the Paur Gol and by us at Kan Khun, whereas in most of
the area the original stratigraphic relationshisps are gener-
ally preserved. Between the Paur Gol and Khan Khun, the
hanging wall of the fault includes three different imbri-
cates, which consist from west to east of the Siru Gol,
Lasht, and Tash Kupruk units.
The finest portions of the Reshun Formation, consist-
ing of marls and siltstones, record an intensive deforma-
tion especially close to the Reshun Fault. In the area
around Lasht and Shost (Shost bridge) this unit shows a
complex mesoscopic structural pattern, which constrains
the polyphase evolution of the fault zone (fig. 77). A first
deformational event related to thrusting gives E-W trend-
ing isoclinal folds (F1) with horizontal axes and a vertical
axial plane cleavage (S1) often causing a strong transposi-
tion of the primary sedimentary layering. The S1 cleavage
crossing the Reshun bedding (S0) is kinked by F2 folds
with sub-horizontal axial planes, suggesting a top to the
NW motion of the hanging wall, possibly related to the
inversion of the thrust fault with a normal throw. These
structures show a subsequent cataclastic shearing caused
225
by complex associations of left-lateral strike-slip faults
(fig. 78). Evidence for inversion is also given by the occur-
rence of normal faults which partially reduce the thick-
ness of the Paleozoic succession of the Axial Unit in the
footwall of the fault zone.
To the north of the villages of Shost and Aliabad, the
hanging wall of the fault shows a complex pattern of folds
and thrusts, causing the tectonic repetition of the Paleo-
zoic succession belonging to the Lasht and to the Tash
Kupruk units.
Nice outcrops of the fault zone are exposed at the
junction between the two different segments of the
Reshun Fault around Kan Khun along the old path and
the new road taking to Kishmanja, as well as in the sus-
pended valley NE of the village. Close to isoclinal E-W
trending folds with a well developed axial plane cleavage
(S1) with fine grained white mica occur in the sandstones
and conglomeratic beds of the Reshun Fm. along the path
east of the village (fig. 78). Bedding transposition, accom-
panied by a strong flattening and preferred elongation of
the pebbles of the Reshun Fm. can be related to the first
shortening event. Nice folds related to this stage of thrust-
ing along the fault are exposed NE of Kan Khun (Pl. 91).
The S1 cleavage is deflected by a second deformational
event (D2) characterized by low angle axial planes. The
superposition of the two different folding stages is well
recognizable in the same area along the Yarkhun river
(fig. 78). Important NE-SW trending left-lateral fault
zones occur in this area along the contacts between the
Reshun Fm. and the Massive Carbonates (AMC) of the
Axial Unit in the fault footwall (Pl. 65). The carbonates
are in turn separated by an important left-lateral strike-
slip shear zone from a thin slice of the Ishkarwaz-type
Granodiorite (AGR), which was intruded in the Chikar
Quartzites forming the metamorphic basement of Kara-
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 226
226 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 78 - Stereographic projections of structural data relative to the Reshun Fm. around the Shost bridge, at Kan Khun and Chilmarabad.
koram. Also the Ishkarwaz-type Granodiorite shows NE-
SW mylonitic to ultracataclastic shear zones with SC cle-
vages and superposed faults with quartz growth fibers
suggesting a left-lateral shear sense (Pl. 17), which form a
characteristic phyllonitic fabric in the intrusive body.
In the second part of the fault system, between the
Bazhdung Valley NE of Kan Khun and the Baroghil area
the Reshun Fault runs E-W across the high peaks of the
Pakistan-Afghanistan divide forming a complex system
of sheared thrust slices involving the Tash Kupruk and
the Lashkargaz-Baroghil units in the hanging wall and
the Axial Unit in the footwall. The Reshun Fm. is often
entirely sheared in this area. The fault zone is marked by
deformed carbonatic lenses of variable dimensions, often
severely recrystallized, which may consist of Permo-
Mesozoic carbonates, separating similar Lower Paleozoic
successions belonging to two different tectonic units.
This situation is well exposed to the west and east (Pl. 28)
of the Vidiakot ridge, where white carbonates separate
the Vidiakot Fm. of the Axial Unit, from the similar
lithologies of the Baroghil Group of the Lashkargaz-
Baroghil Unit. Similar situations also occur within the
Lashkargaz-Baroghil Unit in the hanging wall of the fault
(Pl. 92) along the northern part of the Vidiakot ridge,
where internal repetitions and imbrication of the Lower
Paleozoic succession is enhanced by the occurrence of
massive carbonates.
East of the Baroghil area, the fault zone is still evident
up to the snout of the Chiantar Glacier, due to the contin-
uous exposure of the Reshun Fm. Inversion of the thrust
fault is suggested also in this area by the occurrence of
normal faults affecting the sedimentary successions
exposed in the footwall, which show again tectonically
reduced stratigraphic units due to extensional phenom-
ena. This situation is exposed in the high mountain ridges
in front of the village of Baroghil on the left side of the
Yarkhun river (Pl. 93), as well as west of the Vidiakot ridge
(Pl. 92). Here a reduced section of white Massive Carbon-
ates of the Axial Unit is directly in contact with the
Ordovician slates of the Vidiakot Fm. (Pl. 94). In addition,
open to close folds with a SE-dipping axial surface
observed in the Chilmarabad area may be related to a top-
to-the NW motion of the hanging wall of the Reshun
Fault, following reverse motions. The Reshun Fm. is
strongly sheared and cleaved also in this area, forming a
steep south-verging tectonic slice between the Lashkargaz-
Baroghil and the Axial units (Pl. 95). Left-lateral strike-slip
motions superimposed on previous high angle reverse
faults are also evident along the main fault planes.
& M. GAETANI
6.2 The Chiantar-Chillinji Fault
South of Lashkargaz along the left side of the
Yarkhun Valley, the Reshun Fault merges into a complex
system of E-W trending, N-verging thrust planes dipping
to the south which cross the glaciated mountains extend-
ing between the Chiantar Glacier and the Chillinji area.
Several tens of kilometers eastward, beyond the Chillinji
Pass, this fault system joins the Upper Hunza Fault
extending westward from the Hunza and Chapursan val-
leys (ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994; ZANCHI & GRITTI, 1996).
Mesoscopic N- and S-dipping reverse dip-slip faults occur
along this system west of the snout of the Chiantar Glac-
ier north of the Zindikharan Glacier. Oblique left-lateral
faults reactivate reverse faults in both sites (fig. 79).
Due to the change of the dip-direction and to the
occurrence of different units along the fault, we suggest
the name of Chiantar-Chillinji Fault for this segment,
which represents, in any case, the eastern continuation of
the Reshun Fault. Small tectonic slices of the Reshun Fm.
occur along the fault, indicating a direct connection with
the western portion of the structure.
The Chiantar-Chillinji Fault joins the northern bound-
ary of the Karakoram Batholith near the snout of the Chi-
antar Glacier. Here the fault system forms an important
E-W trending N-verging thrust plane directly stacking the
Garmush Granite on the Paleozoic successions of the
Lashkargaz-Baroghil Unit which include a small horse of
Devonian carbonate and slates rich in quartzite. The Gar-
mush Granite is strongly reduced tectonically east of the
Chiantar Glacier, forming small and discontinuous lenses
between the Guhjal Unit to the south and the Karambar
Unit to the north. The Reshun Fm. is elided and/or cov-
ered by the Chiantar Glacier for about 20 kilometers. It is
exposed again on the eastern side of the glacier forming a
small vertical tectonic slice north of the Garmush Granite
(Pl. 96). A similar situation also occurs along the Shuinj
Glacier along the continuation of the same fault system,
where deformed conglomerates of the Reshun Fm. have
been recognized by us between the Karambar and the
Guhjal thrust sheets.
Between the Chhateboi Glacier and the locality of
Buattar east of Chillinji, the Chiantar-Chillinji fault
system splays out forming a duplex including an isolated
portion of the Axial Unit which is in turn overthusted by
a klippe including the Devonian dolostone and lava flows
of the Tash Kupruk Unit. The northern branch of the
fault stacks the Axial Unit, intruded by the Garmush
Granite, on the Reshun Fm. unconformably resting on
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 227
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
Fig. 79 - Stereographic projections concerning the Chiantar-Chillinji Fault close to the snout of the Chiantar Glacier.
the massive carbonates of the Chhateboi Unit. Meso-
scopic fault analyses performed along the fault above
Sorkh Rabat reveal E-W trending horizontal folds in
slates and S-dipping oblique-reverse faults with the same
trend followed by a possible extensional reactivation
(fig. 79). Mylonitic bands related to ductile shear zones
are restricted to the the core zone of the thrust fault in
the pre-Ordovician intrusives of the Axial Unit. Ductile
deformation predates brittle deformation, indicating
activation of the fault zone at deeper crustal levels.
Several intricate tectonic repetitions involve the
Tupop and the Aghil fms. of the Sost Unit which over-
thrust to the south the Axial Unit along the left side of the
Yarkhun river below the high peaks of Chillinji (Pl. 16)
along the northern branch of the fault. The southern
branch of the fault defines the boundary between the
Guhjal Unit to the south and the Axial and Tash Kupruk
units to the north. North of Chillinji the thrust surface is
deformed by ESE-WSW folds which are especially evi-
dent in the overriding Tash Kupruk Unit. Passing to the
west of the Chillinji Pass the two branches of the fault
merge into the Upper Hunza Fault causing the tectonic
closure of the Tash Kupruk.
6.3 The Upper Hunza Fault
The Upper Hunza Fault is a major thrust plane stack-
ing the Guhjal Unit on the southern sector of the Sost
Unit. The fault trends E-W and dips to the south. It was
firstly defined by DESIO (1964a) and later described in
more details by GAETANI et alii (1990a), ZANCHI (1993),
ZANCHI & GAETANI (1994), and ZANCHI & GRITTI (1996)
suggesting a N-ward thrusting of the Guhjal thrust sheet,
based on E-W to WNW-ESE trending drag folds and
reverse dip-slip faults occurring in the Upper Cretaceous
beds of the Darband Fm. forming the footwall of the
fault. The fault can be continuously followed from the
Hunza Valley up to the Buattar area in the upper reaches
of the Chapursan Valley. The junction with the eastern-
most segment of the Chiantar-Chillinji Fault is exposed
just west of Sorkh Rabat, where the Axial and Tash
Kupruk units are interposed between the two fault seg-
ments.forming a large duplex. This fault system causes
several tectonic repetitions especially in the Sost Unit
which forms its footwall along the upper part of the Cha-
pursan Valley (Pl. 51). In the mapped area, several imbri-
cates are exposed south of Babaghundi Ziarat along the
right-side of the valley, including slices of the Tupop Fm.,
which show N-verging folds with overturned limbs. The
227
general structure of this portion of the belt is very similar
to the one described along the Yashkuk Glacier by
ZANCHI (1993).
Between Buattar and the Chillinji Pass, the Upper
Hunza Fault shows three imbricates developed below the
Guhjal Unit south of the main fault surface. They consist
respectively, from top to bottom, of an undated dolomite
succession, of white marble, and of Carboniferous lime-
stones with large brachiopods. ESE-WNW dip-slip
reverse faults have been measured at Buattar between
the Aghil and the Tupop fms. below the main fault plane.
6.4 The Kilik Fault
The northern boundary of Karakoram is delimited
by an important fault system which was firstly named
Northern Fault (GAETANI et alii, 1990a; ZANCHI &
GRITTI, 1996) and successively modified into Kilik Fault
(GAETANI, 1997). This fault mainly consists of a contin-
uous E-W trending S-verging thrust system stacking the
Wakhan Slates upon the sedimentary cover of the
Karakoram (Pl. 52). In the Hunza region, where detailed
structural observations were described by ZANCHI
(1993) and ZANCHI & GRITTI (1996), the fault interacts
with the right-lateral Misgar Fault. In the mapped area
the Kilik Fault shows a middle to low angle dip to the N,
extending for more than 150 kilometers to the west
across the Wakhan region. South-verging imbricates
formed within the Jurassic sediments of the Sost Unit
along the westernmost part of the Chapursan Valley in
the footwall of the fault. In the upper Chapursan Valley
west of Babagundi Ziarat, the thrust pile includes a
close S-verging overturned syncline deforming the
Tupop Fm. In the Wakhan region its location has been
reconstructed through the analysis of satellite SPOT
imagery. The fault can be observed again to the west in
Pakistan at Kan Khun, where it shows an ENE-WSW
strike and becomes vertical. Sinistral strike-slip motions
have been here observed along most of the faults with
the same trend. West of Inkip, the boundary between
Karakoram and East Hindu Kush runs south of the
Atark Unit, joining the Tirich Boundary Zone west of
the Shah Jinali Pass. A continuous thrust fault defines
the southern contact of the Wakhan Slates, which over-
thrust the Atark Unit across the whole Chitral region up
to the Tirich Mir pluton. In the Upper Rich Gol the fault
cross-cuts the isoclinal folds of the Atark Unit, which
are in turn post-dated by the emplacement of the Rua
Granodiorite. According to observations in the distance,
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.28 Pagina 228
228 A. ZANCHI
the Kilik Fault seems to cut also the intrusive contacts
with the Rua Granodiorite.
7. PALEOGEOGRAPHIC AND GEODYNAMIC EVOLUTION
A synthesis of the geodynamic evolution of the study
area is described in this final section. The evolution of the
East Hindu Kush and Karakoram blocks and of the inter-
posed Tirich Boundary Zone has been reconstructed
starting from the beginning of the Paleozoic when they
were part of the northern Gondwanan margin. Our recon-
struction (fig. 80) tracks their Late Paleozoic rifting, drift-
ing and successive accretion to the southern Eurasian
margin during the Mesozoic. The effects of the following
collisions of the Kohistan Paleo-Arc (Late Cretaceous)
and of India (Eocene), as well as the post-collisional evo-
lution of the area, are also discussed.
7.1 The pre-Ordovician evolution of the crystalline
basement of Karakoram and East Hindu Kush
Fragments of a possibly common Gondwanan-related
crystalline basement occur in both East Hindu Kush and
Karakoram. The basement of East Hindu Kush is repre-
sented by the Qal’-a Ust Gneiss, mainly including high-
grade gneiss and migmatites, very similar to the deep
crustal gneiss forming a large part of SW Pamir which
have been dated to the Precambrian and also show a
strong Cenozoic overprint (PASHKOV & BUDANOV, 1990;
SCHWAB et alii, 2004). In the mapped area, this unit is
poorly known especially because they are exposed along
the Wakhan Corridor, in Afghanistan. DEBON et alii
(1987a) distinguished within this unit Cambrian grani-
toids possibly related to the (Panafrican) magmatic event
affecting the whole Gondwanan region. The Kafiristan
pluton in western Chitral, with a Rb/Sr radiometric age of
480 Ma (DEBON et alii, 1987a) was also intruded within
the same structural domain.
The crystalline basement of the Northern Karakoram
Terrain crops out at the base of the Paleozoic section
below the Ordovician sedimentary rocks of the Axial Unit.
It consists of the Chikar Quartzite intruded by the Ishkar-
waz-type Granodiorites, which can be referred to the
same «Panafrican» magmatic cycle (LE FORT & GAETANI,
1998), characterizing all the Gondwanan blocks.
Other relics of Precambrian or Early Paleozoic meta-
morphic rocks may be eventually identified within the
Ghamu Bar Complex in the Southern Metamorphic Belt,
namely in the Aghost Quartzites, whereas associated
migmatites can be instead related to the Cretaceous-
Cenozoic evolution of the belt.
7.2 The Paleozoic to Mesozoic evolution
The most ancient sedimentary rocks exposed in the
mapped area are preserved in Karakoram where they
begin with Ordovician deposits, whilst in East Hindu
Kush only Upper Paleozoic to Cretaceous successions
occur, as in SE-Pamir.
The Paleozoic-Mesozoic sedimentary successions
record (fig. 81): i) the evolution of the Gondwanan pas-
sive margin, ii) the rifting of the Cimmerian blocks from
the Perigondwanan region and their subsequent drifting
toward the southern Eurasian margin, iii) the Cimmerian
& M. GAETANI
orogeny, iv) the Cretaceous Andean-type margin, and its
collision with the Kohistan Paleo-Arc.
GAETANI (1997, 2009) recognized six major steps in
the Karakoram evolution, as the sedimentary record is
mostly continuous. They respectively span from Ordovi-
cian to Middle Devonian, Middle Devonian to earliest Per-
mian, Early Permian to latest Triassic, latest Triassic to
Early Jurassic, Middle Jurassic to latest Jurassic/earliest
Cretaceous and Late Cretaceous.
7.2.1 The Gondwanan passive margin
It is represented by the sediments accumulated from
Ordovician to Middle Devonian times (fig. 82). Rocks
belonging to this stage are well exposed especially in the
western part of the Karakoram range, from Chitral to
Karambar, in the Siru Gol, Lasht, Lashkargaz-Baroghil,
and Karambar units, all located to the North of the
Reshun and Upper Hunza fault systems. To the south of
this major lineament, rocks referred to this stage crop out
in the Axial Unit. The transgression onto the crystalline
basement occurred under marine conditions and a
muddy shelf environment developed through the whole
Ordovician and probably part of the Silurian (LE FORT et
alii, 1994). Sandy coastal bars were deposited with low
lateral continuity, within a general framework of muddy
or silty sedimentation. Sedimentation rate was low, usu-
ally not exceeding 10 m/Ma. Carbonate sedimentation
was episodic, because of terrigenous pollution, the fairly
southern paleoposition of the NKT in the southern hemi-
sphere, and cold marine currents originating from the
polar regions (TONGIORGI et alii, 1994, 1995). Carbonate
sedimentation gradually became more frequent towards
the end of the Silurian, but precise dating is missing. The
Devonian was characterized by a general climatic warm-
ing coupled with the migration of the Karakoram towards
lower latitudes (GOLONKA, 2002). Carbonate productivity
was consequently higher, as demonstrated by the devel-
opment of patch reefs with compound corals, stromato-
poroids and bryozoans. The accumulation rate, though,
never exceeded 10-15 m/Ma. A wide carbonate peritidal
platform developed, intermingled in its lower part and
southwards with lithic arenites, typically with black chert
pebbles (fig. 25).
During this stage, Karakoram was apparently con-
nected to the adjacent blocks forming a wide, gently sub-
siding platform fringing the northern part of Gondwana.
Between Early Devonian and Givetian, a wide carbonate
platform extended from Central Badakshan (Afghanistan)
to Central Pamir, Karakoram and to the area now form-
ing NW Himalaya, which were all parts of the same pas-
sive margin. A more external and subsiding section char-
acterized Karakoram and a more inner-shelf section was
present in the NW Himalaya, more prone to intermittent
emersion and sedimentary gaps (DRAGANITS et alii, 2002).
7.2.2 The fragmentation of the Perigondwanan fringe:
rifting and drifting of the Cimmerian blocks
This previous trend is sutured by an erosional event,
which is well developed in the Lashkargaz-Baroghil,
Karambar, Lasht, and Siru Gol units, where it is docu-
mented by conglomerates and coarse sandstones of Givet-
ian age (Middle Devonian). In the Tash Kupruk Unit, near
Lasht and Kan Khun (GAETANI et alii, 1996, 2008), vol-
 03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 229

THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN

Fig. 80 - Tentative reconstruction of the tectonic history of the Karakoram Terrane from its rifting from Gondwana to its accretion to the Eurasian continent. The sketch also describes its
post-collisional history within the evolution of the Himalayan belts.
229
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 230
230 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 81 - The first two tectono-sedimentary cycles in the Northern
Karakoram.
Fig. 82 - Stratigraphic relationships of the sedimentary units during
cycle I. (From GAETANI et alii, 2008, modified).
Fig. 83 - Pre-Gircha setting. The Reshun-Upper Hunza fault system
is interpreted as an inherited extensional fault active during the rift-
ing of the passive margin. The fault between the Karambar and
Lashkargaz-Baroghil units is inferred (see text). Note the break-up
unconformity at the base of the Gircha Fm.
canic lava flows with an alkaline affinity are interbedded
to Middle Devonian carbonates (HUBMANN & GAETANI,
2007), recording an incipient rifting. The early rifting rep-
resents the first step of the fragmentation and drifting of
this part of the Perigondwanan fringe.
This portion of the Karakoram evolution is repre-
sented by two cycles, the first one from Middle Devon-
ian to the earliest Permian and the second one from
& M. GAETANI
Early Permian to the Upper Triassic. The first cycle rep-
resents a rifting interval, when the Paleo-Tethyan pas-
sive margin underwent extension due to the incipient
opening of the Neo-Tethys ocean to the south. Coeval
Gondwana glaciations caused a complex interplay with
significant eustatic oscillations. The second cycle starts
with the pre-Gircha unconformity. The following evolu-
tion records a drifting interval, during which the margin
was subject to thermal subsidence, and also to normal
faulting, possibly related to oblique motions acting
within the microplate.
Middle Devonian to the earliest Permian. Towards the
end of Middle Devonian (Givetian) the platform underwent
emersion and gentle block tilting, interpreted as the initial
episode of rifting, which is observed in the Laskargaz-
Baroghil and Karambar units. The volcanic episode re-
corded in the Tash Kupruk Unit can be related to this
extensional activity. This time interval is characterized
mostly by mixed terrigenous/carbonate deposition. Rocks
older than Early Permian are known only between Chitral
and the Karambar area. Elsewhere, as in the Darkot-Gazin
Belt or in East Hindu Kush, definitive evidence for Car-
boniferous rocks has not been obtained so far.
To the south, in the Axial Unit, Devonian and Car-
boniferous rocks are rarely preserved and the Permian
sandstones of the Gircha Fm. often lay above the slates
of the Lower Paleozoic Baroghil Group. The most com-
plete succession of the Axial Unit is exposed at Chillinji,
where the Chilmarabad and Shogram formations are
interposed between the Baroghil Group and the terrige-
nous succession of possibly Carboniferous age. In the
Siru Gol, Lasht, and Lashkargaz-Baroghil thrust sheets
only the lowermost part of the Carboniferous succession
is generally preserved (fig. 83). The Carboniferous sec-
tion deposited above the upper Tournaisian rocks, if any,
was later eroded and unconformably overlain by the
Gircha Fm. (fig. 84). Only in the Karambar Unit, the suc-
cession is best preserved with thick Upper Carboniferous
rocks.
The Givetian unconformity and the continued erosion
of the rift shoulders during the Frasnian should be inter-
preted as a far echo of the drifting of blocks to the east,
like South China from the Gondwana margin (METCALFE,
1999; ROGER et alii, 2010). On the rift shoulder, quartzites
from the crystalline basement (e.g. the Chikar Quartzite)
and dark cherts, were deeply eroded. Terrigenous sedi-
ments were deposited over the entire area at least in part
under alluvial conditions. The sea gradually transgressed,
initially with marginal mixed carbonate-clastic facies,
then with prevailing bioclastic limestones rich in bra-
chiopods. In clear water conditions, corals and bryozoans
flourished, building thick bindstones and bafflestones
during the Frasnian. A fine terrigenous input gradually
recovered during the Frasnian, with carbonate sedimen-
tation becoming gradually subordinate.
The Shogram Formation had a sedimentation rate
(not decompacted) of 11 to 15 m/Ma. The deposition of
lithozone B of the Margach Formation (Late Devon-
ian?) rich in muscovite detritus, was accompanied by
block-faulting and tectonic uplift of metamorphic rocks
in the source area, which can be related to the develop-
ing onset of rifting, with a sedimentation rate which
may reach 30 m/Ma. The transgressive shelf limestone
and marlstone of the Ribat Fm. seals this initial rifting
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 231

THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN 231

event, with a sedimentation rate decreasing to around

10 m/Ma.
The sandstones of the Lupsuk Fm. document active
volcanism, also recorded by interbedded basic volcanic
fragments, coupled with unroofing of granitoid rocks. In
addition to petrographic evidence, the erosion and gentle
tilting of the Carboniferous succession in the Lashkargaz-
Baroghil Unit (fig. 84) suggests a major rifting stage,
where rift shoulders, situated to the south of the Reshun-
Upper Hunza fault system, were uplifted and eroded and
the unroofing of basement rocks was continuing. The
sedimentation rate slightly increased to 15 m/Ma.
The thick Visean carbonates of the Ribat Fm. are
linked to the world-wide highstand (HAQ & SCHUTTER,
2008). The sedimentation was also controlled by the sea-
level changes driven by the Gondwanan glaciations of
which there is no direct evidence in Karakoram. However,
the increasing of the clastic sedimentation with the
Lupsuk Fm. towards the end of the Mississippian may be Fig. 84 - In the Lashkargaz-Baroghil thrust sheet the Gircha Forma-
also related to the first onsetting of the Gondwana Glacia- tion overlays with a gentle angular unconformity the Ribat Forma-
tion (FIELDING et alii, 2008) tion of which only the Tournaisian part is preserved. West of Gharil.

From Early Permian to latest Triassic. The rocks of

this cycle are the most widespread in the North Karako-
ram Terrain (fig. 85). The extensive occurrence of the Gir-
cha Formation seems to definitively seal the previous syn-
rift succession, with the break-up unconformity drawn at
its base (Asselian; the latest Carboniferous cannot be
excluded, but we have no definite evidence) (fig. 83). We
refer to this cycle also the Permian and Triassic rocks of
the Darkot-Gazin Metasedimentary Belt, as well as the
time equivalent rocks forming the Kan Khun and the
Atark units of East Hindu Kush, and possibly also the
Wakhan Slates as discussed further on.
The general architecture of the basin where these suc-
cession accumulated shows a terrigenous submarine fan
gradually intermingled with a mixed clastic and carbon-
ate ramp during the Early Permian, covered by a carbon-
ate platform from the Middle-Late Permian, persisting to
the Late Triassic. A notable exception is the Middle Per-
mian to the earliest Late Triassic basinal succession
occurring to the east and north-east, in the Chapursan
and Hunza valleys, mostly outside the present map
(ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994; GAETANI et alii, in progress).
During the Early Permian-Late Triassic interval, the Fig. 85 - The sedimentary successions between the break-up unconfor-
North Karakoram Terrain and the East Hindu Kush were mity of the earliest Permian and the ?Late Triassic Cimmerian orogeny.
part of that sector of the Peri-Gondwanan fringe, includ-
ing continental blocks from Helmand to Qiangtang,
which rifted and drifted northward (fig. 86), forming the
Cimmerian microplates (ANGIOLINI et alii, 2007; ZANCHI as well as the basal terrigenous successions of the Atark
et alii, 2009). The sedimentary cover of Karakoram and Kan Khun units in East Hindu Kush.
records a complex paleogeographic evolution linked to its The Gircha Fm. shows a coarsening-upward trend,
northward drifting, up to its collision to the southern with well sorted arkoses and quartzarenites of «continen-
Eurasian margin (GAETANI, 1997; MUTTONI et alii, 2009) tal block provenance» deposited in a shore-face to shelf
and subsequent deformation (fig. 86). environment, testified by brachiopods of Asselian-earliest
The Northern Karakoram Terrain contains the best Sakmarian age (ANGIOLINI, 1995; ANGIOLINI et alii,
preserved rocks of this cycle and our reconstruction is 2005). Crinoid packstones gradually interfinger with and
mostly based on them. We subdivide the description of replace upsection cross-laminated quartzarenites. The
these complex events in several parts. Sakmarian transgression was completed by the deposi-
The rifting of the Cimmerian blocks. The Permian tion of fusulinid limestones, dominated by Pseudo-
succession invariably starts with a terrigenous unit, the fusulina, typically testifying to rather cool climate condi-
Gircha Fm., which occurs in most of the units of the tions (Kalaktash association of LEVEN, 1967). The
North Karakoram Terrain and reaches 1000 in thickness. recovering of the carbonates in the Sakmarian is linked
Also the Barum Fm. of the Darkot-Gazin Metasedimen- to the end of the Gondwana glaciations (ISBELL et alii,
tary Belt can be tentatively correlated to the Gircha Fm., 2003; ANGIOLINI et alii, 2007).
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 232
232 A. ZANCHI
The Bazar Dara Fm. of SE-Pamir shows a comparable
age and characters, suggesting a similar depositional envi-
ronment for the whole area (LEVEN, 1967) also including
the Shaksgam Valley in China NE of the Baltoro area,
which is part of Karakoram (GAETANI et alii, 1990b, 1991).
& M. GAETANI
Fig. 86 - Paleogeographic reconstruction of
Pangea, passing from a Pangea B to a Pangea A
configuration across Permian and Triassic
times. The star to the northeast of Adria indi-
cates the hypothetical location of a ridge-
trench-transform (RTF) triple junction adjoin-
ing the Gondwana, Laurasia, and Palaeo-Tethys
plates. Modified from MUTTONI et alii (2009).
The Wakhan Slates «enigma»
The Wakhan Slates form a well defined tectono-strati-
graphic unit presently exposed along the boundary
between East Hindu Kush and Karakoram, from the
Tirich Mir pluton of Chitral to the Chapursan Valley and
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 233
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
further east to the Shimshal region out of the study area
(ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994). It consists of a monotonous
and thick succession of black slates with thick quartz-
arenitic layers, resembling the lower to intermediate part
of the Gircha Fm. The Wakhan Slates generally show
south-verging folds and thrusts which stack them on the
northernmost units of the Northern Karakoram Terrain.
This unit may have been deposited in a large submarine
open fan or in a bay fed by a large emerged continental
area. We have not found evidence for deposition in a
proximal fan fed by turbidity currents.
The age and the source of this impressive amount of
fine clastic rocks still wait to be defined. Age evidence is
scanty. In the Kan Khun Gol, we found a couple of lime-
stone intercalations with fairly large spiriferid brachiopods,
possibly Paleozoic in age, as well as bryozoans colonies, of
similar age (F. BIGEY, Paris, pers. comm.). Undated cherts
and crinoid limestones were also found within this unit out
of the study area in the Hunza Guhjal (ZANCHI & GAETANI,
1994). BUCHROITHNER (1980) found Early Triassic con-
odonts within this unit in Wakhan. In a recent map of
Tajikistan and surrounding areas also including Wakhan
and part of Northern Karakoram (VLASOV et alii, 1991),
Russian authors clearly correlate the Wakhan Slates with
the Bazar Dara Formation of SE Pamir, assuming that it
was deposited between Carboniferous and the beginning of
Permian. We thus suggest that the Wakhan Slates are the
distal muddy fans originating from the rifted shoulders of
the Karakoram and East Hindu Kush/SE Pamir Cimmerian
blocks, filling a deep extensional basin with attenuated con-
tinental or eventually oceanic crust (fig. 80) which progres-
sively separated the two areas since Early Permian times
(GAETANI, 1997). The closure of this basin, with the colli-
sion of Karakoram and East Hindu Kush, was successively
recorded during the first stages of the Cimmerian orogeny
(GAETANI et alii, 1993; ZANCHI et alii, 2000). Further evi-
dence of the existence of a deep basin are given by the sub-
continental mantle serpentinites preserved within the Tirich
Boundary Zone of western Karakoram. These mantle rocks
were possibly exhumed during an important rifting event
which can be correlated with the Carboniferous-Permian
extension affecting the Perigondwanan blocks.
The drifting. The demise of the Gondwana glaciations
(ANGIOLINI et alii, 2003; ANGIOLINI et alii, 2005; STEPHEN-
SON et alii, 2007) and the opening of the Neo-Tethys are
the main factors controlling this cycle. Aggrading on the
clastic Gircha Formation, a prevailing carbonate sedi-
mentation started in the late Sakmarian and continued in
the Artinskian with the deposition of the Lashkargaz Fm.
and corresponding units. During the Kungurian a new
input of terrigenous material fed the most complete suc-
cession, but gaps and erosion surfaces characterized the
reduced sections (ANGIOLINI, 1996a). With the Middle
Permian the succession is more variable and complex,
with gaps to the east (Chapursan) and erosional surfaces
recorded at the base of the Ini Sar Fm., in which breccias
and fine conglomerates contain Roadian fusulinids
(LEVEN et alii, 2007). The western Karakoram emerged
again around the boundary between Middle and Late Per-
mian. Erosion channels were filled with lithic arenites
overlain by cross-bedded ironstones (Gharil Fm.) with
remnants of lateritic soils, indicating subaerial exposure
at low latitudes (GAETANI et alii, 1995; LEVEN et alii,
2007;), as demonstrated by paleomagnetic data obtained
233
Fig. 87 - Dendrograms obtained by UPGMA cluster analysis showing the
change in the biotic affinity of the Karakoram brachiopod faunas from
the Early to the Middle Permian (courtesy of ANGIOLINI et alii, in
progress), suggesting fast northward drifting of the Karakoram Terrane.
on a ferricrete (fig. 86), which has given a –1/+1±3 paleo-
latitude (MUTTONI et alii, 2009), whereas the Gondwanan
margin was still close to 30°S of latitude. Paleontological
studies on faunal affinity of Early to Middle Permian bra-
chiopods (fig. 87) also suggest that the Neo-Tethys was
already widely opened by the Middle Permian in order to
prevent genetic flux between Karakoram and the Gond-
wanan margin (ANGIOLINI et alii, in progress).
The overlying succession is dolomitic for more than
600 m and lacks any clastic input. In general, a carbonate
peritidal platform extended over the whole Karakoram
and East Hindu Kush starting at the end of the Middle
Permian or at the beginning of Late Permian, but dating
is often very poor.
The average sedimentation rate for the whole Per-
mian was around 50 m/Ma, with a peak in the lower part
and a decrease in the upper part of the succession, espe-
cially in the north-eastern basinal areas.
The basinal succession. A major differentiation
occurred during the late Middle Permian, when, in the
Chapursan Valley, the succession records a rapid transi-
tion to cherty limestones (Kundil Fm.), which contains
late Middle Permian to Upper Permian conodonts (GAE-
TANI et alii, 1995). In the Chapursan area, block-faulting
is mainly Wordian and Capitanian, with very rare volcan-
ism. Thus, in the Late Permian a peritidal carbonate plat-
form was developed in the south and west, facing to the
NE a deeper basin (fig. 88), which remained deep across
the Permo-Triassic boundary and the Triassic until the
early Carnian (GAETANI et alii, in progress).
The recovery of the carbonate platform. In the area of
the present map, shallow water carbonate sedimentation
continued at low rate from the Late Permian to the Trias-
sic, probably with several gaps. We referred to this inter-
val most of the massive carbonate units, both in the
North Karakoram Terrain and East Hindu Kush. Local
emersions caused karstic phenomena in the Permo-Trias-
sic carbonate platform.
The basin of the Chapursan Valley was unstable and
frequently fed by distal turbidity currents and breccias.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 234
234 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 88 - Cartoon suggesting the relationships between platform and
basin from late Middle Permian to early Carnian.
Filling and quick return to shallower conditions of the
basin occurred since the early Carnian, when shallow
water carbonate sedimentation initially fed the basin with
breccias, allowing the aggradation of the peritidal carbon-
ate platform of the Aghil Fm.
The geodynamic evolution during this Permian- latest
Triassic cycle is driven by the drifting of the microplate
accompanying the progressive opening of the Neo-Tethys
ocean and by the northward subduction of the Paleo-
Tethys ocean along the Asian margin (fig. 80). However,
the evolution of Karakoram during the Permian was not
simply controlled by thermal subsidence, because several
minor tectonic episodes occurred with local emersion and
erosion in the west and basin opening in the east with
fault scarps and deposition of huge submarine megabrec-
cia bodies. Oblique movements dominated by a transten-
sional regime within the Karakoram may have caused
this complex scenario. Volcanic outpour that affected the
Indian Plate margin of Neo-Tethys is unknown or is not
important on the Karakorum side.
7.2.3 The Cimmerian Orogeny
By the end of the Triassic, most of the Karakoram,
East Hindu Kush and South-Central Pamir blocks were
close to the southern Eurasian active margin, now exposed
in the North Pamir belts (SCHWAB et alii, 2004). Evidence
of Karakoram approaching to an active margin are given
by the uppermost Triassic-Lower Jurassic deposits of the
Chapursan Valley, cropping out a few tens of kilometers
east of the mapped area (GAETANI et alii, 1990, 1993;
ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994). Here, the carbonate platform
gradually drowned to slope facies and calciruditic bodies.
The drowning occurred within the latest Triassic and not
in the earliest Jurassic, as previously suggested (GAETANI et
alii, 1993). Above the drowned carbonate platform, the are-
naceous Ashtigar and Yashkuk fms. occur (Pl. 97). The
quartz-lithic sandstones of the Ashtigar Fm. contain clasts
of serpentinite schists, basalts, radiolarite, chlorite schists,
phyllite and paragneiss, suggesting erosion of an oceanic
subduction complex close to an arc-trench system. The
sandstones seem to have been deposited in a narrow
trench, bordered by an aggrading ramp. The Jurassic units
are unconformably overlain by the red sandstones of the
Yashkuk Fm., containing sedimentary and meta-
sedimentary clasts, supplied by the erosion of a foreland
fold and thrust belt. The base of this unit was dated to the
latest Pliensbachian (GAETANI et alii, 1993).
In the mapped area, few evidence records the Cim-
merian orogeny. In the Lashkargaz-Baroghil Unit dark
& M. GAETANI
thick bedded limestones with large Lithiotis and other
large bivalves of the Lower Jurassic Darwaz An Fm. trans-
gress the top of the Ailak Fm. which is Triassic in age.
Similar Lithiotis beds are possibly present also in the
Darkot-Gazin Metasedimentary Belt. In the Lashkargaz-
Baroghil Unit, a thin arenitic veneer at the base of the
Jurassic beds suggests that the western area was only
marginally reached by the terrigenous inputs (fig. 85).
The paleokarst deposits with volcanic fragments and
arenitic clasts observed around the Baroghil Pass in the
Ailak Fm. may be related to emersion of the platform,
possibly induced by peripheral bulging of the distal por-
tions of the Karakoram block in relations to the Cim-
merian events.
The sedimentary record of the Cimmerian events reg-
istered within the sedimentary cover of the North Karako-
ram Terrain suggests that it was only marginally affected
by this important deformational event. Deep water sedi-
mentation occurred only in limited, possibly fault-con-
trolled basins, whilst wider areas especially to the west
and to the south emerged or had thin shallow water
marine deposits, due to limited subsidence. Further con-
strains on the importance of the Cimmerian orogeny
come from the Baltoro Region, where SEARLE & TIRRUL
(1991) identified a low-pressure, high-temperature meta-
morphic event associated to the emplacement of the gran-
odioritic protolith of the Late Triassic-Jurassic Hushe
gneiss with a radiometric age ranging between 208 and to
163 and to the problematic mafic to ultramafic rocks of
the Panmah unit, possibly representing the remnants of
an ancient ophiolitic complex (SEARLE et alii, 1989;
SEARLE & TIRRUL, 1991).
Evidence of significant orogenic events during the
Jurassic also comes form the Tirich Boundary Zone
as well as from East Hindu Kush. The Tirich Boundary
Zone is a complex rock assemblage extending from the
Shah Jinali Pass to the SW across Chitral for more than
150 kilometers out of the study area. It includes serpen-
tinized subcontinental mantle peridotites, metagabbros
with hornblende cumulates, quartzites, amphibolites, and
garnet-sillimanite-biotite gneiss with migmatitic textures.
We interpreted it as a fragmented crustal-mantle bound-
ary developed along a zone of attenuated continental
crust (ZANCHI et alii, 2000), possibly related to the open-
ing of an oceanic or sub-oceanic basin separating East
Hindu Kush from Karakoram. The deposition of the
Wakhan Slates may be eventually related to the initial
stages of the opening of this basin.
The Tirich Boundary Zone can represent a sheared
lithospheric section of a possibly Jurassic orogenic com-
plex, formed during the accretion of the Karakoram block
to the East Hindu Kush, which may have been part of the
Southern Pamir belts. The Tirich Mir pluton, which has
given an U-Pb age on zircon of 121±1 Ma (HEUBERGER et
alii, 2007), cross-cuts the TBZ, demonstrating that it was
deformed in pre-Cretaceous times (fig. 80). The TBZ was
already juxtaposed to the Atark Unit before the emplace-
ment of the Tirich Mir Granite, as suggested by structural
relationships exposed around the pluton (ZANCHI et alii,
2000). Nevertheless, it is still a matter of debate whether
direct coupling of the units presently forming East Hindu
Kush and the TBZ effectively occurred during the Cim-
merian events or later, when Karakoram became the
active southern Eurasian margin (HILDEBRAND et alii,
2000, 2001).
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 235

THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN 235

The East Hindu Kush also records an orogenic sub-

duction-related magmatism given by the intrusion of the
Shushar Granite with a 171±3.4 Ma K-Ar age (GAETANI et
alii, 1996) and by the emplacement of subduction related
granitoids and medium grade metamorphism in the
region west of the Tirich Mir, associated with the forma-
tion of a D1 penetrative axial plane foliation (HILDEBRAND
et alii, 2001). The same authors also obtained a 194.6±0.91
Ma U-Pb monazite age on a deformed leucogranite dike
from the upper Lutkho Valley (Tirich Mir region), indicat-
ing an important Early Jurassic phase of crustal melting.
The nearest area showing severe Cimmerian deforma-
tion occurs northward in SE Pamir in the Alitchur moun-
tains, where important deformation, followed by ophiolite
emplacement and granitoids intrusion, occurred at the
end of the Triassic (DRONOV, 1986; PASKOV & SHVOLMAN,
1990; BURTMAN & MOLNAR, 1993).

7.2.4 The Cretaceous Andean-type margin of Karako-

ram and its collision with the Kohistan Paleo-Arc
Following its docking to the Asian margin, the Kara-
koram was controlled by the Neo-Tethys evolution, by its
progressive closing and coeval opening of the Indian
Ocean (fig. 80).
Between the end of Middle Jurassic and the earliest
Cretaceous, tectonic activity significantly decreased in the
North Karakoram Terrain. We have no data for this time
period on the area of this map, but in the Chapursan Val-
ley a shallow water carbonate ramp (Reshit Formation)
aggraded onto the previously emerged area during the
Aalenian, where also coal seams and evaporitic layers have
been found (GAETANI et alii, 1993: DONNELLY, 2004). In
the same area, deep water limestones with lowermost Cre-
taceous nannofloras also occur (GAETANI et alii, 1990a).
At about 130 Ma, the Indian Plate began its fly to
Eurasia (SCHETTINO & SCOTESE, 2005). Starting since
mid-Cretaceous times, an impressive calcalkaline subduc-
tion-related magmatic activity resulted in the emplace-
ment of the Karakoram Batholith (fig. 90), extending E-W
for hundreds of kilometers between the Chitral and Bal-
toro regions (DESIO & ZANETTIN, 1970; DEBON et alii,
Fig. 89 - The main eustatic and tectonic episodes recorded in the
1987b; SEARLE, 1991; DEBON & KHAN, 1996; LE FORT & sedimentary succession of the Northern Karakoram Terrain. The
GAETANI, 1998; LE FORT & PECHER, 2002). The batholith major tectonic events are indicated with bold lines. To be noted the
consists of several subduction-related large plutons, evidence of successive local tectonic events, most probably linked to
mainly granitic to granodioritic in composition, which extensional tectonics accompanied by block rotations around the
Middle Permian. Correlation of Tethyan to Global scale for the Per-
were intruded in mid-Cretaceous times along the south- mian is made according to LEVEN et alii (2007). Scale after GRAD-
ern portion of the North Karakoram Terrain and in the STEIN et alii (2004).
Gazin-Darkot Metasedimentary Belt between 105.7 and
95 Ma (DEBON et alii, 1987b; FRASER et alii, 2001). A sep-
arate belt of granitic intrusions also occurs southward
(Ghamu Bar-Buni Zom Belt, fig. 11). Similar ages also plex exposed along the Karambar Valley, which has given
come from the K2 gneiss which have given an U-Pb zir- a Rb/Sr age of 88 Ma (DEBON & KHAN, 1996). This pluton
con age of 115±3 Ma (SEARLE et alii, 1989). Isolated plu- has been considered as the ultimate member of the sub-
tons also occur northward in the East Hindu Kush, where duction-related Cretaceous magmatism (fig. 90).
they cross the Tirich Boundary Zone (Tirich Mir Granite) Geochemical signature and paleogeographic recon-
and the Wakhan Slates (CRAWFORD & SEARLE, 1992; struction generally suggest that they can be related to the
ZANCHI, 1993; DEBON, 1995), as well as in the Northern activation of an Andean-type margin along the southern
Karakoram Terrain (DEBON et alii, 1996; LE FORT & GAE- edge of the Eurasian Plate, all along the present-day
TANI, 1998). Large Cretaceous intrusive bodies are also Karakoram region. North-directed subduction of oceanic
present to the north in Wakhan and in SE- and SW-Pamir lithosphere interposed between the Asian margin and
(PASHKOV & SHVOLMAN, 1990) and have been related to a the Kohistan Paleo-Arc triggered this magmatic activity
north-directed low-dipping subduction below Karakoram during a well defined time interval, spanning approxi-
(SCHAUB et alii, 2004). This magmatic activity stops with mately between 130 and 100 Ma (DEBON et alii, 1987a,b;
the emplacement of the Koz Sar pluton, an alkaline com- HEUBERGER et alii, 2007; SEARLE et alii, 1989). The sub-
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 236
236 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 90 - Summary of the evolution of Karakoram based on structural, magmatic, metamorphic and sedimentary record across the area.
ducted lithosphere has been either related to a back-arc
setting (PUDSEY et alii, 1985), or to the northern portion
of the Neo-Tethys ocean (North Neo-Tethys), which was
isolated from the southern one by the formation of Kohis-
tan in an intraoceanic setting since the Jurassic (KHAN
et alii, 2009). Cessation of the subduction of the Neo-
Tethys lithosphere below Karakoram occurred the during
the Late Cretaceous, as suggested by a sudden stop of
magmatism, which has been related by most authors to
the Karakoram-Kohistan collision (HEUBERGER et alii,
2007). During the same time period, part of the sedimen-
tary succession of the North Karakoram Terrain was
& M. GAETANI
deformed, forming the «Cretaceous Karakoram Range».
Compressive structures resulting from an important
phase of shortening are sealed by a polymict conglomer-
ate, in spectacular unconformities (GAETANI et alii, 1990a,
1993). An angular unconformity up to 90° was firstly
described in the Tupop Valley within the easternmost
portion of the Sost Unit (GAETANI et alii, 1990a; ZANCHI &
GRITTI, 1996), where deformed Permian to Jurassic for-
mations underlie the Tupop Conglomerate, which is in
turn unconformably covered by the Campanian red marls
of the Darband Fm. (GAETANI et alii, 1993). The E-W-
trending folds affecting the mid-Cretaceous belt seem to
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 237
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
be northfacing, suggesting north-directed tectonic trans-
port during the closure of the Kohistan-Karakoram
Suture Zone, as indicated by COWARD et alii (1986). The
same unconformity is well exposed across the eastern
part of the Sost Unit around Chillinji. The Tupop Con-
glomerate contains fragments of carbonate, clastic and
also of acidic volcanic rocks.
A similar, probably coeval, unconformable clastic suc-
cession, represented by the Reshun Conglomerate (HAY-
DEN, 1915; PUDSEY et alii, 1985), is exposed in the Axial
Unit along the footwall of the Reshun Fault system from
Chillinji to the Chitral region. In the mapped area, the
unconformity is generally less pronounced than in the NE
regions. The Reshun Conglomerate, often more than 1000
m thick, also contains clasts of sedimentary rocks coming
from the sedimentary cover of Karakoram as well as a few
clasts of acidic volcanic rocks, which were deposited in
fluvial settings and in submarine fans. Out of the study
area, in Chitral, the Reshun Conglomerate unconformably
covers different tectonic units (figs. 11, 80), which were
juxtaposed along the southern active margin of Karako-
ram before the deposition of the Reshun Formation. Here,
the Reshun Formation contains clasts of slates deriving
for the Chitral Slate (?Cretaceous), from the Koghozi
Greenstone belt of Chitral, and a few granite pebbles and
acidic to intermediate volcanic rocks (PUDSEY et alii,
1985). Layers of upper Aptian limestones and arenites,
unconformably laying below the Reshun Formation in
Chitral inequivocally suggest a post-Aptian age for the
Reshun Fm. Additional evidence for a pre mid-Cretaceous
deformation in the Northern Karakoram units comes
from the Guhjal Unit, as it is intruded by the Garmush
Granite which is part of the mid-Cretaceous subduction-
related Karakoram Batholith. In addition, intrusive rela-
tionships between the Wakhan Slates and mid-Cretaceous
intrusives of the northern Hunza region indicate that they
were already deformed before the emplacement of these
magmatic bodies (ZANCHI, 1993; DEBON et alii, 1996).
In East Hindu Kush, an important metamorphic
event related to a D1 deformation giving isoclinal folds
and penetrative foliations pre-dates the emplacement of
the Tirich Mir granite in the Gharam Chasma area (fig.
90). HILDEBRAND et alii (2001) obtained U-Pb monazite
ages of 135-126 Ma on staurolite-schists, which are cross-
cut by younger Tirich Mir pluton-related pegmatite dikes
giving an U-Pb 114±2 Ma age. The Dorah Pass granite
also gave a similar Rb-Sr biotite age of 96-89 Ma (DESIO,
1964b). In addition, within the East Hindu Kush cover,
the Shah Jinali Metabreccia, a body of coarse-grained,
poorly rounded and monogenic clasts consisting of car-
bonate fragments, severely-deformed in low grade condi-
tions, may be tentatively correlated with the clastic suc-
cessions of the Reshun Fm., representing the first
products of erosion of the emerging range. Sparse out-
crops of red conglomerates also occur in Wakhan, and in
SE Pamir, where they are also associated to acidic vol-
canic deposits (PASHKOV & SHVOLMAN, 1990).
The Reshun/Tupop unconformity marks an important
orogenic event which caused severe shortening and uplift
of the sedimentary cover of Karakoram; metamorphic and
intrusive rocks found by PUDSEY et alii (1985) out of the
study area suggest that the SW portion of Karakoram was
already deformed and metamorphosed before the deposi-
tion of this unit. Most of the authors relate this event to
the collision of the Kohistan Arc with Karakoram, which
237
is also marked by the coeval sudden cessation of the mag-
matic activity (GAETANI et alii, 1990a, 1993; ZANCHI, 1993;
ZANCHI & GRITTI, 1996; DEBON et alii, 1987b).
During the same time period, an important deforma-
tional event (D1) accompanied by the formation of silli-
manite-grade migmatitic gneisses (M1) affected the
Karakoram Metamorphic Complex of the Hunza Valley
between 82.9±6.1 and 61.9±4.7 Ma, as suggested by U-Pb
radiometric ages from metamorphic monazites (FRASER
et alii, 2001). These authors related this event to the colli-
sion and accretion of the Kohistan Arc to Karakoram and
to the consequent closure of the Kohistan-Karakoram
Suture Zone (figs. 80, 90).
An alternative hypothesis was recently suggested by
KHAN et alii (2009), who related the early deformation of
this area to the accelerated subduction of the Neo-Tethys
below the southern Asia active margin, due to the fast
spreading of the Indian Ocean. According to this model,
India firstly collided with the Kohistan Arc, which was
definitively accreted to the Eurasian margin only in the
late Cenozoic.
7.3 The Cenozoic evolution of Karakoram
After the deposition of the Upper Cretaceous
Reshun/Tupop conglomerates, several important deforma-
tional events affected the whole mapped area, especially
within Karakoram (fig. 80). A definitive chronology of the
different events is still difficult to be established as very few
time-markers are available. Nevertheless, a comparison
with the evolution of the surrounding regions, especially
with the metamorphic basement of Karakoram which has
been extensively studied and dated in the Hunza Valley and
in the Baltoro region (FRASER et alii, 2001) helps to frame
our results into a general reconstruction.
7.3.1 The Cenozoic evolution the Karakoram Meta-
morphic Complex (and East Hindu Kush)
According to FRASER et alii (2001), high-grade meta-
morphism producing sillimanite-gneiss in the Hunza Val-
ley across the Cretaceous Paleogene boundary was strictly
followed in time by crustal partial melting between
56±0.3 Ma and 53.4±0.3 Ma and by a renewed sillimanite-
grade metamorphism, occurring at 44±2 Ma. This event
was related to continuous crustal thickening due to the
India-Eurasia collision which occurred during Eocene
after the accretion of the Kohistan Arc (FRASER et alii,
2001). Further age constrains for this syn-collisional
deformation come from the emplacement of the Lower
Cenozoic granitoids including the Kuk pluton which has
given a WR Rb/Sr age of 63.4±2 Ma (DEBON, 1995) and
the Batura pluton with an average K-Ar age of 43±3 Ma
(4 samples) and a 45±7 Ma age (5 samples) obtained by
DEBON et alii (1987b). Some of these plutons cross-cut
the mid-Cretaceous Hunza batholith, as well as deformed
metasediments of the Guhjal Unit (ZANCHI, 1993; DEBON,
1995) between the Chapursan and Hunza valleys (fig. 90).
Leucogranite dikes with an U-Pb interpreted age on
zircons of 50-52 Ma (Hunza dikes, set 1, FRASER et alii,
2001) were also deformed during this stage, which has
been recently reconsidered as a later D2 stage (SEARLE et
alii, 2010) causing S-verging thrusting of the Hunza Plu-
tonic Unit upon the Upper Cretaceous high-grade silli-
manite-gneiss. LE FORT & PECHER (2002) question the
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 238
238 A. ZANCHI
occurrence of important north-dipping shear zone stack-
ing southward the high-grade gneiss of the Hunza Valley.
On the other hand, they recognized extensive isoclinal
folding within the Karakoram Metamorphic Complex,
which can be responsible for inversion and disturbances
of the metamorphic isogrades observed by previous
authors (FRASER et alii, 2001; SEARLE et alii, 2010). In any
case, these rocks are in turn cross-cut by a younger gener-
ation of undeformed granite dikes (Hunza dikes, set 2)
which were emplaced at around 35 Ma (FRASER et alii,
2001: U-Pb zircon age of 34.5±0.5 Ma and U-Pb monazite
age of 35.4±0.5 Ma).
Extensive crustal melting occurred in the easternmost
portion of the Karakoram region between 26 and 21 Ma,
when the Miocene Baltoro granite was emplaced. Recent
dating of the Baltoro granites suggests that they were
were emplaced through a long time period, spanning
between the intrusion of the Mango Gussar and the
younger Trango Towers and Biale Cathedral plutons
(SEARLE et alii, 2010). In this area the undeformed Mango
Gussar, dated at 26.4±1.3 Ma (allanite Th-Pb age, FRASER
et alii, 2001), and a regional leucogranite dike network
giving a 24.7±3.6 Ma (SEARLE et alii, 2010) also cut
previous kyanite-metapelites related to the M3 metamor-
phic event which have given an U-Pb monazite age of
28±0.5 Ma (FRASER et alii, 2001). The youngest granites
of the Baltoro Complex have given U-Pb ages on monazite
around 13 Ma (SEARLE et alii, 2010)
A similar event also occurred in East Hindu Kush,
where extensive migmatization, was associated with the
emplacement of the Gharam Chasma pluton at 24±0.5
Ma, according to U-Pb monazite ages (HILDEBRAND et
alii, 1998). Crustal melting was associated with an impor-
tant D2 deformational event, associated with folding of
the previous foliations and syn-intrusion thrusting
(HILDEBRAND et alii, 2000). A final transpressional event
is well-documented across the whole Chitral region from
East-Hindu Kush to the Karakoram Kohistan Suture
Zone (HILDEBRAND et alii, 2000; ZANCHI et alii, 2000;
HEUBERGER et alii, 2007, 2010), post dating the emplace-
ment of the Gharam Chasma granite. Similar conclusions
are also provided by fission track ages, suggesting that no
or little vertical movements were active across the KKSZ
since 20-13 Ma, due to the occurrence of dominant strike-
slip motions (HEUBERGER et alii, 2010).
On the other hand, no intrusive rocks of this age are
known from central Karakoram, as magmatism was
chiefly related to the external margins of the block. Close
spatial and time relationships are evident among extensive
crustal melting, mountain uplifting (K2-Broad Peak belt in
the east and Tirich Mir Massif in the west) and the posi-
tion of the intracontinental left- and right-lateral wrench
fault systems bordering the northern corner of the Indian
indenter. A direct connection between tectonic activity
of the Karakoram fault and magma emplacement was
already postulated several years ago by POGNANTE (1990),
suggesting that the emplacement of shoshonitic to ultra-
potassic dykes around the Shaksgam Valley, northern
Karakoram (China) was triggered by extensional compo-
nents acting along this structure, favouring magma ascent.
A much younger Miocene metamorphism event
affected the southern portion of the Karakoram metamor-
phic complex in the Hunza Valley (staurolite-grade event
with an U-Pb monazite age of ca. 16±1 Ma, FRASER et alii,
2001), which reflected the S-verging thrusting of the silli-
& M. GAETANI
manite-gneiss, and was at least in part coeval with a D3
deformation associated with the emplacement of dome
structures north of the Main Karakoram Thrust. D3 fab-
rics are in turn cross-cut by the Sumayar pluton, a small
undeformed two-micas leucogranite giving an U-Pb age
of 9.3±0.2 Ma (FRASER et alii, 2001). A similar history is
recorded in the Baltoro region, where a slightly older
kyanite-grade metamorphism (M2) occurred south of the
Baltoro granite as recorded by kyanite metapelites giving
an U-Pb monazite age of 28.0±0.5. In this area, recent
metamorphism (M4) affects the high-grade sillimanite-
gneiss of Dassu, which has given several radiometric ages
close to 5 Ma (FRASER et alii, 2001) and was coeval with
dome formation in the hanging wall of the Main Karako-
ram Thrust. Domal structures occurring in the SE portion
of Karakoram have been described by LEMMENICIER et
alii (1996) and LE FORT & PECHER (2002), who recog-
nized the occurrence of sillimanite-gneiss overprinting
previous minerals associations as well as the occurrence
of magmatic bodies of syenite and leucotrondhjemite
composition showing strong mantle affinity. A complex
pattern of Ar-Ar radiometric ages obtained on biotite and
hornblende ranging from 3.0 to 7.7 Ma (VILLA et alii,
1996) together with monazite U-Pb ages of 5.4±0.2 Ma
from the Dassu orthogneiss related to partial melting dur-
ing high-grade metamorphism (FRASER et alii, 2001) sug-
gest an impressively rapid exhumation of the Karakoram
mountains which has been related to the activity of the
Main Karakoram Thrust. Dextral motions also occurred
along this major fault zone, accompanying the vertical
extrusion of the metamorphic rocks (LEMMENICIER et alii,
1996). Final D4 brittle deformation, assigned to Pliocene-
Quaternary times, caused a retrograde greenschist facies
overprint and the ultimate uplift of the Karakoram Meta-
morphic Complex which is still active.
7.3.2 Cenozoic deformation in the Northern Karakoram
Terrain
Several different deformational events have been rec-
ognized within the sedimentary cover of Karakoram
based on a relative chronology (tab. 2). The occurrence of
deformed mid-Cretaceous intrusive rocks and Upper Cre-
taceous sedimentary units within the thrust stack, sug-
gests that most of the tectonic structures presently
exposed in the belt formed during its Cenozoic tectonic
evolution. The complex deformational evolution of the
Northern Karakoram Terrain can be summarized into
three main stages: 1) thrust stacking, 2) normal faulting,
3) strike-slip tectonics.
Thrust stacking. The structural framework of the
mapped area is dominated by the occurrence of several
tectonostratigraphic units forming a complex thrust pile
interacting with the rigid batholiths of Karakoram
and East Hindu Kush and with the Tirich Boundary Zone
(fig. 91). A reconstruction of the structural evolution of
the thrust stack has been proposed for the adjoining
Hunza area, where the Wakhan, Sost and Guhjal units
are also exposed (ZANCHI, 1993; ZANCHI & GAETANI, 1994;
ZANCHI & GRITTI, 1996). According to these authors,
stacking of NE- to N-verging thrusts sheets postdates the
deposition of the Upper Cretaceous Tupop Fm., as it is
deeply deformed within the thrust pile. These imbricates
are in turn intruded by the Paleogene Kuk pluton and by
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 239

THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN 239

TABLE 2
Synthesis of the main deformational events recognized within the mapped units.

RELATIVE CHRONOLOGY RECOGNIZED IN EACH TECTONIC UNIT

Lunko – Baba Tangi

E-W tight folds with slaty
Wakhan Slates Granodiorite, Shushar S-verging thrusts
cleavage
Granite

D2 NNE-SSW to
NE-SW and E-W
Intrusion of Rua
Atark Unit D1 Isoclinal folds close to tight
Granodiorite
folds; SE- to S-
verging thrusts

E-W parallel folds, S-verging

Kan Khun Unit
thrusts
Schistose serpentinites with
Tirich Mir
Tirich Boundary olivine and pyroxene relics SE-verging Left-lateral
Greenschist retrogression intrusion (121 Ma
Zone K-feldspar sillimanite gneiss, thrusts NE-SW faults
U-Pb)
Amphibolites
M2 retrogression with
M1: Garnet-muscovite-
Shah Jinaly stilpnomelane on an S2 Chloritoid static Left-lateral NE-
meta-pelite with an S1
Phyllite crenulation cleavage. overgrowth SW faults
foliation
NE-SW fold axes

M1: low greenschist facies

Post-thrust folds at Chillinji; Left-lateral NE-
Tash Kupruk metamorphism with D1
D2 open to close folds at SW faults with D3
Unit isoclinal folds, followed by
Kan Khun vertical kink folds
SE- to S-verging thrusts

D1 E-W to ENE-WSW folds.

Post-Reshun Fm. S- to SE- Inversion of the Reshun Left-lateral NE-
Siru Gol Unit
TECTONIC UNITS

verging thrusts along fault with normal faulting SW faults

Reshun fault
D1 E-W to ENE-WSW folds,
Lasht Unit Left-lateral NE-SW faults
S- to SE-verging thrusts
D2 ESE-WNW post-thrust
folds along the Chiantar
Lashkargaz- E-W to ENE-WSW folds, Post-Reshun E-W
Glacier causing W-plunging
Baroghil Unit S- to SSE-verging thrusts; left-lateral faults
folds; post-Cretaceous N-
NE verging thrust of the KB
D2 E-W post-thrust folds NNE-SSW left-
D1 NNW-SSE to NW-SW
along the Chiantar Glacier; and E-W right-
Karambar Unit folds, WSW to SW-verging
post-Cretaceous N-, NE- lateral faults and
thrusts;
verging thrust of the KB N-verging thrusts

Chhateboi Granite, post-Tupop

Chhateboi Unit D1 WNW-ESE folds
intrusion-related doming N-verging thrusts

pre-Tupop D1 E-W folds S-verging thrust

and thrust (Borom valley, post-Tupop E-W folds and along the contact
Sost Unit
Chapursan, out of the N-verging thrust with the Wakhan
mapped area) Slates (Kilik Fault)

Inversion of
Pre-Reshun Fm. Reshun Fault
SE-verging
Folding in low greenschist Intrusion of Ishkarwaz-type deformation: with normal
thrusts with axial
Axial Unit facies Chikar Quartzites granodiorite (pre- angular motions
plane cleavage in
(pre-Ordovician) Ordovician) unconformity followed by
Reshun Fm.
(10°-15°) strike-slip
motions
Intrusions of Koz
KB intrusion (Garmush Yaz Glacier N- and
D1 Isoclinal folds with very
Guhjal Unit Granite, Hunza plutonic D2 E-W folds Granite, Chiantar S-verging
low grade metamorphism
unit) Glacier thrust
Granodiorite
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 240
240 A. ZANCHI
Fig. 91 - Synthetic scheme showing the architecture of the thrust sheets of the northern Karakoram Terrain and their relationships with the
surrounding units.. Cross sections approximately trending N-S and traced from west to east, with reference to fig. 12. Not to scale.
other minor intrusives related to the Paleogene Batura
Unit. These deformations were related by ZANCHI (1993)
to the activation of a fold and thrust belt along the exter-
nal part of an Andean-type margin as a consequence of
northward subduction of the Neo-Tethys beneath the
southern margin of the Karakoram. Northward thrusting
of the cover can be related to the formation of a retrobelt
in a back-arc position north of the magmatic arc, repre-
sented by the Karakoram Batholith. S- to SSE-verging
thrusting was successively active, stacking steep north-
dipping thrust sheets along the northern side of the Sost
Unit, forming a complex antiformal stack with dextral
traspressional components along its eastern termination.
During this stage, the Wakhan Slates were emplaced
southward upon the Sost Unit. This phase was related
(ZANCHI, 1993) to crustal thickening following the India-
Eurasia collision. The thrust systems related to this event
are geometrically consistent with the Main Karakorum
Thrust, deforming the Hunza Metamorphic Complexes
and the southern part of the mid-Cretaceous Hunza plu-
tonic unit. Southward motion along the MKT was active
since the closure of the Indus Suture (REX et alii, 1988;
SEARLE & TIRRUL, 1991) and continued up to recent
times (LEMMENICIER et alii, 1996).
The tectonic complexity of the mapped area, with
respect to the Hunza region, has been described in previ-
ous sections and is mainly related to the occurrence of a
& M. GAETANI
large number of tectonostratigraphic units characterizing
the central-western portion of the Karakoram. The first
main difference with the Hunza region consists in the age
and composition of the thrust sheets. A large number of
the tectonostratigraphic units of the study area includes
an almost complete Paleozoic succession which is often
in continuity with Permo-Triassic rocks. In central-east-
ern Karakoram a major detachment occurs at the base of
the Gircha Formation, which corresponds in our interpre-
tation to the break-up unconformity, determining the
occurrence of only Permian to Mesozoic successions. In
addition, south of the Reshun-Chiantar-Chillinji fault sys-
tems a pre-Ordovician crystalline basement is largely
exposed, suggesting a thick-skinned style for this portion
of the belt. The occurrence of a pre-Ordovician basement
is probably related to the Paleozoic to Mesozoic paleogeo-
graphic setting during which a structural high developed
south of the Reshun Fault in its footwall. Inversion of
these extensional structures determined the difference in
structural style across the Reshun and related fault sys-
tems. In addition, as the central section of the mapped
area is characterized by almost dip-slip thrust motions
due to a N-S to NNE-SSW trending shortening, the west-
ern part of the area is strongly influenced by left-lateral
transpressional motions along NE-SW fault zones, which
can be related to the shearing of the NW border of the
Indian indenter. A marked rotation of the main structures
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 241
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
is also evident west of Kan Khun, and especially along the
Rich Gol and the lower Yarkhun Valley, where E-W
trending thrust surfaces are deflected into a NE-SW
trend, possibly due to large post-?Miocene anticlockwsie
block rotations.
Complex relationships among thrust sheets can be
noticed in several parts of the study area. They may be
due to different phenomena which have been described in
more detail in the previous chapters. Partial inversion of
previous normal faults (Reshun Fault), folding and subse-
quent reactivations of thrust surfaces during three differ-
ent collisional stages (Cimmerian, Kohistan, India) fol-
lowed by indentation phenomena causing extension and
left-lateral shearing may account for some complex struc-
tural relationships.
Huge thrust sheets, representing single nappes, as the
Tash Kupruk Unit, were probably emplaced in the central
area during the first stages of crustal shortening (fig. 91).
Their occurrence is testified by the Chillinji klippe formed
by the Tash Kupruk Unit, which is only exposed far-off, at
least 50 km to the west. We suggest that it may represent
the oldest thrust sheet due to its position at the top of the
stack. The klippe also records subsequent folding and
back-thrusting/back-folding at Chillinji, indicating a long
post-emplacement deformational history of the belt. The
continuity of the Tash Kupruk Unit across the western
side of the belt may be related to a subsequent out-of-
sequence reactivation of its floor thrust. Polyphase folds
and thrust stacking as well as folds deforming previous
thrust surfaces have been recognized in several areas,
especially along the contact between the Karambar and
Lashkargaz-Baroghil units in the Chiantar Glacier area,
which has been refolded. These phenomena suggest com-
plex and long-living thrust imbrication processes (tab. 2),
consistent with the evolution of the Karakoram Metamor-
phic Complex which records a continuous shortening and
crustal thickening, due to repeated collisional events.
N- to NNW-directed tectonic transport is restricted to
the Sost and Guhjal units which form the western contin-
uation of the Sost antiformal stack of the Hunza area,
where detailed mapping and structural analyses were per-
formed in the past (ZANCHI & GRITTI, 1996). In the map
area, these units generally show similar structural fea-
tures, with S-dipping thrust surfaces. The Tupop Fm.
shows N-verging overturned folds within the stack
exposed along the southern slopes. Northward thrusting
of the Karakoram Batholith is also evident within the left
side of the Chiantar Glacier along the Chiantar-Chillinji
Fault (fig. 79) and at Chillinji (fig. 79). Also in this area
deformational structures of the Guhjal Unit are cross-cut
by undeformed granodioritic bodies which may be
related to the Batura Unit of the Hunza region. The NE
portion of the Karambar Unit also shows N-verging
thrusts exposed along the right side of the upper Karam-
bar Valley.
The main directions of thrusting deduced from
observed meso- and megascopic structures suggest a top
to the S and SSW in the central area, turning to SE and
ESE in the western part. Bedding attitude and axial plane
fold cleavages obtained from field analyses of thrust-
related folds indicate dominant ENE-WSW- to ESE-WSW
trends, with N-NW dipping axial planes cleavage consis-
tent with the direction of thrust propagation. The main
exception is given by WSW-verging thrusts and folds
locally occurring in the Karambar Unit north and west
241
of Lake Karambar (fig. 38). Well-exposed E-W trending
S-verging thrust structures can be observed between
the Karambar and Lashkargaz-Baroghil units in the
Lashkargaz area (figs. 27, 28; Pls, 27, 28), where duplex
structures and fault propagation folds formed during
S-vergent thrusting.
Out-of-sequence thrusting may be related to the reac-
tivation of some of the major fault zones forming the
boundary between the Northern Karakoram Terrain and
East Hindu Kush-Wakhan. This may be the case of the
Kilik Fault, which shows a continuous trace across the
whole region, possibly resulting by its repeated reactiva-
tion during the evolution of the belt.
Similar structures can be observed also in the East
Hindu Kush, especially within the Atark Unit, which also
suffered a polyphase deformation. It shows, in fact, isocli-
nal folds refolded by open to close fault-related folds due
to ESE- and SE-directed thrusting, which may be related
to the Cenozoic evolution of the belt.
Extensional tectonics. In spite of the dominance of
compressive structures due to crustal shortening, we also
recognized important regional normal faults causing a
delamination of the previously formed thrust pile. Two
main fault zones show important normal movements: the
Reshun Fault along the Yarkhun Valley and the Thui Pass
Fault south of Gazin.
Inversion of the Reshun Fault system was recognized
around the Shost village, where thrust related folds and
axial plane foliations have been refolded by W-NW verg-
ing open folds with subhorizontal axial planes gently dip-
ping to NW (figs. 77, 78) suggesting a top to the NW
shearing. Fold style is very similar to the one described
for the extensional back-sliding of the Kohistan Paleo-Arc
along the Main Mantle Thrust (BURG et alii, 1996), which
has been interpreted as a syn-convergence collapse fea-
ture. Secondary synthetic normal fault also deform the
hanging wall of the fault delaminating the exposed Paleo-
zoic succession in the Siru and Paur Gol area.
Nice structures related to this event are also exposed
in front of the Baroghil village along the left side of the
upper Yarkhun Valley, where delamination of the foot-
wall is enhanced by the occurrence of Permian carbon-
ates directly on the Lower Paleozoic slates of the Vidiakot
Fm. Left-lateral strike-slip faults are superimposed to nor-
mal faults in both areas. Small NW-dipping high-angle
normal faults also cross-cut the Upper Paleozoic succes-
sions of the Lashkargaz-Baroghil Unit above the Baroghil
houses north of the Vidiakot area.
We also noticed faulted contacts among the Chikar
Quartzite, the Baroghil Group and the overlying Permo-
Mesozoic limestones of the Axial Unit at Kan Khun with a
possible normal displacement. Nevertheless, pervasive
reactivations of the main contact by a left-lateral strike-
slip fault zone prevent further considerations.
WSW-ENE trending NNW-dipping normal faults also
affect the Ordovician successions of the Axial Unit east of
the Shost-Lasht area, which have collapsed westward
along the contact with the underlying basement (LE FORT
& GAETANI, 1998).
Important orogen-parallel N-S extension occurred in
the south-western margin of the study area next to the
Thui Pass normal fault along which the Darkot-Gazin
Metasedimentary Belt collapsed into a deep half-graben
accompanied by the formation of one of the most contin-
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 242
242 A. ZANCHI
uous pseudotachylyte horizons ever known (LE FORT &
GAETANI, 1998). This low angle detachment, which was
hypothesized in several previous works (SEARLE & TIR-
RUL, 1991), is responsible for the preservation of the low
grade metasediments of the northern part of Karakoram
and can explain the strong difference in metamorphic
conditions between the high-grade metamorphic units
exposed to the south of the mid-Cretaceous batholith and
the very low-grade metasediments occurring to the north.
Significant orogen parallel extensional collapse can
be ascribed to gravitational instability of the belt due to
high rates of crustal thickening occurring since the India-
Eurasia collision (fig. 90). These normal faults can be
directly compared at a smaller scale to the South Tibetan
Detachment affecting the High Himalayas (BURCHFIEL et
alii, 1992), or to the extensional fault systems active since
the Miocene in the Pamirs (SCHAUB et alii, 2004; HACKER
et alii, 2011; STÜBNER et alii, 2011).
Strike-slip tectonics. The activation of E-W-trending
sinistral strike-slip fault systems, generally post-dating
thrust emplacement, has been previously described in the
Chapursan and Shimshal valleys out of the study area
(ZANCHI, 1993; ZANCHI & GRITTI; 1996). Left-lateral faults
are also very important in the mapped area, where some
of the main fault systems are characterized by strike-slip
motions. E-W left-lateral movements characterize the
intermediate portion of the Chiantar-Chillinji Fault sys-
tem linking the Reshun to the Upper Hunza Fault. E-W
left-lateral shear zones were also active along the north-
ern boundary of the Karakoram Batholith in ductile con-
ditions, forming large mylonitic zones marking the tec-
tonic contact between the Cretaceous intrusives and the
sedimentary cover (LE FORT & GAETANI, 1998).
Left-lateral motions characterize the western portion
of the mapped area, between Kan Khun and the Rich Gol,
where most of the main NE-SW trending vertical tectonic
contacts show horizontal lineations and striations.
Impressive examples of these structures formed in brittle
or brittle-ductile conditions occur east of Kan Khun,
where the Ishkarwaz-type Granodiorite of the Axial Unit
is entirely transformed into a phyllonitic mylonite several
tens of meters thick overprinted by brittle shear zones. A
significant reactivation of the Tirch Boundary Zone as a
left-lateral fault zone was recognized especially out of the
study area (ZANCHI et alii, 2000), and possibly also along
the Rich Gol.
Similar structures were observed along the Kohistan-
Karakoram Suture Zone, where lineations suggest a left-
lateral transcurrent to transpressional deformation regime
testified by suture-parallel NW-dipping (Karakoram) duc-
tile foliations with stretching lineations varying from hori-
zontal to 70°SW and superposed faults with strike-slip
striations (HEUBERGER et alii, 2007, 2010). PUDSEY et alii
(1985) also describe a subhorizontal stretching lineation
which is interpreted as an original structural feature
resulting from Cretaceous oblique convergence during the
closure of the suture zone.
This deformation pattern, which seems to be active at
least since the Miocene (about 20 Ma) results from inden-
tation between India and Eurasia following continental
collision (MOLNAR & TAPPONNIER, 1975; TAPPONNIER et
alii, 1986), as suggested in ZANCHI (1993). Transition from
high-angle reverse to left-lateral movements along major
NE-SW fault zones may be due to the increasing impor-
& M. GAETANI
tance of post-collisional sinistral shearing along the left
corner of the Indian Indenter, represented by the Chitral
region (fig. 90). In addition, ZANCHI (1993) also described
the occurrence of pervasive sinistral movements along E-
W faults due to strain accommodation in discrete domains
bounded by E-W strike-slip faults within central-western
Karakoram. It was interpreted as a consequence of a NW-
SE-directed simple-shear due to deformation along major
NW-SE dextral strike-slip faults bordering the eastern side
of Karakoram (e.g.: Karakoram Fault).
Significant anticlockwise rotations of the entire west-
ern portion of the belt from a previous E-W trend to the
present day NE-SW strike of the structural grain has been
ascribed to the prolonged effect of left-lateral shearing of
the western side of the indenter, although no reliable
paleomagnetic data are yet available to better constrain
eventual oroclinal bending (HILDEBRAND et alii, 2000).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by several Italian and European
grants to M. GAETANI (MIUR 40% and 60%). Part of these researches
were founded through an UE project (1991-1993), to which partici-
pated a French team (DEBON F. & LE FORT P.) dealing mostly with
magmatic rocks. Their results are partly incorporated in this map.
L. ANGIOLINI, G. OLIVINI, A. NICORA, S. RAHMAN shared a part of the
field work, R. SCHROEDER (Frankfurt a.M.) reconsidered some of the
DESIO’S samples. L. Angiolini is warmly thanked for comments and
suggestions during the preparation of the manuscript.
The field work was possible thanks to the permission of the
Government of Pakistan and the support by the Geoscience Labora-
tory of the Geological Survey of Pakistan, Islamabad, through his
Director Dr. H. GAHUAR. The logistics were organized by the Paki-
stan Adventure Tours and the Italian Focus travel agencies.
PATRICK LE FORT is warmly thanked for giving us his original
field maps and for his contribution during several years of common
fieldwork. A. ZANCHI is indebted with M. DE AMICIS for his support
during the first steps of the map preparation. STEFANO ZANCHETTA
gave a personal contribution to microstructural analyses of thin sec-
tions. F. BRARDINONI revised the description of Quaternary units.
We are also indebted for fossil identification to R. POSENATO
(Ferrara), R. RETTORI (Perugia), and to F. BIGEY (Paris).
We are also grate to the stimulating comments of reviews by
R. CAROSI, C. FACCENNA, M. MATTEI and S. MAZZOLI mainly con-
cerning the complex structural setting of the area, to the editor in
chief S. CONTICELLI, who strongly encouraged this publication and
patiently followed its long advance, and to A. ZUCCARI, for his tech-
nical support.
REFERENCES
ABDULLAH J. & CHMYRIOV V.J. (eds.) (1980) - Geology and mineral
resources of Afghanistan. T.1. Geology. V. of 535 pp., Izd. «Ne-
dra», Moskva (in Russian).
ANGIOLINI L. (1995) - Permian Brachiopods from Karakorum: Part 1.
Riv. It. Paleont. Strat., 101(2), 165-214.
ANGIOLINI L. (1996a) - Permian Brachiopods from Karakorum: Part
2. Riv. It. Paleont. Strat., 102(1), 3-26.
ANGIOLINI L. (1996b) - Permian brachiopods from Karakorum. In:
COOPER & JIN (eds.), Brachiopods, Proceed. Third Intern. Bra-
chiopod Congress, 13-17, Balkema Press.
ANGIOLINI L. (2001) - Permian Brachiopods from Karakorum (Paki-
stan). Part 3. Riv. It. Paleont. Strat., 107(3), 307-344.
ANGIOLINI L., BRUNTON H. & GAETANI M. (2005) - Early Permian
(Asselian) brachiopods from Karakorum (Pakistan) and their pa-
laeobiogeographical significance. Palaeontology, 48(1), 1-18.
ANGIOLINI L., BRUNTON H. & ZANCHI A. (1999) - Late Carboniferous
Brachiopods from Karakoram, Pakistan. Riv. It. Paleont. Strat.,
105, 3-22.
ANGIOLINI L., GAETANI M., MUTTONI G., STEPHENSON M.H. & ZAN-
CHI A. (2007) - Tethyan oceanic currents and climate gradients
300 m.y. ago. Geology, 35(12), 1071-1074.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 243
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
ANGIOLINI L. & RETTORI R. (1994) - Chitralina undulata gen.n., sp.n.
(Foraminiferida) from the Late Permian of Karakorum (Pakistan).
Riv. It. Paleont. Strat., 100(4), 477-492.
AUDEN J.B. (1938) - Geological Results. In: SHIPTON E. (ed.), The
Shaksgam Expedition, 1937. Geograph. Journ., 91, 335-336.
BARD J.-P. (1983) - Metamorphism of an obducted island arc: Exam-
ple of the Kohistan sequence (Pakistan) in the Himalayan collided
range. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 65, 133-144.
BROOKFIELD M.E. & REYNOLDS P.H. (1981) - Late Cretaceous empla-
cement of the Indus suture zone ophiolitic mélange and an Eocene-
Oligocene magmatic arc on the northern edge of the Indian plate.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 55, 157-162.
BUCHROITHNER M.F. (1978) - Zur Geologie des Afghanischen Pamir.
In: DE GRANCHY R.S. & KOSTKA R. (eds.), Grosses Pamir,
85-118, Akad. Druck, Graz.
BUCHROITHNER M.F. (1980) - An outline of the geology of the Afghan
Pamirs. Tectonophysics, 62, 13-35.
BUCHROITHNER M. & GAMERITH H. (1978) - Pamir-e-Wakhan, Dardi-
stan. Geological map of Selsela Koh-e-Wakhan (Pamir-E Wakhan)
and parts of High Hindu Kush, Hindu Raj and Western Karako-
ram, 1:250:000. Wien Freytag-Berndt u. Artaria K.G.
BUCHROITHNER M.F. & GAMERITH H. (1986) - On the geology of the
Tirich Mir area, central Hindu Kush, Pakistan. Jahrbuch Geolo-
gisches Bundesanstalt, 128, 367-381.
BUCHROITNER M.F. & SCHARBERT S.M. (1979) - Geochronological
data from the Great Afghan Pamir and the Eastern Hindu Kush.
N. Jb. Geol. Palaont., Mh., 449-456.
BURCHFIEL B.C., CHEN Z., HODGES K.V., LIU Y., ROYDEN L.H.,
DENG C. & XU J. (1992) - The south Tibetan detachment system,
Hinalayan orogen: extension contemporaneous with and parallel
to shortening in a collisional mountain belt. Geological Society
of America Special Paper, 269.
BURG J.-P., BODINIER J.-L., CHAUDHRY M.N., HUSSAIN S. & DAWOOD H.
(1998) - Infra-arc mantle-crust transition and intra-arc mantle
diapirs in the Kohistan Complex (Pakistani Himalaya): petro-
structural evidence. Terra Nova, 10(2), 74-80.
BURG J.P., CHAUDHRY M.N., GHAZANAFAR M., ANCKIEWICZ R. &
SPENCER D. (1996) - Structural evidence for back sliding of the
Kohistan arc in the collisional system of northwest Pakistan. Geo-
logy, 24(8), 739-742.
BURTMAN V.S. & MOLNAR P. (1993) - Geological and Geophysical
Evidence for Deep Subduction of Continental Crust Beneath the
Pamir. Geological Society of America, Special Paper, 281, 76 pp.
CASNEDI R. (1975) - Geological reconnaissance in the Yasin valley
(NW Pakistan). Rend. Acc. Naz. Lincei, 59, 792-799.
CASNEDI R., DESIO A., FORCELLA F., NICOLETTI M. & PETRUCCIANI C.
(1978) - Absolute age of some granitoid rocks between Hindu Raj
and Gilgit River (Western Karakorum). Rend. Acc. Naz. Lincei,
64, 204-210.
CASNEDI R. & NICORA A. (1985) - Short notes on the Shimshal valley
geology (Western Karakorum Pakistan). Riv. It. Paleont. Strat.,
90 (1984), 463-480.
CITA M.B. & RUSCELLI M.A. (1959) - Cretaceous microfacies from
Western Pakistan and Afghanistan. Riv. It. Paleont. Strat., 65,
231-252.
CONEY P.J. (1989) - Structural aspects of suspect terranes and accre-
tionary tectonics in western North America. Journal of Structural
Geology, 11, 107-125.
COWARD M.P., BUTLER R.W.H., KHAN M.A. & KNIPE R.J. (1987) -
The tectonic history of Kohistan and its implications for Hima-
layan structure. Journal of the Geological Society of London
144, 377-391.
CRAWFORD M.B. & SEARLE M.P. (1992) - Field relationships and geo-
chemistry of pre-collisional (India-Asia) granitoid magmatism in
the central Karakoram. Tectonophysics, 206, 171-192.
DEBON F. (1995) - Incipient India-Eurasia collision and plutonism:
the Lower Cenozoic Batura granites (Hunza Karakoram, North
Pakistan). Journal of Geological Society of London, 152, 785-795.
DEBON F., AFZALI H., LE FORT P. & SONET J. (1987a) - Major intrusi-
ve stages in Afghanistan: typology, age and geodynamic setting.
Geologische Rundschau, 76, 245-264.
243
DEBON F. & KHAN N.A. (1996) - Alkaline orogenic plutonism in the
Karakoram Batholith: the Upper Cretaceous Koz Sar Complex
(Karambar valley, N. Pakistan). Geodinamica Acta, 9, 145-160.
DEBON F., LE FORT P., DAUTEL D., SONET J. & ZIMMERMANN J.L.
(1987b) - Granites of western Karakoram and northern Kohistan
(Pakistan): A composite mid-Cretaceous to Upper Cenozoic mag-
matism. Lithos, 20, 19-40.
DEBON F., ZIMMERMANN J-L. & LE FORT P. (1996) - Upper Hunza
granites (North Karakoram, Pakistan); a syn-collision bimodal
plutonism of Mid-Cretaceous age. Comptes Rendu de l’Academie
des Sciences Paris, II, 323(5), 381-388.
DERBYSHIRE E. (1996) - Quaternary glacial sediments, glaciation sty-
les, climate and uplift in the Karakoram and northwestern Hima-
laya: Review and speculation. Palaeogeography, Palaeobiogeo-
graphy, Palaeoecology, 120, 147-157.
DERBYSHIRE E., LI JIJUN, PERROTT F.A., XU SHUYING & WATERS R.S.
(1984) - Quaternary glacial history of the Hunza Valley, Karako-
ram Mountains, Pakistan. In: MILLER K. (ed.), International Ka-
rakoram Project: Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press,
456-495.
DERBYSHIRE E. & OWEN L.A. (1997) - Quaternary glacial history of
the Karakoram Mountains and northwest Himalayas: A review.
Quaternary International, 38(39), 85-102.
DESIO A. (1959) - Cretaceous beds between Karakorum and Hindu
Kush ranges (central Asia). Riv. Ital. Paleont. Strat., 65, 221-229.
DESIO A. (1963) - Review of the geologic «formations» of the western
Karakoram (Central Asia). Riv. Ital. Paleont. Strat., 69, 475-501.
DESIO A. (1964a) - Geological tentative Map of the Western Karako-
rum, Scale 1:500,00. Inst. Geologia Univ. Milano.
DESIO A. (1964b) - On the geological age of some granites of the Ka-
rakorum, Hindu Kush and Badakhshan (central Asia). Interna-
tional Geological Congress, 22nd, Delhi, Proceedings, Part 11,
Section 11, 479-496.
DESIO A. (1966) - The Devonian sequence in Mastuj valley (Chitral,
north West Pakistan). Riv. Ital. Paleont. Strat., 72, 293-320.
DESIO A., GUJ P. & PASQUARÈ G. (1968) - Notes on the geology of
Wakhan (North-East Afghanistan). Rend. Accad. Naz. Lincei, 8,
9/2, 37-52.
DESIO A. & MARTINA E. (1972) - Geology of the Upper Hunza valley
(Karakorum W. Pakistan). Boll. Soc. Geol. It., 91, 283-314.
DESIO A., TONGIORGI E. & FERRARA G. (1964) - On the geological age
of some granites of the Karakorum, Hindu Kush and Badakshan
(Central Asia). Proc. 22nd Int. Geol. Congress, 11, 479-496.
DESIO A. & ZANETTIN B. (1970) - Geology of the Baltoro basin. In:
A. DESIO, Italian Expeditions to the Karakorum (K2) and Hindu
Kush. Scientific Reports, Geology-Petrography, 3(2), 308 pp.
Brill, Leiden.
DICKINSON W.R. (1970) - Interpreting detrital modes of graywackes
and arkose. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 40(2), 695-707.
DONNELLY L.J. (2004) - Geological investigations at high altitude, re-
mote coal mine in Northwest Pakistan and Afghanistan frontier,
Karakoram Himalaya. Coal Geology, 60, 117-150.
DRAGANITS E., MAWSON R., TALENT J.A. & KRYSTYN L. (2002) -
Lithostratigraphy, conodont biostratigraphy and depositional en-
vironment of the Middle Devonian (Givetian) to Early Carbonife-
rous (Tournaisian) Lipak Formation in the Pin valley of Spiti
(NW India). Riv. It. Paleont. Strat., 108, 7-35.
DRONOV V.L. (1986) - Stratigraphy of the Jurassic and older volcano-
genic sedimentary sequence in the Bashgumbez, Irikyak, Se-
dekand,Tashdzilga river basins (Southeastern Pamir) (In Rus-
sian). Doklady Akademi Nauk Tadjik SSR, 29, 549-553.
FIELDING C.R., TRACY D.F. ISBELL J.L. (2008) - The late Paleozoic ice
age - a review of current understanding and synthesis of global cli-
mate patterns. In: FIELDING C.R., TRACY D.F. ISBELL J.L. (eds.),
Resolving the late Paleozoic ice age in time and space. Geol. Soc.
Am. Special Paper, 441, 343-354.
FLÜGEL H. (1995) - Aphyllum n.sp. (Rugosa) aus der Gircha-Forma-
tion (?) der pakistanischen Karakorum. Neues Jahrbuch für Geo-
logie und Paläontologie, Monatshefte, 1995(3), 166-172.
FLÜGEL H. & GAETANI M. (1991) - Permian Rugosa from Hunza and
Shaksgam valleys (Karakorum and Aghil Ranges). Riv. It. Pa-
leont. Strat., 97, 35-48.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 244
244 A. ZANCHI
FRASER J.E., SEARLE M.P., PARRISH R.R. & NOBLE S.R. (2001) -
Chronology of deformation, metamorphism, and magmatism in
the southern Karakoram Mountains. Geological Society of Ame-
rica Bulletin, 113, 1443-1455.
GAETANI M. (1967) - Some Devonian Brachiopods from Chitral (NW
Pakistan). Riv. It. Paleont. Strat., 73, 3-22.
GAETANI M. (1997) - The Karakorum Block in Central Asia, from Or-
dovician to Cretaceous. Sedimentary Geology, 109, 339-359.
GAETANI M. (1998) - The Karakorum Block in the Cimmerian Fra-
mework. Himalayan Geology, 18, 33-47.
GAETANI M. (2009) - The geology of the Northern Karakorum: state of
art. Rend. Ist. Lombardo Sc. Lett., 141, 41-72.
GAETANI M., ANGIOLINI L., GARZANTI E., JADOUL F., LEVEN E.Y.,
NICORA A. & SCIUNNACH D. (1995) - Permian stratigraphy in the
Northern Karakorum, Pakistan. Riv. It. Paleont. Strat., 101(2),
112-158.
GAETANI M., BURG J.P., ZANCHI A. & JAN Q.M. (2004a) - A Geologi-
cal Transect from the Indian Plate to the E Hindu Kush,
Pakistan. Prestige Fieldtrip Field GuideBook 32 IGC - Florence.
56 pp.
GAETANI M., GARZANTI E., JADOUL F., NICORA A., PASINI M., TINTO-
RI A. & KANWAR S.A.K. (1990a) - The north Karakorum side of
the Central Asia geopuzzle. Geol. Soc. America Bull., 102, 54-62.
GAETANI M., JADOUL F., ERBA E. & GARZANTI E. (1993) - Jurassic
and Cretaceous orogenic events in the North Karakorum: age con-
straints from sedimentary rocks. In: TRELOAR P. & SEARLE M.
(eds.), Himalayan Tectonics. Geol. Soc. London Special Publica-
tion, 74, 39-52.
GAETANI M., LE FORT P., TANOLI S., ANGIOLINI L., NICORA A.,
SCIUNNACH D. & KHAN A. (1996) - Reconnaissance geology in
Chitral, Baroghil and Karambar districts (N Pakistan). Geol.
Rundschau, 85, 683-704.
GAETANI M. & LEVEN E. YA. (1993) - Permian stratigraphy and fusuli-
nids from Rosh Gol (Chitral, E Hindu Kush). Riv. It. Paleont.
Strat., 99(3), 307-326.
GAETANI M., MAWSON R., SCIUNNACH D. & TALENT J.A. (2008) - The
Devonian of Western Karakorum (Pakistan). Acta Geologica Po-
lonica, 58(3), 261-287.
GAETANI M., POGNANTE U. & GOSSO G. (1990b) - A geological tran-
sect from Kun Lun to Karakorum (Sinkiang, China). The western
termination of the Tibetan Plateau. Preliminary note. Terra Nova,
2, 23-30.
GAETANI M., POGNANTE U. & GOSSO G. (1991) - Geological Report.
In: DESIO et alii (eds.), The Ev-K2 CNR Expedition to the
southern Sinkiang (Kun Lun) and the Shaksgam Valley. It. Exped.
Kun Lun Karakorum, 99-190, Ed. Ev-K2 CNR, Milano.
GAETANI M., ZANCHI A., ANGIOLINI L., OLIVINI G., SCIUNNACH D.,
BRUNTON H., NICORA A. & MAWSON R. (2004b) - The Carbonife-
rous of the Western Karakorum (Pakistan). Journal of Asian
Earth Science, 23(2), 275-305.
GAMERITH H. (1982) - Geologische Karte von Gilgit/Chitral/Whakhan
(North Pakistan und Ost Afghanistan) 1.250.000. Private Edition,
Graz.
GARZANTI E. (2011) - How many colours have those black rock moun-
tains?. Italian Journal of Geosciences, 130, 145-146.
GOLONKA J. (2002) - Plate-tectonic maps of the Phanerozoic. In:
W. KIESSLING, E. FLÜGEL & J. GOLONKA (eds.), Phanerozoic reef
patterns. SEPM Spec. Publ., 72, 21-75.
GRADSTEIN F.M., OGG J.G., SMITH A.G., AGTERBERG F.P., BLEEKER W.,
COOPER R.A., DAVYDOV V., GIBBARD P., HINNOV L., HOUSE M.R.,
LOURENS L., LUTERBACHER H-P., MCARTHUR J., MELCHIN M.J.,
ROBB L.J., SHERGOLD J., VILLENEUVE M., WARDLAW B.R.,
ALI J., BRINKHUIS H., HILGEN F.J., HOOKER J., HOWARTH R.J.,
KNOLL A.H.; LASKAR J., MONECHI S., POWELL J., PLUMB K.A.,
RAFFI I., ROEHL U., SANFILIPPO A., SCHMITZ B., SCHACKLETON N.J.,
SHIELDS G.A., STRAUS H., VAN DAM J., VEIZER J., VAN KOLF-
SHOFEN TH. & WILSON D. (2004) - A Geological Time Scale 2004.
1-589, Cambridge University Press.
HACKER B., RATSCHBACHER L., STEAMS M., MCGRAW J., STÜBNE K.,
KYLANDER CLARK A., PFÄNDER A., WEISE C., MINSEV V., GA-
DOEV M., OIMAHMADOC I. & the TIPAGE Team (2011) - Wide-
spread, Synchronous, Large-Magnitude Exhumation of the Deep
Pamir. Geophysical Research Abstracts, 13, EGU2011-8489.
& M. GAETANI
HANSON C.R. (1989) - The northern suture in the Shigar valley, Balti-
stan, northern Pakistan. Geological Society of America, Spec.
Pap., 232, 203-215.
HAQ B.U. &. SCHUTTER S.R. (2008) - A Chronology of Paleozoic Sea-
Level Changes. Science, 322, 03/10/, 64-68.
HAYDEN H.H. (1915) - Notes on the geology of Chitral, Gilgit and the
Pamirs. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, 45, 271-320.
HEUBERGER S. (Ed.) (2004) - The Karakoram-Kohistan Suture Zone
in NW Pakistan-Hindu Kush Mountain Range. Geological map
and explanatory notes. vdf Hochschulverlag AG, Zürich, 99 pp.
HEUBERGER S., CELERIER B., BURG J.-P., CHAUDRY N.M., DAWOOD H.
& HUSSAIN S. (2010) - Paleostress regimes from brittle faults of
the Karakoram-Kohistan Suture Zone and surrounding areas.
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 38, 307-335.
HEUBERGER S., SCHALTEGGER U., BURG J.P., VILLA I.M., FRANK M.,
DAWOOD H., HUSSAIN S. & ZANCHI A. (2007) - Age and isotopic
constraints on magmatism along the Karakoram-Kohistan Suture
Zone, NW Pakistan: Evidence for subduction and continued con-
vergence after India-Asia collision. Swiss Journal of Geosciences,
doi: 10.1007/s00015-007-1203-7, 100, 85-107.
HEWITT K. (1999) - Quaternary moraines versus catastrophic rock
avalanches in the Karakoram Himalaya, Northern Pakistan. Qua-
ternary Research, 51, 220-237.
HILDEBRAND P.R., NOBLE S.R., SEARLE M.P., PARRISH R.R. & SHAKI-
RULLAH T. (1998) - Tectonic significance of 24 Ma crustal melting
in the eastern Hindu Kush, Pakistan. Geology, 26, 871-874.
HILDEBRAND P.R., SEARLE M.P., SHAKIRUALLAH KHAN Z. &
VAN HEST H.J. (2000) - Geological evolution of the Hindu Kush,
NW Frontier, Pakistan: active margin to continent-continent colli-
sion. In: KHAN M.A., TRELOAR P.J., SEARLE M.P. & JAN M.Q.
(eds.), Tectonics of the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis and the Western
Himalaya. Geological Society, London, Special Publications,
170, 277-293.
HILDEBRAND P.R., NOBLE S.R., SEARLE M.P., WATERS D.J. &
PARRISH R.R. (2001) - Old origin for an active mountain range:
Geology and geochronology of the eastern Hindu Kush, Pakistan.
Geological Society of America Bulletin, 113, 625-639.
HUBMANN B. & GAETANI M. (2007) - Devonian tabulate corals, calca-
reous algae, and bioclaustrations from he Karakorum Mountains
(Northern Pakistan). Riv. It. Paleont. Strat., 113(3), 307-328.
HUZITA K. (1965) - Geological research in the Gilgit-Ishkuman-Yasin
Areas. In: MATSUSHITA S. & HUZITA K. (eds.), Geology of the Ka-
rakoram and Hindu Kush. Results of the Kyoto University Scien-
tific Expedition to Karakoram and Hindu Kush, 7, 7-36.
ISBELL J.L., MILLER M.F., WOLFE K.L. & LENAKER P.A. (2003) - Ti-
ming of late Paleozoic glaciation in Gondwana: Was the glacia-
tion responsible for the development of northern hemisphere
cyclothems? Geological Society of America, Special Paper,
370, 5-24.
ITURRIZAGA L. (2008) - Paraglacial landform assemblages in the Hin-
dukush and Karakoram Mountains. Geomorphology, 95, 27-47.
IVANAC J.F., TRAVES D.M. & KING D. (1956) - The geology of the
north-west portion of the Gilgit Agency. Records of the Geologi-
cal Survey of Pakistan, 7(2), 3-27.
KAFARSKIY A. KH. & ABDULLAH J. (1976) - Tectonics of the North-
East Afghanistan (Badakhshan, Wakhan, Nurestan) and rela-
tionship with the adjacent territories. Atti Convegni Lincei, 21,
87-113.
KAFARSKIY A. KH., AVERIANOV V.B. & BUREL M.P. (1974) - Geologi-
cheskoe stroenhe i polesnie iskopaemie Afghanskogo Pamira. 133
pp., Unpublished Report, Kabul (copy with the authors).
KAZMI A.H. & ABBASI I. (2008) - Stratigraphy and Historical Geology
of Pakistan. 524 pp., National Centre of Excellence in Geology,
Peshawar.
KAZMI A.H. & JAN Q.M. (1997) - Geology and tectonics of Pakistan.
544 pp., Graphic Publ., Karachi.
KHAN S.D., WALTER D.J., HALL S.A., BURKE K.C., SHAH M.T. &
STOCKLI L. (2009) - Did the Kohistan-Ladakh arc collide first with
India? Geological Society of America Bulletin, 121, 366-384.
KLOOTWIJK C.T. & CONAGHAN P.J. (1979) - The extent of greater In-
dia. 1. Preliminary palaeomagnetic data from the Upper Devonian
of the eastern Hindukush, Chitral (Pakistan). Earth Planetary
Sci. Letters, 42, 167-182.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 245
THE GEOLOGY OF THE KARAKORAM RANGE, PAKISTAN
LEAKE R.C., FLETCHER C.J.N., HASLAM H.W., KHAN B. & SAHAKIRU-
LAH (1989) - Origin and tectonic setting of stratabound tungsten
mineralization within the Hindu Kush of Pakistan, Journ. Geol.
Soc. London, 146, 1003-1016.
LE FORT P. & GAETANI M. (1998) - Introduction to the geological map
of the western Central Karakorum, North Pakistan. Hindu Raj,
Ghamubar and Darkot regions. 1:250,000. Geologica, 3, 3-57.
Geological Survey Pakistan, Islamabad.
LE FORT P., MICHARD A., SONET J. & ZIMMERMANN J.L. (1983) - Pe-
trogrraphy, geochemistry and geochronology of some samples from
Karakoram axial batholith (northern Pakistan). In: SHAMS F.A.
(ed.), Granites of Himalayas, Karakoram and Hindu Kush. Inst.
Geol. Punjab Univ. Lahore, Pakistan, 377-387.
LE FORT P. & PECHER A. (2002) - An Introduction to the geological Map
of the Area between Hunza and Baltistan, Karakorum-Kohistan-
Ladakh-Himalaya Region, Northern Pakistan (Scale 1:150,000).
Geologica, 6(1), 1-140.
LE FORT P., TONGIORGI M. & GAETANI M. (1994) - Discovery of a
crystalline basement and an Early Ordovician marine transgres-
sion in the Karakorum mountain range, Pakistan. Geology, 22,
941-944.
LEMMENICIER Y., LE FORT P., LOMBARDO B., PECHER A. & ROLFO A.
(1996) - Tectonometamorphic evolution of the central Karakorum
(Baltistan, northem Pakistan). Tectonophysics, 260, 119-143.
LEVEN E. JA. (1967) - Stratigrafiya i fusulinidyi Permskich Otlozhenii
Pamira. Ak. Nauk SSSR, Geol. Inst., Trudyi, 167, 216 pp. (In
Russian).
LEVEN E. JA. (1995) - Permian and Triassic of the Rushan-Pshart
Zone (Pamir). Riv. It. Paleont. Strat., 101, 3-16.
LEVEN E. JA., GAETANI M. & SCHROEDER S. (2007) - New findings of
Permian fusulinids and corals from Western Karakorum and E
Hindu Kush (Pakistan). Riv. Ital. Paleont. Strat., 113, 151-166.
MASON K. (1938) - Karakoram nomenclature. Himalayan Journal, 10,
86-125.
MCMAHON C.A. (1900) - Notes on the geology of Gilgit. Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc. London, 56, 337-369.
METCALFE I. (1999) - Gondwana dispersion and Asian accretion: an
overview. In: I. METCALFE (ed.), Gondwana dispersion and Asian
accretion, 9-28. Balkema A.A., Rotterdam.
MOLNAR P. & TAPPONNIER P. (1975) - Cenozoic tectonics of Asia: ef-
fects of a continental collision. Science, 189, 419-426.
MUTTONI G., GAETANI M., KENT D.V., SCIUNNACH D., ANGIOLINI L.,
BERRA F., GARZANTI M., MATTEI M. & ZANCHI A. (2009) - Ope-
ning of the Neo-Tethys Ocean and the Pangea B to Pangea A tran-
sformation during the Permian. GeoArabia, 14(4), 17-48.
OWEN L.A., FINKEL R.C., CAFFEE M.W. & GUALTIERI L. (2002) - Ti-
ming of multiple late Quaternary glaciations in the Hunza Valley,
Karakoram Mountains, northern Pakistan: Defined by cosmoge-
nic radionuclide dating of moraines. Geological Society of Ame-
rica Bulletin, 114, 593-604.
PARRISH R.R. & TIRRUL R. (1989) - U-Pb age of the Baltoro granite,
northwest Himalaya, and implications for zircon inheritance and
monazite U-Pb systematics. Geology, 17, 1076-1079.
PASCOE E.H. (1924) - General report for 1923. Records of the Geolo-
gical Survey of India, 56, 43-48.
PASHKOV B.R. & BUDANOV V.I. (1990) - Tectonics of the SW-SE Pa-
mir Junction. Geotectonics, 24, 246-253.
PERRI M.C., MOLLOY P.D. & TALENT J.A. (2004) - Earliest Triassic co-
nodonts from Chitral, northernmost Pakistan. Riv. It. Paleont.
Strat., 110, 467-478.
PETTERSON M.G. & WINDLEY B.F. (1985) - Rb-Sr dating of the Kohi-
stan arc-batholith in the Trans-Himalaya of north Pakistan, and
tectonic implications. Earth and Planetary Science Letters,
74(1), 45-57.
POGNANTE U. (1990) - Shoshonitic and ultra-potassic post-collisional
dykes from Northern Karakorum (Sinkiang, China). Lithos, 26,
305-316.
PUDSEY C.J. (1986). The Northern Suture, Pakistan: margin of a Creta-
ceous island arc. Geological Magazine, 123(4), 405-423.
PUDSEY C.J., COWARD M.P., LUFF I.W., SHACKLETON B.F., WIND-
LEY B.F. & JAN M.Q. (1985) - Collision zone between the Kohi-
stan arc and the Asian plate in NW Pakistan. Transactions Royal
Society Edinburgh, 76, 463-479.
245
PUDSEY C.J. & GUPTA V.J. (1985) - Stratigraphic position of the Dar-
band Formation, Kohistan, Northern Pakistan. Research Bulletin
(Science) Panjab University, 36, 57-60.
PUDSEY C.J., SCHROEDER R. & SKELTON P.W. (1986) - Cretaceous
(Aptian/Albian) Age for the Island-Arc Volcanics, Kohistan, N
Pakistan. Contrubitions to Himalayan Geology, 3, 150-168.
QUINTAVALLE M., TONGIORGI M. & GAETANI M. (2000) - Lower to
Middle Ordovician acritarchs and chitinozoans from Northern
Karakorum Mountains, Pakistan. Riv. Ital. Paleont. Strat.,
106(1), 3-18.
REED F.R.C. (1911) - Devonian fossils from Chitral, Persia, Afghani-
stan and the Himalayas. Geol. Surv. India, Rec. 41(2), 86-114.
REED F.R.C. (1922) - Devonian fossils from Chtral and the Pamirs.
Geol. Surv. India, Mem., Paleont. Indica, N.S., 6 (Mem. 2), 134
pp., 6 pls.
REED F.R.C. (1925) - Upper Carboniferous fossils from Chitral and the
Pamirs. Palaeontol. Indica, N.S., 6(4), 1-134.
REX A.J., SEARLE M.P., TIRRUL R., CRAWFORD M.B., PRIOR D.J.,
REX D.C. & BARNICOAT A. (1988) - The geochemical and tecto-
nic evolution of the central Karakoram, north Pakistan. Philo-
sophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, A326,
229-255.
ROBERTSON A.H.F. & COLLINS A.S. (2002) - Shyok Suture Zone, N
Pakistan: late Mesozoic-Tertiary evolution of a critical suture se-
parating the oceanic Ladakh Arc from the Asian continental mar-
gin. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 20(3), 309-351.
ROGER F., JOLIVET M. & MALAVIELLE J. (2010) - The tectonic evolu-
tion of the Songpan- Garze (North Tibet) and adjacent areas from
Proterozoic to Present. Journ. Asian Earth Sciences, 39, 254-269.
SARTENAER P. (1965) - Rhynchonelloidea de Shogran (sic) et Kuragh
(Chitral). In: A. DESIO, Italian Expeditions to the Karakorum
(K2) and Hindu Kush. Scientific Reports, IV Paleontology, Zoo-
logy, Botany, 1, 55-66, Brill, Leiden.
SCHOUPPÉ A. VON (1965) - Die mittel- und oberdevonsiche Korallen-
fauna von Kuragh (Chitral). In: A. DESIO, Italian Expeditions to
the Karakorum (K2) and Hindu Kush. Scientific Reports, IV Pa-
leontology, Zoology, Botany, 1, 13-53, Brill, Leiden.
SCHRÖDER S. (2004) - Devonian Rugose Corals from the Karakorum
Mountains (Northern Pakistan). Riv. Ital. Paleont. Strat., 110(3),
605-641.
SCHWAB M., RATSCHBACHER L., SIEBEL W., MCWILLIAMS M.,
MINAEV V., LUTKOV V., CHEN F., STANEK K., NELSON B.,
FRISCH W. & WOODEN J.L. (2004) - Assembly of the Pamirs: Age
and origin of magmatic belts from the southern Tien Shan to the
southern Pamirs and their relation to Tibet. Tectonics, 23,
TC4002, doi: 10.1029/2003TC001583.
SCHETTINO A. & SCOTESE C.R. (2005) - Apparent polar wander paths
for the major continents (200 Ma to the present day): a palaeoma-
gnetic reference frame for global plate tectonic reconstructions.
Geophys. J. Int., 163, 727-759. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2005.
02638.x
SEARLE M.P. (1991) - Geology and Tectonics of the Karakoram Moun-
tains. 358 pp., Wiley and Son.
SEARLE M.P. (2011) - Geological evolution of the Karakoram Ranges.
Italian Journal of Geoscience, 130, 147-159.
SEARLE M.P & KHAN A.M. (1996) - Geological map of the north Paki-
stan and adjacent areas of northern Ladakh and western Tibet,
Scale 1:650,000. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
SEARLE M.P., KHAN A.M., FRASER J.E. & GOUGH S.J. (1999) - The
tectonic evolution of the Kohistan-Karakoram collision belt along
the Karakoram Highway transect, north Pakistan. Tectonics
18(6), 929-949.
SEARLE M.P., PARRISH R.R., TOW A.V., NOBLE S.R., PHILLIPS R.J. &
WATERS D.J. (2010) - Anatomy, age and evolution of a collisional
mountain belt: the Baltoro granite batholith and Karakoram Me-
tamorphic Complex, Pakistani Karakoram. Journal Geological
Soc. London, 167, 183-202.
SEARLE M.P., REX A.J., TIRRUL R., REX D.C. & BARNICOAT A. (1989) -
Metamorphic, magmatic and tectonic evolution of the central
Karakoram in the Biafo-Baltoro-Hushe regions of N. Pakistan.
In: MALINCONICO L. & LILLIE R.J. (eds.), Tectonics of the We-
stern Himalaya. Geological Society of America, Special Paper,
232, 47-74.
03a ZANCHI txt ok 161-246_GEOLOGIA 29/07/11 09.29 Pagina 246
246 A. ZANCHI
SEARLE M.P. & TIRRUL R. (1991) - Structural and thermal evolution
of the Karakoram crust. Journal Geological Society, London,
148, 65-82.
SEARLE M.P. & TRELOAR P.J. (2010) - Was Late Cretaceous-Paleocene
obduction of ophiolite complexes the primary cause of crustal
thickening and regional metamorphism in the Pakistan Hima-
laya? Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 338,
345-359, doi: 10.1144/SP338.16.
SHVOL’MAN V.A. (1980) - A Mesozoic ophiolitic complex in the Pamir
(in Russian): Geotektonika, 6, 72-82. Geotectonics, 13(6), 447-456.
STEPHENSON M.H., ANGIOLINI L. & LENG M.H. (2007) - The Early
Permian fossil record of Gondwana and its relationship to degla-
ciation: a review. In: M. WILLIAMS, A.M. HAYWOOD, F.J. GRE-
GORY & D.N. SCHMIDT (eds.), Deep-Time Perspectives on Climate
Change: Marrying the Signal from Computer Models and Biologi-
cal Proxies. The Micropalaeontological Society, Special Publica-
tions. The Geological Society, London, 103-122.
STAUFFER K.W. (1975) - Reconnaissance geology of the central Mastuj
valley, Chitral State, West Pakistan. United States Geological
Survey Open file Report, no. 75-556, 51 pp.
STÜBNER K., RATSCHBACHER L., WEISE C., PFÄNDER J., GLOAGUEN R.,
HACKER B., DUNKL I., JONCKHEERE R., STANEK K. & MINAEV V.
(2011) - Miocene gneiss domes and syn-orogenic extension in the
Pamir. Geophysical Research Abstracts, 13, EGU2011-9992.
TAHIRKHELI R.A.K. (1982) - Geology of the Himalaya, Karakorum and
Hindukush in Pakistan. Geological Bull. University of Peshawar,
15, 51 pp.
TAHIRKHELI R.A.K., MATTAUER M., PROUST F. & TAPPONNIER P.
(1979) - The India Eurasia Suture Zone in Northern Pakistan:
Synthesis and interpretation of recent data at plate scale. In: FA-
RAH A. & DE JONG K.A. (eds.), Geodynamics of Pakistan. Geolo-
gical Survey of Pakistan, Quetta, 125-130.
TALENT J.A., CONAGHAN P.J., MAWSON R., MOLLOY P.D. &
PICKETT J.W. (1982) - Intricay of tectonics in Chitral (Hindu
Kush). Faunal evidence and some regional implications. Hima-
layan Seminar (1976), section IIA, Geological Survey of India,
Miscellaneous Publications, 41, 77-101.
TALENT J.A., GAETANI M., MAWSON R., MOLLOY P.D. & CONAGHAN P.J.
(1999) - Early Ordovician and Devonian conodonts from the
Western Karakorum and Hindu Kush, northwestern Pakistan.
Riv. It. Paleont. Strat., 105(2), 201-230.
TALENT J.A. & MAWSON R. (1979) - Palaeozoic-Mesozoic Biostrati-
graphy of Pakistan in Relation to Biogeography and the Coale-
scence of Asia. In: FARAH A. & DE JONG K.A. (eds.), Geodyna-
mics of Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Quetta, 81-102.
TAPPONNIER P., MATTAUER M., PROUST F. & CASSAIGNEAU C.
(1981) - Mesozoic ophiolites, sutures and large-scale tectonic
movements in Afghanistan. Earth and Planetary Science Let-
ters, 52, 355-371.
TAPPONNIER P., PELTZER G. & ARMIJO R. (1986) - On the mechanics
of the collision between India and Asia. In: COWARD M.P. &
RIES A.C. (eds.), Collision Tectonics. Geological Society, Lon-
don, Special Publications, 19,115-157.
Manuscript received 8 April 2011; accepted 17 June 2011; editorial responsability and handling by S. Conticelli.
& M. GAETANI
TONGIORGI M., DI MILIA A., LE FORT P. & GAETANI M. (1994) - Paly-
nological dating (Arenig) of the sedimentary sequence overlying
the Ishkarwaz Granite (Upper Yarkhun valley, Chitral, Pakistan).
Terra Nova, 6, 595-607.
TONGIORGI M., YIN L.M. & DI MILIA A. (1995) - Arenigian acritarchs
form the Daping Section (Yangtze Gorges area, Hubei province,
Southern China) nd their palaeogeographic seignificance. Rev. Pa-
laebot. Palynol., 86, 13-48.
TRELOAR P.J., PETTERSON M.G., JAN M.Q. & SULLIVAN M.A. (1996) -
A re-evaluation of the stratigraphy and evolution of the Kohistan
arc sequence, Pakistan Himalaya: implications for magmatic and
tectonic arc-building processes. Journal of the Geological So-
ciety, London, 153, 681-693.
VANDERCAMMEN A. (1965) - Les Spiriferidae de Shogram et Kuragh
(Chitral). In: A. DESIO: Italian Expeditions to the Karakorum
(K2) and Hindu Kush. Scientific Reports, IV Paleontology, Zoo-
logy, Botany, 1, 67-75. Brill, Leiden.
VILLA I., LEMMENICIER Y. & LE FORT P. (1996) - Late Miocene to
Early Pliocene tectonometamorphism and cooling in south-cen-
tral Karakoram and Indus-Tsangpo suture, Chogo Lungma area
(NE Pakistan). Tectonophysics, 260, 201-214.
VLASOV N.G., YU. A. DYAKOV & CHEREV E.S. (eds.) (1991) - Geologi-
cal map of the Tajik SSR and adjacent territories, 1:500,000, VSE-
GEI (Vsesojuznoi Geol. Inst.), Leningrad, Saint Petersburg.
YOSHIDA M., ZAMAN H. & AHMAD M.N. (1996) - Paleopositions of
Kohistan Arc and surrounding terranes since Cretaceous time: the
paleomagnetic constraints. Proceedings of Geoscience Collo-
quium, Geoscience Laboratory Project, Islamabad, Pakistan, 15,
83-101.
ZANCHI A. (1993) - Structural evolution of the North Karakorum co-
ver, North Pakistan. In: TRELOAR P.J. & SEARLE M.P. (eds.), Hi-
malayan Tectonics. Geological Society of London, Special Publi-
cation, 74, 21-38.
ZANCHI A. & GAETANI M. (1994) - Introduction to the Geological map
of the Northern Karakoram Terrain, from Chapursan valley to
Shimshal Pass. Riv. It. Paleont. Strat., 100(1), 125-136.
ZANCHI A., GAETANI M. & POLI S. (1997) - The Rich Gol Metamorphic
Complex: evidence of separation between Hindu Kush and Ka-
rakoram. Comptes Rendues de l’Academie des Sciences Paris,
IIa, 325, 877-882.
ZANCHI A. & GRITTI D. (1996) - Multistage tectonic evolution of Hun-
za Karakorum (Pakistan). Tectonophysics, 260, 145-165.
ZANCHI A., POLI S., FUMAGALLI P. & GAETANI M. (2000) - Mantle
exhumation along the Tirich Mir Fault Zone, NW Pakistan: pre
mid-Cretaceous accretion of the Karakoram terrane to the Asian
margin. In: KHAN M.A., TRELOAR P.J., SEARLE M.P. & JAN M.Q.
(eds.), Tectonics of the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis and the Western
Himalayas. Geological Society of London, Special. Publication,
170, 237-252.
ZANCHI A., ZANCHETTA S., BERRA F., MATTEI M., GARZANTI E.,
MOLYNEUX S., NAWAB A. & SABOURI J. (2009) - The Eo-Cimme-
rian (Late? Triassic) orogeny in north Iran. Geological Society,
London, Special Publications, 312, 31-55.