A

Project Report on
Regulated DC Power Supply
Submitted for partial fulfilment of award of
Bachelor of Technology
in
Electrical Engineering
By
Ravinder Singh
(Roll No:1504320029)
Under the Guidance of
Mr. Fahim Durani
Sc. "E" SSPL DRDO

SOLID STATE PHYSICS LABORATORY (SSPL)

DEFENCE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ORGANIZATION (MINISTRY OF DEFENCE, GOVT. OF
INDIA) LUCKNOW ROAD, TIMARPUR DELHI- 110054
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that report entitled “REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY” is the

work done by Mr. Ravinder Singh from Bundelkhand Institute of Engineering &
Technology, Jhansi in partial fulfilment of requirement for award of Degree in
Bachelor of Technology for Electrical Engineering. He has carried out this work
under my supervision.

During the period he had gained extensive knowledge about Regulated DC power
supply. He has obtained practical knowledge about the same.

With a good sense of enquiry and perseverance, he is intelligent sincere and

hardworking students. He had worked diligently with utmost devotion to complete
the assignment given to his in time. He is focused and methodological.

Also this is to certify that report does not contain any confidential information.

We wish for his success in life.

Mr. Fahim Durani

Sc. “E”

SSPL, DRDO

i
 Candidate’s Declaration

I hereby declare that work entitled “Regulated DC Power Supply” is an authentic

work carried out by me at Solid State Physics Laboratory, (SSPL), Delhi, under the
supervision of Dr. AT Nimal, Sc.“F” and Mr. Fahim Durani Sc.“E” for partial
fulfilment of the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical
Engineering. The matter embodied in this report has not been submitted anywhere
else for award of any other degree.

Date:
Ravinder Singh

Roll no. : 1504320029

B.Tech (Electrical Engineering)
Bundelkhand Institute of
Engineering & Technology, Jhansi

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am thankful to Dr. R.K. Sharma , Director Solid State Physics Laboratory,

Lucknow road Delhi for providing me the opportunity to work on my project
“Regulated DC Power Supply” as a part of my B.Tech, Electrical Engineering
Curriculum.

I am short of words in expressing my utmost sincere and respectful gratitude to Dr.

AT Nimal, Sc. “F” SSPL,SAW group in charge for his constant support and
guidance.

I strongly record my deep sense of gratitude and thankfulness with utmost respect
to my project guide Mr. Fahim Durani for providing me with valuable information
and help without which this project would not have been a success.

Ravinder Singh

Roll no. : 1504320029

B.Tech (Electrical Engineering)
Bundelkhand Institute of
Engineering & Technology, Jhansi

iii
 Contents

1 Certificate i
2 Candidate’s Declaration ii
3
Acknowledgement iii

4. Introduction to Power Supply 01

5. Power Supply Block Description 04

5.1 The Transformer Stage 04

5.2 The Rectifier Stage 05

5.3 The Filter Stage 18

5.4 The Voltage Regulation Stage 24

6. Project Description 31

6.1 Component Description 31

6.2 Calculations 35

6.3 Circuit Diagram 36

6.4 Result 37

7. References 37
 INTRODUCTION
In general, electronic circuit using transistors require a source of DC power for example in tube
amplifiers, DC voltage is needed for plate, screen grid and control grid. Similarly the emitter and
collector bias in a transistor must also be direct current. Batteries are rarely used for this purpose
as they are costly. In practice DC power for electronic circuit is most conveniently obtained from
commercial AC lines by using rectifier-filter system, called a DC power supply. The rectifier-
filter combination constitutes an ordinary DC power supply. The DC voltage from an ordinary
power supply remains constant. So long as AC mains voltage or load is unaltered. However, in
many electronic applications, it is desired that DC voltage should remain constant irrespective of
change in AC mains or load under such situations, voltage regulating devices are used with
ordinary power supply. This constitutes regulated DC power supply and keeps the DC voltage at
fairly constant value.

Ordinary DC Power Supply:

An ordinary or unregulated d.c. power supply contains a rectifier and a filter circuit as shown in
Fig.1. The output from the rectifier is pulsating d.c. These pulsations are due to the presence of
a.c. component in the rectifier output. The filter circuit removes the a.c. component so that steady
d.c. voltage is obtained across the load.

Fig. 1 Power Supply

1
Limitation:.
An ordinary d.c. power supply has the following drawbacks:

(i) The d.c. output voltage changes directly with input a.c. voltage. For instance, a
5% increase in input a.c. voltage results in approximately 5% increase in d.c. output
voltage.
(ii) The d.c. output voltage decreases as the load current increases. This is due to
voltage drop in (a) transformer windings (b) rectifier and (c) filter circuit.
These variations in d.c. output voltage may cause inaccurate or erratic operation or even
mal-functioning of many electronic circuits. For example, in an oscillator, the frequency will
shift and in transmitters, distorted output will result. Therefore, ordinary power supply is
unsuited for many electronic applications and is being replaced by regulated power supply.

Regulated DC Power Supply:

A d.c. power supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of a.c. mains
fluctuations or load variations is known as regulated d.c. power supply.

Fig. 2 Circuit Daigram

A regulated power supply consists of an ordinary power supply and voltage regulating
device. Fig. 2 shows the block diagram of a regulated power supply. The output of ordinary
power supply is fed to the voltage regulator which produces the final output. The output
voltage remains constant whether the load current changes or there are fluctuations in the
input a.c. voltage.

Fig. 3 DC power supply

2
Fig. 3 shows the complete circuit of a regulated power supply using zener diode as a voltage
regulating device. As you can see, the regulated power supply is a combination of three circuits
viz., (i) bridge rectifier (ii) a capacitor filter C and (iii) zener voltage regulator. The bridge
rectifier converts the transformer secondary a.c. voltage (point P) into pulsating voltage (point Q).
The pulsating d.c. voltage is applied to the capacitor filter. This filter reduces the pulsations in the
rectifier d.c. output voltage (point R). Finally, the zener voltage regulator performs two functions.
Firstly, it reduces the variations in the filtered output voltage. Secondly, it keeps the output
voltage (Vout) nearly constant whether the load current changes or there is change in input a.c.
voltage. Fig. 4 shows the waveforms at various stages of regulated power supply. Note that bridge
rectifier and capacitor filter constitute an ordinary power supply. However, when voltage
regulating device is added to this ordinary power supply, it turns into a regulated power supply.

Fig. 4 Output waveform

3
 POWER SUPPLY BLOCK DESCRIPTION

The Transformer Stage:

The Transformer is a simple static (or stationary) electro-magnetic passive electrical device that
works on the principle of Faraday’s law of induction by converting electrical energy from one
value to another.

The transformer does this by linking together two or more electrical circuits using a common
oscillating magnetic circuit which is produced by the transformer itself. A transformer operates on
the principals of “electromagnetic induction”, in the form of Mutual Induction.

Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically induces a voltage into
another coil located in close proximity to it. The ratio number of turns in the primary coil and
secondary coil determines its capability of either increasing or decreasing the voltage and current
levels of their supply, without modifying its frequency.

Fig. 5 Transformer Representation

Based on the variation of the voltage level between the input and output (increase or decrease),
transformers are broadly classified into two categories:

Step Up Transformer:
On a step-up transformer there are more turns on the secondary coil than the primary coil.
The induced voltage across the secondary coil is greater than the applied voltage across
the primary coil. i.e. n1 < n2.

4
Step Down Transformer:

On a step -down transformer there are more turns on the primary coil than the secondary
coil. The induced voltage across the secondary coil is lesser than the applied voltage
across the primary coil. i.e. n1>n2

Center Tapped Transformer:

In center tapped transformer, a contact is made to a point halfway along a winding of the
transformer inductor. Taps are sometimes used on inductors for the coupling of signals,
and may not necessarily be at the half-way point, but rather, closer to one end.

The Rectifier Stage:

After the transformer stage, the output voltage is AC of a suitable stepped-down voltage. To get
a constant dc supply from the AC the most important step is to convert the bipolar AC to
unipolar pulsating DC. To perform this function, the rectifier stage is used in DC power supply.

Diode:

For any rectifier circuit the basic building block is a Diode. Diodes are electronic components
that allow electricity to flow in only one direction. It can be thought of as a version of a valve.
The schematic symbol of a diode is shown in figure 6. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the
direction in which the current can flow.

Fig. 6 Diodes Representation

5
If a negative voltage is applied to the cathode and a positive voltage to the anode, the diode is
forward biased and conducts. The diode acts nearly as a short circuit. If the polarity of the applied
voltage is changed, the diode is reverse biased and does not conduct. The diode acts very much as
an open circuit. Using this principle , the diode is connected in a rectifier circuit in such a way
that for a half cycle of AC input it conducts and the cycle passes through as it is but the other half
cycle is blocked through the diode.

Diode Rectifier Circuits:

There are many possible ways to construct rectifier circuits for a dc power supply using diodes.
The three basic types of rectifier circuits used are:

• The Half Wave Rectifier

• The Full Wave Rectifier

Half Wave Rectifier:

The half wave rectifier is the most basic rectifier circuit. A simple half-wave rectifier using an
ideal diode and a load is shown in Figure 7.

Fig. 7 Half Wave Rectification

6
Basic Operation:

Since the diode only conducts when the anode is positive with respect to the cathode, current will
flow only during the positive half cycle of the input voltage.

The supply voltage is given by:

Vs = Vm sin (wt)

where (= 2 f = 2 /T) is the angular frequency in rad/s.

During the positive half cycle of the source, the ideal diode is forward biased and operates as a
closed switch. The source voltage is directly connected across the load.

During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and acts as an open switch. The source
voltage is disconnected from the load. As no current flows through the load, the load voltage vo is
zero. Both the load voltage and current are of one polarity and hence said to be rectified. The
waveforms for source voltage and output voltage are shown in figure 8.

Fig. 8 Source and output voltages

7
Here, the output voltage varies between the peak voltage and zero in each cycle. This variation
is called “ripple”, and the corresponding voltage is called the peak-to-peak ripple voltage, Vp-
p.

Load Voltage:

If a DC voltmeter is now connected to measure the output voltage of the half-wave rectifier (i.e.,
across the load resistance), the reading obtained would be the average load voltage Vavg , also
called the DC output voltage.

OR,

The output voltage waveform and average voltage are shown:

Fig. 9 Output voltage and average voltage for half-wave rectifier

8
Peak Inverse Voltage:

The maximum amount of reverse bias that a diode will be exposed to is called the peak
inverse voltage or PIV.

For the half wave rectifier, the value of PIV is:

PIV = Vm

The above equation is due to the fact that when the diode is reverse biased, there is no voltage
across the load. Therefore, all of the secondary voltage (Vm) appears across the diode. The PIV is
an important factor because it determines the minimum allowable value of reverse voltage for any
diode used in the circuit.

Advantages:

• Simplest circuitry and low cost.

• Suitable for fairly low demand applications.

Disadvantages:

• The output current in the load contains, in addition to dc component, ac components of

basic frequency equal to that of the input voltage frequency. Thus Ripple factor is high
and an elaborate filtering is, therefore, required to give steady dc output

• The power output and, therefore, rectification efficiency is quite low. This is due
to the fact that power is delivered only half the time.

• The gaps (0 output pulses) make it more difficult to remove the AC ripple remaining
after rectification.

9
Full Wave Rectifier:

The shortcomings of half wave rectifier are successfully overcome by using two diodes in parallel
with a center tapped transformer which is known as full wave rectifier system.

A simple full-wave rectifier using two ideal diodes and a load is shown in Figure 10. The
transformer has a center-tapped secondary winding. This secondary winding has a lead attached
to the center of the winding. The voltage from the center tap to either end terminal on this
winding is equal to one half of the total voltage measured end-to-end. The diodes feed a common
load RL with the help of a center-tap transformer.

Fig. 10 Full Wave Rectifier

10
Basic Operation:

During the positive half cycle of the full wave rectifier the diode D1 is forward biased and diode
D2 is reverse biased. The direction of the current through the load is shown in the figure.

During the negative half cycle, the polarity reverses. Diode D2 is forward biased and diode D1 is
reverse biased. As shown in the figure, the direction of current through the load does not change
even though the secondary voltage has changed polarity. Thus another positive half cycle is
produced across the load.

Fig. 11 Direction of current flow

Load Voltage:

Using the ideal diode model, the peak load voltage for the full wave rectifier is Vm. The full
wave rectifier produces twice as many output pulses as the half wave rectifier. Hence the full
wave rectifier has twice the output frequency of a half wave rectifier. For this reason, the average
load voltage (i.e. DC output voltage) is :

11
Ripple Factor:

The ripple factor for a Full Wave Rectifier is given by:

The average voltage or the dc voltage available across the load resistance is :

RMS value of the voltage at the load resistance is:

12
Efficiency:

The maximum efficiency of a Full Wave Rectifier is 81.2%.

Fig. 12 Average DC Voltage for a Full Wave Rectifier

Peak Inverse Voltage:

When one of the diodes in a full-wave rectifier is reverse biased, the peak voltage across that
diode will is approximately equal to Vm. With the polarities shown in figure 8, for positive cycle,
D1 is conducting and D2 is reverse biased. Thus the cathode of D1 will be at Vm. Since this
point is connected directly to the cathode of D2, its cathode will also be Vm. With –Vm applied
to the anode of D2, the total voltage across the diode D2 is 2 Vm. Therefore, the maximum
reverse voltage across either diode will be twice the peak load voltage.

PIV =2 Vm

13
Advantages:

1. The rectification efficiency of full-wave rectifier is double of that of a half-wave rectifier.

2. The ripple voltage is low and of higher frequency in case of full-wave rectifier so
simple filtering circuit is required.

3. Higher output voltage, higher output power and higher Transformer Utilization
Factor (TUF) in case of a full-wave rectifier.

Disadvantages:

1. It requires use of Centre tapped transformer, and It is difficult to locate the center tap on
the secondary winding. Therefore the circuit is more expensive.

2. Only half of the transformer's secondary is utilized at any half cycle. Hence,
transformer utilization is low.

14
Bridge Rectifier:

Bridge Rectifiers are the most widely used rectifier systems in power supplies that provide
necessary DC voltage for the electronic components or devices. They can be constructed with
four or more diodes or any other controlled solid state switches.

A simple Bridge rectifier circuit using four diodes and a load resistance is as shown in figure 10.

BASIC OPERATION:

During the Positive half cycle of the input AC waveform diodes D2 and D3 are forward biased
and D1 and D4 are reverse biased. When the voltage, more than the threshold level of the diodes
D2 and D3, starts conducting – the load current starts flowing through it, as shown as red lines
and blue lines path in figure 13.

Fig. 13 Current flow in positive half cycle

During the negative half cycle of the input AC waveform, the diodes D1 and D4 are forward
biased, and D2 and D3 are reverse biased. Load current starts flowing through the D1 and D4
diodes when these diodes starts conducting as shown in red lines and blue lines path in figure 14.

15
 Fig. 14 Current flow in negative half cycle

Peak Inverse Voltage:

In any of the half cycles of input AC, two of the four diodes are reverse biased, in parallel,
and directly across the secondary winding.

Therefore,

PIV = Vm

Advantages:

The rectification efficiency of bridge rectifier is double of that of a half-wave rectifier.

1 The ripple voltage is low and of higher frequency in case of bridge rectifier so
simple filtering circuit is required.

2 Higher output voltage, higher output power and higher Transformer Utilization Factor
(TUF) in case of a bridge rectifier.

16
 3 No centre tap is required in the transformer secondary so in case of a bridge rectifier
transformer required is simpler. If stepping up or stepping down of voltage is not required,
transformer can be eliminated even.

4 The PIV is one half that of centre-tap rectifier. Hence bridge rectifier is highly suited for high
voltage applications.

5 For a given power output, power transformer of smaller size can be used in case of the bridge
rectifier because current in both (primary and secondary) windings of the supply transformer flow
for the entire ac cycle.

Disadvantages:

1 The load resistor RL and the supply source have no common point which may be earthed.

2 In bridge rectifier,two diodes conduct in series for every half cycle of input, thus, voltage drop
across the doubles. For low voltage output, this needs to be taken into consideration.
.

17
The Filter Stage:

The output of a rectifier is not pure dc but it contains fluctuations or ripple, which are undesired.
To minimize the ripple content in the output, filter circuits are used. These circuits are connected
between the rectifier and load. Ideally, the output of the filter should be pure dc. Practically, the
filter circuit works to minimize the ripple at the output, as far as possible. Basically, the ripple is
ac, i.e., varying with time, while dc is a constant w.r.t. time. Hence in order to separate dc from
ripple, the filter circuit should use components which have widely different impedance for ac and
dc. Two such components are inductance and capacitance. Ideally, the inductance acts as a short
circuit for dc, but it has large impedance for ac. Similarly, the capacitor acts as open for dc if the
value of capacitance is sufficiently large enough. Hence, in a filter circuit, the inductance is
always connected in series with the load, and the capacitance is connected in parallel to the load.

Definition Of A Filter:

Filter is an electronic circuit composed of a capacitor, inductor (or) combination of both and
connected between the rectifier and the load so as to convert pulsating dc to pure dc. The
different types of filter, based on the arrangement of capacitor and inductor in the circuit, are:

1. Inductor Filter
2. Capacitor Filter
3. LC or L-Section Filter
4. CLC or π – Section Filter

18
Inductor Filter:

The figure 15 shows an inductor filter. When the output of the rectifier passes through an inductor,
it blocks the ac component and allows only the dc component to reach the load.

Fig. 15 Circuit diagram of an Inductor Filter

Operation:

In the inductor filter the inductor (choke) is connected in series with the load. The operation of
the inductor filter depends upon the property of the inductance to oppose any change of current
that may flow through it.

Ripple factor of the inductor filter is given by:

The above equation shows that ripple will decrease when L is increased and RL is decreased.
Thus the inductor filter is more effective only when the load current is high (small RL). The
larger value of the inductor can reduce the ripple and at the same time the output dc voltage will
be lowered as the inductor has a higher dc resistance.

19
Capacitor Filter:

Fig. 16 Circuit diagram of a Capacitor Filter

A capacitor filter connected directly across the load is shown in figure 16. The property of a
capacitor is that it allows ac component and blocks dc component.

Operation:

The operation of the capacitor filter is to short the ripple to ground but leave the dc to appear at
output when it is connected across the pulsating dc voltage.

During the positive half cycle, the capacitor charges upto the peak vale of the transformer
secondary voltage, Vm and will try to maintain this value as the full wave input drops to zero.
Capacitor will discharge through RL slowly (depending upon the time constant) until the
transformer secondary voltage again increase toa value greater than the capacitor voltage. The
diode conducts for a period, which depends on the capacitor voltage. The diode will conduct
when the transformer secondary voltage becomes more than the diode voltage. This is called the
cut in voltage. The diode stops conducting when the transformer voltage becomes less than the
diode voltage. This is called cut out voltage.

Referring to figure 17, with slight approximation the ripple voltage can be assumed as triangular.
From the cut-in point to the cut-outpoint, whatever charge the capacitor acquires is equal to the
charge the capacitor has lost during the period of non-conduction, i.e., from cut-out point to the
next cut-in point.

The charge it has acquired = r p-p × C

The charge it has lost = Id.c. × T2

20
 Fig. 17 Ripple∴Voltage Triangular Waveform

If the value of the capacitor is fairly large, or the value of the load resistance is very large, then
it can be assumed that the time T2 is equal to halfthe periodic time of the waveform.

From the above assumptions, the ripple waveform will be triangular and its rms value is
given by

The ripple may be decreased by increasing C or RL (both) with a resulting increase in

the dc output voltage.

21
LC or L-Section Filter:

The series inductor filter and shunt capacitor filter are not much efficient to provide low ripple at
all loads. The capacitor filter has low ripple at heavy loads while inductor filters at small loads. A
combination of these two filters may be selected to make the ripple independent of load resistance.
The resulting filter is called L-Section filter of LC filter or Choke input filter. This name is due to
the fact that the inductor and capacitor are connected as inverted L.

The circuit diagram of an LC filter is as shown in figure 18.

Fig. 18 Circuit diagram of an L-Section Filter

Operation:

The action of choke input filter is like a low pass filter. The capacitor shunting the load by passes
the harmonic currents because it offers very low reactance to ac ripple current while it appears as
an open circuit to dc current. On the other hand the inductor offers high impedance to the
harmonic terms. In this way, most of the ripple voltage is eliminated from the load voltage.

Ripple Factor:

The main aim of the filter is to suppress the harmonic components. So the reactance of the choke
must be large as compared with the combined parallel impedance of capacitor and resistor. The
parallel Impedance of capacitor and resistor can be made small by making the reactance of the
capacitor and resistance of the load. Now the ripple current which has passed through L will not
develop much ripple voltage across RL because the reactance of C at the ripple frequency is very
small as compared with RL

Thus for LC filter, XL >> XC and RL >> XC

22
Under these conditions, the ac current through L is determined primarily by XL= 2ωL (the
reactance of the inductor at second harmonic frequency). The rms value of the ripple current
is

This shows that ω is independent of RL.

CLC or Π-Section Filter:

Fig. 19 Circuit diagram of an CLC Filter

23
CLC filter is a capacitor input filter followed by an L-section filter. The ripple rejection
capability of a CLC filter is very good. The circuit diagram of a CLC filter is as shown in
figure 19.

It consists of an inductance L with a dc winding resistance as RC and two capacitors C1 and C2.
The filter circuit is fed from full wave rectifier. Generally two capacitors are selected to be equal.

Operation:

The rectifier output is given to the first capacitor. This capacitor offers very low reactance to the
ac component but blocks dc component. Hence the first capacitor bypasses most of the ac
components. The dc component then reaches to the choke L. The choke L offers very high
reactance to dc. So it blocks ac component and does not allow it to reach to load while it allow dc
component to pass through it. The second capacitor now allows to pass remaining ac component and
almost pure dc component reaches to the load. The circuit looks like a π, hence called π-filter.

Voltage Regulator Stage:

The rectifier-filter combination constitutes an ordinary d.c. power supply. The d.c. voltage from
an ordinary power supply remains constant so long as a.c. mains voltage or load is unaltered.
However, in many electronic applications, it is desired that d.c. voltage should remain constant
irrespective of changes in a.c. mains or load. Under such situations, voltage regulating devices are
used with ordinary power supply. This constitutes regulated d.c. power supply and keeps the d.c.
voltage at fairly constant value.

A device which maintains the output voltage of an ordinary power supply constant irrespective of
load variations or changes in input a.c. voltage is known as a voltage regulator. A voltage
regulator generally employs electronic devices to achieve this objective. There are basic two
types of voltage regulators viz.,

(i) series voltage regulator

(ii) shunt voltage regulator

24
The series regulator is placed in series with the load as shown in Fig. 20 (i). On the other hand,
the shunt regulator is placed in parallel with the load as shown in Fig. 20 (ii). Each type of
regulator provides an output voltage that remains constant even if the input voltage varies or
the load current changes.

Fig. 20 (i) Series and (ii) Shunt Voltage Regulator

Zener Diode Voltage Regulator:

In zener diode voltage regulator, zener diode is operated in the breakdown or zener region, and
the voltage across it is substantially constant for a large change of current through it. This
characteristic permits it to be used as a voltage regulator. Fig. 21 shows the circuit of a zener
diode regulator. As long as input voltage Vin is greater than zener voltage VZ , the zener operates
in the breakdown region and maintains constant voltage across the load. The series limiting
resistance RS limits the input current.

Fig. 21 Circuit of zener diode regulator

25
 Operation:

The zener will maintain constant voltage across the load inspite of changes in load current or
input voltage. As the load current increases, the zener current decreases so that current through
resistance RS is constant. As output voltage = Vin – IRS, and I is constant, therefore, output
voltage remains unchanged. The reverse would be true should the load current decrease. The
circuit will also correct for the changes in input voltages. Should the input voltage Vin increase,
more current will flow through the zener, the voltage drop across RS will increase but load
voltage would remain constant. The reverse would be true should the input voltage decrease.

Limitations:

A zener diode regulator has the following drawbacks:

(i) It has low efficiency for heavy load currents. It is because if the load current is large,
there will be considerable power loss in the series limiting resistance.

(ii) The output voltage slightly changes due to zener impedance as Vout = VZ + IZ RZ.
Changes in load current produce changes in zener current. Consequently, the output
voltage also changes. Therefore, the use of this circuit is limited to only such applications
where variations in load current and input voltage are small.

Conditions for Proper Operation of Zener Regulator :

When a zener diode is connected in a circuit for voltage regulation, the following conditions
must be satisfied:

The zener must operate in the breakdown region or regulating region i.e. between IZ (max) and IZ
(min) . The current IZ (min) (generally 10 mA) is the minimum zener current to put the zener diode
in the ON state i.e. regulating region. The current IZ (max) is the maximum zener current that zener
diode can conduct without getting destroyed due to excessive heat.

The zener should not be allowed to exceed maximum dissipation power otherwise it will be
destroyed due to excessive heat. If maximum power dissipation of a zener is PZ (max) and zener
voltage is VZ, then, PZ (max) = VZ IZ (max)

26
There is a minimum value of RL to ensure that zener diode will remain in the regulating region i.e.
breakdown region. If the value of RL falls below this minimum value, the proper voltage will not
be available across the zener to drive it into the breakdown region.

IC Voltage Regulator:

We can also use integrated circuits (IC) to produce voltage regulators. One advantage of IC
voltage regulators is that properties like thermal compensation, short circuit protection and
surge protection can be built into the device. Most of the commonly used IC voltage
regulators are three-terminal devices. Fig. 22 shows the schematic symbol for a three-
terminal IC voltage regulator.

Fig. 22 IC Voltage Regulator

There are basically four types of IC voltage regulators viz.

(i) Fixed positive voltage regulators
(ii) Fixed negative voltage regulators
(iii) Adjustable voltage regulators
(iv) Dual-tracking voltage regulators

Fixed Positive Voltage Regulator:

This IC regulator provides a fixed positive output voltage. Although many types of IC
regulators are available, the 7800 series of IC regulators is the most popular. The last two
digits in the part number indicate the d.c. output voltage. For example [See Table below],
the 7812 is a + 12V regulator whereas the 7805 is a + 5V regulator. Note that this series
(7800 series) provides fixed regulated voltages from + 5 V to + 24V.

27
 Type number Output voltage
7805 +5.0 V
7806 +6.0 V
7808 +8.0 V
7809 +9.0 V
7812 +12.0 V
7815 +15.0 V
7818 +18.0 V
7824 +24.0 V

The 7800 Series Fig. 23 Fixed Positive Voltage Regulaor

Fig. 23 shows how the 7812 IC is connected to provide a fixed d.c. output of + 12V. The
unregulated input voltage V i is connected to the IC’s IN terminal and the IC’s OUT terminal
provides +12V. Capacitors, although not always necessary, are sometimes used on the input
and output as shown in Fig. 17.26. The output capacitor (C2) acts basically as a line filter to
improve transient response. The input capacitor (C1) is used to prevent unwanted
oscillations.

Fixed Negative Voltage Regulator:

This IC regulator provides a fixed negative output voltage. The 7900 series of IC regulators
is commonly used for this purpose. This series (7900) is the negative-voltage counterpart of
the7800 series [See Table below]. Note that 7900 series provide fixed regulated voltages
from – 5V to – 24 V.

Type number Output voltage

7905 – 5.0 V
IN OUT
7905.2 – 5.2 V
7906 – 6.0 V 7912

7908 – 8.0 V GND Vo = - 12 V

7912 –12.0 V
7915 –15.0 V
7918 –18.0 V
7924 –24.0 V

The 7900 Series Fig. 24 Fixed Negative Voltage Regulator

28
Fig. 24 shows how 7912 IC is connected to provide a fixed d.c. output of – 12 V. The
unregulated negative input voltage Vi is connected to IC’s IN terminal and the IC’s OUT
terminal provides – 12 V. Capacitors used in the circuit perform the same function as in a
fixed positive regulator.

Adjustable Voltage Regulator:

The adjustable voltage regulator can be adjusted to provide any d.c. output voltage that is
within its two specified limits. The most popular three-terminal IC adjustable voltage
regulator is the LM 317. It has an input terminal, output terminal and an adjustment terminal.
An external voltage divider is used to change the d.c. output voltage of the regulator. By
changing R2, a wide range of output voltages can be obtained.

Fig. 25 Adjustable Voltage Regulator

The LM 317 is a three-terminal positive adjustable voltage regulator and can supply 1.5 A
of load current over an adjustable output range of 1.25V to 37V. Fig. 25 shows an
unregulated power supply driving an LM 317 circuit. The data sheet of an LM 317 gives the
following formula for the output voltage :
Vout = 1.25 R2 + 1
1
This formula is valid from 1.25 V to 37V.

29
Dual Tracking Voltage Regulator:

The dual-tracking regulator provides equal positive and negative output voltages. This regulaton
is used when split supply voltages are needed. The RC 4195 IC provides d.c. outputs of + 15V
and – 15V. The device are ± 15V. The data sheet of an RC 4195 lists a maximum output current
of 150 mA for each supply and a load regulation of 3mV. Adjustable dual-tracking regulators are
also available. These regulators have outputs that can be varied between their two rated limits.

RC4195
-18 TO -30 V

Fig. 26 Dual Tracking Voltage Regulator

30
 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

Component Specification:

Component List:

1. Step Down Transformer

2. Diodes
3. Capacitors
4. Voltage Regulator
5. LED
6. PCB

Step Down Transformer:

Selecting a suitable transformer is of great importance. The current rating and the
secondary voltage of the transformer is a crucial factor.

Fig. 27 Transformer (12-0-12), 500mA

The current rating of the transformer depends upon the current required for the load to be
The input voltage to the 7805 IC should be at least 2V greater than the required 2V output, therefore it
requires an input voltage at least close to
So chose a 12-0-12 transformer with current rating 500mA (Since 12*√2 =

31
Diodes:

Diodes are two terminal Semiconductor devices, which are used here for the
purpose of rectification.

4 Silicon diodes (1N4007) are used here as full wave rectifier.

Fig. 28 Diodes (1N4007)

The datasheet of 1N4007 diode is as follows:

Characteristic Symbol Value

Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage VRRM
Working Peak Reverse Voltage VRWM 1000V
VR
DC Blocking Voltage
RMS Reverse Voltage VR(RMS) 700V
Average Rectified Output Current @ TA = 75°C IO 1.0A
Non-Repetitive Peak Forward Surge Current 8.3ms
single half sine-wave superimposed on rated load IFSM 30A
Forward Voltage @ IF = 1.0A VFM 1.0V
Peak Reverse Current @TA = 25°C 5 μA 50 μA
at Rated DC Blocking Voltage @ TA = 100°C IRM
Typical Junction Capacitance Cj 8 pF
Typical Thermal Resistance Junction to Ambient R θJA 100K/W
Maximum DC Blocking Voltage Temperature TA +150°C
Operating and Storage Temperature Range TJ, TSTG -65to
+150°C

Table No. 1 IN4007 datasheet

32
Capacitors:

A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores potential energy in an

electric field. Here it is used as filter and smoothing circuit.
One electrolyte and one ceramic capacitor is used with rating as follows:
One 1000μF and one 0.01μF capacitors are used.

Fig. 29 Electrolytic Capacitor Fig. 30 Ceramic Capacitor

Voltage Regulator:

As we require a 5V we need LM7805 Voltage Regulator IC.

7805 IC Rating :

Input voltage range 7V-

Current rating Ic = 1A
Output voltage range VMax=5.2V ,VMin=4.8V

Fig. 31 LM 7805

33
LED:

A LED is a Light Emitting Diode, which works in the forward region. It converts electrical
energy into light energy.

Fig. 32 An LED

PCB:

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic
components or electrical components using conductive tracks, pads and other features
etched from one or more sheet layers of copper laminated onto and/or between sheet layers
of a non-conductive substrate.

Fig. 33 PCB (Printed Circuit Board)

34
Calculations:
Knowledge of Ripple factor is essential while designing the values of

capacitors It is given by

Y=1/(4√3fRC) (as the capacitor filter is

1. f= frequency of AC (50 Hz)

2. R=resistance

calculated R= V/Ic

V= secondary voltage of transformer

V=12√2=16.9
R=16.9/500mA=33.94Ω standard 35Ω
3. C= filtering capacitance

We have to determine this capacitance for filtering

Y=Vac-rms/Vdc
Vac-rms = Vr/2√3
Vdc = VMax-
(Vr/2) Vr =
VMax- VMin
Vr = 5.2-4.8 =0. 4V
Vac-rms =
Vdc = 5V
Y=0 .06928

Hence the capacitor value is found out by substituting the ripple factor in Y=1/(4√3fRC)

35
 Thus, C= 1190 µF and standard 1000µF is chosen.

Datasheet of 7805 prescribes to use a 0.01μF capacitor at the output side to avoid transient
changes in the voltages due to changes in load and a 0.33μF at the input side of
regulator to avoid ripples if the filtering is far away from regulator.

Circuit Diagram:
The Circuit Digram of the + 5 v regulated dc power supply is as follows:

Fig. 34 + 5 v Regulated dc power supply circuit

Fig. 35 Circuit diagram of + 5 v regulated dc power supply

Result:
The above power supply gives an output of 5V regulated dc across zener diode with a noise of 400 mV

36
 REFERENCES
1. www.academia.edu/6317554/Unit_II_Rectifiers_Filters_And_Regulators_Introduction

2. www.learnabout-electronics.org/PSU/psu10.php

3. http://www.vishay.com/docs/85816/1n4728a.pdf

4. http://www.diodes.com/datasheets/ds28002.pdf

5. Electronic devices and circuits by J.B. Gupta

6. Electronic devices and circuits by Millman & Halkias

37