CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1Objective
Today’s era is the era of automation. Automation plays a predominant role in the
modern scientific world. Our project is also a step forward in the atomization of
modern era. It utilizes the concept DTMF IC which is capable of resolving the tone
coming out when button of the mobile phone is pressed. Here we are designing an
switching system which can be operated from a far off place by giving directions
through the mobile of the user. By employing this technology we can switch on and
off the AC operated appliances from the distance places using the mobile phone.
Physically challenged people can use this device at home to on and off the home
appliances otherwise which is a difficult task for them. To explain the concept of this
project we are going to take the water pump as a device which we need to switch on
and off using mobile phone.

1.2 Uses
The DTMF controlled WATER PUMP presents a wireless control system which can
be utilized at different places in different ways to on off the water pump. Few fields
where it finds application are given below:
1. Agriculture.
2. Home.
3. Factories.
4. The places where human entry is dangerous.

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 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 DTMF

DTMF stands for Dual Tone Multiple Frequency. It is a tone consisting of two
frequencies superimposed. Individual frequencies are chosen such that it is easy to
design filters and easy to transmit the tones through a telephone line having
bandwidth of approximately 3.5 kHz. DTMF was not intended to be used for data
transfer, it was meant to be used for sending the control signals along the telephone
line. With standard decoders it is possible to send 10 beeps per second i.e., five bits
per second. DTMF standard specifies 50ms tones and 600ms duration between two
successive tone. The last column is not commonly seen in the telephones that is used,
but used by telephone exchanges quite often. Nowadays, DTMF is used for dialing
the numbers in telephones, configuring telephone exchanges etc.
2.2 Water Pump
A submersible pump (or electric submersible pump (ESP)) is a device which has
a sealed motor close-coupled to the pump body. The whole assembly is submerged in
the fluid to be pumped. The main advantage of this type of pump is that it prevents
pump cavitations, a problem associated with a high elevation difference between
pump and the fluid surface. Submersible pumps push fluid to the surface as opposed
to jet pumps having to pull fluids. Submersibles are more efficient than jet pumps.

The submersible pumps used in ESP installations are multistage centrifugal pumps
operating in a vertical position. Although their constructional and operational features
underwent a continuous evolution over the years, their basic operational principle
remained the same. Produced liquids, after being subjected to great centrifugal forces
caused by the high rotational speed of the impeller, lose their kinetic energy in the
diffuser where a conversion of kinetic to pressure energy takes place. This is the main
operational mechanism of radial and mixed flow pumps.

2
The pump shaft is connected to the gas separator or the protector by a mechanical
coupling at the bottom of the pump. Well fluids enter the pump through an intake
screen and are lifted by the pump stages. Other parts include the radial bearings
(bushings) distributed along the length of the shaft providing radial support to the
pump shaft turning at high rotational speeds. An optional thrust bearing takes up part
of the axial forces arising in the pump but most of those forces are absorbed by the
protector’s thrust bearing...

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 CHAPTER 3
ABOUT THE PROJECT

3.1 Functional Block Diagram

Fig 3.1 Block Diagram

In this diagram, various blocks present the working of circuit.

3.2 Working
Here the working starts with the directions given by the user through the mobile.
Here, the two mobiles are utilized. One is to send the DTMF signal and the other to
receive these signals. The signals are nothing but the mixer of the double tone
multiple frequency signals. A mobile phone lead is utilized at the receiver circuit to
feed the signals from the mobile to the DTMF circuit. The DTMF(double tone
multiple frequency) IC is capable of resolving the different-different signals coming
from the mobile when different-2 keys are pressed So when a particular key is pressed
say 1 is pressed then the LED corresponding to the key1 will glow. The instruction
signal goes through the mobile to the DTMF IC. It modulates the signal over another
frequency and this combination represents a unique signal and thus a unique

4
instruction. DTMF gives input to the microcontroller which process the signal coming
from the DTMF IC to allow switching of the relay to which we have connected the
WATER PUMP. A regulated power supply is there to give a constant DC level
required for the project. The relay needs higher voltage then the microcontroller. So,
we provide 12v to relay for its activation and de-activation. The drivers of the relays
are made of the combinations of the transistors.

3.3 Organization of the Project

The project organization is done in following modules.
1. Designing of Block Diagram and Circuit Diagram.
2. Selecting various components to be used and to calculate various values.
3. Soldering of various components and IC’s.
4. Mechanical work such as placement of components on Sheet.
Chapter 4 deals with 8051 microcontroller Architecture
Chapter 5 deals with various Components used in project.
Chapter 6 deals with hardware implementation of project.
Chapter 7 consists of various results and conclusions related to project.

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 CHAPTER 4
8051 MICROCONTROLLER

Fig 4.1 : Architecture of 8051 Microcontroller with PIN Diagram

4.1 About 8051 microcontroller:

The microcontroller incorporates all the features that are found in microprocessor.

The microcontroller has built in ROM, RAM, Input Output ports, Serial Port, timers,
interrupts and clock circuit. A microcontroller is an entire computer manufactured on
a single chip. Microcontrollers are usually dedicated devices embedded within an
application. For example, microcontrollers are used as engine controllers in
automobiles and as exposure and focus controllers in cameras. In order to serve these
applications, they have a high concentration of on-chip facilities such as serial ports,
parallel input output ports, timers, counters; interrupt control, analog-to-digital
converters, random access memory, read only memory, etc. The I/O, memory, and on-
chip peripherals of a microcontroller are selected depending on the specifics of the
target application. Since microcontrollers are powerful digital processors, the degree
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of control and programmability they provide significantly enhances the effectiveness
of the application. The 8051 is the first microcontroller of the MCS-51 family
introduced by Intel Corporation at the end of the 1970s. The 8051 family with its
many enhanced members enjoys the largest market share, estimated to be about 40%,
among the various microcontroller architectures.

The microcontroller has on chip peripheral devices. In this unit firstly we differentiate
microcontroller from microprocessor then we will discuss about Hardware details of
8051 and then introduce the Assembly level language in brief.The Power-down mode
saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions
until the next interrupt or hardware reset. The downloadable Flash can be changed a
single byte at a time and is accessible through the SPI serial interface. Holding
RESET active forces the SPI bus into a serial programming interfaces and allows the
program memory to be written to or read from unless Lock Bit 2 has been activated.

4.2 Difference between microprocessor and microcontroller:

In microprocessor we have to interface additional circuitry for providing the function

of memory and ports, for example we have to interface external RAM for data
storage, ROM for program storage, programmable peripheral interface (PPI) 8255 for
the Input Output ports, 8253 for timers, USART for serial port. While in the
microcontroller RAM, ROM, I/O ports, timers and serial communicate on ports are in
built. Because of this it is called as “system on chip”. So in micro-controller there is
no necessity of additional circuitry which is interfaced in the microprocessor because
memory and input output ports are inbuilt in the microcontroller. Microcontroller
gives the satisfactory performance for small applications. But for large applications
the memory requirement is limited because only 64 KB memory is available for
program storage. So for large applications we prefer microprocessor than
microcontroller due to its high processing speed.

4.3 Microcontroller 8051 Architecture:

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It is 8-bit microcontroller, means MC 8051 can Read, Write and Process 8 bit data.
This is mostly used microcontroller in the robotics, home appliances like mp3 player,
washing machines, electronic iron and industries. Mostly used blocks in the
architecture of 8051 are as follows:

Fig4.2 : Architecture of 8051 Microcontroller

4.3.1 128 byte RAM for data storage :

MC 8051 has 128 byte Random Access memory for data storage. Random access
memory is non volatile memory. During execution for storing the data the RAM is
used. RAM consists of the register banks, stack for temporary data storage. It also
consists of some special function register (SFR) which are used for some specific
purpose like timer, input output ports etc. Normally microcontroller has 256 byte
RAM in which 128 byte is used for user space which is normally Register banks and
stack. But other 128 byte RAM which consists of SFRs.

4KB ROM
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• In 8051, 4KB read only memory (ROM) is available for program storage. This is
used for permanent data storage. Or the data which is not changed during the
processing like the program or algorithm for specific applications.

• This is volatile memory; the data saved in this memory does not disappear after
power failure.

• We can interface up to 64KB ROM memory externally if the application is large.

These sizes are specified different by their companies.

• Address Range of PC: Address range of PC means program counter (which points
the next instruction to be executing) can be moved between these locations or we can
save the program from this location to this location. The address range can be
calculated in the same way just like the RAM which is discussed in previous section.

4KB = 22.210 B(since 1KB = 210 B)

= 212 Byte

Address range of PC is 0000H to 0FFFH means total 4KB locations are available
from 0000H to 0FFFH. At which we can save the program.

4.3.2 Timers and Counters:

Timer means which can give the delay of particular time between some events. For
example on or off the lights after every 2 sec. This delay can be provided through
some assembly program but in microcontroller two hardware pins are available for
delay generation. These hardware pins can be also used for counting some external
events. How much times a number is repeated in the given table is calculated by the
counter.

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• In MC8051, two timer pins are available T0 and T1, by these timers we can give the
delay of particular time if we use these in timer mode.

• We can count external pulses at these pins if we use these pins in counter mode.

• 16 bits timers are available. Means we can generate delay between 0000H to
FFFFH.

• Two special function registers are available.

• If we want to load T0 with 16 bit data then we can load separate lower 8 bit in TL0
and higher 8 bit in TH0.

• In the same way for T1.

• TMOD, TCON registers are used for controlling timer operation.

4.3.3 Serial Port:-

• There are two pins available for serial communication TXD and RXD.

• Normally TXD is used for transmitting serial data which is in SBUF register, RXD
is used for receiving the serial data.

• SCON register is used for controlling the operation.

• There are four modes of serial communication which has been discussed in next
chapter.

Input Output Ports

• There are four input output ports available P0, P1, P2, P3.

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• Each port is 8 bit wide and has special function register P0, P1, P2, P3 which are
bit addressable means each bit can be set or reset by the Bit instructions (SETB for
high, CLR for low) independently.

• The data at any port which is transmitting or receiving is in these registers.

• The port 0 can perform dual works. It is also used as Lower order address bus (A0
to A7) multiplexed with 8 bit data bus P0.0 to P0.7 is AD0 to AD7 respectively the
address bus and data bus is demultiplex by the ALE signal and latch which is
further discussed in details.

• Port 2 can be used as I/O port as well as higher order address bus A8 to A15.

• Port 3 also have dual functions it can be worked as I/O as well as each pin of P3
has specific function. P3.0 – RXD – Serial I / P for Asynchronous communication
Serial O / P for synchronous communication.

P3.1 – TXD – Serial data transmit.

P3.2 – INT0 – External Interrupt 0.

P3.3 – INT1 – External Interrupt 1.

P3.4 – T0 – Clock input for counter 0.

P3.5 – T1 – Clock input for counter 1.

P3.6 – WR – Signal for writing to external memory.

P3.7 – RD – Signal for reading from external memory.

When external memory is interfaced with 8051 then P0 and P2 can’t be worked as
I/O port they works as address bus and data bus, otherwise they can be accessed as
I/O ports.

Oscillator

• It is used for providing the clock to MC8051 which decides the speed or baud rate
of MC.

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• We use crystal which frequency vary from 4MHz to 30 MHz, normally we use
11.0592 MHz frequency.

4.3.4 Interrupts

Microcontrollers must provide real time (predictable, though not necessarily fast)
response to events in the embedded system they are controlling. When certain events
occur, an interrupt system can signal the processor to suspend processing the current
instruction sequence and to begin an interrupt service routine (ISR, or "interrupt
handler"). The ISR will perform any processing required based on the source of the
interrupt before returning to the original instruction sequence. Possible interrupt
sources are device dependent, and often include events such as an internal timer
overflow, completing an analog to digital conversion, a logic level change on an input
such as from a button being pressed, and data received on a communication link.
Where power consumption is important as in battery operated devices, interrupts may
also wake a microcontroller from a low power sleep state where the processor is
halted until required to do something by a peripheral event

Interrupts are defined as requests because they can be refused (masked) if they are not
used, that is when an interrupt is acknowledged. A special set of events or routines are
followed to handle the interrupts. These special routines are known as interrupt
handler or interrupt service routines (ISR). These are located at a special location in
memory.

INT0 and INT1 are the pins for external interrupts.

4.4 Pin Diagram of 8051:

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 Fig 4.3: MC 8051 Pin Diagram

4.5 Special Microcontroller Features:

 High performance RISC CPU.

 Only 35 single word instructions to learn.
 All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two-cycle.
 Operating speed: DC- 20 MHz clock input DC-200 ns instruction cycle.
 Up to 8Kx 14 words of FLASH Program Memory, Up to 368x 8 bytes of Data
 Memory(RAM).
 Interrupt capability(up to 12 sources).
 Eight level deep hardware stack.
 Direct, Indirect and Relative Addressing modes.
 Processor read access to program memory.
 Power-on Reset(POR).
 Power-up Timer(PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST).
 Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable
operation.
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 Programmable code protection
 Power saving SLEEP mode
 Selectable oscillator options
 In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) via two pins.

CHAPTER 5
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
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Before going into details of project let us first emphasize on the basic system,
functional units and functional IC’s to be used in it.
5.1 Transformer
5.1.1 Introduction
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in
the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core
and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the
secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.
A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of an iron
core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase power so
that if the voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered and vice versa.

5.1.2 Basic principles

The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can produce a
magnetic field (electromagnetism), and, second that a changing magnetic field within
a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic
induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is
developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

5.1.3 Types of Transformer

There are basically two types of Transformers:
1) Step up Transformers
2) Step down Transformers.
Step Up Transformer:
Step-Up Transformers are one of the really common and vital electrical tools used in
power transmission and modification. They are usually the first major transformer in
a transmission system and are often used in various forms throughout the system.
A step-up transformer is one whose secondary voltage is greater than its primary
voltage. This kind of transformer "steps up" the voltage applied to it. For instance, a
step up transformer is needed to use a 220v product in a country with a 110v supply.
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Step Down Transformer:
Step-Down Transformers are very close to the construction of Step-Up Transformers,
except that the windings on the primary side are always more numerous than those on
the secondary side. In fact, if you are already thinking it, yes, either type of
transformer could be wired in backwards and therefore achieve the opposite
application. The one caveat in this is that one has to assure that the resultant voltage
is equivalent to what is desirable as it is possible to arrive at an output in a range not
at all desirable for one's needs, depending on the proportionate number of windings
on primary and secondary sides. To be safe and effective, the output of a transformer
must be within a few percent of the voltage needed.

5.1.4 Detailed Operation:

The simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular the
primary current required to establish a magnetic field in the core, and the contribution
to the field due to current in the secondary circuit.
Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligible reluctance with
two windings of zero resistance. When a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a
small current flows, driving flux around the magnetic circuit of the core. The current
required to create the flux is termed the magnetizing current; since the ideal core has
been assumed to have near-zero reluctance, the magnetizing current is negligible,
although still required to create the magnetic field.
The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each
winding. Since the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated
voltage drop, and so the voltages VP and VS measured at the terminals of the
transformer, are equal to the corresponding EMFs. The primary EMF, acting as it does
in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the "back EMF”. This is
due to Lenz's law which states that the induction of EMF would always be such that it
will oppose development of any such change in magnetic field.

5.1.5 Construction:
A transformer consists of a rectangular core of soft iron in the form of sheets insulated
from one another. Two separate coils of insulated wires, a primary coil and a

16
secondary coil are wound on the core. These coils are well insulated from one another
and from the core. The coil on the input side is called Primary coil and the coil on the
output side is called Secondary coil.
5.1.6 Energy Losses
An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be 100% efficient. In
practical transformers energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding
structures. Larger transformers are generally more efficient, and those rated for
electricity distribution usually perform better than 98%.
Experimental transformers using superconducting windings achieve efficiencies of
99.85%.[42] The increase in efficiency can save considerable energy, and hence
money, in a large heavily-loaded transformer; the trade-off is in the additional initial
and running cost of the superconducting design.
Losses in transformers (excluding associated circuitry) vary with load current, and
may be expressed as "no-load" or "full-load" loss. Winding resistance dominates load
losses, whereas hysteresis and eddy currents losses contribute to over 99% of the no-
load loss. The no-load loss can be significant, so that even an idle transformer
constitutes a drain on the electrical supply and a running cost; designing transformers
for lower loss requires a larger core, good-quality silicon steel, or even amorphous
steel, for the core, and thicker wire, increasing initial cost, so that there is a trade-off
between initial cost and running cost. (Also see energy efficient transformer).
Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and
those in the magnetic circuit, termed iron loss. Losses in the transformer arise from:
Winding resistance:
Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At
higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding
resistance and losses.
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to
hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the
frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.[43]
Eddy currents
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a core made from such a
material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length.

17
Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are
responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a
complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material
thickness. Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of plates
electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block; all transformers
operating at low frequencies use laminated or similar cores.
Magnetostriction
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically
expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as
magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with
transformers, and can cause losses due to frictional heating.
Mechanical losses
In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating
forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within
nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise, and consuming a small amount of
power.
Stray losses
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic
fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux
that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure
will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat. There are also radiative losses
due to the oscillating magnetic field, but these are usually small.

5.2 Diode

An electric component that conducts electric current in only one direction, functioning
as a one-way valve. Diodes typically are made from semiconductor materials such as
silicon, germanium or selenium and are uses as voltage regulators, signal rectifiers,
oscillators and signal modulators/demodulators. In computer equipment, diodes are
commonly used to emit light by passing a current through it, as in light emitting
diodes (LEDs).

Abbreviation of light emitting diode, an electronic device that lights up when

electricity is passed through it. LEDs are usually red. They are good for displaying

18
images because they can be relatively small, and they do not burn out. However, they
require more power than LCDs.

The semiconductor diode, also known as a pn junction diode, is a two-element

semiconductor device that makes use of the rectifying properties of a PN junction to
convert alternating current into direct current by permitting current flow in only one
direction.

Figure 5.1 A PN junction diode

5.2.1 Function

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol
shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of
a valve and early diodes were actually called valves.

4.2.2 Forward Voltage

Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode, rather like a
person pushing through a door with a spring. This means that there is a small voltage
across a conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for
all normal diodes which are made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is
almost constant whatever the current passing through the diode so they have a very
steep characterstic (currenet-voltage graph).

Figure 5.2 A forward bias PN junction diode

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5.2.3 Reverse Voltage

When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes
leak a very tiny current of a few uA or less. This can be ignored in most circuits
because it will be very much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction.
However, all diodes have a maximum reverse voltage(usually 50V or more) and if this
is exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is
called breakdown.

Ordinary diodes can be split into two types:

 Signal diodes, which pass small currents of 100mA or less.

 Rectifier diode, which can pass large currents.

Figure.5.3 A
reverse biased PN junction diode

5.2.4 Biasing

5.2.4.1 Forward biasing

It is an external voltage that is applied to a PN junction to reduce its barrier and,

therefore aid current flow through the junction. To accomplish this function,the
external voltage is connected so that it opposes the electrostatic field of the junction.

Figure.5.4 Internal diagram of forward biased PN junction

5.2.4.2 Reverse biasing

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It is an external voltage that is connected across a PN junction so that its voltage aids
the junction and thereby, offers a high resistance to the current flow through the
junction.

Figure.5.5 Internal diagram of reverse biased PN junction

5.2.5 V-I Characterstics

The charcterstics are plotted under three heads: Zero external voltage, forward
biasing, reverse biasing. From the chracterstics following points may be noted:

 At Zero external voltage,no current flows through the circuit or diode.

 At forward bias ,the current increases slightly the barrier potential is wiped-
off.
 After knee voltage,the forward current rise abruptly.
 The forward current is limited by series resistance and a small value of
junction resistance. If the forward current increase beyond the rated value of
the diode, the diode may be destroyed.
 At reverse bias, the reverse current increases slightly with the increase in
voltage because of the minority carriers. For silicon the maximum value of
reverse current is low as 1uA. However, for Ge, it is about 100uA.
 At a certain reverse voltage, the reverse current rises abruptly to a large value.
It is because at this voltage the junction breaks and the resistance of the barrier
region falls suddenly.
 Breakdown voltage is the reverse votage at which pn junction breaks. At
reverse votage, when the junction breaks the diode may be destroyed.

21
 Figure 5.6 characteristics of PN junction diode

5.3 Resistor
A linear resistor is a linear, passive two-terminal electrical component that
implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is
in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the
voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current through the
circuit is called resistance.
This relation is represented by Ohm's law:
I= V/R.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy,
such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits,
particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common
commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of
magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required
precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the
chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of
the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical
resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the
anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of

22
concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are
physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must
sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.
Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these
specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise
amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The
unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent
on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified
individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular
technology.[1] A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form
factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or terminals) which
is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.
Units:
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's
law:
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current
(I), where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:
This formulation states that the current (I) is proportional to the voltage (V) and
inversely proportional to the resistance (R). This is directly used in practical
computations. For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a
12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40 milliamperes) occurs
across that resistor.
Power dissipation:
The power P dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor
network) is calculated as:

Construction:
1) Lead arrangements
Through-hole components typically have leads leaving the body axially.
Others have leads coming off their body radially instead of parallel to the
23
 resistor axis. Other components may be SMT (surface mount technology)
while high power resistors may have one of their leads designed into the heat
sink.
2) Carbon Composition
Carbon composition resistors consist of a solid cylindrical resistive element
with embedded wire leads or metal end caps to which the lead wires are
attached. The body of the resistor is protected with paint or plastic. Early 20th-
century carbon composition resistors had uninsulated bodies; the lead wires
were wrapped around the ends of the resistance element rod and soldered. The
completed resistor was painted for color coding of its value.

The resistive element is made from a mixture of finely ground (powdered)

carbon and an insulating material (usually ceramic). A resin holds the mixture
together. The resistance is determined by the ratio of the fill material (the
powdered ceramic) to the carbon. Higher concentrations of carbon, a weak
conductor, result in lower resistance. Carbon composition resistors were
commonly used in the 1960s and earlier, but are not so popular for general use
now as other types have better specifications, such as tolerance, voltage
dependence, and stress (carbon composition resistors will change value when
stressed with over-voltages). Moreover, if internal moisture content (from
exposure for some length of time to a humid environment) is significant,
soldering heat will create a non-reversible change in resistance value. Carbon
composition resistors have poor stability with time and were consequently
factory sorted to, at best, only 5% tolerance.[4] These resistors, however, if
never subjected to overvoltage nor overheating were remarkably reliable
considering the component's size.

5.4 Capacitors
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical
component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors
vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric
(insulator). Capacitors are used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of
metal foils separated by a layer of insulating film.

24
When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric
field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and
negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal
capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads.
This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference
between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early
means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small
amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a
breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance
and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of
power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and
for many other purposes.

5.5 Battery
An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical
energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery (or "voltaic pile")
in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, batteries have become a common power source for
many household and industrial applications. According to a 2005 estimate, the
worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year, with 6%
annual growth.
There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are
designed to be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable
batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used multiple times. Batteries come
in many sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches to
battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby power for telephone exchanges
and computer data centers.

25
Principle of operation
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy.It
consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells
connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One
half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively charged
ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes
electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate, i.e.,
the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery, cations
are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons
are removed) at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically
connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes.
A separator between half cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of the
electrolytes.
Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive
electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is
the difference between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta.
Therefore, if the electrodes have emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the
net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.
The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal
voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is
neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf
of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is
discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal
voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has
negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of
until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a
charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5 joule of
work.In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge, and the open
circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted
against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies
according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
5.6 LEDs

26
An LED is a special diode which stands for light emitting diode. They are commonly
used as turn on indicators for most electronic equipment.
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as
indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. When a light-
emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able
to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons.
This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to
the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An
LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may
be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over
incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime,
improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and
reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and
require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent
lamp sources of comparable output.

5.7 IC1 7806

It is a voltage regulator meant to give regulated 6V supply when provided with

suitable input.

The 78xx (sometimes LM78xx) is a family of self-contained fixed linear voltage

regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is commonly used in electronic circuits
requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs
within the family, the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the output voltage (for
example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx
line are positive voltage regulators: they produce a voltage that is positive relative to a
common ground. There is a related line of79xx devices which are complementary
negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in combination to provide
positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit.

78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO220 form factor,
although smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are available. These devices
support an input voltage anywhere from a couple of volts over the intended output
voltage, up to a maximum of 35 or 40 volts, and typically provide 1 or
27
1.5 amperes of current (though smaller or larger packages may have a lower or higher
current rating).

Advantages

 78xx series ICs do not require additional components to provide a constant,

regulated source of power, making them easy to use, as well as economical and
efficient uses of space. Other voltage regulators may require additional
components to set the output voltage level, or to assist in the regulation process.
Some other designs (such as a switching power supply) may need substantial
engineering expertise to implement.

 78xx series ICs have built-in protection against a circuit drawing too much
power. They have protection against overheating and short-circuits, making them
quite robust in most applications. In some cases, the current-limiting features of
the 78xx devices can provide protection not only for the 78xx itself, but also for
other parts of the circuit.

5.8 Dual Tone Multiple Frequency

5.8.1 Introduction

DTMF stands for Dual Tone Multiple Frequency. It is a tone consisting of two
frequencies superimposed. Individual frequencies are chosen such that it is easy to
design filters and easy to transmit the tones through a telephone line having
bandwidth of approximately 3.5 kHz. DTMF was not intended to be used for data
transfer, it was meant to be used for sending the control signals along the telephone
line. With standard decoders it is possible to send 10 beeps per second i.e., five bits
per second. DTMF standard specifies 50ms tones and 600ms duration between two
successive tone. The last column is not commonly seen in the telephones that is used,
but used by telephone exchanges quite often. Nowadays, DTMF is used for dialing
the numbers in telephones, configuring telephone exchanges etc.

Table 5.1 DTMF Keypad Frequencies

Hz 1209 1336 1477 1633

28
 697 1 2 3 A

770 4 5 6 B

852 7 8 9 C

941 * 0 # D

A CB transreceiver of 2.7 MHz is normally used to send floating codes. DTMF was
designed to be able to send the codes using microphone. Each beep (or digit you dial
on the telephone) is composed of two concurrent frequencies, which are superimposed
on amplitude. The higher of the two frequencies is normally aloud by 4dB, and this
shift is termed as twist. If the twist is equal to 4dB, the higher frequency is loud by
4dB. If the lower frequency is loud, then the twist is said to be negative. Nowadays,
DTMF is used for dialing the numbers in telephones, configuring telephone
exchanges etc

5.8.2 Generating DTMF

DTMF signals can be generated through dedicated ICs or by using RC networks

connected to a microprocessor. MT8880 is an example of a dedicated IC. But getting
the latter method work is a bit difficult if high accuracy is needed. The crystal
frequency needs to be sacrificed for a non standard cycle length. Hence this method is
used for simple applications. Most often, a PIC micro could be used for the above
purpose.

5.8.3 Decoding DTMF

Detecting DTMF with satisfactory precision is a hard thing. Often, a dedicated IC

such as MT8870 is used for this purpose. It uses two 6th order band-pass filters using
switched capacitor filters and it suppresses any harmonics. Hence they can produce
pretty good sine waves from distorted input. Hence it is preferred. Again
microprocessors can also be used, but their application is limited.

5.8.4 MT8870

5.8.4.1 Introduction

29
MT8870 is a complete DTMF receiver integrating both the band split filter and the
digital decoder function. The filter section uses switched capacitor technique for high
and low group filters, the decoder uses a digital counting technique to detect and
decode all 16 DTMF tone pairs with 4 bit code. External component count is
minimized by on-chip provision of a differential input amplifier, clock oscillator and
latches 3 stable bus interfaces.

4.8.4.2 Features

Following are the features of MT8870 decoder:

1. Complete DTMF receiver

2. Low power consumption

3. Internal gain setting amplifier

4. Adjustable guard time

5. Central office quality

6. Power down mode

7. Inhibit mode

5.8.4.3 Pin description

Pin no. Name Description

1 IN+ Non-Inverting Op-Amp (Input).

2 IN- Inverting Op-Amp (Input).

3 GS Gain select gives access to output of front and differential

amplifier of feedback register.
4 Vref Reference voltage(output) nominally Vdd/2 is used to bias
Input at mid rail.
30
 5 INH Inihibit(Input).Logic high inhibits the detection of tones
representing characters A, B, C and D. This pin input is
internally pulled down.
6 PWDN Power Down(Input).Active high. Powers down the device and
inhibits the oscillator.
7 Osc1 Clock(input)
8 Osc2 Clock(output) a 3.579545 MHz crystal connected between
Osc1and Osc2 completes the internal oscillator circuits.
9 Vss Ground(input).0V typical.
10 TOE Three state output enable(input).Logic high. Enables the O/P
Q1-Q4.
11-14 Q1-Q4 Three state data(output). When enabled by TOE, provide the
code corresponding to the last valid tone pair received. When
TOE is 1 logic low the data ouput are high impedance.
15 Std Delayed sterring (output) presents a logic high when received
to tone-pair has been registered and the ouput latch updated.
Return to logic low when the voltage on St/GT falls below Vst
16 ESt Early sterring (input) presents a logic high once the digital
algorithm has detected a valid tone pair (signal condition).
Any momentarily loss of signal condition will cause ESt to
restart to a logic low
17 St/GT Sterring input/guard time (ouput) bidirectional. A voltage
greater than Vt/St detected tone pair and update the output
latch.A voltage less than Vt/St frees the device to accept a
new tone pair.
18 Vdd Positive power supply (input) +5V typical.

31
 Figure 5.7 MT8870

5.8.4.4 Applications

1. Receiver system for British Telecom (BT) or CEPT spec.

2. Paging system.

3. Repeater system or mobile ratio.

4. Credit card systems.

5. Remote control

5.9 Relay (EMI):-

32
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to
operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also
used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal
(with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where
several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long
distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-
transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and
early computers to perform logical operations.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric
motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits
with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching.
Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating
coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric
power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called
"protective relays".

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron
core, an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable
iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured).
The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of
moving contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized
there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of
contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may
have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the
picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of
the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on
the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
activates the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either
makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If
the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement
opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were
open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force,
approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually
33
this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial
motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage
application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it
reducesarcing.

When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil
to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which
would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit
components. Some automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case.
Alternatively, a contact protection network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in
series (snubber circuit) may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized
withalternating current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be crimped to the end
of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase current which increases the minimum
pull on the armature during the AC cycle.[1]

A solid-state relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device, activated by

the control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid.
An optocoupler (a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be
used to isolate control and controlled circuits.

Types

Latching relay:-

A latching relay has two relaxed states (bistable). These are also called "impulse",
"keep", or "stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in
its last state. This is achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam
mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with an over-center spring or
permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position while the coil is
relaxed, or with a remanent core. In the ratchet and cam example, the first pulse
to the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil
example, a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil
turns the relay off. This type of relay has the advantage that one coil consumes
power only for an instant, while it is being switched, and the relay contacts
retain this setting across a power outage. A remanent core latching relay
requires a current pulse of opposite polarity to make it change state.

34
A stepping relay is a specialized kind of multi-way latching relay designed for early
automatic telephone exchanges.

An earth leakage circuit breaker includes a specialized latching relay.

Very early computers often stored bits in a magnetically latching relay, such as ferreed
or the later memreed in the 1ESS switch.

Some early computers used ordinary relays as a kind of latch -- they store bits in
ordinary wire spring relays or reed relays by feeding an output wire back as an input,
resulting in a feedback loop or sequential circuit. Such an electrically-latching relay
requires continuous power to maintain state, unlike magnetically latching relays or
mechanically racheting relays.

In computer memories, latching relays and other relays were replaced by delay line
memory, which in turn was replaced by a series of ever-faster and ever-smaller
memory technologies.

Reed relay:-

A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts
inside an evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which protects the contacts against
atmospheric corrosion; the contacts are made of magnetic material that makes them
move under the influence of the field of the enclosing solenoid. Reed relays can
switch faster than larger relays, require very little power from the control circuit.
However they have relatively low switching current and voltage ratings. Though rare,
the reeds can become magnetized over time, which makes them stick 'on' even when
no current is present; changing the orientation of the reeds with respect to the
solenoid's magnetic field can resolve this problem.

Mercury-wetted relay:-

A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted
withmercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less)
where the mercury reduces the contact resistance and associated voltage drop, for
low-current signals where surface contamination may make for a poor contact, or for
high-speed applications where the mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury
wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be mounted vertically to work properly.

35
Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays are now rarely
used.

Polarized relay:-

A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to
increase sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone
exchanges to detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on
screws, so a technician could first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply
a bias spring to set the critical current that would operate the relay.

Machine tool relay:-

A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools,
transfer machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large
number of contacts (sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted
from normally-open to normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form
factor that allows compactly installing many relays in a control panel. Although such
relays once were the backbone of automation in such industries as automobile
assembly, the programmable logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced the machine tool
relay from sequential control applications.

A relay allows circuits to be switched by electrical equipment: for example, a timer

circuit with a relay could switch power at a preset time. For many years relays were
the standard method of controlling industrial electronic systems. A number of relays
could be used together to carry out complex functions (relay logic). The principle of
relay logic is based on relays which energize and de-energize associated contacts.
Relay logic is the predecessor of ladder logic, which is commonly used
in programmable logic controllers.

Ratchet relay:-

This is again a clapper type relay which does not need continuous current through its
coil to retain its operation. A ratchet holds the contacts closed after the coil is
momentarily energized. A second impulse, in the same or a separate coil, releases the
contacts.

36
Coaxial relay:-

Where radio transmitters and receivers share a common antenna, often a coaxial relay
is used as a TR (transmit-receive) relay, which switches the antenna from the receiver
to the transmitter. This protects the receiver from the high power of the transmitter.
Such relays are often used in transceivers which combine transmitter and receiver in
one unit. The relay contacts are designed not to reflect any radio frequency power
back toward the source, and to provide very high isolation between receiver and
transmitter terminals. Thecharacteristic impedance of the relay is matched to
the transmission line impedance of the system, for example, 50 ohms.[2]

Contactor:-

A contactor is a heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting
loads, but contactors are not generally called relays. Continuous current ratings for
common contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred amps. High-current
contacts are made with alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the
contacts to oxidize; however, silver oxide is still a good conductor.[3]Contactors with
overload protection devices are often used to start motors. Contactors can be make
loud sounds when they operate, so they may be unfit for use where noise is a chief
concern.

A contactor is an electrically controlled switch used for switching a power circuit,

similar to a relay except with higher current ratings. [4]A contactor is controlled by a
circuit which has a much lower power level than the switched circuit.

Contactors come in many forms with varying capacities and features. Unlike a circuit
breaker, a contactor is not intended to interrupt a short circuit current. Contactors
range from those having a breaking current of several amperes to thousands of
amperes and 24 V DC to many kilovolts. The physical size of contactors ranges from
a device small enough to pick up with one hand, to large devices approximately a
meter (yard) on a side.

Contactors are used to control electric motors, lighting, heating, capacitor banks,
thermal evaporators, and other electrical loads.

37
Solid-state relay:-

A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar
function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components,
increasing long-term reliability. Every solid-state device has a small voltage drop
across it. This voltage drop limits the amount of current a given SSR can handle. The
minimum voltage drop for such a relay is a function of the material used to make the
device. Solid-state relays rated to handle as much as 1,200 amperes have become
commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely
triggered by transients.

Solid state contactor relay:-

A solid state contactor is a heavy-duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat
sink, used where frequent on/off cycles are required, such as with electric heaters,
small electric motors, and lighting loads. There are no moving parts to wear out and
there is no contact bounce due to vibration. They are activated by AC control signals
or DC control signals from Programmable logic controller (PLCs), PCs, Transistor-
transistor logic (TTL) sources, or other microprocessor and microcontroller controls.

Buchholz relay:-

A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-filled
transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the
transformer if gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil.

Forced-guided contacts relay:-

A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically linked
together, so that when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the
linked contacts move together. If one set of contacts in the relay becomes
immobilized, no other contact of the same relay will be able to move. The
function of forced-guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to check the
status of the relay. Forced-guided contacts are also known as "positive-guided
contacts", "captive contacts", "locked contacts", or "safety relays".

Overload protection relays:-

Electric motors need overcurrent protection to prevent damage from over-loading the
motor, or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the

38
motor windings.[5] The overload sensing devices are a form of heat operated relay
where a coil heats a bimetallic strip, or where a solder pot melts, releasing a spring to
operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in series with the coil. If the
overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is de-energized.

This thermal protection operates relatively slowly allowing the motor to draw higher
starting currents before the protection relay will trip. Where the overload relay is
exposed to the same environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation
for motor ambient temperature is provided.

The other common overload protection system uses an electromagnet coil in series
with the motor circuit that directly operates contacts. This is similar to a control relay
but requires a rather high fault current to operate the contacts. To prevent short over
current spikes from causing nuisance triggering the armature movement is damped
with a dashpot. The thermal and magnetic overload detections are typically used
together in a motor protection relay.

Electronic overload protection relays measure motor current and can estimate motor
winding temperature using a "thermal model" of the motor armature system that can
be set to provide more accurate motor protection. Some motor protection relays
include temperature detector inputs for direct measurement from
a thermocouple or resistance thermometer sensor embedded in the winding.

5.0.1Crystal Oscillator

39
 Figure 5.8: A simplified crystal oscillator

A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a

vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very
precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as
in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits,
and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters/receivers.

History:-

The traditional and most common type of piezoelectric resonator used in electronics
was the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them were called 'crystal
oscillators'. Piezoelectricity was discovered by Jacques and Pierre Curie in 1880. Paul
Langevin first investigated quartz resonators for use in sonar during World War I. The
first crystal controlled oscillator, using a crystal of Rochelle salt, was built in 1917
and patented<ref>Template:Cite web, filed April 10, 1918, granted August 27,
1940</ref> in 1918 by Alexander M. Nicholson at Bell Telephone Laboratories,
although his priority was disputed by Walter Guyton Cady.<ref>Template:Cite
conference</ref> Cady built the first quartz crystal oscillator in
1921.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Other early innovators in quartz crystal
oscillators include G. W. Pierce and Louis Essen.

Quartz crystal oscillators were developed for high-stability frequency references

during the 1920's and 1930's. By 1926 quartz crystals were used to control the
40
frequency of radio broadcasting stations and were popular with amateur radio
operators. <ref> http://www.ieee-uffc.org/fc_history/bottom.html A History of the
Quartz Crystal Industry in the USA, Virgil E. Bottom, from the Proceedings of the
35th Annual Frequency Control Symposium 1981, retrieved June 19,2008 </ref> A
number of firms started producing quartz crystals for electronic use during this time.
Using what are now considered primitive methods, about 100,000 crystal units were
produced in the United States during 1939. During WW2, demand for accurate
frequency control of military radio equipment spurred rapid development of the
crystal manufacturing industry. Suitable quartz became a critical war material, with
much of it imported from Brazil.

Although crystal oscillators still most commonly use quartz crystals, devices using
other materials are becoming more common, such as ceramic resonators.
Operation:-

Figure 5.9: Crystal Oscillator 11.0592MHz

A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a
regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. Almost
any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with appropriate
transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. For
example, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was often used in
mechanical filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends on size,
shape, elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are

41
typically cut in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such
as those used in digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For
applications not needing very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is often
used in place of a quartz crystal.
When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an
electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This
property is known as piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz will
generate an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a
voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like a circuit composed of
an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency. (See RLC
circuit.)

Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in such a
way that the frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. The specific
characteristics will depend on the mode of vibration and the angle at which the quartz
is cut (relative to its crystallographic axes)1 Therefore, the resonant frequency of the
plate, which depends on its size, will not change much, either. This means that a
quartz clock, filter or oscillator will remain accurate. For critical applications the
quartz oscillator is mounted in a temperature-controlled container, called a crystal
oven, and can also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external
mechanical vibrations. Quartz timing crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a
few tens of kilohertz to tens of megahertz. More than two billion (2×109) crystals are
manufactured annually. Most are small devices for consumer devices such
as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones. Quartz crystals are also
found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators,
and oscilloscopes.

CHAPTER 6
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION

6.1 Hardware Description

6.1.1 Component Used
42
The various components used in the project are listed as below:
S.No Component Name Quantity
1. Transformer(6-0-6 500 mA) 2
2. Capacitor 30 pF 4
3. Voltage regulator 7806 2
4. General Purpose PCB 4
5. Diodes 1N4007 4
6. DTMF IC MT 8870 1
7. IC Base 1
8. LEDs 3
9. Relay 1
10. Water Pump 1
11. Transistors 2
12. Resistors 13
Besides these some other equipments and materials were also used such as
Soldering iron and Solder wire
6.2 Tools and Platform Used:-
Various tools are used in this project as:
6.2.1 Printed Circuit Board:
A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically
connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces
etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also
referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated
with electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a
printed circuit board assembly (PCBA). Printed circuit boards are used in virtually all
but the simplest commercially-produced electronic devices.
PCBs are inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more layout
effort and higher initial cost than either wire wrap or point-to-point construction, but
are much cheaper and faster for high-volume production; the production and soldering
of PCBs can be done by totally automated equipment. Much of the electronics
industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards that
are published by the IPC organization.
Materials Used:

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Conducting layers are typically made of thin copper foil. Insulating layers dielectric
are typically laminated together with epoxy resin prepreg. The board is typically
coated with a solder mask that is green in color. Other colors that are normally
available are blue, black, white and red. There are quite a few different dielectrics that
can be chosen to provide different insulating values depending on the requirements of
the circuit. Some of these dielectrics are polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon), FR-4, FR-1,
CEM-1 or CEM-3. Well known prepreg materials used in the PCB industry are FR-2
(Phenolic cotton paper), FR-3 (Cotton paper and epoxy), FR-4 (Woven glass and
epoxy), FR-5 (Woven glass and epoxy), FR-6 (Matte glass and polyester), G-10
(Woven glass and epoxy), CEM-1 (Cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-2 (Cotton paper
and epoxy), CEM-3 (Woven glass and epoxy), CEM-4 (Woven glass and epoxy),
CEM-5 (Woven glass and polyester). Thermal expansion is an important
consideration especially with ball grid array (BGA) and naked die technologies, and
glass fiber offers the best dimensional stability.
Here in below figure show images of Printed Circuit board

FR-4 is by far the most common material used today. The board with copper on it is
called "copper-clad laminate".
Copper foil thickness can be specified in ounces per square foot or micrometres. One
ounce per square foot is 1.344 mils or 34 micrometres.

6.2.2 Soldering Iron

A soldering iron is a hand tool most commonly used in soldering. It supplies heat to
melt the solder so that it can flow into the joint between two workpieces.
A soldering iron is composed of a heated metal tip and an insulated handle. Heating is
often achieved electrically, by passing an electric current (supplied through an
electrical cord or battery cables) through the resistive material of a heating element.
Another heating method includes combustion of a suitable gas, which can either be
delivered through a tank mounted on the iron (flameless), or through an external
flame.
Less common uses include pyrography (burning designs into wood) and plastic
welding.

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Soldering irons are most often used for installation, repairs, and limited production
work. High-volume production lines use other soldering methods
Tips while using Soldering Iron:
Some soldering irons have interchangeable tips, also known as bits, that vary in size
and shape for different types of work.[2] Pyramid tips with a triangular flat face and
chisel tips with a wide flat face are useful for soldering sheet metal. Fine conical or
tapered chisel tips are typically used for electronics work.
Older and very cheap irons typically use a bare copper tip, which is shaped with a file
or sandpaper. This dissolves gradually into the solder, suffering pitting and erosion of
the shape. Copper tips are sometimes filed when worn down. Iron-plated copper tips
have become increasingly popular since the 1980s. Because iron is not readily
dissolved by molten solder, the plated tip is more durable than a bare copper one. This
is especially important when working at the higher temperatures needed for modern
lead-free solders. Solid iron and steel tips are seldom used because they store less
heat, and rusting can break the heating element.
Cleaning:
When burnt flux and oxidized material begin to accumulate on the tip, they can block
heat transfer and contaminate joints, making soldering difficult or impossible.
Therefore, the tips are periodically cleaned. Many soldering stations come with
cellulose sponges which are dampened and used to wipe a hot iron's tip clean. A wire
brush, preferably brass or wire wheel (mounted on a bench grinder), is sometimes
carefully used to remove very severe oxidation, though this may risk damaging the
tip's protective iron plating. A small amount of fresh solder is usually then applied to
the clean tip in a process called tinning. The working surface of the tip is usually kept
tinned (coated with wet solder) to minimize oxidation. Oxidation blocks heat transfer,
corrodes the tip, and contaminates the joint

6.2.3 Soldering Wire

Solder (usually pronounced /solder/, /solder/ or in USA /sɒdər/) is a fusible metal
alloy used to join together metal work pieces and having a melting point below that of
the workpiece(s).
Soft solder is what is most often thought of when solder or soldering are mentioned
and it typically has a melting range of 90 to 450 °C (190 to 840 °F). It is commonly

45
used in electronics and plumbing. Alloys that melt between 180 and 190 °C (360 and
370 °F) are the most commonly used. By definition, using alloys with melting point
above 450 °C (840 °F) is called 'hard soldering', 'silver soldering' or brazing. Soft
solder can contain lead and/or flux but in many applications lead free solder is used.
Perhaps the most common and most familiar form of solder is as a wire or rod, though
plumbers often use bars of solder while jewelers often use solder in thin sheets which
they cut into snippets. Solder can also come in a paste or as a preformed foil shaped to
match the workpiece. The word solder comes from the Middle English word soudur,
via Old French solduree and soulder, from the Latin solidare, meaning "to make
solid".
Eutectic alloys melt at a single temperature. Non-eutectic alloys have markedly
different solidus and liquidus temperature, and within that range they exist as a paste
of solid particles in a melt of the lower-melting phase. The pasty state causes some
problems during handling; it can however be exploited as it allows molding of the
solder during cooling, e.g. for ensuring watertight joint of pipes, resulting in a so
called 'wiped joint'.
With the reduction of the size of circuit board features, the size of interconnects
shrinks as well. Current densities above 104 A/cm2 are often achieved and electro
migration becomes a concern. At such current densities the Sn63Pb37 solder balls
form hillocks on the anode side and voids on the cathode side; the increased content
of lead on the anode side suggests lead is the primary migrating species.
6.2.4 Lead solder
Tin/lead solders, also called soft solders, are commercially available with tin
concentrations between 5% and 70% by weight. The greater the tin concentration, the
greater the solder’s tensile and shear strengths. At the retail level, the two most
common alloys are 60/40 Tin/lead (Sn/Pb) which melts at 370 °F or 188 °C and 63/37
Sn/Pb used principally in electrical/electronic work. The 63/37 ratio is notable in that
it is a eutectic mixture, which means:
1) It has the lowest melting point (183 °C or 361.4 °F) of all the tin/lead alloys;
and
2) The melting point is truly a point — not a range.
In plumbing, a higher proportion of lead was used, commonly 50/50. This had the
advantage of making the alloy solidify more slowly, so that it could be wiped over the

46
joint to ensure water tightness, the pipes being physically fitted together before
soldering. Although lead water pipes were displaced by copper when the significance
of lead poisoning began to be fully appreciated, lead solder was still used until the
1980s because it was thought that the amount of lead that could leach into water from
the solder was negligible from a properly soldered joint. The electrochemical couple
of copper and lead promotes corrosion of the lead and tin, however tin is protected by
insoluble oxide. Since even small amounts of lead have been found detrimental to
health, lead in plumbing solder was replaced by silver (food grade applications) or
antimony, with copper often added, and the proportion of tin was increased (see Lead-
free solder.)
The addition of tin improves wetting properties of the alloy; lead itself has poor
wetting characteristics. Tin however increases the cost of the solder. High-tin tin-lead
alloys have limited use as the workability range can be provided by a cheaper high-
lead alloy.
In electronics, printed circuit boards use solder joints to mount components and create
a circuit. For miniaturized PCB joints with surface mount components, solder paste
has largely replaced solid solder.

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 CHAPTER 7
APPLICATIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE

7.1 Applications
The DTMF controlled LEDs present a wireless lightening control system which can
be utilized at different places in different ways. Few field where it finds application
are given below:
 Offices
 Home
 Factories
 In the danger zone where human entry is dangerous.
7.2 Future Scope
We can put many more application in this project like we can use this in near future
for mobile phone control of home appliances. You can switch on your AC using
mobile phone before reaching to the office/home in summers. Similarly in winters
you can turn on and off your heater before reaching to desired location using your
mobile phone. Any number of the appliances can be controlled using this technology.
It has been implemented in the agriculture and gaining it’s scope day by day.
.
7.3 Conclusion
After working on this project we have reached to the conclusion that this project has
proved itself to be very simple, user friendly, cheap in comparison with its utility,
accurate and fast. It can be used to establish completely automated control on
distanced switching of the motor or other appliances through the mobile of user.
Which can further give rise to many other applications.

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 REFERENCES

[1]http://www.google.co.in/#sclient=psyb&hl=en&source=hp&q=microcontroller+A
T89C52P6+pin+diagram&pbx=1&oq=microcontroller+AT89C52P6
[2] www.electricalprojects.com
[3] Basic electronics by J.B Gupta.
[4]http://www.sensorsmag.com/sensors/acoustic-ultrasound/choosing-ultrasonic-
sensor-proximity-or-distance-measurement-825
[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submersible_pump

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