Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

ScienceDirect
Underground Space 1 (2016) 30–43
www.elsevier.com/locate/undsp

How to model the contractive behavior of soil in a heating test

Feng Zhang a,⇑, Yuhei Kurimoto b
a
Nagoya Institute of Technology, Japan
b
Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Japan

Received 3 May 2016; received in revised form 10 May 2016; accepted 17 May 2016
Available online 12 July 2016

Abstract

In this paper, the thermodynamic behavior of soil was observed in well-known heating tests via a simulation, which included THM-
coupled finite element analysis as the boundary value problem (BVP). The primary purpose of the paper was to identify the necessity to
model a phenomenon called ‘the volumetric contraction of soft clay due to heating’ by introducing some extra parameters in the thermo-
elastoplastic model in which the THM analyses were conducted. Based on the simulation, it was determined that the heating test is only a
BVP, and the phenomenon is simply an average behavior of the BVP, not an inherent property of soil. Based on the universal rule that
any material will expand when heated, it is not necessary to introduce an extra parameter into a properly organized thermo-elastoplastic
model to describe the phenomenon. The results may provide a useful insight for researchers who are interested in modeling the thermo-
dynamic behavior of soils.
Ó 2016 Tongji University and Tongji University Press. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Owner. This is an open access article
under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Keywords: THM analysis; Thermo-elasto-viscoplastic model; Heating test; Normal and over-consolidated clay

1. Introduction
When considering the problem of deep geologic disposal
for highly radioactive waste, the thermo-hydro-mechanical
(THM) behavior of the artificial barrier, which is primarily
composed of highly compacted bentonite and very stiff
clays, is a highly important factor that must be studied.
The highly radioactive materials may permeate into ground
water via the barrier systems and may contaminate the sur-
rounding ground, consequently leading to a catastrophic
disaster. The temperature effect on geomaterials, which is
due to the heat emitted from nuclear waste canisters, may
also affect the long-term stability of geomaterials. Cyclic
water absorption–evaporation processes may lead to swel-
ling and slaking of not only the artificial barrier but also
the natural barrier. A large expansion of the artificial bar-
rier due to water absorption may generate a huge confining
⇑ Corresponding author.
Peer review under responsibility of Tongji University and Tongji
University Press.
stress that may result in damage of the nuclear waste con-
tainers. All of these THM behaviors of the artificial and
natural barriers must be well understood to ensure the
safety and efficiency of the waste-sealing construction for
a long period.
Many laboratories, field tests and numerical analyses,
including constitutive modeling related to the thermody-
namic behaviors of geomaterials, have been performed in
the past two decades, e.g., François and Laloui (2008),
Gens and Olivella (2001), Gens, Guimaraes, Fernandez,
Olivella, and Sanchez (2008), Graham, Tanaka, Crilly,
and Alfaro (2001), Gray and Schrefler (2001), Guimaraes,
Gens, Sanchez, and Olivella (2006), Guimaraes, Gens,
and Olivella (2007), Laloui and Cekerevac (2008), Lima
(2009), Lloret and Villar (2007), Nishimura, Gens,
Olivella, and Jardine (2009), Sanchez and Gens (2006),
Sultan, Delage, and Cui (2002), Tang, Cui, and Barnel
(2008) and Villar and Lloret (2004).
In particular, many field heating experiments have been
reported, such as studies by Gens, Vaunat, Garitte, and
Wileveau (2007), Gens et al. (2009), Gens (2010), Jia,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.undsp.2016.05.001
2467-9674/Ó 2016 Tongji University and Tongji University Press. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Owner.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 F. Zhang, Y. Kurimoto / Underground Space 1 (2016) 30–43
Wileveau, Su, Duveau, and Shao (2007), Sawada, Okada,
Tani, Takakura, and Ikenoya (2009) and Akesson,
Jacinto, Gatabin, Sanchez, and Ledesma (2009). In reality,
however, the heating period due to high-level nuclear waste
will last tens of thousands years or even longer for some
radioactive substances. Therefore, physically, it is impossi-
ble at present to reproduce exactly the entire process in
field tests. Numerical simulations are an effective method
to describe and predict the above-mentioned THM behav-
iors when the numerical method can fit the results of field
experiments, at least over a limited period. Thus, labora-
tory tests on the THM behavior of geomaterials at the ele-
mental level will play an important role in assuring the
accuracy of the numerical analyses. Many laboratory ele-
ment tests of geomaterials have been performed to investi-
gate the basic thermo-mechanical behavior, e.g., studies by
Salager, Francois, Youssoufi, Laloui, and Saix (2008), Cui,
Le, Tang, Delage, and Li (2009) and Cui, Tang, Qian, Ye,
and Chen (2011). Many reports suggest that the strength of
geomaterials will decrease when the temperature increases,
e.g., Okada (2005, 2006). The volumetric change of geoma-
terials, which was induced by heating, was also investigated
by Towhata, Kuntiwattanaku, Seko, and Ohishi (1993),
Laloui and Cekerevac (2003) and Cekerevac and Laloui
(2004).
For the thermal behavior of geomaterials, numerous
thermo-elastoplastic models have been proposed, most of
which first used the 1st and 2nd thermodynamic theorems
to establish a series of restricted relations for the variables
involved in the models, e.g., stress tensor, strain tensor,
hardening parameters and entropy, and they subsequently
deduced the models using common tools, such as a flow
rule, yielding function, plastic potential, and consistency
equation. Detailed discussion on this issue can be found
in the review by Rojas and Garnica (2000), the book by
Lebon, Jou, and Casas-Vázquez (2008), and the Rankine
Lecture given by Gens (2010). For proposing a thermody-
namic model, the most important but very difficult step is
to formulize thermodynamic functions that must satisfy
the thermodynamic theorems, which always makes the
model too complicated, difficult to understand, and above
all, in most cases, impossible.
In the heating tests that were conducted by Baldi,
Hueckel, Peano, and Pellegrini (1991), Cekerevac and
Laloui (2004) and Cui, Le, Tang, Delage, and Li (2009),
a very interesting phenomenon was found by all these
researchers: the heat-induced volumetric strain was found
to be dependent on the OCR of the soil samples. Thus,
the specimen will change from contraction to expansion
as the OCR increases. In fields, a similar behavior is also
commonly observed in which any surface ground that is
mainly composed of soft clay will always settle when
heated. The results obtained from the laboratory and field
tests provide strong evidence that a special modeling
treatment for this behavior should be performed.
In this paper, however, we attempted to ask a question:
in a heating test, is the contractive behavior elementary for
31
soft clay that is heated under a constant isotropic stress? If
not, how can the contractive behavior of soil be modeled in
a heating test with a rational constitutive model?
A simple thermo-elasto-viscoplastic model for soft sedi-
mentary rock under ordinary p–q stress space has been pro-
posed by Zhang and Zhang (2009). The model described
thermodynamic behavior properly, and it over-
consolidated the time-dependent behavior of soft sedimen-
tary rocks. The proposed model satisfies the 1st and 2nd
thermodynamic theorems in the framework of non-
equilibrium thermodynamics. When proposing the model,
the geomaterial, no matter what state, i.e., normal or
over-consolidated, is always assumed to expand when its
temperature increases at the elementary level. This assump-
tion can be certainly accepted for any other materials but
soft clays because it apparently contradicts the behavior
observed in the above-mentioned heating test.
To answer the above question, the basic idea of the
thermo-elasto-viscoplastic model (Zhang & Zhang, 2009)
and its modification is first briefly introduced, and next, a
THM-coupled analysis, which is based on the model, was
conducted to confirm that the heating tests conducted by
Cekerevac and Laloui (2004) and other researchers were
not an elementary test but a boundary value problem
(BVP). These analyses were also conducted to confirm that
any material, including soft clays, will exhibit an expansion
whenever they are heated at the elementary level. It is not
necessary to add any extra material parameter to model
the so called ‘volumetric contraction of soft clay due to
heating’.
2. Brief description of the thermo-elasto-viscoplastic model
for soil
Zhang and Zhang (2009) proposed a thermo-elasto-
viscoplastic model (hereafter called the original model) in
which an equivalent stress induced by a temperature
change was adopted to consider the influence of tempera-
ture on the deformation and strength of soft rock.
The elastic volumetric strain due to the change in tem-
perature, DT , is calculated in the typical method as follows:
s _ s _
eeT s s
_ eT
v ¼ 3aT DT ¼ 3aT ðT  T 0 Þ ) e _ eT
v ¼ 3aT T ) e ij ¼ aT T dij ;
ð1Þ
where T is the current temperature, T0 is the reference tem-
perature, which is an arbitrary value and is taken as the
global average temperature or 15 °C. Then, asT is the ther-
mal expansion coefficient of the solid phase of the geoma-
terial whose value is negative because compressive strain is
typically positive in geomechanics.
Similar to the elastic volumetric strain, it is assumed that
the plastic volumetric strain of geomaterials is made up of
two independent parts, the thermodynamic epT v and stress-
induced epr
v , and it can be expressed as follows:
epv ¼ epr
v þ ev or dev ¼ dev þ dev :
pT p pr pT
ð2Þ
32 F. Zhang, Y. Kurimoto / Underground Space 1 (2016) 30–43

The concept of equivalent stress is defined as follows: yielding function that passes through the present stress
and temperature states is given as
~m ¼ rm0 þ
r 3K s asT ðT  T 0 Þ; ð3Þ
pffiffiffipffiffiffiffiffi
where rm0 is the reference mean stress and is usually rm 3 J2 rm0 þ 3K s asT ðT  T 0 Þ
f ðr; T ; ev Þ ¼ ln
p
þ þ ln
98 kPa. Then, Ks is the bulk modulus of the solid phase. rm0

Mrm

rm0
The physical meaning of the equivalent stress simply means 1 q
 ep  ¼ 0; ð5Þ
that the thermal strain caused by the temperature change, C p v 1 þ e0
DT , is equal to the strain caused by the equivalent stress
change when the real stress is kept constant. where q is the extended void ratio difference of
Meanwhile, the thermodynamic plastic volumetric q ¼ qr þ qT , qr is the stress-induced void ratio difference,
strain, epT , is evaluated with the well-known e–ln p relation and qT is the equivalent stress-induced void ratio difference.
simply by substituting the equivalent stress for the real pffiffiffiffiffi
J 2 is the second invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor.
stress, as shown in Fig. 1 and using the following equation:
Based on Eq. (5), if the temperature is held constant, the
~m
r ~m
r yielding function is simply a normal function, as shown
v ¼ C p ln
epT ¼ C p ln
~m0
r rm0 þ 3KasT ðT 0  T 0 Þ in Zhang, Yashima, Nakai, Ye, and Aung (2005).
rm0 þ 3K s asT ðT  T 0 Þ An associate flow rule is employed in the model;
¼ C p ln ; ð4Þ specifically,
rm0
where C p ¼ ðk  jÞ=ð1 þ e0 Þ ¼ Ep =ð1 þ e0 Þ, e0 is the refer- @f
ij ¼ K
depr : ð6Þ
ence void ratio at rm0 , k is the compression index and j @rij
is the swelling index.
Because the thermal expansion coefficient of the solid In the model, the consistency equation must be obeyed:
phase, asT , is always negative in soil mechanics (contractive  
@f 1 p q_
volumetric strain is set to be positive), if the soil is cooled, f_ ¼ 0 ) r_ ij  e_ v  ¼ 0: ð7Þ
then contractive volumetric strain will occur within the @rij Cp 1 þ e0
plastic strain. However, if the soil is heated, then the swell
volumetric strain will occur only as an elastic strain. There- Similar to the evolution equation proposed by Zhang
fore, the equivalent stress is entirely coincident with a real et al. (2005), the evolution equation for the extended void
stress both in terms of swelling and contraction in a very ratio difference, q, is expressed by the sum of the actual
natural manner. stress, rm , and the equivalent stress increment ð~
rm  rm0 Þ
Based on the definition of the equivalent stress and the to consider both the influence of stress and temperature
calculations for the elastic and the plastic strains that use in the following way:
Eqs. (1)–(4), the most important concept is that the elastic
volumetric strain is always assumed to be expansive if the
temperature increases!
The original thermo-elasto-viscoplastic model was then J2 P (T , m, J2 )
proposed within the framework of critical state soil Extended
mechanics and the subloading concept proposed by subloading yield Extended normal yiel d
Hashiguchi and Ueno (1977). The only change was that surface surface
instead of using real stresses, the equivalent stress was used
in the plastic potential. Therefore, as shown in Fig. 2, the
(a)

(T0 , ) (TN 1 , ) (TN 1e , )

e A
m0 N1 N 1e

e0 (T0 , ) (TN 1 , ) (TN 1e , ) T m

m0 N 1e
pT e pT N1

e pT
v
1 e0 e0
ln ~m

ep= ep + epT & ln m

Smaller

1 or = +
T

1 B (b)

Extended
~ e 1
m0 , T0 m0 m0 m
A NCL

Fig. 1. Relation between equivalent stress and void ratio difference Fig. 2. Extended normal yield surface and extended subloading yield
(Zhang & Zhang, 2009). surface (Zhang & Zhang, 2009).
 F. Zhang, Y. Kurimoto / Underground Space 1 (2016) 30–43 33

q_ Gðq; tÞ @f
Eijkl e_ kl þ hðtÞ
¼ K þ hðtÞ K ¼ Ke ¼
@rij Cp
1 þ e0 rm þ ð~
rm  rm0 Þ @f @f h
p

@rij
Eijkl @r þ Csubp
Gðq; tÞ

kl
¼ K þ hðtÞ; ð8Þ @f 3K s asT
_
rm þ 3K s asT ðT  T 0 Þ @rij
K s
d ij C p rm0 þ3K a ðT T 0 Þ
s s þ 3a s
T T
 T
p : ð13Þ
where @f @f hsub
@rij
Eijkl @r þ
( ~
kl Cp

hðtÞ ¼ e_ 0v ½1 þ t=t1 
a

1þC n lnð1þt=t1 Þ
: ð9Þ
Gðq; tÞ ¼ aq1þCn lnð1þt=t1 Þ ¼ aðqT þ qr Þ The loading criteria are given as follows:
8
In this equation, e_ 0v is the initial volumetric strain rate at > _
<fr > 0 hardening
time t = 0, which represents the time when shearing begins. kdeij k > 0 if K > 0 and f_ r < 0
pr
softening
Then, t1 is a unit time and is used to standardize the time, >
:_ ð14Þ
fr ¼ 0 pure creep
and it always takes the value of 1.0. Additionally, ~a is a
time-dependent parameter that controls the gradient of kdepr
ij k ¼ 0 if K 6 0 elastic:
strain rate vs. time in the logarithmic axes during the creep
test, and Cn controls the strain rate dependency of soft Nine parameters are involved in the model, among
rocks. which M, N, v, k and j are exactly the same as in the
Substituting Eqs. (1), (2), (6) and (8) into Eq. (7), the Cam-clay model. The other four parameters are the same
positive variable, K, can be evaluated with the increment as the model proposed by Zhang et al. (2005), i.e., a con-
of stress as follows: trols the losing rate of over consolidation, ~a is the gradient
  p of strain rate or the time relation on the logarithmic axes, b
hðtÞ hsub
K ¼ Kr ¼ f_ r þ ; ð10Þ controls the shape of the yield function, and Cn controls the
Cp Cp
strain rate dependency. These parameters have clear phys-
where ical meanings and can be determined by triaxial compres-
sion tests and creep tests. A detailed description of the
@f @f Gðq; tÞ
f_ r ¼ r_ ij ; hpsub ¼ þ : ð11Þ calibration method for these nine parameters can be found
@rij @rkk rm þ 3K s asT ðT  T 0 Þ in Zhang et al. (2005).
Here, K can also be evaluated with the increment of strain. To describe the thermodynamic behavior of geomateri-
The stress rate is calculated by Hooke’s law as follows: als, only the linear thermal expansion coefficient, asT , which
 is a physical parameter with a value that is fixed for a given
r_ ij ¼ Eijkl e_ er
kl ¼ Eijkl e_ kl  e_ pkl  e_ eT
kl : ð12Þ geomaterial, is added to the model proposed by Zhang
Substituting Eqs. (1), (2), (4), (6), (8) and (12) into Eq. et al. (2005) to form the thermo-viscoplastic model. Mean-
(7), the positive variable, K, can also be written as follows: while, the volumetric strain is always assumed to be expan-
sive if the temperature increases, and no special treatment

Table 1
Material parameters and physical parameters.
Parameters Unit Kaolin clay
Material parameter same Compression index k – 0.10
as Cam-clay model Swelling index j – 0.01
Critical state stress ratio Rf – 2.09
Void ratio N (p = 98 kPa on N.C.L.) – 0.93
Poisson’s ratio m – 0.35
Additional material parameters Parameter for plastic potential shape b – 1.5
Time dependent parameter a – 0.0
Time dependent parameter Cn – 0.0
Degradation parameter of overconsolidation state a – 2000
Physical parameters Permeability k m/min 3.0E9
Thermal expansion coefficient of solid phase asT K1 8.0E6
Thermal expansion coefficient of fluid phase afT K1 2.07E4
Specific heat of solid phase cs J kg1 K1 840
Specific heat of fluid phase cf J kg1 K1 4184
Thermal conductivity of solid phase ksT kJ m1 K1 min1 0.18
Heat transfer coefficient of air boundary ac kJ m2 K1 min1 230
Initial condition Consolidation yield stress pc kPa 600
Overconsolidation ratios considered in the heating tests – 1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 6.0, 12.0
and corresponding calculations OCR
34 F. Zhang, Y. Kurimoto / Underground Space 1 (2016) 30–43

OCR = 1.0 OCR = 3.0 OCR = 1.0 OCR = 3.0

OCR = 1.2 OCR = 6.0 OCR = 1.2 OCR = 6.0
OCR = 1.5 OCR = 12.0 OCR = 1.5 OCR = 12.0
OCR = 2.0 OCR = 2.0
750 750
T = 22 T = 22

600 600
Deviator stress q (kPa)

Deviator stress q (kPa)

450 450

300 300

150 150

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Axial strain (%) Axial strain (%)
a a

OCR = 1.0 OCR = 3.0 OCR = 1.0 OCR = 3.0

OCR = 1.2 OCR = 6.0 OCR = 1.2 OCR = 6.0
OCR = 1.5 OCR = 12.0 OCR = 1.5 OCR = 12.0
OCR = 2.0 OCR = 2.0
-5 -5
T = 22 T = 22
(%)

(%)
v

0 0
Volumetric strain

Volumetric strain

5 5

10 10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Axial strain (%) Axial strain (%)
a a
(a) Test (b) simulations

Fig. 3. Comparison of test and simulated stress–strain–dilatancy relations for element tests (test data: Cekerevac & Laloui, 2004).

is added to the model to address the so-called volumetric 3. Simulation of the heating test
contraction of soft clay due to heating!
Moreover, the model was confirmed to satisfy the first Cekerevac and Laloui (2004) reported that the volumet-
and second thermodynamic theorems. A detailed descrip- ric change of soft clay due to heating under constant
tion can be found in Zhang and Zhang (2009). isotropic stress conditions depends on the initial over con-
To consider the influence of intermediate stress on the solidation ratio (OCR). Thus, the thermal volumetric strain
deformation and strength of geomaterials, the original will change from contraction to expansion when the OCR
model was modified in the tij transformed stress space by increases from 1.0 to 12. The test program is organized
adopting the tij concept (Nakai & Hinokio, 2004). A brief well, and the results are convincing because we conducted
description of the modification and validation of the mod- not only heating tests but also a series of relevant triaxial
ified model are provided in Appendix. compression tests on the clay samples at different
 F. Zhang, Y. Kurimoto / Underground Space 1 (2016) 30–43
10@0.01 m = 0.1 m
10@0.01 m = 0.1 m
20@0.01 m = 0.2 m
z were used in the THM analysis are shown in Fig. 4. The
Node 2541
y x Element 2000
Fig. 4. Finite element mesh used in 3D analysis of heating tests.
temperatures. The results significantly affect the modeling
of the thermal behavior of soils because it confirms that
the soft clay or clay that is normally consolidated may
shrink when heated and not swell, as other materials do.
This extraordinary phenomenon puzzled the researchers
who specialized in proposing a constitutive model for geo-
materials. Thus, at least one extra parameter is always
required to describe this ‘elementary’ behavior.
The heating tests that were conducted by Cekerevac and
Laloui (2004) were simulated with THM coupling finite
element-finite difference (FE-FD) analysis using a code
named SOFT (Xiong, 2015; Xiong, Bao, Ye, & Zhang,
2014; & Xiong, Zhang, Ye, & Zhang, 2014). The THM
analyses are based on the modified thermo-viscoplastic
model that was described in the previous chapter and in
Appendix.
Before the THM analyses, the elementary behavior of
the samples at different OCRs was simulated to determine
the material parameters of the soil. Table 1 lists the mate-
rial and physical parameters of the soil based on the simu-
lation of the elementary tests. Because of the detailed study
by Cekerevac and Laloui (2004), who systematically con-
ducted elementary tests and laboratory tests, it is possible
to examine the soil behavior in a fundamental way. This
is also why we use their test results in this paper to investi-
gate the above-mentioned thermal behavior.
26°C
(°C) (°C)
25.5 25.6 25.7 25.8 25.9 26
Fig. 5. Distribution of temperature within testing sample at different heating stages.
35
Fig. 3 shows a comparison between the tested and sim-
ulated stressstrain–dilatancy relations for the element
tests at different OCRs. The stressstrain–dilatancy rela-
tions of the soil can be somewhat simulated entirely, which
can assure the accuracy of the THM analysis for the heat-
ing tests as a BVP. Because the clay used in the tests is not a
time-dependent material, the two time-dependent parame-
ters, ~a and Cn, are set to be zero in the simulation, which
means that the constitutive model automatically shrank
to a thermo-elastoplastic model.
The finite element mesh and boundary conditions that
sample was only fixed at one point in all three directions
and did not allow any rotation around the x and y axes,
as shown in the figure. Meanwhile the sample could change
its volume freely due to thermal expansion, which was the
same condition as in the test. The initial temperature was
22 °C, and the specimen was heated gradually to 90 °C at
a rate of 4 °C/h. Additionally, the hydraulic condition at
all boundaries was set to be drained, which was the same
as in the test.
Fig. 5 shows the distribution of temperature within the
testing samples at different heating stages. As shown in
the figure, the temperature field is not uniform, which
clearly shows that the heating test is not an elementary test
but a BVP because a non-uniform temperature field exists.
Figs. 6–8 show the distributions of various physical
quantities within the testing samples (OCR = 1.0, 2.0 and
12.0) at different heating stages. It is impossible to observe
a single unformed field in the physical quantities, such as
the volumetric stain, excess pore water pressure (EPWP)
and deviatoric strain. These figures simply show that even
if the heating process is very slow (4 °C/h) the uneven ther-
mal field within the heating sample may result in a non-
uniform stress and strain fields.
The phenomena in Figs. 6–8 occurred because the heat-
ing process can be approximately divided into two stages:
(1) heat transfer and (2) pore water dissipation. Because
the thermal conductivity is much higher than the hydraulic
conductivity in soft clay, stage 1 is very short compared to
stage 2. Thus, thermal dilation occurs very fast, followed
by water pressure dissipation. However, stage 1 and stage
58°C 90°C
(°C)
57.5 57.6 57.7 57.8 57.9 58 89.5 89.6 89.7 89.8 89.9 90
36 F. Zhang, Y. Kurimoto / Underground Space 1 (2016) 30–43

26°C 58°C 90°C

(%) (%) (%)

-0.025 0 0.025 0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

(a) Volumetric strain (%)

26°C 58°C 90°C

(kPa) (kPa) (kPa)

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40

(b) Excess pore water pressure (kPa)

26°C 58°C 90°C

(%) (%) (%)

0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

(c) Deviator strain (%)

Fig. 6. Distribution of various physical quantities within testing sample (OCR = 1.0) at different heating stages.

2 do not consistently occur within the sample; therefore,
the volumetric change also becomes inconsistent, resulting
in contraction in some areas. This inconsistency will not
disappear even if the EPWP dissipated completely and even
if the temperature in the entire sample becomes constant
after a long time. Whenever a contractive strain occurs,
plastic volumetric strain will also occur, and typically, it
is unevenly distributed.
Fig. 9 shows the time histories of various physical quan-
tities at the center and corner of the samples that have dif-
ferent OCRs. Not only the volumetric strain and the
EPWP but also the deviatoric strain will build up in the
so-called isotropic heating test! In fact, because the heating
test is a non-uniform BVP, even if the loading and heating
conditions are isotropic, the fields are not uniform.
Fig. 10 shows a comparison between the tested and sim-
ulated temperature-volumetric strain relation. The volu-
metric strain here is an average throughout the entire
sample that consists of 2000 elements. The calculated volu-
metric strain generally agreed with the tested strain regard-
ing its variation with temperature, although quantitatively,
there still were several discrepancies.
 F. Zhang, Y. Kurimoto / Underground Space 1 (2016) 30–43 37

2 6° C 58°C 90°C

(%) (%) (%)

-0.05 -0.024 0.002 -0.1 -0.065 -0.03 0.005 -0.15 -0.11 -0.07 -0.03 0.01

(a) Volumetric strain (%)

2 6 °C 5 8 °C 9 0 °C

(kPa) (kPa) (kPa)

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40

(b) Excess pore water pressure (kPa)

26 °C 58 °C 90 °C

(%) (%) (%)

0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.015 0.03 0.045

(c) Deviator strain (%)

Fig. 7. Distribution of various physical quantities within testing sample (OCR = 2.0) at different heating stages.

4. Conclusions elastoplastic model. First, the calculation clearly showed

Based on a simple thermo-elasto-viscoplastic model,
which was modified in the tij-transformed stress space and
can describe the influence of temperature on the deforma-
tion and the strength of geomaterials and can take into
account the influence of an intermediate principal stress, a
well-known heating test was simulated with a THM-
coupled finite element analysis as the BVP. The main pur-
pose of this study was to identify if it is necessary to model
the so-called ‘the volumetric contraction of soft clay due to
heating’ by introducing extra parameters in the thermo-
that the heating test is not an elementary test, but there
are always non-uniform stress, strain and temperature
fields. The test is a BVP. Second, based on the universal rule
that any material will expand when heated, it is not neces-
sary to introduce an extra parameter to properly organize
the thermo-elastoplastic model to describe the phenomenon
of ‘the volumetric contraction of soft clay due to heating’.
Because the heating test is a BVP, the phenomenon is simply
an average behavior of the BVP and not an inherent prop-
erty of the soil. The results provide a useful suggestion for
the modeling of the thermodynamic behavior of soils.
38 F. Zhang, Y. Kurimoto / Underground Space 1 (2016) 30–43

2 6 °C 5 8 °C 90°C

(%) (%) (%)

-0.1 0.0485 0.003 -0.5 0.245 0.01 -0.5 0.245 0.01

(a) Volumetric strain (%)

26°C 58 °C 9 0 °C

(kPa) (kPa) (kPa)

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40

(b) Excess pore water pressure (kPa)

2 6 °C 5 8 °C 90 °C

(%) (%) (%)

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

(c) Deviator strain (%)

Fig. 8. Distribution of various physical quantities within testing sample (OCR = 12.0) at different heating stages.

Appendix A and Hinokio (2004). The plastic potential takes the same
form as the work by Zhang et al. (2005),
Brief description of modified thermo-elasto-viscoplastic  
model in tij transformed stress space (Xiong, 2015). 1 p q
f ðtij ; epv ; T Þ ¼ f r ðtij Þ  e  ¼ 0; ðA-1Þ
C p v 1 þ e0

A.1. Derivation of model where,

In order to take into consideration the influence of inter- f r ðtij Þ ¼ lnðtN =tN 0 Þ þ nðX Þ; ðA-2Þ
mediate stress on the deformation and strength of geoma-
terials, the original model (Zhang, Leng, Zhang, & Xiong,  b
1 X  1=b
2012; Zhang & Zhang, 2009) is modified in tij transformed 1ðX Þ ¼ ; M  ¼ X bCS þ X b1
CS Y CS ; ðA-3Þ
stress space by adopting the tij concept proposed by Nakai b M
 F. Zhang, Y. Kurimoto / Underground Space 1 (2016) 30–43 39

Excess pore water pressure Excess pore water pressure

Volumetric strain

Volumetric strain
Volumetric strain Volumetric strain
Deviator strain Deviator strain
100 -1 10 -0.5

Excess pore water pressure uw (kPa)

Excess pore water pressure uw (kPa)

80 Center -0.8 8 Corner -0.4

6 -0.3
60 -0.6

v
4 -0.2

(%), Deviator strain 2I2 (%)

(%), Deviator strain 2I2 (%)

40 -0.4
2 -0.1
20 -0.2
0 0
0 0
-2 0.1

-20 0.2 -4 0.2

-40 0.4 -6 0.3

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time t (min) Time t (min)

(a) Testing sample OCR=1.0

Excess pore water pressure Volumetric strain Excess pore water pressure

Volumetric strain
Volumetric strain Volumetric strain
Deviator strain Deviator strain
100 -1 10 -0.5
Excess pore water pressure uw (kPa)

Excess pore water pressure uw (kPa)

80 -0.8 8 -0.4
Center Corner
6 -0.3
60 -0.6
v

v
4 -0.2
(%), Deviator strain 2I2 (%)

(%), Deviator strain 2I2 (%)

40 -0.4
2 -0.1
20 -0.2
0 0
0 0
-2 0.1

-20 0.2 -4 0.2

-40 0.4 -6 0.3

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time t (min) Time t (min)
(b) Testing sample OCR=2.0

Excess pore water pressure Excess pore water pressure

Volumetric strain

Volumetric strain

Volumetric strain Volumetric strain

Deviator strain Deviator strain
100 -1 10 -0.5
Excess pore water pressure uw (kPa)

Excess pore water pressure uw (kPa)

80 -0.8 8 -0.4
Center Corner
6 -0.3
60 -0.6
v

4 -0.2
(%), Deviator strain 2I2 (%)

(%), Deviator strain 2I2 (%)

40 -0.4
2 -0.1
20 -0.2
0 0
0 0
-2 0.1

-20 0.2 -4 0.2

-40 0.4 -6 0.3

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time t (min) Time t (min)
(c) Testing sample OCR=12.0

Fig. 9. Time histories of various physical quantities at different positions in different heating tests.
40 F. Zhang, Y. Kurimoto / Underground Space 1 (2016) 30–43

OCR = 1.0 OCR = 6.0 OCR = 1.0 OCR = 6.0

OCR = 1.5 OCR = 12.0 OCR = 1.5 OCR = 12.0
OCR = 2.0 OCR = 2.0
100 100

90 90

80 80
)

)
Temparature T (

Temparature T (
70 70

60 60

50 50

40 40

30 30

20 20
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Volumetric strain (%) Volumetric strain (%)
v v
(a) Tests (b) simulations

Fig. 10. Comparison of test and simulated temperature-volumetric strain relation (test data: Cekerevac & Laloui, 2004).

Fig. A-1. Subloading yield surface, normal yield surface, definition of q and stress–dilatancy relation (Nakai & Hinokio, 2004).

pffiffiffi   pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1 1  RCS at the critical state and can be expressed by RCS ¼ r1 =r3 ,
X CS ¼ RCS  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; Y CS ¼ pffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; the principal stress ratio at critical state under triaxial load-
3 RCS 2ð RCS þ 0:5Þ
ing. tN is the present stress state and tN 1 is the cross point of
ðA-4Þ the axis of tS ¼ 0 with the subloading yield surface that
tN 1e Ep kj passes through the present stress state. tN 1 and tN 1e are
epv ¼ C p ln ; Cp ¼ ¼ ; ðA-5Þ
tN 0 1 þ e0 1 þ e0 the cross points of the subloading and normal yield sur-
tN 1e faces with the mean stress axis tN , as shown in Fig. A-1
q ¼ Ep  ln ¼ ð1 þ e0 Þ  C p  ln OCR: ðA-6Þ (a). e0 (The same as N in Cam-Clay model) is the initial
tN 1
void ratio at tN = tN0 = 98 kPa under isotropic normal
tN and tS are the modified mean effective stress and the consolidated condition.
shear stress in tij stress space. X ¼ tS =tN represents the shear Eq. (A-2) is differentiated as:
stress ratio. tN 0 is a reference mean stress and takes the
value as 98 kPa. M* is the intercept of stress–dilatancy  
curve with X axis, as shown in Fig. A-1(b). X CS and Y CS _f ¼ 0 ) @f r_ ij  1 e_ p  q_ ¼ 0: ðA-7Þ
are the stress ratio and the plastic strain increment ratio @rij C p v 1 þ e0
 F. Zhang, Y. Kurimoto / Underground Space 1 (2016) 30–43 41

The evolution of the void ratio difference q, is given in Substituting Eqs. (A-8), (A-9) and (A-10) into Eq. (A-7),
the same form as the original model, only by substituting K can be expressed with the increment of stress as,
the normal stress with the modified mean stress tN , which
f_ r þ hðtÞ=C p @f Gðq; tÞ
can both consider the influence of the stress and the tem- K ¼ Kr ¼ ; hpT ¼ þ ;
perature and is written as in the following equation: hT =C p
p
@tkk tN þ 3KasT ðT  T 0 Þ
@f
Gðq; tÞ f_ r ¼ r_ ij : ðA-11Þ
_
q=ð1 þ e0 Þ ¼ K þ hðtÞ; ðA-8Þ @rij
tN þ 3K s asT ðT  T 0 Þ
Under the creep state (f_ ¼ ð@f =@rij Þr_ ij ¼ 0), the follow-
where, Gðq; tÞ and hðtÞ are totally the same as Eq. (9), that
ing relation can be obtained:
is,
( ~ f_ r ¼ 0 ) K ¼ hðtÞ=hpT : ðA-12Þ
hðtÞ ¼ e_ 0v ½1 þ t=t1 
a

1þC lnð1þt=t1 Þ
: On the other hand, the rate of stress tensor is calculated
Gðq; tÞ ¼ aq1þCn lnð1þt=t1 Þ ¼ aðqT þ qr Þ n
by corresponding Hooke’s theory:
ðA-9Þ  
eT dkl
Associated flow rule is adopted in the tij transformed r_ ij ¼ Eijkl e_ kl ¼ Eijkl e_ kl  e_ kl  e_ v
er p
: ðA-13Þ
3
stress space as,
Substituting Eqs. (A-10), (A-11) and (A-12) into
@f @f Eq. (A-7), K can also be expressed with the increment of
e_ pij ¼K ; e_ pv ¼ K ðA-10Þ
@tij @tkk strain in the following way as,

12 -6
(MPa)

10
(%)

-4
3

8
v
1

volumetric strain
Stress difference

6 -2

4
0
2

0 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Axial strain 1
(%) Axial strain 1
(%)

(a) Constant comfining stress 3=0.49MPa

12 -6
(MPa)

10
(%)

-4
3

8
v
volumetric strain
1
Stress difference

6 -2

4
0
2

0 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Axial strain 1
(%) Axial strain 1
(%)

(b) Constant comfining stress 3=0.98MPa

Fig. A-2. Theoretical and test results of drained triaxial compression tests for Tage stone.
42 F. Zhang, Y. Kurimoto / Underground Space 1 (2016) 30–43
 
@f H ðt; T Þ 4 -4 0
K ¼ Ke ¼ Eijkl e_ kl þ DT ; ðA-14Þ
@rij

(MPa)
Cp
3 -30

Volumetric strain
where,

3
@f

1
H ðt; T Þ ¼ hðtÞ  C p BT T_ ; 2 -20

Stress difference
@rkk
@f @f hp 1 -10
DT ¼ Eijkl þ T ; BT ¼ 3asT : ðA-15Þ
@rij @tkl C p

v
(%)
0 0
Eq. (A-13) can also be expressed as:
r_ ij ¼ ðEijkl  Epijkl Þ_ekl  AT Eijqr ð@f =@tqr Þ -1 10
0 5 10 15
 K BT T_ dij ;
s
ðA-16Þ Axial strain 1 (%)

where, Fig. A-4. Theoretical and test results of drained triaxial compression tests
 for manmade soft rock under different loading rate (Room temperature).
@f @f H ðt; T Þ
Epijkl ¼ Eijqr Emnkl D T ; AT ¼ : ðA-17Þ
@rmn @tqr DT  C p
The loading criteria are given as, 4 -4 0
8
_

(MPa)
>
< f r > 0 hardening 3 -30

Volumetric strain
k_eij k > 0 if K > 0 and f_ r < 0 softening
p
>

3
:_
f r ¼ 0 pure creep

1
2 -20
k_eij k ¼ 0 if K 6 0 elastic: Stress difference
p

ðA-18Þ 1 -10

v
Nine parameters are involved in the modified model and

(%)
0 0
they are all the same as those of the original model (Zhang
& Zhang, 2009; Zhang et al., 2012). -1 10
0 5 10 15
A.2. Verification of the model with triaxial compression and Axial strain 1 (%)
creep tests
Fig. A-5. Theoretical and test results of drained triaxial compression tests
for manmade rock under different confining stresses (Room temperature).
Some typical mechanical and thermodynamic behaviors
of Tage stone, a volcanic green tuff widely distributed in
northeast Japan, in drained triaxial compression and creep The conventional triaxial compression and creep tests at
tests (Nishimura, 2013) are simulated. Figs. A-2 and A-3 room temperature (Sekine, Zhang, Tasaka, Kurose, &
show the comparison between the theoretical and test Ohmori, 2009) on a manmade soft rock under drained con-
results of Tage stone in drained thermal triaxial compres- dition are also simulated. The manmade soft rock is made
sion and creep tests under different constant temperature from gypsum and diatom and its composition is listed in
during shearing process (Figs. A-4 and A-5). Table A-1. Conventional triaxial compression tests were

-1 -1
10 10
(%/min)
(%/min)

-2 -2
10 10

-3 -3
. 10
1

. 10
1

Axial strain rate

Axial strain rate

-4 -4
10 10

-5 -5
10 10

-6 -6
10 2 3 4 5
10 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
time t (min) time t (min)
(a) Constant comfining stress 3=0.49MPa (b) Constant comfining stress 3=0.98MPa

Fig. A-3. Theoretical and test results of drained triaxial creep tests for Tage stone under.
 F. Zhang, Y. Kurimoto / Underground Space 1 (2016) 30–43
Table A-1
Material weight ratio of manmade soft rock.
Gypsum Diatom Water Retardation
1.0 0.3 1.0 0.4%
conducted under different confining stresses and shear
strain rates with constant strain rate loading condition.
The confining stresses used in the tests are r3 = 0.1, 0.3
and 1.0 MPa and the loading rate are 1.0, .1 and 0.01%/
min respectively. The creep stresses used in the creep tests
are 80% of the peak stresses of the specimen at the same
confining stress in triaxial compression test.
References
Akesson, M., Jacinto, A. C., Gatabin, C., Sanchez, M., & Ledesma, A.
(2009). Bentonite THM behavior at high temperatures: Experimental
and numerical analysis. Géotechnique, 59(4), 307–318.
Baldi, G., Hueckel, T., Peano, A., & Pellegrini, R. (1991). Developments in
modeling of thermo-hydro-geomechanical behavior of Boom clay and
clay-based buffer materials, Report EUR 13365. Commission of the
European Communities, Nuclear Science and Technology.
Cekerevac, C., & Laloui, L. (2004). Experimental study of thermal effects
on the mechanical behavior of a clay. International Journal for
Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 28, 209–228.
François, B., & Laloui, L. (2008). ACMEG-TS: A constitutive model for
unsaturated soils under non-isothermal conditions. International Jour-
nal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 32(16),
1955–1988.
Cui, Y. J., Le, T. T., Tang, A. M., Delage, P., & Li, X. L. (2009).
Investigating the time-dependent behavior of Boom clay under
thermomechanical loading. Géotechnique, 59(4), 319–329.
Cui, Y. J., Tang, A.-M., Qian, L. X., Ye, W. M., & Chen, B. (2011).
Thermal-mechanical behavior of compacted GMZ bentonite. Soils and
Foundations, 51(6), 1065–1074.
Gens, A. (2010). Soil-environment interactions in geotechnical engineer-
ing. Géotechnique, 60(1), 3–74.
Gens, A., Guimaraes, L. do N., Fernandez, A. M., Olivella, S. & Sanchez,
M. (2008). Coupled analysis of chemo-mechanical processes. In:
Thermal-hydromechanical and chemical coupling in geomaterials and
applications, Geoproc’2008 (Shao, J.-F. & Burlion).
Gens, A., & Olivella, S. (2001). THM phenomena in saturated and unsatu-
rated porous media. Revue Française de Génie Civil, 5(6), 693–717.
Gens, A., Sanchez, M., Guimaraes, L. do N., Alonso, E. E., Lloret, A.,
Olivella, S., Villar, M. V., & Huertas, F. (2009). A full-scale in situ
heating test for high-level nuclear waste disposal: Observations,
analysis and interpretation. Géotechnique, 59(4), 377–399.
Gens, A., Vaunat, J., Garitte, B., & Wileveau, Y. (2007). In situ behavior
of a stiff layered clay subject to thermal loading: Observations and
interpretation. Géotechnique, 57(2), 207–228.
Graham, J., Tanaka, N., Crilly, T., & Alfaro, M. (2001). Modified Cam-
Clay modelling of temperature effects in clays. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, 38(3), 608–621.
Gray, W. G., & Schrefler, B. A. (2001). Thermodynamic approach to
effective stress in partially saturated porous media. European Journal of
Mechanics A/Solids, 20(4), 521–538.
Guimaraes, L. do N., Gens, A., & Olivella, S. (2007). Coupled thermo-
hydro-mechanical and chemical analysis of expansive clay subjected to
heating and hydration. Transport in Porous Media, 66(3), 341–372.
Guimaraes, L. do N., Gens, A., Sanchez, S., & Olivella, S. (2006). THM
and reactive transport analysis of expansive clay barrier in radioactive
waste isolation. Communications in Numerical Methods in Engineering,
22(8), 849–859.
Hashiguchi, K., & Ueno, M. (1977). Elastoplastic constitutive laws of
granular materials. In: Constitutive Equations of Soils (Proc. 9th
ICFSME, Spec. Session 9), Tokyo, JSSMFE, Tokyo (pp. 73–82).
Jia, Y., Wileveau, Y., Su, K., Duveau, G., & Shao, J. F. (2007). Thermo-
hydro-mechanical modeling of a situ heating experiment. Géotech-
nique, 57(10), 845–855.
43
Laloui, L., & Cekerevac, C. (2003). Thermo-plasticity of clays: An
isotropic yield mechanism. Computers and Geotechnics, 38(8), 649–660.
Laloui, L., & Cekerevac, C. (2008). Non-isothermal plasticity model for
cyclic behaviour of soils. International Journal for Numerical and
Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 32(5), 437–460.
Lebon, G., Jou, D., & Casas-Vázquez, J. (2008). Understanding non-
equilibrium thermodynamics. Springer.
Lima, A. (2009). Thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour of natural Boom
clay: An experimental study (PhD thesis). Spain: Universitat Politec-
nica de Catalunya.
Lloret, A., & Villar, M. V. (2007). Advances on the knowledge of the
thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour of heavily compacted FEBEX
bentonite. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 32(8–14),
701–715.
Nakai, T., & Hinokio, M. (2004). A simple elastoplastic model for
normally and overconsolidated soils with unified materials parameters.
Soils and Foundations, 44(2), 53–70.
Nishimura, T. (2013). Experimental research and modeling of thermo-creep
behavior of sedimentary soft rock and its application to BVP (Master
thesis). Nagoya Institute of Technology.
Nishimura, S., Gens, A., Olivella, S., & Jardine, R. J. (2009). THM
coupled finite element analysis of frozen soil: Formulation and
application. Geotechnique, 59(3), 159–171.
Okada, T. (2005). Mechanical properties of sedimentary soft rock at high
temperatures (Part 1)-Evaluation of temperature dependency based on
triaxial compression test, Civil Engineering Research Laboratory
Report, No. N04026. (in Japanese).
Okada, T. (2006). Mechanical properties of sedimentary soft rock at high
temperatures (Part 2)-Evaluation of temperature dependency of creep
behavior based on unconfined compression test, Civil Engineering
Research Laboratory Report, No. N05057. (in Japanese).
Rojas, E., & Garnica, P. (2000). Thermomechanical anisotropic model for
soils. Soils and Foundations, 40(2), 61–75.
Salager, S., Francois, B., Youssoufi, M. S. E., Laloui, L., & Saix, C.
(2008). Experimental investigations of temperature and suction effects
on compressibility and pre-consolidation pressure of a sandy silt. Soils
and Foundations, 48(4), 453–466.
Sanchez, M., & Gens, A. (2006). Final report on thermo-hydromechanical
modelling, Febex Project, Publicacion Tecnica 05-2/2006. Madrid: Enresa.
Sawada, M., Okada, T., Tani, K., Takakura, N., & Ikenoya, T. (2009). In-
situ heating test in the sedimentary soft rock (part 2)-Application of
thermo-hydro-mechanical coupled analysis to the sedimentary soft rock,
Civil Engineering Research Laboratory Report, No. N08055. (in
Japanese).
Sekine, Y., Zhang, F., Tasaka, Y., Kurose, H., & Ohmori, T. (2009). Model
tests and numerical analysis on the evaluation of long-term stability of
existing tunnel. In Proc. 17th ICSMGE (Vol. 2, pp. 1848–1854). .
Sultan, N., Delage, P., & Cui, Y. J. (2002). Temperature effects on the
volume change behaviour of Boom clay. Engineering Geology, 64(2–3),
135–145.
Tang, A. M., Cui, Y. J., & Barnel, N. (2008). Thermo-mechanical
behaviour of a compacted swelling clay. Geotechnique, 58(1), 45–54.
Towhata, I., Kuntiwattanaku, P., Seko, I., & Ohishi, K. (1993). Volume
change of clays induced by heating as observed in consolidation tests.
Soils and Foundations, 33(4), 170–183.
Villar, M. V., & Lloret, A. (2004). Influence of temperature on the hydro-
mechanical behaviour of a compacted bentonite. Applied Clay Science,
26(1–4), 337–350.
Xiong, Y. L. (2015). Thermo-hydraulic-mechanical-air coupling finite
element analysis and its application to geotechnical engineering problems
(Doctoral dissertation). Japan: Nagoya Institute of Technology.
Xiong, Y. L., Bao, X. H., Ye, B., & Zhang, F. (2014b). Soil–water–air
coupling finite element analysis on slope failure in unsaturated ground.
Soils and Foundations, 54(3), 377–395.
Xiong, Y. L., Zhang, S., Ye, G. L., & Zhang, F. (2014a). Modification of
thermo-elasto-viscoplastic model for soft rock and its application to
THM analysis on heating tests. Soils and Foundations, 54(2), 176–196.
Zhang, S., Leng, W., Zhang, F., & Xiong, Y. L. (2012). A simple thermo-
elastoplastic model for geomaterials. International Journal of Plasticity,
34, 93–113.
Zhang, F., Yashima, A., Nakai, T., Ye, G. L., & Aung, H. (2005). An
elasto-viscoplastic model for soft sedimentary rock based on tij concept
and subloading yield surface. Soils and Foundations, 45(1), 65–73.
Zhang, S., & Zhang, F. (2009). A thermo-elasto-viscoplastic model for soft
sedimentary rock. Soils and Foundations, 49(4), 583–595.