www.sciencemag.org/content/science.

1254524/DC1

Supplementary Material for

Invisibility cloaking in a diffusive light scattering medium
Robert Schittny, Muamer Kadic, Tiemo Bückmann, Martin Wegener

Published 5 June 2014 on Science Express

DOI: 10.1126/science.1254524

This PDF file includes:

Materials and Methods

Supplementary text
Figs. S1 to S4
Table S1
Materials and Methods
The flat cuboid Plexiglas tank with inner volume × × = 35.5 cm × 16 cm ×
6 cm used in the experiments of the main paper and of this Supplementary Online
Material (SOM) has two transparent 35.5 cm × 16 cm area walls towards the computer
LCD monitor and the camera, but black Plexiglas walls on all other sides. It has been
custom made for us by GLASSCHMID®, Karlsruhe, Germany. “Black” is important to
prevent light-waveguide effects along the line of sight in these walls that would otherwise

The thickness of the tank of = = 6 cm has intentionally been chosen

obscure the recorded photographic images.

significantly smaller than the other tank dimensions of 35.5 cm and 16 cm, respectively,

shown in this paper cover an area of about 35.5/2 cm × 16/2 cm, i.e., we stay 25% away
to keep finite-size and edge effects of the tank at a minimum. All measured images

from all edges. Cloaking has also worked for much smaller tanks used in earlier stages of
our experiments. There, due to more pronounced edge effects, the reference images have
no longer simply exhibited homogeneous brightness, which has made the assessment of
the cloaking performance more difficult and the data less intuitive to interpret.
The ordinary white wall paint mixed into the de-ionized water is of the type
“Schöner Wohnen Polarweiss” from J. D. Flügger, Hamburg, Germany. To ensure
homogeneity of the water-paint mixture in the tank at all times, two motorized magnet
stirrers (type “MR Hei-Standard” from Heidolph Instruments GmbH, Schwabach,
Germany) continuously stir the liquid at the bottom of the tank.
The cloaking shell is composed of PDMS (type “Sylgard® 184 Silicone Elastomer”
from Dow Corning, Michigan, U.S.A.), doped with dielectric melamine-resin
microparticles of 10 µm diameter (type “MF-F-10.2, Charge: MF-F-1960-1” from
microParticles GmbH, Berlin, Germany) at a concentration of 1 mg/ml. We fabricate the
shell by pouring the liquid-doped PDMS into a home-built cast containing the core. The
cast is removed after polymerization of the PDMS.
The hollow metal core is made of stainless steel and has a thickness of 3 mm (5 mm)
for the cylindrical (spherical) cloak. Both are spray coated with a thin layer of acrylic
white paint (type “Dupli-Color Acryl Deco Matt weiß” from Motip Dupli GmbH,
Hassmersheim, Germany) serving as a diffusive reflector, i.e., approximating zero light
diffusivity. Results obtained from these structures are described in the main text.
We have also performed additional experiments without the acrylic white paint and
with just the bare reflecting metal as surface of the core region. As a result, the diffusive
reflections at the core surface are replaced by specular reflections. We could not find any
convincing cloaking performance under these conditions. We attribute this finding to
effectively much larger reflection losses for the case of the bare metal. The effect of
losses shall also be discussed below in the section “Comparison of experiment and
theory”.
The yellowish colors of the reference and the other images in Figs. 2 and 3 indicate
that the water-paint surrounding absorbs part of the incident blue light and possibly also
some of the other colors. From a quantitative analysis of the diffusive images in Fig. 2
(Fig. 3), using the usual RGB color nomenclature, we find that the blue (B) channel has
about 80% (90%) of the intensity of the equally strong red (R) and green (G) channels.
Aiming at reducing absorption, we have performed similar experiments with water-milk

2
mixtures and with mixtures of water and silica microparticles, the radii of which are
specified to be in the range of 0–20 µm. In all three surroundings, diffusive-light cloaking
works well, however, at the required concentrations, the absorption effects are least
pronounced for the water-paint mixture presented in the main paper, whereas they are
most pronounced for the water-milk mixture. Silica microparticles in water lie in
between.
The photographs shown in Figures 2 and 3 are taken with a Sony GigE Vision XCG-
5005CR camera with an Edmund Optics TECHSPEC® 16 mm objective lens. They are
averaged over 20 frames with individual exposure times as given in Table S1.

Supplementary Text
Additional theoretical material
In this section, we introduce the mathematics of the diffusion equation. In the
following section, we determine the parameters therein to compare experiment and theory
in the final section.

diffusion equation for the photon number density = ( , ) with diffusivity = ( ) is

Without absorption of light, i.e., for an overall conserved photon number, the

given by
∇⋅ ∇ − = 0,
where the photon-current-density vector is given by ! = − ∇ (Fick’s first law). For the
stationary limit of Fick’s diffusion equation, i.e., for
∇ ⋅ ∇ = 0,
a mathematical form occurring in many situations of physics and cloaking (24), including
static magnetic core-shell cloaks (23) and static thermal cloaks (21,22), it is
straightforward to translate the analytical results from chapter 7 of Milton’s textbook (24)

Fig. 1), i.e., for " = 0, ideal cloaking of the core-shell structure requires the condition
for electrical conduction to our nomenclature. For zero diffusivity of the core (compare

#$ ( + #$$ + #"$
=% ⇔ = $
$ ' $
#" $− ' ' #$ − #"$
to be fulfilled in cylindrical geometry, and
#$ * + ' /2 #$+ + #"+ /2
=% ⇔ =
$ $
#" $− ' ' #$+ − #"+

radii #$ /#" = 1.24 of $ / ' = 4.72 for cylindrical geometry and $ / ' = 3.06 for
in spherical geometry (compare Fig. 1). The example values for the experimental ratio of

The stream lines for the photon current density !( ) shown in Fig. 1A of the main
spherical geometry quoted in the main text have been obtained from these formulas.

paper have been obtained from solutions of the above stationary lossless diffusion
equation with the parameters given in the caption of Fig. 1A. Here, we have assumed
homogeneous illumination with all boundaries far away from obstacle and cloak,
respectively. More realistic calculated images including the effects of losses and nearby

For a finite photon lifetime . = .( ), Fick’s diffusion equation can be modified to

tank interfaces shall be discussed in what follows.

3
 ∇⋅ ∇ − = .
.
Similar equations are commonly used for diffusing electron-hole pairs in semiconductors,
where bulk and surface recombination contributions can occur (also see below). In the
static one-dimensional case, this form of the diffusion equation immediately leads to a
finite effective diffusive absorption coefficient of / = 1/√ ., which increases with
decreasing photon diffusivity, i.e., with increasing concentration of scatterers, hence
increasing number of photon scattering events and decreasing effective path length of
light inside the sample.
We emphasize in passing that the above diffusion equation does not explicitly
depend on the refractive indices. The refractive indices enter only implicitly via the
scattering cross sections which determine the photon diffusivities. This means that the
refractive index of the water used in our experiments as the host medium for the
surrounding is not crucial. One could similarly build an invisibility cloak for dense fog as
surrounding.

Experimental characterization of the surrounding

To quantitatively determine the photon diffusivity ' in the water-paint surrounding
(#0), we independently measure the photon mean free path 1' versus paint concentration.

tank (see main paper), which has a thickness of = 6 cm (see above). Using a diaphragm
In these experiments, we send a collimated HeNe laser at 633 nm wavelength through the

sample without scattering. This ballistic intensity transmission 23455 ∈ [0,1] is given by
in some distance behind the tank, we select that fraction of the light that has traversed the

23455 = exp(− /1' ). The results of corresponding measurements are depicted in Fig. S1.
As usual, the mean free path 1' is expected to scale inversely proportional to the
concentration of scatterers. This scaling allows us to extrapolate the measurements shown

leading to 1' = 233 μm at a paint concentration of 0.35%, hence to an extrapolated value

in Fig. S1 to the much larger paint concentration used in the cloaking experiments,

of 23455 = 1.46 × 10=""$. This extremely small ballistic transmission coefficient means
that in our experiments, statistically speaking, not a single photon has left the tank

example, for an incident light power of 10 W and red light with photon energy 3.2 ×
without scattering and contributed to the measured diffusive photographic images. (For

10="? J, it would take about 10?$ s integration time to detect a single ballistically
transmitted photon.) This low ballistic transmission also means that any possible incident
polarization of light is completely randomized in the tank. Thus, the use of the
(polarization-independent) diffusion equation is well justified. Using the expression (14)
for the photon diffusivity
= + BC 1 ,
"

with the energy velocity of light BC , which is equal to the water phase velocity of light of
2.26 × 10"' cm/s under our conditions (refractive index of 1.33), we obtain a photon
diffusivity in the water-paint surrounding of ' = 1.75 × 10D cm$ /s.
Next, we measure the relative brightness of the diffusive images for the reference
case under homogeneous illumination by the computer monitor (see main paper) versus
paint concentration in the de-ionized water (see Fig. S2).
To extract relevant parameters from these data by comparison with theory, we
analytically solve the stationary diffusion equation (see above) for a medium of thickness

4
 along the E-direction that is infinitely extended along the two orthogonal spatial

assume a constant incident photon current density FG (the illumination) along the E-
directions. Regarding the boundary conditions, at the entrance surface of the tank, we

direction and a diffusively reflected (“r”) photon current density FH = I (E = 0), with
surface-loss velocity I. Correspondingly, at the exit surface of the tank, we assume a
diffusively transmitted (“t”) photon current density FJ = I (E = ) along the E-direction.
After a straightforward calculation, we find the diffusive intensity transmission 2KGLL =
FJ /FG given by
2 ' /' I
2KGLL = ,
( ' /' + I) e O P − ( ' /' − I)$ e=NO P
$ MN

where /' = 1/Q ' .' is the effective absorption coefficient in the diffusive water-paint
medium. In the limit .' → ∞, this formula reduces to
1
2KGLL = ,
I
2 +
'
which becomes Ohmic for small transmission, i.e., 1 ≫ 2KGLL ≈ ' /(I ) ∝ =".
The dependence 2KGLL versus white-paint concentration is plotted as the curves in Fig.
S2 for a fitted surface-loss velocity of I = 1.56 × 10? cm/s together with the

absorption, i.e., for .' = ∞ and for otherwise identical parameters. The solid curve is for
experimental data points (dots). For reference, the dashed curve is without any

finite absorption and a fitted photon lifetime of .' = 30 ns in the bulk of the water-paint
surrounding. Together with the value of ' = 1.75 × 10D cm$ /s that we have
independently determined above, this .' leads to an effective diffusive absorption
coefficient of /' = 0.44 cm=" . Intuitively, absorption in the bulk becomes relevant

increase the effective interaction length far beyond the thickness of the tank ( = 6 cm).
because of the multiple scattering processes of light in the water-paint mixture that

Having determined the relevant experimental parameters, we are now in a position

to comment on the expected range of validity of the “static” approximation of the

.' = 30 ns. Following excitation with a short optical pulse, even for .' = ∞, photons
diffusion equation made above. One characteristic time constant is the photon lifetime

given by .KGLL = $ /(X $ ' ). For = 6 cm and ' = 1.75 × 10D cm$ /s, one gets .KGLL =
would emerge from the tank of thickness with a finite exponential time constant (14)

21 ns. (For comparison, the ballistic time of flight is yet much smaller with .3455 = /Y =
0.27 ns.) The diffusive time constant of the shell is smaller because of its smaller size and
its larger diffusivity ( $ > ' ). Altogether, a conservative estimate under our conditions
is that the “static” approximation remains valid down to time scales of 100 ns, equivalent
to movie speeds of 10.000.000 frames/s. For comparison, usual movie cameras work at
20–30 frames/s, commercially available high-speed movie cameras at some 100.000
frames/s.

Comparison of experiment and theory

For the numerical calculations, we take as input the diffusivity of the surrounding '
and the photon lifetime in the surrounding .' as determined above in the SOM. We also

the surface-loss velocity I as described above. The thickness of the tank is = 6 cm, as
take the same boundary conditions for the photon current density at the tank surfaces with

in the cloaking experiments. The diffusivity of the shell of $ = 12.8 × 10D cm$ /s and

5
the photon lifetime ."$ = 1.1 μs have been adjusted to match the experiments with
obstacle and cloak, respectively. Physically, ."$ describes any loss associated with the
diffusive reflection at the interface between the core #1 (i.e., the acrylic white paint on

reflection process leads to a fractional loss of only 5%, the loss after 10 reflections is as
the metal wall) and the doped PDMS shell #2. For example, if an individual diffusive

large as 1 − (0.95)"' = 40%. The parameter $ , just like in the experimental procedure

losses (."$ ≠ 0) lead to larger ratios $ / ' required for good cloaking than those for the
described in the main paper, finally determines the cloaking quality. Note that finite

ideal lossless cylindrical and spherical cases, for which exact closed analytical formulas
(24) have been reproduced above in the SOM. Intuitively, the loss of light within the
cloak is simply compensated by a larger light diffusivity $ , hence by an increased
photon current density within the cloaking shell.
The results of our numerical calculations (using the commercial software package
COMSOL Multiphysics) shown in Figs. S3 and S4 agree with the corresponding
experiments shown in Figs. 2 and 3. In particular, theory also reproduces the observed

upper halves of Fig. 2 and Fig. S3). In the ideal case of ."$ = ∞ corresponding to the
“wiggles” on the intensity cuts for homogeneous illumination of the cylinders (compare

above analytical formulas, the light intensities are strictly constant behind the cloak (not
depicted here, also see streamlines in Fig. 1A). This means that we have traced back the
small cloaking imperfections observed in the experiments to residual absorption within
the cloak. Interestingly, similar “wiggle” imperfections have been observed for static
magnetic core-shell cloaking (23), where the (low-temperature) superconducting core
with zero static magnetic permeability is the analogue of the (room-temperature) zero-
diffusivity core in our case.
Theory also nicely reproduces the experimental findings for line-like illumination
(compare lower halves of Fig. 2 and Fig. S3) of the identical cylindrical structures. This
case is especially striking because it demonstrates that the diffusive cloaks also work for
highly non-homogeneous illumination. We have also found good cloaking for any of the
many other illumination conditions we have tried out (not depicted).
Likewise, the agreement between theory (Fig. S4) and experiment (Fig. 3) is also
very good for the spherical structures, both, for homogeneous illumination (upper halves)
and strongly inhomogeneous illumination (lower halves).

6
Fig. S1: Ballistic transmission measurement.
Measured (blue dots) ballistic transmission (semi-logarithmic) of a HeNe laser beam at

The thickness of the tank is = 6 cm. From extrapolating the exponential decay (see red
633 nm wavelength versus white-paint concentration in the de-ionized water surrounding.

find a photon mean free path of 1' = 233 μm (1' = 466 μm) at a white-paint
straight line) to the concentrations used in the cloaking experiments in Fig. 2 (Fig. 3), we

' = 1.75 × 10 cm /s ( ' = 3.5 × 10 cm /s).

concentration of 0.35% (0.175%) in water, corresponding to a photon diffusivity of
D $ D $

7
Fig. S2: Diffusive transmission measurement.
Measured (dots) diffusive transmission (semi-logarithmic) of the water-paint surrounding
under conditions of homogeneous white-light illumination (like in Fig. 2) versus white-
paint concentration in de-ionized water. The three color channels for red (R), green (G),
and blue (B) light within the usual RGB-code nomenclature are shown separately. The
input diffusivities ' versus concentration are directly derived from the experimental data

= 6 cm. The curves are calculations assuming .' = ∞ (dashed) for reference and a
for the photon mean free path shown in Fig. S1. The thickness of the tank is again

fitted photon lifetime of .' = 30 ns (solid), respectively. We have also fitted a surface-
loss velocity of I = 1.56 × 10? cm/s. These fits refer to red and green light. Blue light
obviously experiences somewhat larger losses (that lead to the yellowish color which has
been mentioned in the main paper and above in the SOM).

8
Fig. S3: Numerical results for cylindrical geometry.
Images calculated using Fick’s diffusion equation under stationary conditions

plot (_, `, E = ). The images for the “ballistic” case are just schemes following
corresponding to the experiments shown in Fig. 2 for cylindrical geometry. Precisely, we

geometrical optics. Parameters are: = 6 cm, #" = 1.6 cm, #$ = 2.0 cm (cylinders
centered in the tank like in the experiment), and ' = 1.75 × 10D cm$ /s, " = 0 cm$ /s,
$ = 12.8 × 10 cm /s, .' = 30 ns, and ."$ = 1.1 μs.
D $

9
Fig. S4: Numerical results for spherical geometry.
Images calculated using Fick’s diffusion equation under stationary conditions

plot (_, `, E = ). The images for the “ballistic” case are just schemes following
corresponding to the experiments shown in Fig. 3 for spherical geometry. Precisely, we

geometrical optics. Parameters are: = 6 cm, #" = 1.6 cm, #$ = 2.0 cm (spheres
centered in the tank like in the experiment), and ' = 3.5 × 10D cm$ /s, " = 0 cm$ /s,
$ = 12.8 × 10 cm /s, .' = 30 ns, and ."$ = 1.1 μs.
D $

10
Table S1: Exposure times for the photographs shown in the main text.

Panels A–C Panels D–F Panels G–I Panels J–L

Figure 2 30 ms 2.0 s 30 ms 2.0 s
Figure 3 30 ms 1.4 s 30 ms 2.0 s

11
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