Roman Government in Republic

• Various Assemblies—representative
government —Senate (only from Patrician
families-served for life) and Committee of 100
and the Council of the Plebs (only from the
freemen classes, aka the Plebeians); various
offices enact laws.
• Each “elected” officials, the Council of Plebs
chose the Tribunes. Committee of 100-chose 2
Consuls, -one year term. Senate “advised” the
Consuls.
• Consuls(2) select the generals, in times of
emergency, appoint a “dictator”
 Roman Society during Republic
• Family background—Patrician or Plebian
• Citizenship key: extended to all Italy—later to
Spain and Gaul—Julius Caesar
• Free or slave: wealthy or poor: city or farm
• Army and navy
 Roman Legions
• Citizen, self funded army : Legion Republic, 5000—each
Consul commanded a Legion—others called up when
needed...under direction of Senate. Later in Republic—
funded by “generals”—legions more loyal to general than
to Rome…Julius Caesar, Marc Anthony, Octavian…
• Life long legionaries, auxiliaries (way to become a citizen),
knights (wealthy class), camp followers, including families—
10,000? Founded cities and towns.
• Most occupied or conquered areas allowed to govern
themselves, provided taxes paid/troops provided: often
Rome appointed local leaders—e.g. Herod the Great in
Judaea
 Social Life
• Class society, with wealthy families in control
• Some free citizens—small businesses
• Slave based ---varied social status
 End of Republic
• 1. Wealthy, “private armies”, Pompey, Crassus,
Julius Caesar. Civil Wars—wars among
wealthy.
• 2. Lepidus, Marc Anthony, Octavian: Octavian
finally defeats
 Roman Empire 31 B.C.-476 A.D.
• Julius Caesar---Dictator, control of Rome,
dictator 49 B.C.
• Octavian, heir, named Emperor 31 B.C.;
Caesar Augustus.
• Senate control provinces—appointed
governors; Imperial provinces—owned
directly by Augustus; e.g. Egypt breadbasket
of Rome
 Imperial Expansion
• Legions under order of Emperor and Senate.
• Solidified grip on Med., expanded north to
North Sea and Britain; East into Germany and
central Europe.
• Legions, not war, guarding borders,
construction crews---roads, water systems,
buildings---slave labor too.
• Mercenaries: become citizens
 Roman Culture
• Technicians and adapters—builders-concrete,
design-arch; lawyers- rhetoric; artisans:
Greek/Egyptian themes; writers-Greek forms
(exception of satire); religion-pantheon mostly
adapted from neighbors-mostly tolerant as
long a loyal to Rome and Emperor—religion
provided order, control; threats stamped out--
• Slave based; urban poor entertained with
games and the “dole”
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Ro
man_Empire_with_provinces_in_210_AD.png
 Divided Roman Empire
Emperors –many assassinated
3rd Century Imperial Crisis 235-284 A.D. Warring
generals….Diocletian in 285 A.D. divides into
Western and Eastern Empires.
Constantine the Great 312 A.D. Reunites briefly,
founds Constantinople, capital of East:
Byzantium. Makes Christianity preferred
religion of Empire-317
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Par
tition_of_the_Roman_Empire_in_395_AD.png
 Early Christianity
• 1. First generations: Jewish sect---Paul, gentile
world.
• 2. Popular among lower classes, and a few
wealthier women
• 3. Under suspicion as a “mystery cult”---not
patriotic: Pliny Book 10, letters 96-97
• 4. More common in East than West
 Early Christianity
• 1. First generations: Jewish sect---Paul, gentile
world.
• 2. Popular among lower classes, and a few
wealthier women
• 3. Under suspicion as a “mystery cult”---not
patriotic: Pliny Book 10, letters 96-97
• 4. More common in East than West
 Nicaea, 325 A.D.
• Constantine needed to unify Empire; unified
religion: doctrinal decisions: Council of
Nicaea: Athanasius (?) vs. Arius Christological
doctrines—nature of Christ and relationship
with Father; Trinitarian doctrines, next cent.
• Political purpose. Latin and Orthodox
branches, same official doctrine---variations
abounded: Coptic
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Asia_Minor_ca_740_AD.svg/2000px-
Asia_Minor_ca_740_AD.svg.png
Eastern Roman Empire--Byzantium
• Article by Livius entitled Byzantine Empire
at ://www.ancient.eu/Byzantine_Empire/
 Byzantine 330-1453 A.D.
• Roman Empire in East
• Christian empire—center of Christianity
• Egypt, Asia Minor, Balkans, Russia
• Highly cultured—passed on Hellenistic
culture—Greek
• Conflicts with West and with Islam
• Wealthy: trade over Silk Road
 Conversion of the Slavs
• 8th-9th Cent.; Slavic peoples controlled from
Baltic to Balkans---Russia, Poland, Hungary—
In 863, Byzantium sends missionaries (Cyril and
Methodius) to convert Slavs… Eastern Slavs,
become “Orthodox” (Greek), while western
Slavs become “Latin”. In 988, Prince Vladimir
of Kiev is baptized and marries Byzantine
Princess Anna. Christianity in Russia.
 Fall of Rome
• 376 A.D.—Rome constant battle with invasion
of Eastern tribes: Goths, Visigoths, Huns..
• Rome and western empire, overwhelmed by
476 A.D. by Germanic tribes…end of Western
Roman Empire
 Saint Augustine
• 354-430; Hippo in North Africa
• Became Christian at age 31; early life pursuit
of worldly pleasures; philosopher: Neo-
Platonism
• Confessions: soul searching; personalized
faith
 St. Augustine
• Sovereignty of God: election
• Human Sin
• Trinitarian Doctrine
• Political—City of God
• “Church Father” Western Christian Doctrine
800 years; Reformation
 Early Medieval Europe
“Ruled” as western part of Empire from Byzantium,
but little support from East
Constant invasions by “Barbarians”;
Local Kingdoms; no centralized authority
Decline of culture-Dark Ages; little literacy
Disease abundant—esp. the Plague and smallpox
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Europe_map_1092.PNG
 Church/Rome
Under jurisdiction of Patriarch of Constantinople:
gradually Rome asserts independent authority
over Church in Europe:
Pope Gregory I (Pope from 590-604): monastic life;
emphasized sacramental worship; missionaries to
Europe, esp. England; secular and military power,
esp. in warring and later making peace with the
Lombard tribes
Medieval Papacy—church/state powers combine
 Holy Roman Empire
Christmas Day 800 A.D. Charlemagne crowned
august emperor by Pope Leo III; Papacy
needed military support, Charlemagne, King of
Franks, best candidate. Wedded Church and
State in Europe spiritual/temporal affairs. Not
consistent partnership: rivals…control Europe
until French Revolution/Napoleon in early 19th
Cent.
Break with Byzantium nearly complete
Ancient Rome
Definition

by Joshua J. Mark
published on 02 September 2009

According to legend, Ancient Rome was founded by the two brothers, and demi-gods,
Romulus and Remus, on 21 April 753 BCE. The legend claims that, in an argument
over who would rule the city (or, in another version, where the city would be located)
Romulus killed Remus and named the city after himself. This story of the founding of
Rome is the best known but it is not the only one.

Other legends claim the city was named after a woman, Roma, who traveled with
Aeneas and the other survivors from Troy after that city fell. Upon landing on the
banks of the Tiber River, Roma and the other women objected when the men wanted
to move on. She led the women in the burning of the Trojan ships and so effectively
stranded the Trojan survivors at the site which would eventually become Rome.
Aeneas of Troy is featured in this legend and also, famously, in Virgil's Aeneid, as a
founder of Rome and the ancestor of Romulus and Remus, thus linking Rome with
the grandeur and might which was once Troy.

Still other theories concerning the name of the famous city suggest it came from
Rumon, the ancient name for the Tiber River, and was simply a place-name given to
the small trading centre established on its banks or that the name derived from an
Etruscan word which could have designated one of their settlements.
Early Rome

Originally a small town on the banks of the Tiber, Rome grew in size and strength,
early on, through trade. The location of the city provided merchants with an easily
navigable waterway on which to traffic their goods. The city was ruled by seven kings,
from Romulus to Tarquin, as it grew in size and power. Greek culture and civilization,
which came to Rome via Greek colonies to the south, provided the early Romans with
a model on which to build their own culture. From the Greeks they borrowed literacy
and religion as well as the fundamentals of architecture.

The Etruscans, to the north, provided a model for trade and urban luxury. Etruria was
also well situated for trade and the early Romans either learned the skills of trade
from Etruscan example or were taught directly by the Etruscans who made incursions
into the area around Rome sometime between 650 and 600 BCE (although their
influence was felt much earlier). The extent of the role the Etruscans played in the
development of Roman culture and society is debated but there seems little doubt they
had a significant impact at an early stage.

From the start, the Romans showed a talent for borrowing and improving upon the
skills and concepts of other cultures. The Kingdom of Rome grew rapidly from a
trading town to a prosperous city between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE. When the
last of the seven kings of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was deposed in 509 BCE, his
rival for power, Lucius Junius Brutus, reformed the system of government and
established the Roman Republic.

it was war which would make Rome a powerful force in the ancient world.

War & Expansion

Though Rome owed its prosperity to trade in the early years, it was war which would
make the city a powerful force in the ancient world. The wars with the North African
city of Carthage (known as the Punic Wars, 264-146 BCE) consolidated Rome's
power and helped the city grow in wealth and prestige. Rome and Carthage were
rivals in trade in the Western Mediterranean and, with Carthage defeated, Rome held
almost absolute dominance over the region; though there were still incursions by
pirates which prevented complete Roman control of the sea.

As the Republic of Rome grew in power and prestige, the city of Rome began to
suffer from the effects of corruption, greed and the over-reliance on foreign slave
labor. Gangs of unemployed Romans, put out of work by the influx of slaves brought
in through territorial conquests, hired themselves out as thugs to do the bidding of
whatever wealthy Senator would pay them. The wealthy elite of the city, the
Patricians, became ever richer at the expense of the working lower class, the
Plebeians.

In the 2nd century BCE, the Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, two Roman
tribunes, led a movement for land reform and political reform in general. Though the
brothers were both killed in this cause, their efforts did spur legislative reforms and
the rampant corruption of the Senate was curtailed (or, at least, the Senators became
more discreet in their corrupt activities). By the time of the First Triumvirate, both the
city and the Republic of Rome were in full flourish.

The Republic

Even so, Rome found itself divided across class lines. The ruling class called
themselves Optimates (the best men) while the lower classes, or those who
sympathized with them, were known as the Populares (the people). These names were
applied simply to those who held a certain political ideology; they were not strict
political parties nor were all of the ruling class Optimates nor all of the lower classes
Populares.

In general, the Optimates held with traditional political and social values which
favored the power of the Senate of Rome and the prestige and superiority of the ruling
class. The Populares, again generally speaking, favored reform and democratization
of the Roman Republic. These opposing ideologies would famously clash in the form
of three men who would, unwittingly, bring about the end of the Roman Republic.

Marcus Licinius Crassus and his political rival, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey
the Great) joined with another, younger, politician, Gaius Julius Caesar, to form what
modern historians call the First Triumvirate of Rome (though the Romans of the time
never used that term, nor did the three men who comprised the triumvirate). Crassus
and Pompey both held the Optimate political line while Caesar was a Populare.

The three men were equally ambitious and, vying for power, were able to keep each
other in check while helping to make Rome prosper. Crassus was the richest man in
Rome and was corrupt to the point of forcing wealthy citizens to pay him `safety'
money. If the citizen paid, Crassus would not burn down that person's house but, if no
money was forthcoming, the fire would be lighted and Crassus would then charge a
fee to send men to put the fire out. Although the motive behind the origin of these fire
brigades was far from noble, Crassus did effectively create the first fire department
which would, later, prove of great value to the city.

Both Pompey and Caesar were great generals who, through their respective conquests,
made Rome wealthy. Though the richest man in Rome (and, it has been argued, the
richest in all of Roman history) Crassus longed for the same respect people accorded
Pompey and Caesar for their military successes. In 53 BCE he lead a sizeable force
against the Parthians at Carrhae, in modern day Turkey, where he was killed when
truce negotiations broke down.

With Crassus gone, the First Triumvirate disintegrated and Pompey and Caesar
declared war on each other. Pompey tried to eliminate his rival through legal means
and had the Senate order Caesar to Rome to stand trial on assorted charges. Instead of
returning to the city in humility to face these charges, Caesar crossed the Rubicon
River with his army in 49 BCE and entered Rome at the head of it.

He refused to answer the charges and directed his focus toward eliminating Pompey
as a rival. Pompey and Caesar met in battle at Pharsalus in Greece in 48 BCE where
Caesar's numerically inferior force defeated Pompey's greater one. Pompey himself
fled to Egypt, expecting to find sanctuary there, but was assassinated upon his arrival.
News of Caesar's great victory against overwhelming numbers at Pharsalus had
spread quickly and many former friends and allies of Pompey swiftly sided with
Caesar, believing he was favored by the gods.

Bronze Head of
Augustus

Towards Empire

Julius Caesar was now the most powerful man in Rome. He effectively ended the
period of the Republic by having the Senate proclaim him dictator. His popularity
among the people was enormous and his efforts to create a strong and stable central
government meant increased prosperity for the city of Rome. He was assassinated by
a group of Roman Senators in 44 BCE, however, precisely because of these
achievements.

The conspirators, Brutus and Cassius among them, seemed to fear that Caesar was
becoming too powerful and that he might eventually abolish the Senate. Following his
death, his right-hand man, and cousin, Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) joined forces
with Caesar's nephew and heir, Gaius Octavius Thurinus (Octavian) and Caesar's
friend, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, to defeat the forces of Brutus and Cassius at the
Battle of Phillippi in 42 BCE.

Octavian, Antony and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate of Rome but, as with
the first, these men were also equally ambitious. Lepidus was effectively neutralized
when Antony and Octavian agreed that he should have Hispania and Africa to rule
over and thereby kept him from any power play in Rome. It was agreed that Octavian
would rule Roman lands in the west and Antony in the east.

Antony's involvement with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII, however, upset the
balance Octavian had hoped to maintain and the two went to war. Antony and
Cleopatra's combined forces were defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE and
both later took their own lives. Octavian emerged as the sole power in Rome. In 27
BCE he was granted extraordinary powers by the Senate and took the name of
Augustus, the first Emperor of Rome. Historians are in agreement that this is the
point at which the history of Rome ends and the history of the Roman Empire begins.

Roman Empire
Definition

by Joshua J. Mark
published on 22 March 2018

Listen to this article, narrated by James Lloyd

The Roman Empire, at its height (c. 117 CE), was the most extensive political and
social structure in western civilization. By 285 CE the empire had grown too vast to
be ruled from the central government at Rome and so was divided by Emperor
Diocletian (284-305 CE) into a Western and an Eastern Empire. The Roman Empire
began when Augustus Caesar (27 BCE-14 CE) became the first emperor of Rome and
ended, in the west, when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed
by the Germanic King Odoacer (476 CE). In the east, it continued as the Byzantine
Empire until the death of Constantine XI and the fall of Constantinople to the
Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE. The influence of the Roman Empire on western
civilization was profound in its lasting contributions to virtually every aspect of
western culture.

The Early Dynasties

Following the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, Gaius Octavian Thurinus, Julius Caesar's
nephew and heir, became the first emperor of Rome and took the name Augustus
Caesar. Although Julius Caesar is often regarded as the first emperor of Rome, this is
incorrect; he never held the title `Emperor' but, rather, `Dictator', a title the Senate
could not help but grant him, as Caesar held supreme military and political power at
the time. In contrast, the Senate willingly granted Augustus the title of emperor,
lavishing praise and power on him because he had destroyed Rome's enemies and
brought much-needed stability.

Augustus: "I found Rome a city of clay but left it a city of marble."

Augustus ruled the empire from 31 BCE until 14 CE when he died. In that time, as he
said himself, he "found Rome a city of clay but left it a city of marble." Augustus
reformed the laws of the city and, by extension, the empire’s, secured Rome's borders,
initiated vast building projects (carried out largely by his faithful general Agrippa,
who built the first Pantheon), and secured the empire a lasting name as one of the
greatest, if not the greatest, political and cultural powers in history. The Pax Romana
(Roman Peace), also known as the Pax Augusta, which he initiated, was a time of
peace and prosperity hitherto unknown and would last over 200 years.

Following Augustus’ death, power passed to his heir, Tiberius, who continued many
of the emperor’s policies but lacked the strength of character and vision which so
defined Augustus. This trend would continue, more or less steadily, with the emperors
who followed: Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. These first five rulers of the empire are
referred to as the Julio-Claudian Dynasty for the two family names they descended
from (either by birth or through adoption), Julius and Claudius. Although Caligula has
become notorious for his depravity and apparent insanity, his early rule was
commendable as was that of his successor, Claudius, who expanded Rome’s power
and territory in Britain; less so was that of Nero. Caligula and Claudius were both
assassinated in office (Caligula by his Praetorian Guard and Claudius, apparently, by
his wife). Nero’s suicide ended the Julio-Claudian Dynasty and initiated the period of
social unrest known as The Year of the Four Emperors.
 Empreror
Claudius or Nero

These four rulers were Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian. Following Nero’s
suicide in 68 CE, Galba assumed rule (69 CE) and almost instantly proved unfit for
the responsibility. He was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard. Otho succeeded him
swiftly on the very day of his death, and ancient records indicate he was expected to
make a good emperor. General Vitellius, however, sought power for himself and so
initiated the brief civil war which ended in Otho’s suicide and Vitellius’ ascent to the
throne.

Vitellius proved no more fit to rule than Galba had been, as he almost instantly
engaged in luxurious entertainments and feasts at the expense of his duties. The
legions declared for General Vespasian as emperor and marched on Rome. Vitellius
was murdered by Vespasian’s men, and Vespasian took power exactly one year from
the day Galba had first ascended to the throne.
Vespasian founded the Flavian Dynasty which was characterized by massive building
projects, economic prosperity, and expansion of the empire. Vespasian ruled from
69-79 CE, and in that time, initiated the building of the Flavian Amphitheatre (the
famous Coliseum of Rome) which his son Titus (ruled 79-81 CE) would complete.
Titus’ early reign saw the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE which buried the
cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

Pompei
i and Mt. Vesuivus

Ancient sources are universal in their praise for his handling of this disaster as well as
the great fire of Rome in 80 CE. Titus died of a fever in 81 CE and was succeeded by
his brother Domitian who ruled from 81-96 CE. Domitian expanded and secured the
boundaries of Rome, repaired the damage to the city caused by the great fire,
continued the building projects initiated by his brother, and improved the economy of
the empire. Even so, his autocratic methods and policies made him unpopular with the
Roman Senate, and he was assassinated in 96 CE.

The Five Good Emperors

Domitian's successor was his advisor Nerva who founded the Nervan-Antonin
Dynasty which ruled Rome 96-192 CE. This period is marked by increased
prosperity owing to the rulers known as The Five Good Emperors of Rome. Between
96 and 180 CE, five exceptional men ruled in sequence and brought the Roman
Empire to its height:

 Nerva (96-98 CE)

 Trajan (98-117 CE)
 Hadrian (117-138 CE)
 Antoninus Pius (138-161 CE)
 Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE)

Under their leadership, the Roman Empire grew stronger, more stable, and expanded
in size and scope. Lucius Verus and Commodus are the last two of the
Nervan-Antonin Dynasty. Verus was co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius until his death
in 169 CE and seems to have been fairly ineffective. Commodus, Aurelius’ son and
successor, was one of the most disgraceful emperors Rome ever saw and is
universally depicted as indulging himself and his whims at the expense of the empire.
He was strangled by his wrestling partner in his bath in 192 CE, ending the
Nervan-Antonin Dynasty and raising the prefect Pertinax (who most likely engineered
Commodus’ assassination) to power.

The Severan Dynasty

Pertinax governed for only three months before he was assassinated. He was followed,
in rapid succession, by four others in the period known as The Year of the Five
Emperors, which culminated in the rise of Septimus Severus to power. Severus ruled
Rome from 193-211 CE, founded the Severan Dynasty, defeated the Parthians, and
expanded the empire. His campaigns in Africa and Britain were extensive and costly
and would contribute to Rome’s later financial difficulties. He was succeeded by his
sons Caracalla and Geta, until Caracalla had his brother murdered.

Roman
Beach Attack

Caracalla ruled until 217 CE, when he was assassinated by his bodyguard. It was
under Caracalla’s reign that Roman citizenship was expanded to include all free men
within the empire. This law was said to have been enacted as a means of raising tax
revenue, simply because, after its passage, there were more people the central
government could tax. The Severan Dynasty continued, largely under the guidance
and manipulation of Julia Maesa (referred to as `empress’), until the assassination of
Alexander Severus in 235 CE which plunged the empire into the chaos known as The
Crisis of the Third Century (lasting from 235-284 CE).

Two Empires: East & West

This period, also known as The Imperial Crisis, was characterized by constant civil
war, as various military leaders fought for control of the empire. The crisis has been
further noted by historians for widespread social unrest, economic instability (fostered,
in part, by the devaluation of Roman currency by the Severans), and, finally, the
dissolution of the empire which broke into three separate regions. The empire was
reunited by Aurelian (270-275 CE) whose policies were further developed and
improved upon by Diocletian who established the Tetrarchy (the rule of four) to
maintain order throughout the empire.
The Imperial Crisis was characterized by constant civil war, as various
military leaders fought for control of the empire.

Even so, the empire was still so vast that Diocletian divided it in half in 285 CE to
facilitate more efficient administration. In so doing, he created the Western Roman
Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire). Since
a leading cause of the Imperial Crisis was a lack of clarity in succession, Diocletian
decreed that successors must be chosen and approved from the outset of an
individual’s rule. Two of these successors were the generals Maxentius and
Constantine. Diocletian voluntarily retired from rule in 305 CE, and the tetrarchy
dissolved as rival regions of the empire vied with each other for dominance.
Following Diocletian’s death in 311 CE, Maxentius and Constantine plunged the
empire again into civil war.

Constantine & Christianity

In 312 CE Constantine defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge and
became sole emperor of both the Western and Eastern Empires (ruling from 306-337
CE). Believing that Jesus Christ was responsible for his victory, Constantine initiated
a series of laws such as the Edict of Milan (317 CE) which mandated religious
tolerance throughout the empire and, specifically, tolerance for the faith which came
to known as Christianity.
 The Colossus of
Constantine

In the same way that earlier Roman emperors had claimed a special relationship with
a deity to augment their authority and standing (Caracalla with Serapis, for example,
or Diocletian with Jupiter), Constantine chose the figure of Jesus Christ. At the First
Council of Nicea (325 CE), he presided over the gathering to codify the faith and
decide on important issues such as the divinity of Jesus and which manuscripts would
be collected to form the book known today as The Bible. He stabilized the empire,
revalued the currency, and reformed the military, as well as founding the city he
called New Rome on the site of the former city of Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul)
which came to be known as Constantinople.

He is known as Constantine the Great owing to later Christian writers who saw him as
a mighty champion of their faith but, as has been noted by many historians, the
honorific could as easily be attributed to his religious, cultural, and political reforms,
as well as his skill in battle and his large-scale building projects. After his death, his
sons inherited the empire and, fairly quickly, embarked on a series of conflicts with
each other which threatened to undo all that Constantine had accomplished.
His three sons, Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans divided the Roman
Empire between them but soon fell to fighting over which of them deserved more. In
these conflicts, Constantine II and Constans were killed. Constantius II died later after
naming his cousin Julian his successor and heir. Emperor Julian ruled for only two
years (361-363 CE) and, in that time, tried to return Rome to her former glory through
a series of reforms aimed at increasing efficiency in government.

As a Neo-Platonic philosopher, Julian rejected Christianity and blamed the faith; and
Constantine’s adherence to it, for the decline of the empire. While officially
proclaiming a policy of religious tolerance, Julian systematically removed Christians
from influential government positions, banned the teaching and spread of the religion,
and barred Christians from military service. His death, while on campaign against the
Persians, ended the dynasty Constantine had begun. He was the last pagan emperor of
Rome and came to be known as `Julian the Apostate’ for his opposition to
Christianity.

Byzant
ine Empire c. 460 CE

After the brief rule of Jovian, who re-established Christianity as the dominant faith of
the empire and repealed Julian’s various edicts, the responsibility of emperor fell to
Theodosius I. Theodosius I (379-395 CE) took Constantine’s and Jovian’s religious
reforms to their natural ends, outlawed pagan worship throughout the empire, closed
the schools and universities, and converted pagan temples into Christian churches.

The unity of social duties & religious belief which paganism provided was
severed by the institution of Christianity.

It was during this time that Plato’s famous Academy was closed by Theodosius’
decree. Many of his reforms were unpopular with both the Roman aristocracy and the
common people who held to the traditional values of pagan practice. The unity of
social duties and religious belief which paganism provided was severed by the
institution of a religion which removed the gods from the earth and human society and
proclaimed only one God who ruled from the heavens. Theodosius I devoted so much
effort to promoting Christianity that he seems to have neglected other duties as
emperor and would be the last to rule both Eastern and Western Empires.

The Fall of the Roman Empire

From 376-382 CE, Rome fought a series of battles against invading Goths known
today as the Gothic Wars. At the Battle of Adrianople, 9 August 378 CE, the Roman
Emperor Valens was defeated, and historians mark this event as pivotal in the decline
of the Western Roman Empire. Various theories have been suggested as to the cause
of the empire’s fall but, even today, there is no universal agreement on what those
specific factors were. Edward Gibbon has famously argued in his The History of the
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire that Christianity played a pivotal role, in that
the new religion undermined the social mores of the empire which paganism
provided.

The theory that Christianity was a root cause in the empire’s fall was debated long
before Gibbon, however, as Orosius argued Christianity’s innocence in Rome’s
decline as early as 418 CE. Orosius claimed it was primarily paganism itself and
pagan practices which brought about the fall of Rome. Other influences which have
been noted range from the corruption of the governing elite to the ungovernable
vastness of the empire to the growing strength of the Germanic tribes and their
constant incursions into Rome. The Roman military could no longer safeguard the
borders as efficiently as they once had nor could the government as easily collect
taxes in the provinces. The arrival of the Visigoths in the empire in the third century
CE and their subsequent rebellions has also been cited a contributing factor in the
decline.

Invasi
ons of the Roman Empire
The Western Roman Empire officially ended 4 September 476 CE, when Emperor
Romulus Augustus was deposed by the Germanic King Odoacer (though some
historians date the end as 480 CE with the death of Julius Nepos). The Eastern Roman
Empire continued on as the Byzantine Empire until 1453 CE, and though known early
on as simply `the Roman Empire’, it did not much resemble that entity at all. The
Western Roman Empire would become re-invented later as The Holy Roman Empire,
but that construct, also, was far removed from the Roman Empire of antiquity and was
an `empire’ in name only.

Legacy of the Roman Empire

The inventions and innovations which were generated by the Roman Empire
profoundly altered the lives of the ancient people and continue to be used in cultures
around the world today. Advancements in the construction of roads and buildings,
indoor plumbing, aqueducts, and even fast-drying cement were either invented or
improved upon by the Romans. The calendar used in the West derives from the one
created by Julius Caesar, and the names of the days of the week (in the romance
languages) and months of the year also come from Rome.

Apartment complexes (known as `insula), public toilets, locks and keys, newspapers,
even socks all were developed by the Romans as were shoes, a postal system
(modeled after the Persians), cosmetics, the magnifying glass, and the concept of
satire in literature. During the time of the empire, significant developments were also
advanced in the fields of medicine, law, religion, government, and warfare. The
Romans were adept at borrowing from, and improving upon, those inventions or
concepts they found among the indigenous populace of the regions they conquered. It
is therefore difficult to say what is an `original’ Roman invention and what is an
innovation on a pre-existing concept, technique, or tool. It can safely be said, however,
that the Roman Empire left an enduring legacy which continues to affect the way in
which people live even today.

Byzantine Empire
Definition

by Mark Cartwright
published on 19 September 2018
The Byzantine Empire, often called the Eastern Roman Empire or simply Byzantium,
existed from 330 to 1453 CE. With its capital founded at Constantinople by
Constantine I (r. 306-337 CE), the Empire varied in size over the centuries, at one
time or another, possessing territories located in Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Levant,
Asia Minor, and North Africa. A Christian state with Greek as the official language,
the Byzantines developed their own political systems, religious practices, art and
architecture, which, although significantly influenced by the Greco-Roman cultural
tradition, were distinct and not merely a continuation of ancient Rome. The Byzantine
Empire was the longest-lasting medieval power, and its influence continues today,
especially in the religion, art, architecture, and law of many Western states, Eastern
and Central Europe, and Russia.

Names & Dates

The name ‘Byzantine’ was coined by 16th-century CE historians based on the fact
that the capital city’s first name was Byzantium before it changed to Constantinople
(modern Istanbul). It was and continues to be a less-than-perfect but convenient label
which differentiates the Eastern Roman Empire from the Western Roman Empire,
especially important after the fall of the latter in the 5th century CE. Indeed, for this
reason, there is no universal agreement amongst historians as to what period of time
the term ‘Byzantine Empire’ actually refers to. Some scholars select 330 CE and the
foundation of Constantinople, others the Fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476
CE, still others prefer the failure of Justinian I (r. 527-565 CE) to unify the two
empires in 565 CE, and some even plum for c. 650 CE and the Arab conquest of
Byzantium’s eastern provinces. Most historians do agree that the Byzantine Empire
terminated on Tuesday 29 May 1453 CE, when the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II
(r.1444-6 & 1451-81 CE) conquered Constantinople.

Constantinople became the richest, most lavish & most important Christian
city in the world.
The discussion of dates also highlights the differences in the ethnic and cultural mix
between the two halves of the Roman world and the distinctness of the medieval state
from its earlier Roman heritage. The Byzantines called themselves ‘Romans’, their
emperor was basileon ton Rhomaion or ‘Emperor of the Romans’ and their capital
was ‘New Rome’. However, the most common language was Greek, and it is fair to
say that for the vast majority of its history, the Byzantine Empire was much more
Greek than Roman in cultural terms.

Constantinople

The beginnings of the Byzantine Empire lie in the decision of Roman emperor
Constantine I to relocate the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium
on 11 May 330 CE. The popular name Constantinople or ‘City of Constantine’ soon
replaced the emperor’s own official choice of ‘New Rome’. The new capital had an
excellent natural harbour on the Golden Horn inlet and, straddled on the border
between Europe and Asia, could control the passage of ships through the Bosphorus
from the Aegean to the Black Sea, linking lucrative trade between west and east. A
great chain stretched across the Golden Horn’s entrance, and the construction of the
massive Theodosian Walls between 410 and 413 CE meant that the city was able to
withstand time and again concerted attacks from both sea and land. Over the centuries,
as more spectacular buildings were added, the cosmopolitan city became one of the
finest of any epoch and certainly the richest, most lavish and most important Christian
city in the world.

Map of
Byzantine Constantinople
Byzantine Emperors

The Byzantine emperor or basileus (or more rarely basilissa for empress) resided in
the magnificent Great Palace of Constantinople and ruled as an absolute monarch over
a vast empire. As such, the basileus needed the assistance of an expert government
and a widespread and efficient bureaucracy. Although an absolute ruler, an emperor
was expected - by his government, people and the Church - to rule wisely and justly.
Even more importantly, an emperor had to have military success as the army
remained the most powerful institution in Byzantium in real terms. The generals in
Constantinople and the provinces could - and did - remove an emperor who failed to
defend the empire’s borders or who brought economic catastrophe. Still, in the normal
run of events, the emperor was commander-in-chief of the army, head of the Church
and government, he controlled the state finances and appointed or dismissed nobles at
will; few rulers before or since have ever wielded such power.

Through a carefully orchestrated continuity of dynasties, ritual, costume

& names, the institution of the Byzantine Emperor was able to last for
12 centuries.

The emperor’s image appeared on Byzantine coins, which were also used to show a
chosen successor, often the eldest son, but not always as there were no set rules for
succession. Emperors were thought to have been chosen by God to govern, but a
magnificent crown and robes of Tyrian purple helped further bolster the right to rule.
Another marketing strategy was to copy the reign names of illustrious predecessors,
Constantine being a particular favourite. Even usurpers, typically military men of
power and success, very often sought to legitimise their position by marrying a
member of their predecessors family. Thus, through a carefully orchestrated
continuity of dynasties, ritual, costume, and names, the institution of the emperor was
able to last for 12 centuries.

Byzantine Government

The Byzantine government followed the patterns established in imperial Rome. The
emperor was all-powerful but was still expected to consult such important bodies as
the Senate. The Senate in Constantinople, unlike in Rome, was composed of men who
had risen through the ranks of the military service, and so there was no senatorial
class as such. Without elections, Byzantine senators, ministers, and local councillors
largely acquired their position through imperial patronage or because of their status as
large landowners.
 Justinian I

The elite senators made up the small sacrum consistorium which the emperor was, in
theory, supposed to consult on matters of state importance. In addition, the emperor
might consult members of his personal entourage at court. Also at court were the
eunuch chamberlains (cubicularii) who served the emperor in various personal duties
but who could also control access to him. Eunuchs held positions of responsibility
themselves, chief amongst these being the holder of the emperor’s purse,
the sakellarios, whose powers would increase significantly from the 7th century CE.
Other important government officials included the quaestor or chief legal officer;
the comes sacrarum largitionum who controlled the state mint; the magister
officiorum who looked after the general administration of the palace, the army and its
supplies, as well as foreign affairs; and a team of imperial inspectors who kept an eye
on affairs in local councils across the empire.

The top official in Byzantium, though, was the Praetorian Prefect of the East to whom
all regional governors of the empire were accountable. The regional governors
supervised the individual city councils or curae. Local councillors were responsible
for all public services and the collection of taxes in their town and its surrounding
lands. These councils were organised geographically into 100 or so provinces which
were themselves arranged into 12 dioceses, three in each of the empire’s four
prefectures. From the 7th century CE the regional governors of the dioceses, or
themes as they became known after a restructuring, in effect, became provincial
military commanders (strategoi) who were directly responsible to the emperor himself,
and the Praetorian Prefect was abolished. After the 8th century CE the administration
of the empire, due to the increased military threat from neighbours and internal civil
wars, became much more simplified than previously.

Corpus Juris Civilis

Byzantine government was greatly assisted by the creation of the Justinian Code or
Corpus Juris Civilis (Corpus of Civil Law) by Justinian I. The corpus, drawn up by a
panel of legal experts, collected, edited, and revised the huge body of Roman laws
which had been accumulated over the centuries - a massive number of imperial edicts,
legal opinions, and lists of crimes and punishments. The code, composed of over a
million words, would last for 900 years, make the laws clearer for all, reduce the
number of cases unnecessarily brought before the courts, speed up the judicial process
and influence most legal systems in western democracies thereafter.

Byzantine Society

The Byzantines gave great importance to the family name, inherited wealth, and the
respectable birth of an individual. The individuals in the higher levels of society
possessed these three things. Wealth came from land ownership or the administration
of land under an individual administrator’s jurisdiction. However, there was no
aristocracy of blood as such in Byzantine society, and both patronage and education
were a means to climb the social ladder. In addition, the dispensing of favours, lands,
and titles by emperors, as well as indiscriminate demotions and the hazards of foreign
invasions and wars, all meant that the individual components of the nobility were not
static and families rose and fell over the centuries. Rank was visible to all members of
society through the use of titles, seals, insignia, particular clothing, and personal
jewellery.
 Byzantine Ivory Diptych
Panel

Most in the lower classes would have followed the profession of their parents, but
inheritance, the accumulation of wealth, and a lack of any formal prohibition for one
class to move to another did at least offer a small possibility for a person to better
their social position. There were workers with better jobs such as those who worked
in legal affairs, administration, and commerce (not a very esteemed way to make a
living for the Byzantines). On the next rung down were artisans, then farmers who
owned their own small parcels of land, then the largest group - those who worked the
land of others, and finally, slaves who were typically prisoners of war but nowhere
near as numerous as free labourers.

The role of Byzantine women, as with the men, depended on their social rank.
Aristocratic women were expected to manage the home and care for the children.
Although able to own property, they could not hold public office and spent their free
time weaving, shopping, going to church or reading (although they had no formal
education). Widows became the guardian of their children and could inherit equally
with their brothers. Many women worked, as men, in agriculture and various
manufacturing industries and food services. Women could own their own land and
businesses, and some would have improved their social position through marriage.
The least respected professions were, as elsewhere, prostitutes and actresses.

Territories of the Byzantine Empire

The geographical extent of the Byzantine Empire changed over the centuries as the
military successes and failures of individual emperors fluctuated. Territories which
were held in the earlier part of the empire’s history included Egypt, Syria, Jordan,
Lebanon, and Palestine. Greece was less important in practical terms than it was as a
symbol of the Byzantine’s view of themselves as the true heirs of the Greco-Roman
culture. Italy and Sicily had to be defended, ultimately unsuccessfully, against the
ambitions of the Popes and the Normans. The Balkans up to the Danube River were
important throughout, and Asia Minor up to the Black Sea coast in the north and
Armenia in the east was a major source of wealth, but both these regions would
require regular and vigorous defence against various perennial enemies.

As the political map was constantly redrawn with the rise and fall of neighbouring
empires, notable events included Anastasios I (491-518 CE) successfully defending
the empire against both the Persians and Bulgars. Justinian I, aided by his gifted
general Belisarius (c. 500-565 CE), won back territories in North Africa, Spain, and
Italy which had been lost by the western emperors. The Lombards in Italy and the
Slavs in the Balkans made inroads into the Empire during the second half of the 6th
century CE, a situation eventually reversed by Heraclius (r. 610-641 CE), effectively
bringing the Persian Sasanian Empire to an end with his victory at Nineveh in 627
CE.

Byzant
ine Empire c. 626 CE

The Islamic conquests of the 7th and 8th century CE robbed the Empire of its
territories in the Levant (including Jerusalem in 637 CE), North Africa and eastern
Asia Minor. At least, though, the Empire stood firm as a bulwark against the Arab
expansion into Europe, with Constantinople twice withstanding determined Arab
sieges (674-8 and 717-18 CE). The Byzantine Empire was shaken to its foundations,
though. Then in the 9th century CE, the Bulgars made significant incursions into the
northern areas of the Empire. A resurgence in Byzantine fortunes came with the
(inappropriately named) Macedonian dynasty (867-1057 CE). The founder of the
dynasty, Basil I (r. 867-886 CE), reconquered southern Italy, dealt with the
troublesome Cretan pirates, and gained victories against the Arabs on Cyprus,
mainland Greece and in Dalmatia. The very next emperor, Leo VI (r. 886-912 CE)
lost most of the gains, but the mid-10th century CE saw victories in
Muslim-controlled Mesopotamia.

Basil II (r. 976-1025 CE), known as the ‘Bulgar-Slayer’ for his victories in the
Balkans, oversaw another startling upturn in Byzantine fortunes. Basil, helped by an
army of fierce warriors of Viking descent from Kiev, also won victories in Greece,
Armenia, Georgia, and Syria, doubling the size of the Empire. It was though, the last
great hurrah as a gradual decline set in. After the shocking defeat to the Seljuks at the
Battle of Manzikert in Armenia in 1071 CE, a brief revival occurred under Alexios I
Komnenos (r. 1081-1118 CE) with victories against the Normans in Dalmatia, the
Pechenegs in Thrace, and the Seljuks in Palestine and Syria (with the help of the First
Crusaders), but there seemed to be too many enemies in too many regions for the
Byzantines to prosper indefinitely.

In the 12th and 13th century CE the Sultanate of Rum took half of Asia Minor, and
then disaster struck when the armies of the Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople in
1204 CE. Carved up between Venice and its allies, the Empire existed only in exile
before a restoration in 1261 CE. By the 14th century CE the Empire consisted of a
small area in the tip of southern Greece and a chunk of territory around the capital.
The final blow came, as already mentioned, with the Ottoman sack of Constantinople
in 1453 CE.

The Byzantine Church

Paganism continued to be practised for centuries after the foundation of Byzantium,

but it was Christianity which became the defining feature of Byzantine culture,
profoundly affecting its politics, foreign relations, and art and architecture. The
Church was headed by the Patriarch or bishop of Constantinople, who was appointed
or removed by the emperor. Local bishops, who presided over larger towns and their
surrounding territories and who represented both the church and emperor, had
considerable wealth and powers in their local communities. Christianity, then, became
an important common denominator which helped bind together diverse cultures into a
single empire which included Christian Greeks, Armenians, Slavs, Georgians, and
many other minorities, and those of other faiths such as Jews and Muslims who were
permitted to freely practise their religion.
 Icon of Saint Basil

The differences in the eastern and western church was one of the reasons that the
Byzantine Empire received such a poor representation in western medieval histories.
Frequently Byzantines were portrayed as decadent and shifty, their culture stagnant,
and their religion a dangerous heresy. The churches of the east and west disagreed on
who should have priority, the Pope or the Patriarch of Constantinople. Matters of
doctrine were also contested, such as did Jesus Christ have one human and one divine
nature combined or just a divine nature. Clerical celibacy, the use of leavened or
unleavened bread, the language of service, and the use of imagery were all points of
differences, which, with the fuel of political and territorial ambitions added into the
volatile mix of emotions, led to the Church Schism of 1054 CE.

The Byzantine church also had its own internal disputes, most infamously the
iconoclasm or ‘destruction of images’ of 726-787 CE and 814-843 CE. The Popes and
many Byzantines supported the use of icons - representations of holy figures but
especially Jesus Christ. Those against icons believed they had become idols and it was
blasphemous to think that God could be represented in art. The issue also reignited the
debate over whether Christ had two natures or one and whether an icon, therefore,
only represented the human. Defenders of icons said that they were merely an artist’s
impression and helped the illiterate better understand the divine. During the wave of
iconoclasm, many precious artworks were destroyed, especially during the reigns of
Leo III (r. 717-741 CE) and his successor Constantine V (r. 741-775 CE) when even
people who venerated icons (iconophiles) were persecuted. The issue was resolved in
favour of icons in 843 CE, an event known as the “Triumph of Orthodoxy".
Monasticism was a particular feature of Byzantine religious life. Men and women
retired to monasteries where they devoted their lives to Christ and helping the poor
and sick. There they lived a simple life according to rules laid out by such important
church figures as Basil the Great (c. 330 - c. 379 CE). Many monks were also scholars,
most famously Saint Cyril (d. 867 CE) who invented the Glagolitic alphabet. A
notable woman who used her time of retreat well was Anna Komnene (1083-1153
CE), who wrote her Alexiad on the life and reign of her father Alexios I Komnenos (r.
1081-1118 CE). Monasteries thus became invaluable repositories of texts and
knowledge while their wine-production and icon workshops were greatly appreciated,
too. One of the most celebrated monastic sites is Mount Athos near Thessalonica,
where monks established themselves from the 9th century CE, eventually building 46
monasteries there, many of which survive today.

Byzantine
Book Cover with Icon

Byzantine Art
Byzantine artists moved away from the naturalism of the Classical tradition towards
the more abstract and universal, displaying a definite preference for two-dimensional
representations. The rarity of signatures on works of art produced before the 13th
century CE suggests that artists did not enjoy a high social status. Artworks which
promoted a religious message - principally the need for salvation and a reinforcement
of faith - were produced in huge numbers and chief amongst these were wall mosaics,
wall paintings, and icons. Although icons could take almost any form of material, the
most popular were small painted wooden panels. Designed to be carried or hung on
walls, they were made using the encaustic technique where coloured pigments were
mixed with wax and burned into the wood as an inlay. With the purpose of facilitating
communication between the onlooker and the divine, the single figures are typically
full frontal with a nimbus or halo around them to emphasise their holiness.

Byzantine mosaics, best seen today in the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul or the church of
San Vitale in Ravenna, represented holy figures, emperors and empresses, church
officials, and scenes of daily life, especially in agriculture. Large-scale sculpture
seems to have been less popular than in earlier antiquity, but sculpted marble
sarcophagi were produced in great numbers. Finally, metalwork, especially
incorporating enamel-work and cabochon semi-precious stones, was a Byzantine
speciality, and artisans produced many high-quality and intricately designed plates,
cups, jewellery of all kinds, book covers (especially for Bibles), and reliquaries
(boxes for keeping holy relics).

Byzantine Architecture

Byzantine architects continued to employ the Classical orders in their buildings and
took ideas from the Near East, amongst other places. Designs became more eclectic
than in antiquity, especially given the common habit of reusing the materials from
older buildings for new structures. There was, too, a definite emphasis on function
over form and a greater concern with the interiors rather than exteriors of buildings.
Continuing to build such quintessentially Roman structures as arched aqueducts,
amphitheatres, hippodromes, baths and villas, the Byzantines would add to the
repertoire with their domed churches, walled monasteries, and more sophisticated
fortification walls.
 Hagia Sophia
Interior

Favoured building materials were large bricks with mortar and concrete for the hidden
core of walls. Ashlar stone blocks were used in more prestigious public buildings
while marble, used more sparingly than in earlier Roman times, was generally
reserved for columns, door and window frames, and other decorative elements. Roofs
were of timber while interior walls were frequently covered in plaster, stucco, thin
marble plaques, paintings, and mosaics.

The largest, most important and still most famous Byzantine building is the Hagia
Sophia of Constantinople, dedicated to the holy wisdom (hagia sophia) of God. Built
anew in 532-537 CE, its basic rectangular shape measures 74.6 x 69.7 metres (245 x
229 ft) and its huge domed ceiling is 55 metres above the floor, spanning 31.8 metres
in diameter. Resting on four massive arches with four supporting pendentives, the
dome was a spectacular architectural achievement for the period. The Hagia Sophia
remained the biggest church in the world until the 16th century CE and was one of the
most decorated with superb glittering mosaics and wall paintings.
Christian churches, in general, were one of the Byzantine’s greatest contributions to
architecture, especially the use of the dome. The cross-in-square plan became the
most common with the dome built over four supporting arches. The square base of the
building then branched into bays which might themselves have a half or full dome
ceiling. Another common feature is a central apse with two side-apses at the eastern
end of the church. Over time, the central dome was raised ever higher on a polygonal
drum, which in some churches is so high it has the appearance of a tower. Many
churches, especially basilicas, had alongside them a baptistry (usually octagonal), and
sometimes a mausoleum for the founder of the church and their descendants. Such
Byzantine design features would go on to influence Orthodox Christian architecture
and so are still seen today in churches worldwide.