Quantization noise :

Quantization noise can be categorized into 4 types –

1. Overload noise
2. Random noise.
3. Granular noise.
4. Hunting noise

ECE 1
1. Overload noise: The level of the analog waveform at the input of
the PCM encoder needs to be set so that its peak level does not
exceed the design peak of V volts. If the peak input does exceed V,
then the recovered analog waveform at the output of the PCM system
will have flat-tops near the peak values. This produces Overload noise.

Example: This type of distortion can be heard on a PCM telephone

system when they are high levels such as dial tones, busy signals or
off-hook signals.

2. Random noise: Random noise is produced by the Random

quantization errors in the PCM system under normal operating
conditions when the input level is properly set. It has a white hissing
sound.

ECE 2
3. Granular noise: If the input level is reduced further to a relatively
small value with respect to the design level, the error values are not
equally likely from sample to sample, and the noise has a harsh sound
resembling gravel being poured into a barrel. This is called granular
noise.

 This noise can be randomized (noise power decreased) by

increasing the number of quantization levels and PCM bit rate.

 Alternatively , it can be reduced by using a nonuniform quantizer

as µ-law or A-law quantizer.

ECE 3
4. Hunting noise: It can occur when the input analog waveform is
nearly constant , including when there is no signal (i. e. 0 level). For
these conditions, the sample values at the quantizer output can
between 2 adjacent quantization levels, causing an undesired
sinusoidal type tone of frequency fs/2 at the output PCM system.

 It can be reduced by filtering out the tone or by designing the

quantizer so that there is no vertical step at the “constant” value
of the input.

 For no signal case, it is also called idle channel noise which can be
reduced by using a horizontal step at the origin of the quantizer
output-input characteristics instead of a vertical step .

ECE 4
 SNR is an indication of the quality of the received signal. It can vary
widely depending on –
Talker
Length of circuit

 it will be low most of the time

These problem can be solved by using smaller steps for smaller

amplitudes (nonuniform quantizing), as shown in Fig 6.11a .

 The same result is obtained by first compressing signal samples and

then using a uniform quantization. The input output characteristics of a
compressor are shown in Fig 6.11b .

ECE 5
Nonuniform quantizing:

ECE 6
Effects of Nonuniform quantizing:

ECE 7
Compression laws: 2 Compression laws have been accepted as
desirable standards by the CCITT -

1) µ-law: used in North America and Japan.

2) A-law: used in Europe and the rest of the world and international
routes

ECE 8
 Both the law curves have odd symmetry about the vertical axis.

ECE 9
Compandor:

ECE 10
ECE 11
Digital signaling: The voltage (or current) waveforms for digital
signals can be expressed as an orthogonal series with a finite number of
terms, N such as

Where,
wk = The digital data
φk (t), k= 1, 2, ….N are N orthogonal functions that give the
waveform its waveshape.
N = Number of dimensions required to describe the waveform.
w(t) = A PCM word or any message of the M message digital
source.

ECE 12
Two types of signal are -

1. For the case when wks have binary values, n=N, w(t) is said to be
binary signal.

2. When the wks are assigned more than 2 possible values (i. e. not
binary), w(t) is said to be a multilevel signal.

ECE 13
ECE 14
The absolute BW if sin (x)/x pulse multilevel waveform, Fig 3-14b is

Thus each of these L=4 multilevel waveform has ½ the bandwidth of the
corresponding binary signal . In general, an L level multilevel signal would
have 1/l the BW .

ECE 15