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Student Study Guide

This publication has been prepared to supplement the flying and ground instruction
you will receive during flying training. The Information contained is complementary to
your formal ground instruction, and in particular, is designed to help you understand
more fully your flying instructor’s in-flight instruction and pre flight briefings. All the
exercise taught during training are discurssed in turn.
Initially, sorties will be confined to a particular exercise, but as you progress, your
instructor will revise previous exercise as well as introducing you to more advanced
ones. Eventually, you will be covering a number of exercise in on sortie.

Mass Briefings
Ideally, a mass briefing is given before each new exercise is taught in the air. This will
link the lessons you have learnt in the ground school with practical aspects of flying.

Pre-Flight Briefings
Your instructor will give you a pre-flight briefing just before each flight. This will be a
resume of the main points of the air exercises and will also cover details which may
affect the flight. Such as weather, airfield state, and Air Traffic Control.

Air Exercise
Each Air Exercise will be fully covered in your mass and pre-flight briefings. You will
then be taught it in the air by your instructor. This book will serve as a reminder of the
main points arising from the briefings and from the air trip and perhaps clarify some
points not immediately clear to you.

Checklist
Aircraft Operating Procedures are contained in specific checklists.

You will be issued with checklists for all normal and emergency operation of your
aircraft.

Your instructor will advise you on the use of checklists and the items that must be
committed to memory

Additionally, there are four generic checklist that must be known. They are HASELL
checks which are carried out prior to stalling, aerobatic and low flyinh exercises.
HASELL check are in the Flight Training Manual (FTM).

Navigational exercise involve CHART, FIELD and P.T.A. ETA checks

These checks must be committed to memory and are included here for your
information.
1. CHART
C Compass aligned with D.I
Before turning point or fix, the compass / D.I is made
H Heading – Heading bug set to desired heading.
A Prominent feature ahead of track is chosen on the map with which
to ensure the new heading looks correct.
A Airspeed / Altitude – Normally 120 kts, check and adjust
R Radio – As required
T Time – Write time on Navlog, and estimate next ETA.

2. FIELD

F Fuel – Contents, balance mixture, carburetor heat.


I Instruments – Suction, OAT, Icing.
E Electrics – Ammeter charging, CB’s set.
L Locallity confirmed.
D Direction – Compass D.I checked.

3. Radar Calls – P.T.A. ETA.

P Position.
T Time.
A Altitude.
ETA Next Check Point.
Taxiing

Aim
To manoeuvre the aircraft on the ground.

Learning Objectives
By the conclussion of the lesson the student should be able to:
 Achieve and maintain correct taxi speed
 Carry out a brake check
 Manoeuvre the aircraft in a confined space on the ground

Human Factors

Briefing
 Instructor should have a Taxiing Briefing including the following HF
Vision: Wing tip clearance
Windscreen cleanliness
Speed judgement
Blind spots
Eye position – Seat adjusted and secured

Information Processing: Checklist


Record clearance and ATIS
Mental a/d layout picture
Surface feature awarness
Mental Picture of traffic
Reversing not available
At the Aircraft

Pre-Flight

 (Carried out over the first two or three lessons and reinforced later)
 “I’m Safe” completed
 Adjust seating correctly and ensure before taxi
 Check physical clearances before taxi
 Lookout including clearing blind spots
 Aerodrome chart checked and available for reference
 Use checklist.

Before the Exercise


1. Prepatory Instruction.
a. Effect of inertia and momentum.
b. Use of controls.
c. Use of power.
d. Effect of wind.
e. Use of brakes.
f. Engine handling.
g. Marshalling signals.
h. Traffic rules.

Reference FTM – Chapter 5.

During the Exercise


2. There is a constant need for a careful lookout.

a. Distribution of the keel surface tends to make the aircraft weathercock into
wind.
b. There is a time lag between throttle movement and the aircraft responding

3. Airmanship. The captain is ultimately responsible for the safety of the aircraft and
that although marshaller’ signals should normally be obeyed the captain is at liberty
to disregard hem if they considers that the safety of their aircraft is endangered by
following them. Flight instrument serviceability checks should be carried out during
taxiing

4. Lookout. The view from the TB-10 is excellent but the importance of a continuous
watch for obstacles and other aircraft is necessary. When taxiing, pilots must be
prepared to give way to aircraft approaching to land and taking off

5. Breaking Failure. The main considerations affecting the action to be taken if the
brakes are fail are:

a. Proximity of obstacles and other aircraft.


b. Wind strength and direction.
c. Nature and gradient of the surface.

Usually the safest course of action is to switch off the engine after steering the
aircraft clear of danger. If only one brake fails, the aircraft can be stopped by use
of the remaining brake in conjunction with the nose wheel steering.

6. Nosewheel Steering Failure. In the event of the nosewheel steering failure,


directional control can be maintained by use of differential braking. Under these
circumstances the aircraft should be stopped dand towed back to dispersal.

7. Starting and Stopping. More power is required to start the aircraft moving that to
keep it moving. This is because of the higher initial power needed to overcome the
inertia of the stationary aircraft. Throttle movements and brake applications should
always be smoothly executed. To stop the aircraft, close the throttle and brake gently
until the aircraft stops and then apply the parking brake.

8. Control of Speed. The most accurate assessment is obtained from the apparent
movement of the ground close to the aircraft. Power changes should be anticipated
in order to maintain a constant speed over varying surfaces.

9. Directional Control and Turning. Because of the inherent directional stability of a


nosewheel undercarriage, the aircraft will maintain a given direction unless the wind
is of sufficient strength to cause a weathercock tendency. Turning is achieved by
nosewheel steering through the rudder bars. The foot loads can be high and
differential brake may be used to assist in turning the aircraft. When clear of dispersal,
apply full rudder in each direction to ensure that full, free and correct movement of
the rudder is available and that the nosewheel steering is functioning correctly.

10. Turning in a Confined Space. The tail can be made to swing quite sharply whrough
a large angle and the necessity to ensure that there are no obstacles in the path of the
tail must be emphasised when turning in a confined space. Turning about a locked
wheel must be avoided unless the safety of the aircraft is involved.

11. Leaving Apron. Immediately the aircraft moves forward the brakes should be
applied to test their effectiviness. The aircraft should only be allowed to move slowly
before applying the brakes in case they unserviceable.

12. Use of controls. Allow for wind effect when taxiin to avoid the tail or wing being
lifted by the wind.

a. For a strong Headwind: Control coloumn neutral or back.


b. For a strong Tailwind: Control coloumn forward.
c. Crosswind from ahead: Turn the control wheel into the wind.
d. Crosswind from behind: Turn the control wheel away from the wind.

13. Common Faults. There is a distinct tendency to taxi too fast.


Effects of Controls

Aim
To learn the effects of the controls on the aircraft in flight, and to select attitudes and
trim.

Learning Objective
By the conclussion of the lesson the student should be able to:
 Understand the primary effect of moving each main flight control in flight
 Understand the further effect of moving each main flight contol
 Use the trim to relieve steady pressures on the control coloumn
 Understand the effect of changing aspect and slipstream on the effectiviness
of the main flight controls
 Undersant the effect of changing power and to counteract undesireable
tendencies resulting from power changes.
 Understand the effect of altering flap position and to control the aircraft
smoothly while changing flat setting.
 Operate the throttle, carburator heat and mixture control correctly.

Human Factors

Briefing
 Lookout
 Orientation – Geographical situational awareness
 Performance Vs arousal (stress)
 Control handover and method of holding / touching controls.
 Mutual conflict / dislike management avoid poor learning.
 Apprehension desensitise – Expect some disorientation, balance
 Sensations, with 3 planes of movement.

At the Aircraft

Pre-Flight
 Prior to take-off remark in the need to look around obstructions to vision and
demonstrate lookout moving head for and aft.
 Introduce “I’m Safe”.

In – Flight
 Again note and demo lookout technique, and point out landmarks to help
student get oriented, carry out control handover sequence, desensitise
apprehension.

Post-Flight
 Discussion and gentle questioning to further desensitise and encourage the
student feedback and understanding of HF as well as other learning

Before Flight

1. Adjust the seat to be high enough to see the horizon

2. Preparatory Instruction.
a. Function of the flying controls
b. Effects of the airspeed and slipstream
c. Effects of bank
d. Effects of yaw
e. Trimming control
f. Use of engine controls
g. Effects of power
h. Flaps

Reference FTM – Chapter 4.

During Flight

3. hold the controls lightly and correctly. The horizon is used as a reference for
interpetin the aircraft attitude. Note that the position of the nose relative to the
horizon changes when the attitude changes.

4. Avoid harsh control movements.

5. Airmanship
a. Keep a good lookput at this stage, the instructor should explain any actions
that the pilot takes for reasons of good airmanship.
b. Use the correct method of handing over control, taking over control, and
“Following through”.

6. Primary Effects
a. The prime function of the rudder is not to control the direction of the aircraft
but to balance the flight of the aircraft
b. The response of the aircraft to control movements depend on the IAS and the
amount of slipstream, as well as on the magnitude of the control movements.

7. Effect of Airspeed. Although the effectiviness of the controls is reduced and the
aircraft response becomes poor when the speed is reduced, a measure of positive
control is still available.

8. Effect of Trim. Adjustment to the aircraft attitude should be made by the flying
control and that the trimmer should then be adjusted until no force is required on the
control to maintain the attitude.

9. Effect of Power. Maintain the datum attitude and retrim the aircraft after power
has been varied.
Straight and Level Flight

Aim
To fly the aircraft accurately in a constant direction at a constant height in balance.

Learning Objective
By the conclusion of the lesson the student should be able to:
 Maintain constant height and heading at cruise power setting and with the
aircraft in balance
 Return to straight and level flight after a asmall deviation
 Maintain straight and level flight while decelerating or accelerating
 Fly straight and level at selected airspeeds.

Recuired Accuracy
 Altitude ± 100 Feet
 Heading ± 10˚
 Airspeed ± 10 knots

Human Factors

Briefing
 Develop scan technique and awareness of the pilot’s visual limitations
 Blind Spots
 Scan Technique and Composite Cue Scan (Scan Loop)
 Clock code
 Revise Situation Awareness (Cloud, Control Boundaries, Aircraft)

At the Aircraft

Pre-Flight
 “I’m Safe”
 Blind Spots for this aircraft
 Fore/aft scan movement to cover Blind Spots
 Sectorised scan (2sec / 20 degrees)

In-Flight
 Scan Technique
 Composite Cue (scan loop)
 Clock code / Situation awareness
Post-Flight
 Reinforcement of above HF

General
1. Accurate Straight and Level flight is required at some stagefor most types of
operation: Therefore it is required to attain a high standard.

Before Flight
2. Prepatory Instruction:
a. Force acting on an aircraft in flight
b. Control of attitude in all planes
c. Balanced Flight
d. Trim
e. Effect of Power
f. Stability

Reference FTM – Chapter 6.

During Flight
3. Airmanship. A good lookout is important. Introduce the clock system of reporting
aircraft is used to report the position of other aircraft.

4. Orientation. Note out local landmarks and their position in relation to use

5. Straight and Level Flight at Cruising Power. Pay attention to the following points:
a. Concentrate intially on judgin the aircraft attitude by the position of the nose
in relation to the horizon and then use that attitude to fly straight and level.
b. Choose a reference point on which to keep straight and how to bring the
aircraft back to the poitn id the direction alter.
c. The Inherent stability of the aircraft in straight and level can be seen by
trimming the aircraft accurately and the releasing the controls
d. Practise making the small corrections necessary to maintain accuracy
e. Marked slip can be readily detected by sensations experienced; the unusual
attitude and falling airspeed if straight and level flight is maintained; and by
the slip indicator. Slight slip, however, is more difficult to detect and the slip
indicator must be used. Demonstrate unbalanced flight by applying
considerable rudder and banking the aircraft in the opposite direction to
prevent yaw. Straight and level flight can be maintained but the feeling of
sliping and loss of airspeed (or loss of height if airspeed is maintained) indicate
inefficient flight. Recover by levelling the wings and correction the yaw with
rudder, using outside references. Reliance upon poor external references may
result in slight residual imbalance. In these circumtances, the slip indicator
must be used to attain completely balanced flight.
6. Straight and Level Flight at Various Power Settings.
a. It is impportant that the correct technique for changing power is fully
understood
b. When settled in straight and level flight, and increase in power cause the
aircraft to accelerate and climb and to decrease in power causes it to
decelerate and descend. To maintain level flight the correct technique is
therefore to adjust the attitude progressively while the spee is changing.
c. A correction is needed for the yaw which occurs during the power change.
Changing rudder effectiviness as speed changes needs changing rudder
application.

7. Straight and Level Flight at Selected Airspeeds:


a. Coordination of the power and the elevator gives the required airspeed in level
flight. Any movement of one of these controls necessitates movement of the
other in order to maintain a constant flight path.
b. Different rpm and manifold pressure combinations can give the same power
and speed.

Commong Faults
8. Difficulties encountered in eleminating yaw are usually due to the following causes:
a. Aircraft is not laterally level
b. As speed changes, no compensation is made for changing rudder effectiviness.

9. Do not hold the control column too tightly or it will tend to over control
Climbing

Aim
To climb the aircraft at recommended airspeeds

Learning Objectives
By the conclussion of the lesson the student should be able to:
 Enter and maintain a steady climb at a constant heading and airspeed
 Level off at a specific altitude

Required Accuracy
 Airspeed ±10 kts
 Heading ±10 ˚
 In balance

Human Factors

Briefing
 Ears, medication, I’m Safe, Diving
 Lookout, eyes, local length
 Situation Awareness, noise
 Handout

At the Aircraft

Pre-Flight
 I’m safe.
 Blind Spots revision.
 Controlled airpsace restrictions.

In-Flight
 Lookout scan technique reinforced
 Noise
 Situation awareness (geographical and altitude)

Post-Flight
 Need for I’m safe, correct scan and geographical and altitude awareness
General
1. For maximum efficiency an aircraft is climbed at the aidspeed recommended in the
aircrew manual.

Before Flight
2. Prepatory Instruction
a. Effect of the changing power
b. Recommended airspeeds
c. Effects of Flaps
d. Engine Handling
e. Effects of Altitude.

Reference FTM – Chapter 7

During Flight
3. Airmanship. A good lookout should cover the whole area around the aircraft, but
during the climb it is especially important that a good lookout is maintained above and
in the area covered by the nose. In order to clear this ara, the heading should be
changed at intervals. Do not climb into cloud. Be aware of airspace.

4. Normal Climb
a. Power – Attitude – Trim – P.A.T to climb. Altitude – Power – Trim – A.P.T. to
Level off.
b. After selecting climbing power the aircraft is put into the approximate climbing
attitude. When the speed has settled small adjustments are made to the
attitude to obtain the correct climbing spreed. Unless this method is used the
student tends to chase the airspeeds.
c. Engine instrument readings should be frequently checked. Initially this may be
done at reguler height intervals but later bby frequent monitoring.

Common Faults
5. Student often fail to anticipate and correct yaw after changing power. They should
also be aware of the changing rudder effectiviness with changing airspeed.

6. Students tend to neglect engine instruments when concentrating on flying the


aircraft. They should be reminded of the vitaal important of keeping within engine
limitations.

7. Students often experience difficulty with the progressive attitude change required
to maintain constant height as the speed increases during the level off.
Descending

Aim
To descend at given airspeeds, rates of descent, and in the aprroach configuration

Learning Objectives
By the conclussion of the lesson the student should be able to:
 Enter and maintain a steady glide on a constant heading
 Control the rate of descent and flight path using power
 Extend the flaps in controlled descent
 Level off at a specified altitude

Required Accuracy
 Airspeed ±10 kts
 Heading ±10 ˚
 In balance
 Specified Altitude ±50 feet.

Human Factors

Briefing
 Ears, medication, I’m Safe, Diving
 Lookout, eyes, local length
 Situation Awareness, noise
 Handout

At the Aircraft

Pre-Flight
 I’m safe.
 Blind Spots revision.
 Controlled airpsace restrictions.

In-Flight
 Lookout scan technique reinforced
 Noise
 Situation awareness (geographical and altitude)
Post-Flight
 Need for I’m safe, correct scan and geographical and altitude awareness

General
1. An accurately controlled descent involves four variables which must be correctly
related to obtain the required conditions for the descent. The variables are:
a. Airspeed
b. Power
c. Flap Setting
d. Rate of Descent

Before Flight
2. Prepatory Instruction
a. Effect of the changing power
b. Recommended airspeeds
c. Effects of Flaps
d. Engine Limitiations
e. Effects of winds.
f. Wind gradient

Reference FTM – Chapter 8; 8-2 ; 8-10 ; 8;14

During Flight
3. Airmanship. The following points have particular significance to the exercise
a. During the long descent the heading should be changed at intervals so that a
lookout can be maintained in the area into which the aircraft is descending

b. At 1000 ft intervals during glide descent the throttle should be fully opened to
warm the engine. Keep the airspeed constant by raising the nose ath the same
time while maintainingbalanced flight

4. Effect of Power. Varyin the ratae of descent while maintaining a constant airspeed.
Coordinatepower changes with altitude adjustment to maintain airspeed.

Common Faults
5. The student does not allow enough time for the airspeed to stabilise and
consequently chases the needle
Descending

Aim
To descend at given airspeeds, rates of descent, and in the aprroach configuration

Learning Objectives
By the conclussion of the lesson the student should be able to:
 Enter and maintain a steady glide on a constant heading
 Control the rate of descent and flight path using power
 Extend the flaps in controlled descent
 Level off at a specified altitude

Required Accuracy
 Airspeed ±10 kts
 Heading ±10 ˚
 In balance
 Specified Altitude ±50 feet.

Human Factors

Briefing
 Ears, medication, I’m Safe, Diving
 Lookout, eyes, local length
 Situation Awareness, noise
 Handout

At the Aircraft

Pre-Flight
 I’m safe.
 Blind Spots revision.
 Controlled airpsace restrictions.

In-Flight
 Lookout scan technique reinforced
 Noise
 Situation awareness (geographical and altitude)
Post-Flight
 Need for I’m safe, correct scan and geographical and altitude awareness

General
1. An accurately controlled descent involves four variables which must be correctly
related to obtain the required conditions for the descent. The variables are:
a. Airspeed
b. Power
c. Flap Setting
d. Rate of Descent

Before Flight
2. Prepatory Instruction
a. Effect of the changing power
b. Recommended airspeeds
c. Effects of Flaps
d. Engine Limitiations
e. Effects of winds.
f. Wind gradient

Reference FTM – Chapter 8; 8-2 ; 8-10 ; 8;14

During Flight
3. Airmanship. The following points have particular significance to the exercise
c. During the long descent the heading should be changed at intervals so that a
lookout can be maintained in the area into which the aircraft is descending

d. At 1000 ft intervals during glide descent the throttle should be fully opened to
warm the engine. Keep the airspeed constant by raising the nose ath the same
time while maintainingbalanced flight

4. Effect of Power. Varyin the rate of descent while maintaining a constant airspeed.
Coordinatepower changes with altitude adjustment to maintain airspeed.

Common Faults
5. The student does not allow enough time for the airspeed to stabilise and
consequently chases the needle
Basic Turning

Aim
To turn into a apecified heading using medium angles of bank

Learning Objectives
By the conclussion of the lesson the student should be able to:
 Enter, maintain, and roll put of a medium level turn using constant power and
olding a constant altitude
 Change heading while climbing at a constant airspeed
 Enterm naintain and roll out of descending turns at a constant airspeed
 Execute descending turn at constant airspeed using flaps and power

Required Accuracy
 Nominated bank angle ± 5˚
 Heading ± 10 ˚
 Airspeed ± 5kts
 In balance

Human Factors

Briefing
 Reinforce HF introduced with Medium Turns, Climbing and Descending
 Lookout and scan technique; Ears; Situation Awareness

At the Aircraft

Pre-Flight
 I’m safe. Revie Blind Spots.

In-Flight
 Scan technique, geographical orientation; over banking

Post-Flight
 Review need for I’m safe, scan, orientation, over banking

General
1. For the purpose of the exercise the amount of bank used should not exceed about
30˚. Turns using higher angles of bank are considered as steep turns.
2. All types of basic turns shoud be taught before starting circuits.

Before Flight
3. Prepatory Instruction
a. Principles of Turning
b. Use of controls when turning
c. Use of power
d. Climbing and descending turns

Reference FTM – Chapter 9; 9-2 ; 9-12 ; 9-16; 9-20; 9-22

During Flight
4. The initial emphasis should be on the correct judgement of attitude and angle pf
bank through the use of the horizon as an external reference. As the student becomes
more proficient they should be made to cross-refer to the instruments to achieve
greater accuracy.

5. Airmanship. The student often forgets to maintain a good lookout while


concentratring on flying accurately A good lookout is very important before and during
a change of direction, particularly on the side towards which they is turning. During
the exercise the student should be required to orientate themselves at intervals so
asa to develop a sense of direction

Common Faults
6. Most faults stem the lack of coordination of the controls. A correction to any one of
the variables involved in the turn will necessitate adjustment of the others.

7. Faulty turns often from inaccurate flying and trimming just before entering the
turns.

8. Some students become confused over the function of the controls when the aircraft
is banked. It should be understood that the controls still retain their basic functions
when the aircraft is banked, viz. :
a. Ailerons control the angle of bank
b. Elevators control the pitch attitude
c. Rudder controls the yawing plane – slip or skid.
Stalling One

Aim
To recognise an approaching stall and how to recover from a stall: finally, how to
recover with minimum loss of height.

Learning Objective
By the completion of the lesson the student should be able to:

 Recognise the symptoms of the stall and recover with minimum height loss.

Human Factors

Briefing

 Awaraness of stalling cues, densensitise as a normal skill exercise.


 Situation awareness/due recognition
 Hazardous attitudes
 Motion sickness

At the aircraft

Pre-flight

 “I’m Safe”
 Check Sick Bags available (discretely)
 Desensitise
 Loose Objects

In-flight

 HASELL/HELL
 Situatio awareness with early cue recognition

Before Flight
1. Preparatory Instruction
a. Lift, the stalling angle and the stalling speed.
b. Characteristics of the stall
c. Factors affecting the stalling speed.
d. Attitude and the stall.
e. Recovery from the stall - use of power.
f. HASELL checks.

Reference FTM 10-2

During Flight

2. It is usual to be a little nervous at first; this is understandable, but you will gain
confidence as you become able to identify and recover from the stall.

3. Airmanship. The checks listed in the Air Exercise must be carried out before
commencing any stalling exercise. In addition to routine lookout, use
clrearing turns so that the airspace can be visually cleared prior to the
stall, and the aircraft positioned as necessary. Use clearing turns before each
stall.

4. Signs of Approaching Stall


a. A high nose-up attitude is not always a fundamental sign of an approaching
stall.
b. The student must given plenty of practice at approaching the stall and
detecting the signs for himself

1. Effect of Power on Recovery. There is a smaller amount of height lost by


using power in the recovery. Although practices are carried out with 2700
rpm set, an accidental stall can occur at any setting and the rpm lever and
throttle should be moved to maximum simultaneously.

2. Recovery When the Wing Drops. The use of aileron will not always raise a
dropped wing and may aggravate the situation under certain
circumtances. Therefore because of this possibility ailerons are not used in the
standard recovery unti the wings are unstalled.

3. Recovery from the Incipient Stall. An unintentional stall should always be


stopped at the incipient stage. Therefore, quick recovery action is
necessary as soon as any stall warning signs are recognised.

4. Stall under Approach Condition. Lack of attention to accurate flyting can


lead to a stall when concentrating on the approach to land.

5. Stall at High Speeds. Extreme cases cannot be demonstrated because of the


possibility of over-stressing the aircraft. Be aware that stalling speed
increases with bank. This is particularly relevant during the finals turn
when speed and power setting are low.

Common Faults

17. It is difficulty to estimate the amount of control column movement required to


recover from the stall. Frequent practice is needed.
18. When a wing drops at the stall, it is instinctive to use the ailerons. However,
this is the incorrect recovery.
19. When power is applied during recovery, the ammount of height lost and the
rapidity with which control is regained both depend on the prompt use
of full pow
Takeoff and Climb to Downwind Leg

Aim

To take off, enter the climb and position the aircraft on the downwind leg of the circuit

Learning Objectives

By the conclusion of the lessons the student should be able to:

 Take off into wind and climb to the downwind leg of the circuit
 Compensate for any crosswind effects during the takeoff and climb to the
downwind leg position
 Carry out the correct procedure in the event of an engine failure after takeoff

Required Accuracy

 Airspeed ± 10 kts
 In balance
 Circuit height ± 100 ft

Human Factors

Briefing

 Memory, checklist, aging student limitation, stress handling


 Revise eyes, scan, cockpit constraints, eye defects, visual landing cues,
situation awareness, planning, prioritising and decision-making, noise
 Command responsibilities, learning process
 Communication, maintaining competency

At the aircraft

Pre-flight

 I’m Safe, Wind assessment


 Eye deffects, cockpit constraints
In-flight
 Checklist, memory, situation awareness, noise, stress reduction, lookout scan.
Command planning and decision making, R/t visual landing cues, progress
plateau, communication.

General

1. Before first solo the student should be able to take off in both into-wind and
crosswind conditions and have practised the procedure to be used if the engine fails
after takeoff

Before Flight

2. Preparatory Instruction:
 Use of elevators, rudder and nose wheel steering
 Effect of crosswind
 Use of power
 Engine failure
 Drills and circuit procedure
 Factors affecting length of ground run
 Airfield control and RT procedure
 The airmanship aspects of wake turbulence during takeoff and on the final
approach

Reference FTM - Chapter 12

During Flight:

3. Airmanship:
a. Lookout:
The paramount importance of a good lookout.
b. Checks:
The student must be able to complete their checks before takeoff thorougly and in
the correct sequence.
c. R.T. Procedure
By first solo the student must be completely familiar with the circuit RT
procedure and action in the event of radio failure. Because the degree of
concentration required during the early stages of circuit practice is high few
students are able to maintain a good listening watch.
d. Wake turbulence:
Be alert to the hazards associated with wake turbulence.
4. Take-off into Wind:
a. Whenever possible the first demonstration and practices should be made
into wind.
b. Choose a point well ahead of the aircraft to assist him to maintain direction.
c. After “brakes off” engine instrument ratings should be checked: rpm, fuel
pressure and oil pressure.

5. Crosswind Take-off:
a. Unless the crosswind is strong enough to give a convincing demonstration,
the lesson should be postponed until more suitable conditions
prevail.
b. Ensure that the aircraft is flown off cleanly at a slightly higher airspeed so
that there is no danger of touching down again once the aircraft has
acquired drift.
c. After leaving the ground the student should take up a heading to make good
track parallel to the takeoff heading.
d. Be aware of hazards associated with wake turbulence and the required
separation from other aircraft.

6. Emergencies during the take-off:


There are two emergencies in the takeoff for wich you should be prepared (eve
though they may never happen):
a. Engine failure after takeoff (fortunately not as common these days as it once
was)
b. The discontinued takeoff while still on the ground (pilot initiated).

7. Prior to opening the throttle on each and every takeoff, it is a good idea to run
through both of these procedures in yout mind. Your passengers need not be
aware of this, but it is one sign of a professional pilot.

ENGINE FAILURE AFTER TAKE OFF

8. If the engine power is lost in the climb out following takeoff, the options open to
you will vary according to how high the aeroplane is, the nature of the terrain
ahead, the wind conditions and so on. An event such as engine failure close to the
ground will require prompt and decisive action.
9. No matter when the engine fails in flight, the first priority is to maintain safe
flight. Immediately lower the nose to the gliding attitude to maintain flying
speed.
10. A controlled descent and landing, even on an unprepared surface, is preferable by
far to an unwanted stall in the attempted climb-out. Close the throttle in case the
engine comes back to life at an inopportune time.

Do not turn back to the field:

11. The height at wich the failure occurs determines how you manoeuvre the
aeroplane but, in general, you should plan to land approximately straight-ahead.
Height is rapidly lost in descending turns and, from less than 500 ft AGL, it is
doubtful if you would make the runway. Look for a landing area ahead and
within range.
12. In your general day to day flying, make yourself familiar with suitable emergency
landing areas in the vicinity of your aerodrome so that, in the unlikely event
engine failure, you already have a plan of action in mind.
13. Following engine failure and having established the glide, quickyly select the
best landing area from the fields available ahead and within approximately ± 30°
of your heading. Make only gentle turns (say 15°-20° angle of bank).
14. Gliding turns at low level can be dangerous due to:
 High rates of descent; and
 A tendency for the pilot to raise the nose to stop a high rate of descent and
inadvertently stall or spin the aeroplane

15. Complete the emergency checks and transmit a MAYDAY call if time permits.
Any attempt to switch fuel tanks and/or to restart the engine depends on time
being available.
16. Maintaining flying speed is vital - more important than any radio call or even
starting the engine. If the selected field looks rough and you feel that damage
could ensue then, when committed to carrying out the landing:
 Mixture - IDLE CUT-OFF
 Fuel - OFF
 Ignition - OFF
 Doors - unlocked (or as advised in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook) to
ensure that they can be opened if damage occurs)
17. After Landing:
 Stop the aeroplane and set the parking brakes;
 Check:
Fuel - off
Ignition - off
Electrical Equipment - off
 Evacute, taking the fire extinguisher with you possible

18. The Discontinued Take-off: A discontinued takeoff is one that begun and then
halted.this manoeuvre is also known as an aborted takeoff, and abandoned takeoff
or as an accelerate-stop manoeuvre. You my decide to abort a take off during the
ground run for many reasons, such as:
 An obstruction on the runway;
 Engine failure or loss power;
 An engine or fuel problem
 Faulty instrument indications (e.g. airspeed indicator zero);
 A doubt that the aeroplane is capable of flying;
 An insecure seat that feels like it might slip backwards;
 A command from ATC (possible conflict with another aircraft); or
 Any other condition that may, in your opinion, make the take-off
inadvisable.

19. Procedure to abort the takeoff: You must make a firm and conscious decision
to abort, and then act positively:
 Close the throttle fully;
 Keep straight with rudder;
 Brakae firmly (immediate maximum braking if required), avoid skidding or
slipping while maintaining directional control;
 Stop the aeroplaane, set the parking brakes, and establish the problem;
 If necessary, shut down the engine (preferably clear of the runway);
 Radio your situation to ATC (or the service with whom you are in
communications) and request assistance if required
Approach and Landing

Aim

To teach to continue in the circuit for an approach and landing.

Learning Objectives
By the completion of the lessons the student should be able to:
 From a downwind position, position the aircraft for a powered approach and
landing
 Carry out a touch and go landing
 Carry out a go around from shorts finals
 Compensate for crosswind components in the circuit, on final approach and
during the landing
 Execute a flapless approach and landing
 Carry out a short landing
 Execute both oval and square circuits

Required Accuracy:

 Airspeed ± 5 kts
 Heading ± 10°
 No drift in short finals or touchdown

Human Factors

Briefing

 Memory, checklist, aging student limitations, stress handling


 Revise eyes, scan, cockpit constraints, eye defects, visual landing cues,
situation awareness, planning, priorisiting and decision-making, noise
 Command responsibilities, learning process
 Communication, maintaining competency

At the aircraft

Pre-flight

 I’m Safe, Wind assesment


 Eye defects, cockpit contraints

In-Flight

 Checklist, memory, situation awareness, noise, stress reduction, Lookout scan.


Command planning and decision making, R/t visual landing cues, progress
plateau, communication.

Before Flight:

1. Preparatory Instruction:
 Circuit approach and landing
 Effect of windspeed
 Use of nosewheel steering and brakes
 Effect of crosswind
 Effect of gusty conditions
 Going roud again
 Considerataion for short landings
 Airfield control and RT procedures
 Lookout and listen out
 Wake turbulence
Reference FTM Chapter 4

During Flight:
2. Many students have difficulty in mastering the landing and although the
instructor’s advice and guidance is of help. Proficiency is obtained mainly
through practice.

3. Airmanship:
 The large number of aircraft that may be in the circuit requires a
particularly careful lookout and a high standard should be demanded.
Listening out for R/T calls from other aircraft in the circuit will help
locate them.
 Learn and understand the significance of all the visual signals and R/T
calls that are used by ATC for the control of Aircraft
 Turns in the circuit should be limited to medium angles of bank unless an
emergency arises
 Understand the hazards associated with wake turbulence

4. Downwind Leg. The checks before landing should be done at the beginning of
the downwind leg so that full attention can be devoted to correct tracking.
Select a 500ft point when downwind, and commence the finals turn abeam this
point in light winds, or earlier in strong headwinds to allow for the distance
they will be blown downwind in the finals turn. The position of the 500ft point
may be varied for the prevailing wind (i.e. closer in strong winds) to assist
circuit management. In an nil-wind situation the turning point is when the end
of the runway is at 45° to the wing root.

5. Finals Turn. Reduce power and commence a descending turn onto finals.
Lookout for aircraft that are making their final approach, especially those on a
long final approach. Power should be adjusted to achieve the 500ft point as the
wings are rolled level on the extended centreline. The turn on to the final
approach should, ideally, be maade with a constant angle of bank. Adjust the
bank to roll out on the runway extended centerline whilst maintaining 80 kts.

6. Engine Assisted Approach


 Engine assisted approach and landing is the basic technique and all others
are variations of it.
 The final approach should be straight in from 500ft
 Once lined up on final approach full flap should be selected, and the
attitude held constant initially to reduce to the final approach speed of 75
kts. Once 75 kts has been achieved the basic technique is to use the
elevators to control the airspeed and small adjusments of power to control
glide path. It is important to closely monitor the airspeed on all
approaches.

7. Landing. The speed should be tapered to threshold speed by a small


coordinated adjusment to power and attitude. Roundout should be a
progressive backward movement on the control column and a smooth
reduction in power, aimed at progressively reducing the rate of descent until it
is almost zero as the mainwheels touch some 5-10kts below threshold speed.
The roundout must be commenced at a height which will allow a controlled
change in the rate of descent. The landing attitude should be judge by looking
towards the far end of the runway surface immediately ahead and to the side of
the nose of the aircraft. After touchdown, the nose attitude must be controlled
to allow the nosewheel to lower gently on the runway under little load. The
brakes should not be applied until all three wheels are firmly on the ground,
the first application being gentle and the pressure increased as necessary to
bring the aircraft to a safe taxi speed before reaching the turn-off point.
Directional control is easily maintained by the use of nosewheel steering and
braking. Do not turn off the runway at excessive speeds. Strain that is imposed
on the undercarriage by fast concerning. The aircraft should be stopped when
well clear of the runway, the parking brake applied and the after landing
checks carried out.
8. Going around again:
a) If a go around is required from an approach or following some other exercise
with the aeroplane in any given configuration, apply full power and establish
a climb attitude, normally the maximum rate of climb attitude, then ensure
that the carburator heat is off. Wait for a positive rate of climb nd reduce flap
to 10° when a safe speed and height (73kts/200ft hght), reduce remaining
flap and complete the after take-off check list
b) Touch and Go Landing
When taking off after a touch and go landing the student should be taught to
use the normal take off technique, i.e. select take off flap, apply full power,
keep straight with rudder, raise the nosewheel just clear of the runway at 50
kts and fly the aircraft off at 65 kts. After the flaps have been retracted, the
after take off checks shoud be carried out.
c) If as result of a bounce on landing or over-rotation during the roundout the
aircraft assumes an excessively nose-high attitude near the ground, attempts
to correct the situation by harsh elevator movement may lead to
overcontrolling in pitch and ultimately lead to a Pilot Induced Oscillation
(PIO) or heavy landing and consequent damage to the nosewheel assembly.
The correct recovery action is to overshoot by holding the control column
slightly aft of central, in the take-off position, whilst opening the throttle
fully and keeping the wings level. In this attitude, should the aircraft strike
the ground, it is less likely to sustain damage because impact will be
absorbed by the main undercarriage.

9. Glide Circuit
The glide circuit is used to practice the skills and judgement required on the latter
part of a PFL. The circuit should be flown at 500 ft above normal circuit height using
same visual cues as a normal circuit giving a wider circuit pattern. However, the
downwind spacing should be adjusted in extreme wind conditions - slightly tighter
than normal in a strong headwind or slackening crosswind, slightly wider in a
tightening crosswind. Whilst flying downwind, Intial Aiming Point is chosen. The
Initial Aiming Point should be easily recognised feature (marker board, runway
intersection, etc.) ideally about 600 ft in from the runway threshold and is the point
at which the aircraft would impact the runway in full flap was not used and the aircraft
was not flared for landing. This relatively short distance gives a more realistic
impression of the scale and accuracy required on a forced landing into a field. The
throttle should be closed be closed when the aircraft is abeam the Initial Aiming Point
and a gliding turn commenced onto finals. In light winds, delay the turn by gliding
straight ahead for up to 200 ft before turning in. Corrections can be made to
undershooting/overshooting errors by varying the angle of bank used in the finals
turn, so varying the flight path to maintain a constant sight line angle. The aircraft is
said to be maintaining a constant sight line angle. The aircraft is said to be
maintaining a constant sight line angle when the small angle between the eye, the
Initial Aiming Point and the ground remains constant. Full flaps is used to bring the
actual touchdown into the aea between the Initial Aiming Point and the runway
threshold. You should be aware of the inherent danger of full flap selection at a low
airspeed or at a late stage of the approach. Go around if not lined up by 200 ft. The
student should be aware that 85 kts must be maintained on a glide approach because:
a. Flying a constant speed is essential when judging the approach.
b. The speed gives safety and maneuverability in the finals turn.
c. Reducing sirspeed on final approach in an attempt to stretch the glide will result
in an increased sink rate and a reduced margin of control for landing

Because of the higher rate of descent and greater attitude change required, roundout
must be started earlier and at a higher airspeed than for a powered approach. The
dangers of rounding out too sharply, causing a ‘g’ stall, and/or allow the speed to
decrease too much (with the associated high sink rate)

10. Flapless Landing. This landing is taught as a solution to the unlikely problem
of flap malfunctions. It is necessary to extend the downwind leg to
accommodate the shallower approach angle. The final turn should be made at
the same height as for a normal circuit and the aircraft should be lined up with
the runway at 500 ft. The distance from the threshold will be greater and the
approach path flatter. The importance of maintaining the correct approach
speed of 80 kts should be emphasized. Reduced drag is experienced on the
final approach when flapless and the need for power adjusments to be kept
small. The attitude change of roundout is small and the landing run will be
longer.

11. Short Landing. The aim of this exercise is to achieve minimum ground run.
The selected touchdown point should be nominated when the aircraft is on the
downwind leg. The downwind leg should be extended slightly compared with
a normal circuit, to allow for the extra deceleration required on the final
approach. As soon as the wings are leveled after the final turn. Full flap is
selected and the speed reduced to 60 kts. The importance of accurate trimming
should be emphasised as should the importance of accurate speed control;
there is little margin for error at the recommended approach speed. As the
threshold is approached, speed should be reduced to 67 kts. The attitude
change at roundout is small and the throttle should be closed as the aircraft
touches down. Steady continuous braking should be commenced as soon as all
three wheels are on the ground.
12. Crosswind Landing. Check the windsock before take-off and when joining
the circuit in order to make the appropriate allowances in good time, but
appreciate that the wind at circuit height is different from that at the surface.
The angle of bank used to turn downwind should be adjusted to allow from
wind effects in the turn and an allowance for drift is made to fly the downwind
leg parallel to the runway. On the finals turn, depending upon the direction of
the crosswind, there will be either more or less time to lose height before the
final approach and power should be adjusted to vary the rate of descent
accordingly. Vary the bank with which the final turn is commenced inn order
to achieve the runway extended centreline without excessive bank. There are 2
recognised methods of achieving crosswind landings - the Crab Technique and
the Wing Down Technique. The Crab technique is he standard method used.
a. Crab Technique. On final approach the drift allowance should be made by
heading slightly into wind so that the aircraft tracks along the extended
centreline. As height is reduced, the drift may change and small turns should
be made to maintain the aircraft on the centreline and to adjust the drift
allowence. The drift allowence should be maintained throughout the roundout;
then just before the aircraft touches down, rudder is used to yaw the aircraft
into line with the landing path. Some opposite aileron may be required to hold
the wings level. As the nosewheel lowers to the runway, snatch may be fet on
the rudder pedals and, thereafter, direction is maintained by nosewheel
steering. Aileron should be used after touchdown to prevent the into-wind
wing lifting.
b. Wing Down Technique. With this technique, the aircraft is banked into wind
sufficiently to counteract drift and maintain the runway centreline. At the same
time, rudder is used to maintain the aircraft’s alignment with the runway
heading. This involves a slight sidestep. During roundout, the bank and rudder
remain applied so that the aircraft touches down on the into wind mainwheel.
As the speed decreases the aircraft will settle on both mainwheels and the
nosewheel. Directional control can then be maintained by nosewheel steering.

13. Low Level Circuit. This circuit is for use when the cloudbase is low. A
standard circuit pattern is flown at 500 ft. Use he normal spacing downwind,
bearing in mind that the position will seem further from the runway. Height is
maintained on the finals until the aircraft intercepts the normal circuit pattern,
when descent is commenced. The reminder of the circuit is the same as the
normal circuit.

14. Square Circuit. This is the type of circuit flown at certain airfields. After
takeoff the aircraft is climbed ahead to 500 ft but then a 30’’ banked climbing
turn is made to roll out tracking at 90’’ to the runway. This is the crosswind
leg. The aircraft is leveled off when it reaches circuit height and 110 kts
maintained. When the tailplane is in line with the runway another 30° banked
turn is made to track parallel to the runway on the downwind leg. The aircraft
is further out than on a standard oval circuit and the runway should be tracking
inboard of the wing tip. The aircraft maintains 80 kts downwind and the landin
checks are completed. When a suitable distance downwind, a 30° bangked
level turn is made onto square base leg, maintaining 100 kts to roll out
tracking 90° to the runway. This is the base leg. Speed is reduced to 75 kts and
the aircraft descended to 600 ft where a 20-30 descending banked turn is made
on to the final approach. The straight final approach is identical to a normal
circuit.
Common Faults

15. The usual causes of bad landings are:


a. Failure to roundout sufficiently due too steep an approach-probably caused by
an initial tendency to overshoot.
b. Rounding out too high. This is sometimes caused by fear of getting too near the
ground; the fault can often be cured by a clear demonstration of the roundout
height - done by flying the aircraft across the airfield in the in the appropiate
attitude and att the roundout height. Teach the student to fly parallel to the
runway, then cut the power and gradually ease back on the control column.
c. Erratic bad judgement of the roundout height and poor control of direction
during the roundout; this is usually caused by looking at the ground too close
to the aircraft and becoming tense on the controls.
d. Not keeping the wings level. This is often caused by looking at the ground too
close to the aircraft
e. General difficulty with all stages of the landing up to the touchdown. This
trouble can often be traced to:
1) Faulty approached at too high or too low airspeed or on an unsuitable approach
angle
2) Overcontrolling with power.
Stalling One

Aim
To recognise an approaching stall and how to recover from a stall: finally, how to
recover with minimum loss of height.

Learning Objective
By the completion of the lesson the student should be able to:

 Recognise the symptoms of the stall and recover with minimum height loss.

Human Factors

Briefing

 Awaraness of stalling cues, densensitise as a normal skill exercise.


 Situation awareness/due recognition
 Hazardous attitudes
 Motion sickness

At the aircraft

Pre-flight

 “I’m Safe”
 Check Sick Bags available (discretely)
 Desensitise
 Loose Objects

In-flight

 HASELL/HELL
 Situatio awareness with early cue recognition

Before Flight

5. Preparatory Instruction
a. Lift, the stalling angle and the stalling speed.
b. Characteristics of the stall
c. Factors affecting the stalling speed.
d. Attitude and the stall.
e. Recovery from the stall - use of power.
f. HASELL checks.

Reference FTM 10-2

During Flight

6. It is usual to be a little nervous at first; this is understandable, but you will gain
confidence as you become able to identify and recover from the stall.

7. Airmanship. The checks listed in the Air Exercise must be carried out before
commencing any stalling exercise. In addition to routine lookout, use clrearing
turns so that the airspace can be visually cleared prior to the stall, and the aircraft
positioned as necessary. Use clearing turns before each stall.

8. Signs of Approaching Stall


c. A high nose-up attitude is not always a fundamental sign of an approaching
stall.
d. The student must given plenty of practice at approaching the stall and
detecting the signs for himself

6. Effect of Power on Recovery. There is a smaller amount of height lost by using


power in the recovery. Although practices are carried out with 2700 rpm set, an
accidental stall can occur at any setting and the rpm lever and throttle should be
moved to maximum simultaneously.

7. Recovery When the Wing Drops. The use of aileron will not always raise a
dropped wing and may aggravate the situation under certain circumtances.
Therefore because of this possibility ailerons are not used in the standard
recovery unti the wings are unstalled.

8. Recovery from the Incipient Stall. An unintentional stall should always be


stopped at the incipient stage. Therefore, quick recovery action is necessary as
soon as any stall warning signs are recognised.
9. Stall under Approach Condition. Lack of attention to accurate flyting can lead to
a stall when concentrating on the approach to land.

10. Stall at High Speeds. Extreme cases cannot be demonstrated because of the
possibility of over-stressing the aircraft. Be aware that stalling speed increases
with bank. This is particularly relevant during the finals turn when speed and
power setting are low.

Common Faults

20. It is difficulty to estimate the amount of control column movement required to


recover from the stall. Frequent practice is needed.
21. When a wing drops at the stall, it is instinctive to use the ailerons. However, this
is the incorrect recovery.
22. When power is applied during recovery, the ammount of height lost and the
rapidity with which control is regained both depend on the prompt use of full
power.
Takeoff and Climb to Downwind Leg

Aim

To take off, enter the climb and position the aircraft on the downwind leg of the circuit

Learning Objectives

By the conclusion of the lessons the student should be able to:

 Take off into wind and climb to the downwind leg of the circuit
 Compensate for any crosswind effects during the takeoff and climb to the
downwind leg position
 Carry out the correct procedure in the event of an engine failure after takeoff

Required Accuracy

 Airspeed ± 10 kts
 In balance
 Circuit height ± 100 ft

Human Factors

Briefing

 Memory, checklist, aging student limitation, stress handling


 Revise eyes, scan, cockpit constraints, eye defects, visual landing cues,
situation awareness, planning, prioritising and decision-making, noise
 Command responsibilities, learning process
 Communication, maintaining competency

At the aircraft

Pre-flight

 I’m Safe, Wind assessment


 Eye deffects, cockpit constraints
In-flight
 Checklist, memory, situation awareness, noise, stress reduction, lookout scan.
Command planning and decision making, R/t visual landing cues, progress
plateau, communication.

General

7. Before first solo the student should be able to take off in both into-wind and
crosswind conditions and have practised the procedure to be used if the engine fails
after takeoff

Before Flight

8. Preparatory Instruction:
 Use of elevators, rudder and nose wheel steering
 Effect of crosswind
 Use of power
 Engine failure
 Drills and circuit procedure
 Factors affecting length of ground run
 Airfield control and RT procedure
 The airmanship aspects of wake turbulence during takeoff and on the final
approach

Reference FTM - Chapter 12

During Flight:

9. Airmanship:
a. Lookout:
The paramount importance of a good lookout.
b. Checks:
The student must be able to complete their checks before takeoff thorougly and in
the correct sequence.
c. R.T. Procedure
By first solo the student must be completely familiar with the circuit RT
procedure and action in the event of radio failure. Because the degree of
concentration required during the early stages of circuit practice is high few
students are able to maintain a good listening watch.
d. Wake turbulence:
Be alert to the hazards associated with wake turbulence.

10. Take-off into Wind:


a. Whenever possible the first demonstration and practices should be made
into wind.
b. Choose a point well ahead of the aircraft to assist him to maintain
direction.
c. After “brakes off” engine instrument ratings should be checked: rpm, fuel
pressure and oil pressure.

11. Crosswind Take-off:


a. Unless the crosswind is strong enough to give a convincing demonstration, the
lesson should be postponed until more suitable conditions prevail.
b. Ensure that the aircraft is flown off cleanly at a slightly higher airspeed so that
there is no danger of touching down again once the aircraft has acquired drift.
c. After leaving the ground the student should take up a heading to make good
track parallel to the takeoff heading.
d. Be aware of hazards associated with wake turbulence and the required
separation from other aircraft.

12. Emergencies during the take-off:


There are two emergencies in the takeoff for wich you should be prepared (eve
though they may never happen):
a. Engine failure after takeoff (fortunately not as common these days as it once
was)
b. The discontinued takeoff while still on the ground (pilot initiated).

20. Prior to opening the throttle on each and every takeoff, it is a good idea to run
through both of these procedures in yout mind. Your passengers need not be
aware of this, but it is one sign of a professional pilot.

ENGINE FAILURE AFTER TAKE OFF

21. If the engine power is lost in the climb out following takeoff, the options open to
you will vary according to how high the aeroplane is, the nature of the terrain
ahead, the wind conditions and so on. An event such as engine failure close to the
ground will require prompt and decisive action.
22. No matter when the engine fails in flight, the first priority is to maintain safe
flight. Immediately lower the nose to the gliding attitude to maintain flying
speed.
23. A controlled descent and landing, even on an unprepared surface, is preferable by
far to an unwanted stall in the attempted climb-out. Close the throttle in case the
engine comes back to life at an inopportune time.

Do not turn back to the field:

24. The height at wich the failure occurs determines how you manoeuvre the
aeroplane but, in general, you should plan to land approximately straight-ahead.
Height is rapidly lost in descending turns and, from less than 500 ft AGL, it is
doubtful if you would make the runway. Look for a landing area ahead and
within range.
25. In your general day to day flying, make yourself familiar with suitable emergency
landing areas in the vicinity of your aerodrome so that, in the unlikely event
engine failure, you already have a plan of action in mind.
26. Following engine failure and having established the glide, quickyly select the
best landing area from the fields available ahead and within approximately ± 30°
of your heading. Make only gentle turns (say 15°-20° angle of bank).
27. Gliding turns at low level can be dangerous due to:
 High rates of descent; and
 A tendency for the pilot to raise the nose to stop a high rate of descent and
inadvertently stall or spin the aeroplane

28. Complete the emergency checks and transmit a MAYDAY call if time permits.
Any attempt to switch fuel tanks and/or to restart the engine depends on time
being available.
29. Maintaining flying speed is vital - more important than any radio call or even
starting the engine. If the selected field looks rough and you feel that damage
could ensue then, when committed to carrying out the landing:
 Mixture - IDLE CUT-OFF
 Fuel - OFF
 Ignition - OFF
 Doors - unlocked (or as advised in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook) to
ensure that they can be opened if damage occurs)
30. After Landing:
 Stop the aeroplane and set the parking brakes;
 Check:
Fuel - off
Ignition - off
Electrical Equipment - off
 Evacute, taking the fire extinguisher with you possible
31. The Discontinued Take-off: A discontinued takeoff is one that begun and then
halted.this manoeuvre is also known as an aborted takeoff, and abandoned takeoff
or as an accelerate-stop manoeuvre. You my decide to abort a take off during the
ground run for many reasons, such as:
 An obstruction on the runway;
 Engine failure or loss power;
 An engine or fuel problem
 Faulty instrument indications (e.g. airspeed indicator zero);
 A doubt that the aeroplane is capable of flying;
 An insecure seat that feels like it might slip backwards;
 A command from ATC (possible conflict with another aircraft); or
 Any other condition that may, in your opinion, make the take-off
inadvisable.

32. Procedure to abort the takeoff: You must make a firm and conscious decision
to abort, and then act positively:
 Close the throttle fully;
 Keep straight with rudder;
 Brakae firmly (immediate maximum braking if required), avoid skidding
or slipping while maintaining directional control;
 Stop the aeroplaane, set the parking brakes, and establish the problem;
 If necessary, shut down the engine (preferably clear of the runway);
 Radio your situation to ATC (or the service with whom you are in
communications) and request assistance if required
Approach and Landing

Aim

To teach to continue in the circuit for an approach and landing.

Learning Objectives
By the completion of the lessons the student should be able to:
 From a downwind position, position the aircraft for a powered approach and landing
 Carry out a touch and go landing
 Carry out a go around from shorts finals
 Compensate for crosswind components in the circuit, on final approach and during the
landing
 Execute a flapless approach and landing
 Carry out a short landing
 Execute both oval and square circuits

Required Accuracy:

 Airspeed ± 5 kts
 Heading ± 10°
 No drift in short finals or touchdown

Human Factors

Briefing

 Memory, checklist, aging student limitations, stress handling


 Revise eyes, scan, cockpit constraints, eye defects, visual landing cues, situation
awareness, planning, priorisiting and decision-making, noise
 Command responsibilities, learning process
 Communication, maintaining competency

Flight Training Manual Student Guide 1


At the aircraft

Pre-flight

 I’m Safe, Wind assesment


 Eye defects, cockpit contraints

In-Flight

 Checklist, memory, situation awareness, noise, stress reduction, Lookout scan. Command
planning and decision making, R/t visual landing cues, progress plateau, communication.

Before Flight:

16. Preparatory Instruction:


 Circuit approach and landing
 Effect of windspeed
 Use of nosewheel steering and brakes
 Effect of crosswind
 Effect of gusty conditions
 Going roud again
 Considerataion for short landings
 Airfield control and RT procedures
 Lookout and listen out
 Wake turbulence
Reference FTM Chapter 4

During Flight:
17. Many students have difficulty in mastering the landing and although the instructor’s advice
and guidance is of help. Proficiency is obtained mainly through practice.

18. Airmanship:
 The large number of aircraft that may be in the circuit requires a particularly careful
lookout and a high standard should be demanded. Listening out for R/T calls from
other aircraft in the circuit will help locate them.
 Learn and understand the significance of all the visual signals and R/T calls that are
used by ATC for the control of Aircraft

Flight Training Manual Student Guide 1


 Turns in the circuit should be limited to medium angles of bank unless an emergency
arises
 Understand the hazards associated with wake turbulence

19. Downwind Leg. The checks before landing should be done at the beginning of the
downwind leg so that full attention can be devoted to correct tracking. Select a 500ft point when
downwind, and commence the finals turn abeam this point in light winds, or earlier in strong
headwinds to allow for the distance they will be blown downwind in the finals turn. The position
of the 500ft point may be varied for the prevailing wind (i.e. closer in strong winds) to assist
circuit management. In an nil-wind situation the turning point is when the end of the runway is at
45° to the wing root.

20. Finals Turn. Reduce power and commence a descending turn onto finals. Lookout for
aircraft that are making their final approach, especially those on a long final approach. Power
should be adjusted to achieve the 500ft point as the wings are rolled level on the extended
centreline. The turn on to the final approach should, ideally, be maade with a constant angle of
bank. Adjust the bank to roll out on the runway extended centerline whilst maintaining 80 kts.

21. Engine Assisted Approach


 Engine assisted approach and landing is the basic technique and all others are
variations of it.
 The final approach should be straight in from 500ft
 Once lined up on final approach full flap should be selected, and the attitude held
constant initially to reduce to the final approach speed of 75 kts. Once 75 kts has
been achieved the basic technique is to use the elevators to control the airspeed and
small adjusments of power to control glide path. It is important to closely monitor the
airspeed on all approaches.

22. Landing. The speed should be tapered to threshold speed by a small coordinated adjusment
to power and attitude. Roundout should be a progressive backward movement on the control
column and a smooth reduction in power, aimed at progressively reducing the rate of descent
until it is almost zero as the mainwheels touch some 5-10kts below threshold speed. The
roundout must be commenced at a height which will allow a controlled change in the rate of
descent. The landing attitude should be judge by looking towards the far end of the runway
surface immediately ahead and to the side of the nose of the aircraft. After touchdown, the nose
attitude must be controlled to allow the nosewheel to lower gently on the runway under little
load. The brakes should not be applied until all three wheels are firmly on the ground, the first
application being gentle and the pressure increased as necessary to bring the aircraft to a safe taxi
speed before reaching the turn-off point. Directional control is easily maintained by the use of
nosewheel steering and braking. Do not turn off the runway at excessive speeds. Strain that is

Flight Training Manual Student Guide 1


imposed on the undercarriage by fast concerning. The aircraft should be stopped when well clear
of the runway, the parking brake applied and the after landing checks carried out.

23. Going around again:


a. If a go around is required from an approach or following some other exercise with the
aeroplane in any given configuration, apply full power and establish a climb attitude,
normally the maximum rate of climb attitude, then ensure that the carburator heat is off.
Wait for a positive rate of climb nd reduce flap to 10° when a safe speed and height
(73kts/200ft hght), reduce remaining flap and complete the after take-off check list
b. Touch and Go Landing
When taking off after a touch and go landing the student should be taught to use the normal
take off technique, i.e. select take off flap, apply full power, keep straight with rudder, raise
the nosewheel just clear of the runway at 50 kts and fly the aircraft off at 65 kts. After the
flaps have been retracted, the after take off checks shoud be carried out.

c. If as result of a bounce on landing or over-rotation during the roundout the aircraft


assumes an excessively nose-high attitude near the ground, attempts to correct the
situation by harsh elevator movement may lead to overcontrolling in pitch and ultimately
lead to a Pilot Induced Oscillation (PIO) or heavy landing and consequent damage to the
nosewheel assembly. The correct recovery action is to overshoot by holding the control
column slightly aft of central, in the take-off position, whilst opening the throttle fully
and keeping the wings level. In this attitude, should the aircraft strike the ground, it is less
likely to sustain damage because impact will be absorbed by the main undercarriage.

24. Glide Circuit


The glide circuit is used to practice the skills and judgement required on the latter part of a PFL.
The circuit should be flown at 500 ft above normal circuit height using same visual cues as a
normal circuit giving a wider circuit pattern. However, the downwind spacing should be adjusted
in extreme wind conditions - slightly tighter than normal in a strong headwind or slackening
crosswind, slightly wider in a tightening crosswind. Whilst flying downwind, Intial Aiming
Point is chosen. The Initial Aiming Point should be easily recognised feature (marker board,
runway intersection, etc.) ideally about 600 ft in from the runway threshold and is the point at
which the aircraft would impact the runway in full flap was not used and the aircraft was not
flared for landing. This relatively short distance gives a more realistic impression of the scale
and accuracy required on a forced landing into a field. The throttle should be closed be closed
when the aircraft is abeam the Initial Aiming Point and a gliding turn commenced onto finals.
In light winds, delay the turn by gliding straight ahead for up to 200 ft before turning in.
Corrections can be made to undershooting/overshooting errors by varying the angle of bank used
in the finals turn, so varying the flight path to maintain a constant sight line angle. The aircraft
is said to be maintaining a constant sight line angle. The aircraft is said to be maintaining a
constant sight line angle when the small angle between the eye, the Initial Aiming Point and the

Flight Training Manual Student Guide 1


ground remains constant. Full flaps is used to bring the actual touchdown into the aea between
the Initial Aiming Point and the runway threshold. You should be aware of the inherent danger
of full flap selection at a low airspeed or at a late stage of the approach. Go around if not lined
up by 200 ft. The student should be aware that 85 kts must be maintained on a glide approach
because:
a. Flying a constant speed is essential when judging the approach.
b. The speed gives safety and maneuverability in the finals turn.
c. Reducing sirspeed on final approach in an attempt to stretch the glide will result in an
increased sink rate and a reduced margin of control for landing

Because of the higher rate of descent and greater attitude change required, roundout must be
started earlier and at a higher airspeed than for a powered approach. The dangers of rounding
out too sharply, causing a ‘g’ stall, and/or allow the speed to decrease too much (with the
associated high sink rate)

25. Flapless Landing. This landing is taught as a solution to the unlikely problem of flap
malfunctions. It is necessary to extend the downwind leg to accommodate the shallower
approach angle. The final turn should be made at the same height as for a normal circuit and the
aircraft should be lined up with the runway at 500 ft. The distance from the threshold will be
greater and the approach path flatter. The importance of maintaining the correct approach speed
of 80 kts should be emphasized. Reduced drag is experienced on the final approach when
flapless and the need for power adjusments to be kept small. The attitude change of roundout is
small and the landing run will be longer.

26. Short Landing. The aim of this exercise is to achieve minimum ground run. The selected
touchdown point should be nominated when the aircraft is on the downwind leg. The downwind
leg should be extended slightly compared with a normal circuit, to allow for the extra
deceleration required on the final approach. As soon as the wings are leveled after the final turn.
Full flap is selected and the speed reduced to 60 kts. The importance of accurate trimming should
be emphasised as should the importance of accurate speed control; there is little margin for error
at the recommended approach speed. As the threshold is approached, speed should be reduced to
67 kts. The attitude change at roundout is small and the throttle should be closed as the aircraft
touches down. Steady continuous braking should be commenced as soon as all three wheels are
on the ground.
27. Crosswind Landing. Check the windsock before take-off and when joining the circuit in
order to make the appropriate allowances in good time, but appreciate that the wind at circuit
height is different from that at the surface. The angle of bank used to turn downwind should be
adjusted to allow from wind effects in the turn and an allowance for drift is made to fly the
downwind leg parallel to the runway. On the finals turn, depending upon the direction of the
crosswind, there will be either more or less time to lose height before the final approach and
power should be adjusted to vary the rate of descent accordingly. Vary the bank with which the

Flight Training Manual Student Guide 1


final turn is commenced inn order to achieve the runway extended centreline without excessive
bank. There are 2 recognised methods of achieving crosswind landings - the Crab Technique and
the Wing Down Technique. The Crab technique is he standard method used.
a. Crab Technique. On final approach the drift allowance should be made by heading slightly
into wind so that the aircraft tracks along the extended centreline. As height is reduced, the
drift may change and small turns should be made to maintain the aircraft on the centreline
and to adjust the drift allowence. The drift allowence should be maintained throughout the
roundout; then just before the aircraft touches down, rudder is used to yaw the aircraft into
line with the landing path. Some opposite aileron may be required to hold the wings level. As
the nosewheel lowers to the runway, snatch may be fet on the rudder pedals and, thereafter,
direction is maintained by nosewheel steering. Aileron should be used after touchdown to
prevent the into-wind wing lifting.
b. Wing Down Technique. With this technique, the aircraft is banked into wind sufficiently to
counteract drift and maintain the runway centreline. At the same time, rudder is used to
maintain the aircraft’s alignment with the runway heading. This involves a slight sidestep.
During roundout, the bank and rudder remain applied so that the aircraft touches down on the
into wind mainwheel. As the speed decreases the aircraft will settle on both mainwheels and
the nosewheel. Directional control can then be maintained by nosewheel steering.

28. Low Level Circuit. This circuit is for use when the cloudbase is low. A standard circuit
pattern is flown at 500 ft. Use he normal spacing downwind, bearing in mind that the position
will seem further from the runway. Height is maintained on the finals until the aircraft intercepts
the normal circuit pattern, when descent is commenced. The reminder of the circuit is the same
as the normal circuit.

29. Square Circuit. This is the type of circuit flown at certain airfields. After takeoff the aircraft
is climbed ahead to 500 ft but then a 30’’ banked climbing turn is made to roll out tracking at
90’’ to the runway. This is the crosswind leg. The aircraft is leveled off when it reaches circuit
height and 110 kts maintained. When the tailplane is in line with the runway another 30° banked
turn is made to track parallel to the runway on the downwind leg. The aircraft is further out than
on a standard oval circuit and the runway should be tracking inboard of the wing tip. The aircraft
maintains 80 kts downwind and the landin checks are completed. When a suitable distance
downwind, a 30° bangked level turn is made onto square base leg, maintaining 100 kts to roll out
tracking 90° to the runway. This is the base leg. Speed is reduced to 75 kts and the aircraft
descended to 600 ft where a 20-30 descending banked turn is made on to the final approach. The
straight final approach is identical to a normal circuit.

Flight Training Manual Student Guide 1


Common Faults

30. The usual causes of bad landings are:


a. Failure to roundout sufficiently due too steep an approach-probably caused by an initial
tendency to overshoot.
b. Rounding out too high. This is sometimes caused by fear of getting too near the ground; the
fault can often be cured by a clear demonstration of the roundout height - done by flying the
aircraft across the airfield in the in the appropiate attitude and att the roundout height. Teach
the student to fly parallel to the runway, then cut the power and gradually ease back on the
control column.
c. Erratic bad judgement of the roundout height and poor control of direction during the
roundout; this is usually caused by looking at the ground too close to the aircraft and
becoming tense on the controls.
d. Not keeping the wings level. This is often caused by looking at the ground too close to the
aircraft
e. General difficulty with all stages of the landing up to the touchdown. This trouble can often
be traced to:
1. Faulty approached at too high or too low airspeed or on an unsuitable approach angle
2. Overcontrolling with power.

Flight Training Manual Student Guide 1

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