PHYS 172 Outline

Chapter 1: Interactions and Motion

1.1 Kinds of Matter
- solids, liquids, and gases
1.2 Detecting Interactions
- change in direction of motion and speed
1.3 Newton’s First Law of Motion

- Body in motion/rest stays in motion/rest unless an external force acts on it

1.4 Describing the 3D World: Vectors

- Magnitude and direction associated with each vector

- Position vector denotes location, velocity vector denotes speed, etc.

- Denoted as ⃗r

r̂
- Unit vector r̂ = ∣r⃗∣

⃗r r 2−⃗
⃗ r1
- 2 relative to 1 =

1.5 SI Units

- kg, m, s, C, N
1.6 Velocity

- Rate of movement (m/s)

r⃗f −⃗ri
- v avg=
⃗
⃗
t f −t⃗i

1.7 Predicting a New Position

- ∆ r⃗ =⃗
v avg ∆ t , position update equation

- Direction of instantaneous velocity is tangent to motion

∆ ⃗v
- aavg =
∆t

1.8 Momentum
 - ⃗p ≈ m⃗v at speeds much less than c (speed of light)

- ∆ ⃗p=⃗
p f −⃗
pi

- Change in momentum is a very important figure

1.9 Using Momentum to Update Position

⃗p
- Since ⃗v = m , we can use momentum to update position given the time

1.10 Momentum at High Speeds

- ⃗p=γm ⃗v

1
γ=

√
2
- ∣⃗v∣ , value of gamma
1−( )
c

⃗p
m
⃗v =
- , velocity at high speeds
√
2
∣⃗p∣
1−( )
mc
Chapter 2: The Momentum Principle
2.1 The Momentum Principle

- Momentum is always conserved within a system if no external forces act on it

- ∆ ⃗p=⃗
F net ∆t

⃗
F net ∆t=Impulse(N ∙ s)
-

2.3 Predicting the Future

- Momentum principle (update form) is ⃗ pi +⃗

pf =⃗ Fnet ∆ t

2.4 Iterative Prediction: Constant Net Force

⃗
- Calculate net force ( F net ¿ acting on the system

- Update momentum: ⃗ pi +⃗
pf =⃗ Fnet ∆ t

- Update position: ∆ r⃗ =v avg ∆ t

⃗p future
- v avg ≈
m

2.5 Analytical Prediction: Constant Net Force

⃗p future ⃗v −⃗v
- v f ≈ v avg ≈ f i
≈⃗
m 2

⃗
F net
- ⃗v f =⃗v i+ ∆t
m

1⃗
F net
- v avg =⃗v i + ∆t
2 m

⃗
Fnet 2
- ∆ x=v i c + c
m

2.6 Iterative Predictions: Varying Net Force

- Spring Force: ∣F s∣=k s∣s∣=k s∣L−L o∣

 ⃗
F s=−k s s ̂L
- Vector spring force:

2.7 Iterative Calculations on a Computer

⃗
F net
- Calculate acting on the system

- Update momentum: ⃗ pi +⃗
pf =⃗ Fnet ∆ t

- Update position: ∆ r⃗ =v avg ∆ t

Chapter 3: The Fundamental Interactions

3.2 The Gravitational Force

m1 m 2
- F grav on 2by 1=−G 2
r̂
∣r∣

−11
- G = 6.7 ×10

- ⃗r 2,1=⃗r 2−⃗r 1

3.4 Reciprocity

- F1 by 2=−F 2 by 1

3.7 The Electric Force

⃗ 1 q1 q2 ̂
- F2 by 1= r
4π ε 0 ∣⃗r∣2
2
1 Nm
- =9 ×109 2
4π ε 0 c
- Like gravity, is exponentially proportional to distance
3.10 Conservation of Momentum

- −∆ ⃗p sys +∆ ⃗p surr=0 if external forces = 0

3.11 Multi-particle Momentum Principle

−∆ ⃗p sys=( ⃗p sys , f −⃗p sys ,i )=¿ ⃗
F net ∆t
-

- Center of mass is useful to use in multi-particle systems

 m2 r 1+ m 2 r 2 +…
- ⃗r CM =
M total

m2 v 1 +m2 v 2 +…
- ⃗v CM =
M total

- ⃗psys=M total ⃗v CM

Chapter 4: Contact Interactions

4.3 Tension Forces

- Force exerted on an object through a rope, string, wire, etc. ( Fr )

4.5 Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond

- In series, k s decreases (2 ∙ L= 12 k )
s

4.6 Stress, Strain, and Young’s Modulus

∆L
- Strain = L , describes property not related to shape

Fr
- Stress = A , where A is a cross-sectional area

stress
- Young’s Modulus: Y = strain , Y is a property is the material and does not depend on

size or shape
Fr ∆L
- =Y
A L

ks , i
- Y (atomic) = d , where d is diameter of atom

4.8 Friction

- f friction ≈ μ k F N , opposes motion (sliding friction force)

- Static friction: f ≤ μs F N

4.10 Derivative Form of the Momentum Principle

 Δ ⃗p ⃗ dp
- Δ ⃗p =⃗
F net ∆ t → = F net → =⃗F net
∆t dt

-
2π
Angular Frequency w= T , x ( t )= Acos ( wt ) , w=
√ ks
m

2π
- Period: T = w

1 w
- Frequency: f = T = 2π

4.13 Analytical Expression for Speed of Sound

-
k s ,i
√
Speed of sound in a solid: v =wd= m d , where m a is mass of one atom, d is
a

length of intermolecular bond (diameter)

4.14 Contact Forces Due to Gases
- Buoyancy is force of air molecules on object as it falls

- Fa =mair ,displaced g

g g
-
pair =1.3 ×10−3 3 , ( 29
¿
cm mol

F
- Pressure: P= (force per unit area)
A

Chapter 5: Determining Forces from Motion

5.6 Force and Curving Motion
¿∨¿
- F¿ increases magnitude of momentum

- F⊥ changes direction of momentum

¿∨¿+ F⊥
- ⃗
F =F ¿
 F¿∨¿=∣⃗
F∣cosθ ̂p F¿∨¿
- ⃗¿ , F⊥ =⃗F − ⃗¿

F¿∨¿=∣⃗
F∣cosθ ̂p
- If taking dot product, ⃗¿

d ⃗p
5.7 dt for Curving Motion

d ⃗p
¿∨¿+
dt ⊥
- d ⃗p d ⃗p
=
dt dt ¿

- ⃗p= p ̂p

d ⃗p dp d ̂p
- = ̂p + p
dt dt dt

dp
¿∨¿= ̂p =⃗
F net∨¿
dt
- d ⃗p
dt ¿

d ⃗p dp
- = ̂p =⃗
Fnet ⊥
dt ⊥ dt

- Rate of change of direction: ∣ddt̂p∣= Rv

2
d ⃗p mv
- Magnitude of = , which is also centripetal force
dt ⊥ R

Chapter 6: The Energy Principle

6.1 The Energy Principle

- ∆ E sys+ ∆ Esurr =0 (conservation of energy)

6.2 Energy of a Single Particle

2
- E particle= ym c
 - Erest =mc 2

- Energy increases as velocity increases: ym c2 >m c 2

- K= ym c 2−m c 2

1 p2
- At low speeds, K= m v 2=
2 2m

6.3 Work: Mechanical Energy Transfer

- Work done by a constant force: W =∣⃗

F∣∣∆ ⃗r∣ cosθ

- ∆ E sys=W surr

- Work is done by forces in the plane of motion

f

Work as an integral: W =∫ F ∙d r⃗
⃗
-
i

6.4 Work and Energy

- The Energy Principle: Difference Form → ∆ E sys=W surr +other inputs

- The Energy Principle: Update Form → Esys , f =Esys , i+ W surr + other inputs

6.5 Change of Rest Energy

2
- If particle does not change during an interaction, rest energy ( m c ) cancel out
(m c2 + K f )=m c2 + K i +W

- In neutron decay, mass changes so rest energy does

−19
- 1 eV =1.6 ×10 J

- Initial conditions → neutron, final → proton, electron, antineutrino

(m p c 2+ K p )+ ( me c 2+ K e )+ K ́v =( mN c 2 + K N )+W

6.7 Potential Energy in Multi-Particle Systems

- In systems with more than one particle, potential energy exists
 - Potential energy ( ΔU ) near Earth’s surface: ∆ U grav ≈ ∆(mgy)

- Change in potential energy of a system: ∆ U =−W internal forces

6.8 Gravitational Potential Energy

- Force is the negative gradient of U

−d U
- Fr =
dr

m1 m2
- Gravitational Potential Energy: U=−G r

6.9 Electric Potential Energy

1 q1q2
- U elec =
4π ε 0 r

6.10 Plotting Energy vs. Separation

- This is an unbound system ( K +U >0 ) , as r →∞ , U →0 , K >0

 - This is a bound system ( K +U <0 ) , K reaches 0 (cannot be negative), separation
cannot be larger than at that point

- Escape speed v is the speed necessary for an object to leave a ‘bound’ system

- Minimal condition, K +U=0

m m
1
(
K i +U i= m v 2esc + −G 1 2 =0
2 R )
v i=
√ 2GM
ri

Chapter 7: Internal Energy

7.2 Potential Energy of Macroscopic Springs

1 2
- Ideal spring potential energy: U s = 2 K s x

7.4 Internal Energy

∫ ¿=Ethermal + E rotational + E vibrational+ E chemical +…

- E¿
 ∆ Ethermal
- Specific heat: C= m∆ t (m in grams)

7.5 Energy Transfer Due to a Temperature Difference

- Q = energy transfer due to a temperature difference

- ∆ E sys=Q+W + other energy transfers

7.6 Power: Energy per Unit Time

⃗
F ∙ ∆ r⃗ ⃗ d ⃗r
- power= →F ( ∙ is dot product in this occurrence)
∆t dt

W
- instantaneous power= ⃗
F ∙ ⃗v =
t

7.8 Choice of System Affects Energy Accounting

- Woman, barbell, Earth

Ef =Ei +W

K f +U f + E w ,f =K i +U i + E w, i+ W

1
m v 2+ mgh+ E w ,f =0+0+ Ew ,i +0
2
1
∆ E w =−( m v 2+ mgh)
2

- Barbell
Ef =Ei +W

K f =K i +W woman +W earth

1
m v 2=0+ Fh+(−mgh) Using
2
∆ E w from previous solution, ∆ E w =−Fh

- Barbell, Earth
Ef =Ei +W
 K f +U f =K i+ U i +W woman

1
m v 2+ mgh=Fd
2

Chapter 8: Energy Quantization

8.2 Electronic Energy Levels

−13.6 eV
E N =K +U elec =
- Energy level N2 , N is state(ground state being 1, first state

being 2, etc.)

- Atom gains energy absorbing a photon or through collision

- E N , f =E N ,i + K photon

−13.6 −13.6
= + K photon
( 2 )2 (1 )2
K photon =10.2 eV

- Collision, K electron ,i=12.5 eV , H atom

E N , f + K e ,f =E N , i+ K e, i

8.4 Vibrational Energy Levels

- Energy is quantized (only exist in certain levels, not as a continuous function)

- ∆ E ( spacingbetween energy levels )=ℏ

√ ks
m where

H −24
ℏ= =1.05 ×10 J ∙ s , k s=spring constant , m=m a
2π

- Vibrational energy level: E N =N ℏ

√ ks
m , N = 0, 1, 2, …

Chapter 9: Translational, Rotational, Vibrational Energies

9.1 Separation of Multi-Particle System Energy

-