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Negros ORiental State University

College Of Engineering and Architecture


Main Campus II, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

CE 427-A

HYDROLOGY
(10:00am – 11:00am MWF)

Chapter 3 - 1
Precipitation: Occurrence and Measurement
 3-1.1 Formation, Forms, Types, Artificially Induced, and Typhoon
 3-1.2 Measurement: Gages and Networks, Radar and Satellite
Estimates

Submitted To:
Dr. Irismay T. Jumawan
Instructor

Submitted By:
Asaldo, Jay Aubriel
Tuayon, Jomaica
Tacsan, Edgar John
Umbac, Jay
PRECIPITATION
In meteorology, precipitation is water in either solid or liquid form that falls in Earth's atmosphere. Major
forms of precipitation include rain, snow, and hail. When air is lifted in the atmosphere, it expands and
cools. Cool air cannot hold as much water in vapor form as warm air, and the condensation of vapor into
droplets or icecrystals may eventually occur. If these droplets or crystals continue to grow to large sizes,
they will eventually be heavy enough to fall to Earth's surface.

Precipitation is obviously important to humankind as a source of drinking water and for agriculture. It
cleanses the air and maintains the levels of lakes, rivers, and oceans, which are sources of food and
recreation. Interestingly, human activity may influence precipitation in a number of ways, some of which
are intentional, and some of which are quite unintentional.

FORMS OF PRECIPITATION

 Liquid Precipitation

o Drizzle – a light steady rain in fine drops (0.5mm) and intensity of less than 1
mm/hr.
o Raindrops – drops of water falling from a cloud, and having a diameter of
greater than 0.5 mm

 Solid Precipitation

o Snowflakes – ice crystals fused together.


o Hail stones – small lumps of ice (> 5mm in diameter) formed by alternate
freezing and melting, when they are carried up and down in highly
turbulent air currents.
o Graupel – also known as snow pellets, are larger than snow grain, but have a
diameter of < 5 mm. Snow pellets are crunchy and break apart when
squeezed.
o Sleet (ice pellets) – are frozen raindrops.
o Rime – also known as freezing drizzle, is drizzle that freezes on contact with the
ground or an object at or near the surface
o Glaze - also called freezing rain, glaze forms when super cooled raindrops strike
an object and instantly freeze on impact.

*Soxlid precipitation may reach the earth's surface as rain if it melts as it falls. Virga is
precipitation that evaporates before reaching the ground.
FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION
Precipitation forms differently depending on whether it is generated by warm or cold clouds.

 Warm clouds are defined as those that do not extend to


levels where temperatures are below 32°F (0°C)

 Cold clouds exist at least in part at temperatures below


32°F (0°C). Temperature decreases with height in the
lower atmosphere at a moist adiabatic rate of about 3.3°F
per 3,281 ft (1.8°C per 1,000 m), on average. High clouds,
such as cirrus, are therefore colder and more likely to
contain ice.

Precipitation begins forming when warm, moist air rises. As


the air cools, water drops begin to condense forming clouds. After
Formation of Precipitation
the water droplets grow large enough, precipitation forms.

TYPES OF PRECIPITATION

1. Convectional Precipitation (Thermal


convection)—results from the heating of the earth's
surface. The warm ground heats the air over it. As the
air warms, the air molecules begin to move further
apart. With increased distance between molecules, the
molecules are less densely packed. Thus, the air
becomes “lighter” and rises rapidly into the
atmosphere. As the air rises, it cools. Water vapor in
the air condenses into clouds and forms precipitation.

2. Orographic Precipitation (orographic lifting)—


results when warm moist air moving across the ocean
is forced to rise by large mountains. As the air rises, it
cools. A higher elevation results in cooler
temperatures. Cold air cannot hold as much moisture
as warm air. As air cools, the water vapor in the air
condenses and water droplets form. Clouds forms and
precipitation (rain or snow) occurs on the windward
side of the mountain .The air is now dry and rises over
top the mountain. As the air moves back down the
mountain, it collects moisture from the ground via
evaporation. This side of the mountain is called the
leeward side. It receives very little precipitation.
3. Cyclonic Precipitation (Frontal Precipitation)
—results when the leading edge of a warm, moist air
mass (warm front) meets a cool and dry air mass
(cold front). The molecules in the cold air are more
tightly packed together (i.e., more dense), and thus,
the cold air is heavier than the warm air. The warmer
air mass is forced up over the cool air. As it rises, the
warm air cools, the water vapor in the air condenses,
and clouds and precipitation result. This type of
system is called Frontal Precipitation because the
moisture tends to occur along the front of the air
mass

ARTIFICIALLY INDUCED PRECIPITATION

Artificially Induced Precipitation

-also known as rainmaking,artificial rainfall, cloud seeding, and pluviculture


-is the act of attempting to artificially induce or increase precipitation
-can be done using airplanes, rockets, or ground generators to sow to the clouds with external
agents such as chemicals to make clouds rain or increase precipitation

Uses of Artificially Induced Precipitation

 to remove or mitigate farmland drought


 to increase reservoir irrigation water or water supply capacity
 to increase water levels for power generation

How it is done?

Agitation: Just like natural rain, the presence of cloud is necessary requirement to cause the rain
artificially. Agitation is the first stage where the focus is on building up the clouds.
Chemicals such as calcium oxide, calcium carbide, urea, or compound of salt, absorb
the water vapor from the air mass and stimulate the air mass upwind to form clouds.

Building-up Stage:Second stage is the building-up stage which focuses on increasing the
density of the clouds. Chemicals like urea, ammonium nitrate, dry ice tend to increase
nuclei which increase the cloud density.

Seeding: Final stage involves the bombardment of super-cooled agents -- silver iodide and dry ice
which form large ice crystals & droplets of water and make them fall down in the form
of rain. As these agents are super-cooled, when they fall onthe clouds they reduce the
temperature of water inside the cloud which turns them into ice crystals. When these ice
crystals become large in size, cloud is no longer able to hold them and they fall to earth
in the form of small icy pellets. They usually melt and form rain when they fall on area
where temperature is above 0°C.

*Why use silver iodide?


Silver iodide has an atomic arrangement which is similar to that of ice. It acts as an ice-
crystal nucleus and facilitates the solidification of water drops below -5 °C into ice
crystals. Through the growing process the ice crystals under the coexistence of water
drops, the rain will be formed.

*Why use dry ice?


Temperature of dry ice is -78 °C. Spreading dry ice in a cold cloud lacking ice crystals
will rapidly reduce its temperature. Therefore we directly transform supercooled water
into ice crystals, which will eventually become rain without the help of ice-crystal nuclei.

TYPHOON

What is a typhoon?

A Typhoon is an intense area of low atmospheric pressure that occurs in ocean waters. It is made over the
ocean, not over land. Typhoons are often so large they can be seen from space (See figure below).

Typhoon Yolanda approaching the Philippines as seen from space

Difference between Typhoon, Cyclone & Hurricane

A “typhoon” is the term used to describe the same weather feature as a “cyclone” or a “hurricane”. The
only difference between the three is that:

The term Typhoon is used for intense low pressure weather systems in the northwest
Pacific;
The term Cyclone is used for intense low pressure weather system over the Indian Ocean
and the South Pacific;

The term Hurricane is used for intense low pressure weather system over the Atlantic
Ocean and East Pacific.

Parts of a typhoon

The EYE is located directly in the center of the typhoon. The average diameter of the eye is 20-40 miles
across. Larger storms, such as typhoons in the Pacific, may have eyes as wide as 50 miles. The entire
storm rotates around the eye. Inside the eye the wind is calm, the skies are clear, and the air pressure is
very low.

The EYE WALL surrounds the eye. It can be anywhere from 5-30 miles wide. The most damaging winds
and heaviest rains are found in the eye wall.

RAIN BANDS are a series of dense clouds that form a spiral around the eye wall. They give the
hurricane a pinwheel appearance. These dense bands of thunderstorms spiral slowly counterclockwise.
They range in width from a few miles to tens of miles and are 50 to 300 miles long. Sometimes the bands
and the eye are hidden by higher level clouds. This makes it difficult for forecasters to use satellite
imagery to monitor the storm.

Parts of a typhoon
How do typhoons form?

There are several ingredients needed for a typhoon to form:

 Tropical Ocean Water (temperature of 26.5°C or above)


 Heat from the Sun
 Air
 Wind
 The Spin of the Earth

Birth of a typhoon

Step 1. The sun warms Step 2. The ocean water evaporates


the ocean water to caused by the heat from the sun.
26.5°C or above. The evaporating water forms a cloud
of warm, moist air that moves
upward.

Step 4. Eventually, a
Step 3. As the warm, moist air rises,
large mass of warm, moist
more air rushes in to
air with rain clouds is
replace it. This air is also
formed over the ocean. The warm air
heated and moistened by the ocean
expands and becomes less dense and
surface. It begins to rise and form
lighter and forms an area of low
clouds, heating the air around it.
pressure.

Step 6. The whole storm, now spinning


Step 5. More warm, moist air
like a top, is carried across
rushes in from the ocean surface.
the ocean by the wind. As
The air begins to spin because of
it moves across the warm
the rotation of the earth. The air goes
ocean waters, it will continue
faster and faster as it spirals inward.
to become stronger and
stronger.

Step 7. Finally, it moves over land or cold water. It loses its fuel source, warm
ocean, and begins to die out.
Public Storm Warning Signals - are raised to warn the public of incoming weather disturbances.

Source: Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA)

Public Storm Warning Signal No. 1

-Tropical Depression
-Winds of 30-60 kphis expected in at least 36 hours
-Only very light or no damage may be sustained by areas affected
-People are advised to listen to the latest news by PAGASA
-Classes in kindergarten are suspended

Public Storm Warning Signal No. 2

-Tropical Storm
- Winds of greater than 60-100 kphmay be expected in at least 24 hours
-Light to moderate damage may be experienced, particularly in the agricultural and
industrial sectors
-People are advised toevacuate low-lying areas, and stay away from the coasts and
riverbanks
-Classes from kindergarten to elementary are suspended
Public Storm Warning Signal No. 3

-Typhoon
- Winds of greater than 100-185 kph may be expected in at least 18 hours
-Moderate to heavy damage may be experienced by affected areas
-Evacuation to safer shelters should have been completed
-Classes from kindergarten to college are suspended

Public Storm Warning Signal No. 4

-Super Typhoon
- Very strong winds of greater than 185 kph may be expected in at least 12 hours
-Can bring very heavy damage to the affected areas
-Evacuation to safer shelters should have been completed since it may have been too late for
this situation
Republic of the Philippines
NEGROS ORIENTAL STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Main Campus II, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

CE 427 – HYDROLOGY
CHATPTER III
Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle
Measurement: Gages and Networks, Radar
and Satellite Estimates

Reporters:
Edgar John T. Tacsan
Jay C. Umbac

2nd Semester
TTH 10:00-11:00 AM
SY 2018-2019

Instructor
Engr. Irismay T. Jumawan
Measurement: Gages and Networks, Radar and Satellite Estimates
Rainfall is expressed in terms of the depth to which rainwater would stand on an area if
all the rain were collected on it. Thus, 1 cm of rainfall over a catchment area of 1km 2 represents
a volume of water equal to 104 m3. Measurement of precipitation (rain and snow) can be done by
various devices. These measuring devices and techniques are rain gauges, snow gauges, radars,
satellites scratching of snow packs and water equivalent in snow packs.

Rain Gauges
A rain gauge is an instrument used by meteorologists and hydrologiststo gather and
measure the amount of liquid precipitation over a set period of time.

Rain gauges are most commonly used for the measurement of precipitation, both in terms
of rainfall and snow.A rain gauge consists of a cylindrical vessel assembly kept in the open to
collect rain. Rainfall collected in the rain gauge is measured at regular intervals

Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2

Rain gauges may be broadly classified into 2 categories:

1. Non-recording rain gauges and


2. Recording rain gauges
In order that the rainfall catch of a rain gauge accurately represents the rainfall in the area
surrounding the rain gauge, certain standards are followed while establishing rain gauge stations.

Selection of Rain Gauge Stations


The rain gauge station must fulfil following requirements:
 The ground must be level and in the open and the instrument must represent a horizontal
catch surface
 The rain gauge must be set as near the ground as possible to reduce wind effects
 The rain gauge must be set sufficiently high to prevent splashing, flooding etc
 The instrument must be surrounded by an open fenced area of at least 5.5m x 5.5m. No
object must be closer to the rain gauge than 30m or twice the height of the obstruction

Figure 3.3

Non-recording Rain gauge


It gives only total rainfall occurred during particular time period. Recording type rain-
gauge gives hourly rainfall. Under non-recording type rain-gauges, one most commonly used in
Symon’s rain-gauge. It is the simplest in principle, construction and working.
It consists of a funnel and a receiver mainly. The receiver is a cylindrical (zinc) metal
bottle. The diameter of the bottle and the topmost diameter of funnel is 127 mm. The funnel is
fitted in the neck of the bottle. Both are then placed in a metal casing with suitable packing’s.
The base of the metal casing is enlarged to 210 mm.

The capacity of the bottle is such as to measure extremes of rainfall likely to occur in 24
hours. Zinc receivers hold 175 mm to 1000 mm according to size. Gauge is provided with one
measuring graduated jar which measures the water in mm. The smallest division on the jar is 0.2
mm. The rainfall should be estimated to the nearest 0.1 mm. See figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4 Symons Gauge

When snow is expected, the funnel and the receiving bottle are removed and snow is
collected in the outer metal container. It is then melted and the depth of resulting water is
measured. In areas of heavy snowfall, snow gauges with shields and storage pipes are used.
Snow surveys are also conducted

Recording Rain Gauges

Recording rain gauges give a permanent automatic record of rainfall. It has a mechanical
arrangement by which the total amount of rainfall since the start of record gets automatically
recorded on a graph paper. It produces a plot of cumulative rainfall vs time (mass curve of
rainfall). These rain gauges are also called integrating rain gauges since they record cumulative
rainfall

The recording gauge consists of a funnel 127 mm in diameter fixed on one side of a
rectangular box. It is called receiver also. In the rectangular box a float is adjusted. The float is
connected by means of a float rod to a pin point (or a recording pen). The pin point touches a
graph paper mounted on a rotating drum.

In addition to the total amount of rainfall at a station, it gives the times of onset and
cessation of rains (thereby gives the duration of rainfall events). The slope of the plot gives the
intensity of rainfall for any given time period.

They can provide continuous record for a number of days. They are very useful in hilly
and far off areas. In other areas, they are installed along with a non-recording rain gauge.
Types of Recording Rain Gauges

 Tipping Bucket Type

Tipping bucket type rain gauge is a 30cm sized circular rain gauge adopted for
use by US weather bureau. It has 30cm diameter sharp edged receiver and at the end of
the receiver is provided a funnel.

Pair of buckets are pivoted under this funnel in such a manner that when one
bucket receives 0.25mm of precipitation (rainfall),it tips discharging its rainfall into the
container, bringing the other bucket under the funnel.

Figure 3.5 Tipping Bucket Gauge

Tipping of bucket completes an electric circuit causing the movement of pen to mark on
clock driven receiving drum which carries a recorded sheet. These electric pulses generated are
recorded at the control room far away from the rain gauge station. This instrument is further
suited for digitalizing the output signal.

 Weighing Bucket Type


Weighing bucket type rain gauge is most common self-recording rain gauge. It
consists of a receiver bucket supported by a spring or lever balance or some other
weighing mechanism. The movement of bucket due to its increasing weight is transmitted
to a pen which traces record or some marking on a clock driven chart.

Weighing bucket type rain gauge instrument gives a plot of the accumulated
(increased) rainfall values against the elapsed time and the curve so formed is called the
mass curve.
Figure 3.6 Weighing Bucket type Rain Gauge

Figure 3.7 Mass Curve

 Natural Syphon Type (Float Type)


The working of this type of rain gauge is similar to weighing bucket rain gauge. A
funnel receives the water which is collected in a rectangular container. A float is provided
at the bottom of container, and this float raises as the water level rises in the container. Its
movement being recorded by a pen moving on a recording drum actuated by a clock
work.
When water rises, this float reaches to the top floating in water, then syphon
comes into operation and releases the water outwards through the connecting pipe, thus
all water in box is drained out. This rain gauge is adopted as the standard recording rain
gauge in India and the curve drawn using this data is known as mass curve of rain fall.
Figure 3.8 Natural Syphon Type (Float Type)

Figure 3.9 Recording from a natural syphon-type gauge

Errors in precipitation measurement by gauges

1. Instrumental errors
2. Errors in scale reading
3. Dent in receivers
4. Dent in measuring cylinders
5. About 0.25 mm of water is initially required to wet the surface of gauge
6. Rain gauges splash from collector
7. Frictional effects
8. Non verticality of measuring cylinders (10° inclination gives 1.5% less precipitation)
9. Loss of water by evaporation
10. Leakage in measuring cylinder
11. Wind speed reduces measured amount of rain in the rain gauges

Radar Measurements
Weather radar is a type of radar used to locate precipitation, calculate its motion, estimate
its type (rain, snow, hail, etc.), and forecast its future position and intensity. Weather radars are
mostly Doppler radars, capable of detecting the motion of rain droplets in addition to intensity of
precipitation. Radar works via transmitted and returned microwave energy. The radar transmits a
burst of microwaves. When this energy strikes an object, such as a raindrop, the energy is
scattered in all directions. Some of that scattered energy returns to the radar.

The intensity of that reflectivity depends on the number and size of raindrops (known as
drop-size distribution) within a sampled volume of air. If there are many large drops in a cloud,
reflectivity is high, while fewer, smaller drops have lower reflectivity. Drop-size distribution also
determines rainfall rate. A large number of big raindrops correspond to high reflectivity and high
rainfall rate while drizzle drops correspond to a very low reflectivity and very low rainfall rate.

Figure 3.10 Figure 3.11

Microwave radar (wavelength ~ 3 to 10 cm) is used for determining the areal extent,
location, and movement of rainstorms. Also the amount of rainfall over large areas can be
determined using radars with a good degree of accuracy.The hydrological range of radar is about
200km.
Both types of data can be analyzed to determine the structure of storms and their potential
to cause severe weather.
Figure 3.12 Electro-magnetic Waves

Color Palette
The colour palette for the radar-derived rainfall accumulations is different from the
colour palette for the current radar images, to distinguish clearly between radar observations and
radar-derived products. The palette is based on the hydrological rain gauge palette

Figure 3.13 Rainfall Map


Figure 3.14 Rainfall Advisories

Satellite Measurements
Earth-observing satellites can provide frequent estimates of precipitation at a global scale.
To do this, satellites carry instruments designed to observe specific atmospheric characteristics
such as cloud temperatures and precipitation particles, or hydrometeors. These data are
extremely useful for filling in data gaps that exist between rain gauge and ground-based radar
sites and offer insights into when, where, and how much precipitation is falling worldwide.
Satellite data also provide a unique vantage point. While ground-based instruments can directly
measure or estimate how much precipitation falls to the ground, satellite instruments estimate the
amount of electromagnetic radiation (or energy) that is emitted or reflected either from the tops
of the clouds or from the rain droplets themselves, providing a top-down view. Spaceborne radar
instruments can even observe the three-dimensional structure of precipitation. Such satellite
observations are detailed enough to allow scientists to distinguish between rain, snow, and other
precipitation types, as well as observe the structure, intensity, and dynamics of storms.

Figure 3.15 Earth Observing Satellite


NEGROS ORIENTAL STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Main Campus II, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

CE 427
HYDROLOGY

Chapter III
Precipitation Data Analysis

Submitted by:

Canillas, Carlo R.
Ebero, Shelbert
Pallalos, Roliann Y.
Talha, April Loureen Dale T.
Tumala, Arah Mae B.

Instructor:
Irismay T. Jumawan, Ph.D
PRECIPITATION DATA ANALYSIS:
Causes of Missing Data

 Malfunction of precipitation gage and/or related equipment

 Effect of natural hazards

 Sabotage

 Human related problems

Methods for Estimation of Missing Data


- Some precipitation stations may have short breaks in the records because of absence of the
observer or because of instrumental failures. It is often necessary to estimate this missing record.
- In the procedure used by the U.S. Weather Bureau, the missing precipitation of a station is
estimated from the observations of precipitation at some other stations as close to and as evenly
spaced around the station with the missing record as possible.
- The station whose data is missing is called interpolation station and gauging stations whose data
are used to calculate the missing station data are called index stations.

1. Simple Arithmetic Mean Method


In this method simultaneous rainfall records of three close-by stations are made use of. The stations
should however be evenly spaced around the station with missing records. A simple arithmetic
average of the rainfall of the three selected stations gives the estimate of the missing value. This
method can be used to calculate monthly as well as annual missing rainfall values. This method
should be used only when normal annual precipitation at each of the selected stations is within 10%
of that station for which records are missing.
According to the arithmetic mean method the missing precipitation 'Px' is given as:
𝒏
𝟏
𝑷𝒙 = ∑ 𝑷𝒊
𝒏
𝒊=𝟏

Where: 'n' is the number of nearby stations, 'Pi' is precipitation at ith station and 'Px' is missing
precipitation.
Example 1.1: Rain gauge X was out of operation for a month during which there was a storm.
The total rainfall at three adjacent stations A, B, and C are 37 mm, 42 mm and 49 mm
respectively. The average annual rainfall for all the stations are X = 694 mm, A = 726 mm, B=
752 mm and C = 760 mm. Using arithmetic method, estimate the missing total rainfall at for
gauge X.

Table 1.1 : Data given to determine the missing data using arithmetic mean

Stations Amount of Precipitation (mm) Normal Annual Precipitation


(mm)
A 37 726
B 42 752
C 49 760
X ? 694

Solution:
𝑁𝑋 = 694
10 % from 𝑁𝑥 = 69.4
𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 694 + 69.4
𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 763.4

Precipitation allowed = 624.6 mm – 763.4 mm

𝑃𝑋= 1 ∑𝑛
𝑛 𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖

1
𝑃𝑋= ( 37 + 42 + 49 )
3

𝑷𝒙 = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝒎𝒎

Example 1.2: Find out the missing storm data of station X in the following table
Table 1.2 : Data given to determine the missing data using arithmetic mean

Gage Annual Precipitation (mm) Monthly Precipitation (mm)


A 420 26
B 410 31
C 390 23
X 410 ?

Solution:
𝑁𝑋 = 410
10 % from 𝑁𝑥 = 41
Precipitation allowed = 369mm – 451mm
𝑃𝑋= 1 ∑𝑛
𝑛 𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖

1
𝑃𝑋= (26 + 31 + 23 )
3

𝑷𝒙 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝒎𝒎

2. Normal Ratio Method


Normal ratio method (NRM) is used when the normal annual precipitation at any of the index
station differs from that of the interpolation station by more than 10%. In this method, the
precipitation amounts at the index stations are weighted by the ratios of their normal annual
precipitation data in a relationship of the form:
According to the normal ratio method the missing precipitation is given as:

𝒊=𝒏 𝒏
𝟏 𝑵𝒙 𝑵𝒙 𝑷𝒊
𝑷𝒙 = ∑ 𝑷 𝑷𝒙 = ∑
𝒏 𝑵𝒊 𝒊 𝒏 𝑵𝒊
𝒊=𝟏 𝒊=𝟏

Where: Px is the missing precipitation for any storm at the interpolation station 'x', Pi is the
precipitation for the same period for the same storm at the "ith" station of a group of index
stations, Nx the normal annual precipitation value for the 'x' station and Ni the normal annual
precipitation value for 'ith' station.

Example 2.1: Rain gauge X was out of operation for a month during which there was a storm.
The total rainfall at three adjacent stations A, B, and C are 37 mm, 42 mm and 49 mm
respectively. The average annual rainfall for all the stations are X = 694 mm, A = 726 mm, B= 752
mm and C = 760 mm. Using arithmetic method, estimate the missing total rainfall at for gauge X.

Station Nominal Annual Precipitation Amounts of precipitation


(mm) (mm)
A 1120 107
B 935 89
C 1200 122
D 978 ?

Solution:
10
𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 978 + ( × 978)
100
978 107 89 122
𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1075.8 𝑃𝑥 = (
3 1120
+ 935 + 1200)

𝑷𝒙 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟑𝟏𝟗 mm
Example 2.2: Find out the missing storm data of station X in the following table

Station Annual Precipitation (mm) Monthly Precipitation (mm)


A 410 24
B 370 23
C 460 31
X 400 ?
Solution:
10
𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 400 + (100 × 400) = 440

4𝑂𝑂 24 23 31
𝑃𝑥 = ( + + )
3 41𝑂 370 460
𝑷𝒙 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟕𝟗 mm

3. Quadrant Method / Inverse Distance Weighing Method


The missing rainfall data of the station X is computed by the following equation
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 𝑤𝑖
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑛
∑𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖
1 1
where: 𝑊𝑖 = 𝐷2 = 𝑋 2 +𝑌 2
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

𝑃𝑖 = rainfall of the surrounding stations

(𝑋𝐼 , 𝑌𝑖 ) = coordinate of each surrounding


(0,0) = coordinate of the station with missing data
Example 3.1: In a river basin A was inoperative during a storm, while stations B,C,D and E,
Surrounding A were in operation, recording 74 mm, 88 mm, 71 mm and 80 mm, of monthly
rainfall. The coordinates of the stations is given in the figure below. Estimate the missing monthly
rainfall of station A by the inverse distance method.

Figure 1: Coordinates of a given stations

Solution:

Stations 𝑋𝑖 𝑌𝑖 𝑋𝑖2 𝑌𝑖2 𝐷𝑖2 𝑊𝑖 𝑃𝑖 (mm) 𝑊𝑖 𝑃𝑖


B 9 6 81 36 117 0.008547 74 0.632479
C 12 -9 144 81 225 0.004444 88 0.391111
D -11 -6 121 36 157 0.006369 71 0.452229
E -7 7 49 49 98 0.010204 80 0.816327
Summation 0.029565 2.292146
𝟐. 𝟐𝟗𝟐𝟏𝟒𝟔
𝑷𝒊 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟗𝟓𝟔𝟓
𝑷𝒊 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟓𝟐𝟗

Regression Method

Regression analysis is a procedure for fitting an equation to a set of data. Specifically, given a set of
measurements on two random variables, y and x, regression provides a means for finding the values of the
coefficients a and b for the straight line (y = a+ bx) that best fits the data.

The coefficients a and b can be found using least square method using the following two equations
simultaneously:

𝒏𝒂 + 𝒃 ∑ 𝒙 = ∑ 𝒚 ˃ eqn. 4
𝒂 ∑ 𝒙 + 𝒃 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 = ∑ 𝒙𝒚 ˃ eqn. 4.1
E xample: The annual precipitation data for two sites are shown in the table below. The record for year
1971 is missing. We would like to complete the record by using the simple linear regression
method.
Table 4 Data given to determine the missing data using regression method
year time 𝑥𝑡 𝑦𝑡
1961 1 10.2 6.1
1962 2 8.5 9.5
1963 3 2.8 1.8
1964 4 5.4 6
1965 5 15.2 9.5
1966 6 10.1 5.3
1967 7 9.2 2.3
1968 8 14.8 11.6
969 9 11.1 7.7
1970 10 6.6 3
1971 11 3.3

Solution:

- Develop an equation in the form of y = a + bx,


- The coefficients a and b can be found using the equations 4 and 4.1.

𝒏𝒂 + 𝒃 ∑ 𝒙 = ∑ 𝒚

𝒂 ∑ 𝒙 + 𝒃 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 = ∑ 𝒙𝒚

Table 4.1 Shows the solution to determine the missing data using regression method
year 𝑥𝑡 𝑦𝑡 𝒙𝒕 𝒚𝒕 xt2
1961 10.2 6.1 62.22 104.04
1962 8.5 9.5 80.75 72.25
1963 2.8 1.8 5.04 7.84
1964 5.4 6 32.4 29.16
1965 15.2 9.5 144.4 231.04
1966 10.1 5.3 53.53 102.01
1967 9.2 2.3 21.16 84.64
1968 14.8 11.6 171.68 219.04
1969 11.1 7.7 85.47 123.21
1970 6.6 3 19.8 43.56
1971 3.3
sum 93.9 62.8 676.45 1016.79

𝟏𝟎𝒂 + 𝟗𝟑. 𝟗𝒃 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟖 → (𝟏)


𝟗𝟑. 𝟗𝒂 + 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔. 𝟕𝟗𝒃 = 𝟔𝟕𝟔. 𝟒𝟓 → (𝟐)

- Solving the two equations simultaneously:

a = 0.249 and b = 0.624 in which y = 0.249 + 0.642x


The missing data of the year 1971 is obtained from the equation y = a + bx which gives the
equation below:

y = 0.249 + 0.642× 3.3


y = 2.37

B. Double-Mass Analysis
- Double-mass-curve analysis is the method that is used to check for an inconsistency in a gaged
record.
- A double-mass curve is a graph of the cumulative catch at the rain gage of interest versus the
cumulative catch of one or more gages in the regions that have been subjected to similar hydro
meteorological occurrences and are known to be consistent
- If a double- mass curve has a constant slope, the record is consistent.
- If a double –mass curve has not a constant slope, the record is not consistent and need to be
adjusted.
Steps to check and adjust the consistency of rainfall data of a station A:

I. The doubtful station, say A, is marked and the group of stations surrounding it are identified.
II. Determine the cumulative rainfall of the station A
III. Sum the data of the neighbouring stations and determine the cumulative
IV. Plot the sum cumulative rainfall of stations with cumulative station A to determine the
double mass curve.
V. If there is a changing slope in the double-mass curve, adjust it correct the data of station A
by the adjustment factor.

Say the slopes of the two sections, S1, and S2, can be computed from the cumulative catches:

∆𝒀𝒊
𝑺𝒊 =
∆𝑿𝒊

Figure 1 Illustrates the double mass curve analysis for adjustment

1. Adjustment of the Lower Section of a Double –Mass Curve


𝑆2/𝑆1 is the adjustment factor and multiplying each value in the Y1 series by the adjustment factor.
𝑺𝟐
𝒚𝟏 = 𝒀
𝑺𝟏 𝟏

Figure 2 Illustrates the double mass curve analysis for adjustment of the Lower Section

Example:

1. Adjustment of the Lower Section of a Double –Mass Curve

In the table below annual rainfalls of gage E, F, G and H are given. Gage H was permanently
relocated after a period of 3 years (at the end of 1981); thus adjust the recorded values from 1979
through 1981 of gage H using double mass curve assume the data for the other gages are consistent.

Table 5 Shows the data given to determine and plot the double mass curve

Annual Catch (in.) at Gauge


Year E F G H
1979 22 26 23 28
1980 21 26 25 33
1981 27 31 28 31
1982 25 29 29 31
1983 19 22 23 24
1984 24 25 26 28
1985 17 19 20 22
1986 21 22 23 26
Solution:

Table 5.1 Displays the data with the corresponding solution to solve the corrected value of the curve.

Cumulative Catch (in.) for


Annual Catch (in.) at Gage
TOTAL (E + F + G) Gage
Year E F G H E+F+G H h1
1979 22 26 23 28 71 71 28 24.7
1980 21 26 25 33 72 143 61 29.1
1981 27 31 28 31 86 229 92 33.5
1982 25 29 29 31 83 312 123
1983 19 22 23 24 64 376 147
1984 24 25 26 28 75 451 175
1985 17 19 20 22 56 507 197
1986 21 22 23 26 66 573 223

Plot:

The adjusted values from 1979 through


1981 can be computed using:
0.3803
ℎ1 = ( ) 𝐻 = 0.8809𝐻1
0.4323 1

Figure 3 Plots the coordinates to get the


double mass curve

Table 5.1 Displays the data with the corresponding solution to solve the corrected value of the curve.
Cumulative Catch (in.) for
Annual Catch (in.) at Gage
TOTAL (E + F + G) Gage
Year E F G H E+F+G H h1
1979 22 26 23 28 71 71 28 24.7
1980 21 26 25 33 72 143 61 29.1
1981 27 31 28 31 86 229 99 33.5
1982 25 29 29 31 83 312 130
1983 19 22 23 24 64 376 154
1984 24 25 26 28 75 451 182
1985 17 19 20 22 56 507 204
1986 21 22 23 26 66 573 230

2. Adjustment of the Upper Section of a Double-Mass Curve


Data for gages A, B, and C and D are given the table below. Check the consistence of data for gage D
and adjust it using double-mass curve method.

Table 2 Gives the values for the double mass curve

Annual Catch (in.) at Gauge


Year A B C D
1977 30 31 27 29
1978 33 36 32 32
1979 26 27 24 28
1980 27 26 27 29
1981 34 34 30 30
1982 31 33 31 29
1983 28 30 24 28
1984 35 34 33 39
1985 37 39 36 41
1986 34 35 35 37

Table 2.1 Shows the data and the solution for the determination of the corrected values of the curve

Annual Catch (in.) at Gauge Cumulative Catch (in.) for Gage


TOTAL (A + B + C)
Year A B C D A+B+C D d2
1977 30 31 27 29 88 88 29
1978 33 36 32 32 101 189 61
1979 26 27 24 28 77 266 89
1980 27 26 27 29 80 346 118
1981 34 34 30 30 98 444 148
1982 31 33 31 29 95 539 177
1983 28 30 24 28 82 621 205
1984 35 34 33 39 102 723 244 35
1985 37 39 36 41 112 835 285 36.8
1986 34 35 35 37 104 939 322 33.2

The equation for adjusting the upper section of


the curve is:
0.3301
𝑑2 = ( ) 𝐷 = 0.8973𝐷2
0.3679 2

Figure 4 Displays the plotted values for the


double mass curve

MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION

Rain gauges represent only point sampling or the areal distribution of a storm. In practice,
however, hydrological analysis is requires a knowledge of the rainfall over an area, such as over a
catchment.

To convert the point rainfall values at various stations into an average value over catchment the
following three methods are in use (i) Arithmetic Mean Method/Normal Ratio Method, (ii) Isohyetal
Analysis and (iii) Thissen Polygon Method

ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD

In this method simultaneous rainfall records of three close-by stations are made use of. The
stations should however be evenly spaced around the station with missing records. A simple arithmetic
average of the rainfall of the three selected stations gives the estimate of the missing value. This method
can be used to calculate monthly as well as annual missing rainfall values. This method should be used
only when normal annual precipitation at each of the selected stations is within 10% of that station for
which records are missing.

According to the arithmetic mean method the missing precipitation 'Px' is given as:
where:

Px = Average Precipitation

Pi = Precipitation depth at gauge (i) w/in the topographic basin (mm)

n = total number of gaging stations

Example:

Rain gauge X was out of operation for a month during which there was a storm. The rainfall at
three adjacent stations A, B and C are 37mm, 42mm and 49mm, respectively. The average annual rainfall
for all the stations are X= 694mm, A=726mm, B=752mm and C=760mm. Using the arithmetic method,
estimate the missing total rainfall for gauge X.

Stations Amounts of precipitation(mm) Normal Annual precipitation (mm)

A 37 726

B 42 752

C 49 760
X ? 694

NORMAL RATIO METHOD

Normal ratio method (NRM) is used when the normal annual precipitation at any of the index
station differs from that of the interpolation station by more than 10%. In this method, the precipitation
amounts at the index stations are weighted by the ratios of their normal annual precipitation data in a
relationship of the form:

N = Normal annual precipitation.


P = Storm Precipitation.

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