CHAPTER 1

EMBEDDED SYSTEM
1.1. INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

An embedded system is a special-purpose computer system designed to perform one

or a few dedicated functions, sometimes with real-time computing constraints. It is usually
embedded as part of a complete device including hardware and mechanical parts. In contrast,
a general-purpose computer, such as a personal computer, can do many different tasks
depending on programming. Embedded systems have become very important today as they
control many of the common devices we use.

Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can
optimize it, reducing the size and cost of the product, or increasing the reliability and
performance. Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of
scale.

Physically embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and
MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the
systems controlling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low, with a single
microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted
inside a large chassis or enclosure.

In general, "embedded system" is not an exactly defined term, as many systems have
some element of programmability. For example, Hand-held computers share some elements
with embedded systems such as the operating systems and microprocessors which power
them but are not truly embedded systems, because they allow different applications to be load
and peripherals to be connected.

An embedded system is some combination of computer hardware and software, either

fixed in capability or programmable, that is specifically designed for a particular kind of
application device. Industrial machines, automobiles, medical equipment, cameras, household
appliances, airplanes, vending machines, and toys (as well as the more obvious cellular phone
and PDA) are among the myriad possible hosts of an embedded system. Embedded systems
that are programmable are provided with a programming interface, and embedded systems
programming is a specialized occupation. Certain operating systems or language platforms

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are tailored for the embedded market, such as Embedded Java and Windows XP Embedded.
However, some low-end consumer products use very inexpensive microprocessors and
limited storage, with the application and operating system both part of a single program. The
program is written permanently into the system's memory in this case, rather than being
loaded into RAM (random access memory), as programs on a personal computer are.

1.2. CHARACTERISTIC OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

 Speed (bytes/sec): Should be high speed

 Power (watts): Low power dissipation
 Size and weight: As far as possible small in size and low weight
 Accuracy (%error): Must be very accurate
 Adaptability: High adaptability and accessibility
 Reliability: Must be reliable over a long period of time

1.3. APPLICATIONS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

We are living in the Embedded World. You are surrounded with many embedded
products and your daily life largely depends on the proper functioning of these gadgets.
Television, Radio, CD player of your living room, Washing Machine or Microwave Oven in
your kitchen, Card readers, Access Controllers, Palm devices of your work space enable you
to do many of your tasks very effectively. Apart from all these, many controllers embedded
in your car take care of car operations between the bumpers and most of the times you tend to
ignore all these controllers.

 Robotics: industrial robots, machine tools, Robocop soccer robots

 Automotive: cars, trucks, trains
 Aviation: airplanes, helicopters
 Home and Building Automation
 Aerospace: rockets, satellites
 Energy systems: windmills, nuclear plants
 Medical systems: prostheses, revalidation machine.

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1.4. MICROCONTROLLER VERSUS MICROPROCESSOR

What is the difference between a Microprocessor and Microcontroller? By

microprocessor is meant the general purpose Microprocessors such as Intel's X86 family
(8086, 80286, 80386, 80486, and the Pentium) or Motorola's 680X0 family (68000, 68010,
68020, 68030, 68040, etc.). These microprocessors contain no RAM, no ROM, and no I/O
ports on the chip itself. For this reason, they are commonly referred to as general-purpose
Microprocessors.

A system designer using a general-purpose microprocessor such as the Pentium or the

68040 must add RAM, ROM, I/O ports, and timers externally to make them functional.
Although the addition of external RAM, ROM, and I/O ports makes these systems bulkier
and much more expensive, they have the advantage of versatility such that the designer can
decide on the amount of RAM, ROM and I/O ports needed to fit the task at hand. This is not
the case with Microcontrollers.

A Microcontroller has a CPU (a microprocessor) in addition to a fixed amount of

RAM, ROM, I/O ports, and a timer all on a single chip. In other words, the processor, the
RAM, ROM, I/O ports and the timer are all embedded together on one chip; therefore, the
designer cannot add any external memory, I/O ports, or timer to it. The fixed amount of on-
chip ROM, RAM, and number of I/O ports in Microcontrollers makes them ideal for many
applications in which cost and space are critical.

In many applications, for example a TV remote control, there is no need for the
computing power of a 486 or even an 8086 microprocessor. These applications most often
require some I/O operations to read signals and turn on and off certain bits

1.5. MICROCONTROLLERS FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

In the Literature discussing microprocessors, we often see the term Embedded

System. Microprocessors and Microcontrollers are widely used in embedded system
products. An embedded system product uses a microprocessor (or Microcontroller) to do one
task only. A printer is an example of embedded system since the processor inside it performs
one task only; namely getting the data and printing it. Contrast this with a Pentium based PC.
A PC can be used for any number of applications such as word processor, print-server, bank
teller terminal, Video game, network server, or Internet terminal. Software for a variety of
applications can be loaded and run. Of course the reason a pc can perform myriad tasks is that

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it has RAM memory and an operating system that loads the application software into RAM
memory and lets the CPU run it.

. In this robot as the fire sensor senses the fire, it senses the signal to microcontroller.
In an Embedded system, there is only one application software that is typically burned into
ROM. An x86 PC contains or is connected to various embedded products such as keyboard,
printer, modem, disk controller, sound card, CD-ROM drives, mouse, and so on. Each one of
these peripherals has a Microcontroller inside it that performs only one task.

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 CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT
2.1 WORKING
This GSM Modem can accept any GSM network operator SIM card and
act just like a mobile phone with its own unique phone number. Advantage of using this
modem will be that you can use its RS232 port to communicate and develop embedded
applications. Applications like SMS Control, data transfer, remote control and logging can be
developed easily. The modem can either be connected to PC serial port directly or to any
microcontroller.
In this project we are interfacing LCD and GSM with microcontroller. when we send
massage to the GSM then that message will be shows on the LCD display.

This project uses regulated 5V, 500mA power supply. 7805 three terminal voltage
regulator is used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify the
ac output of secondary of 230/12V step down transformer.

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2.1.1 Block diagram

Power
Supply A

7
LED
T board
D

M
RFID GSM
I
reader

Figure.2.1. Block Diagram of Electronic Notice Board

2.2 Advantages:

 Using GSM mobile we can send message to any distant location.

 As it is wireless transmission system it has very less errors and needs less
maintenance.

 Multiple users can access.

 No printing and photocopying cost.

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2.3 Applications:

 Educational institutions

 Advertisement conference hall

 Managing traffic

 Bus/Railway stations

 Any public utility places

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 CHAPTER 3

LPC2148 MICROCONTROLLER

3.1.INTRODUCTION TO ARM

ARM is the industry's leading provider of 32-bit embedded RISC microprocessors.

ARM processors are licensed by the majority of the world's leading semiconductor
manufacturers, who together have shipped in excess of 25 billion processors since the
company was formed in 1990. ARM offers a wide range of processor IP based on a common
architecture delivering high performance together with low power consumption and system
cost. This energy-efficient performance is enhanced by ARM Physical IP, development tools
and the largest ecosystem in the industry. The ARM Connected Community is comprised of
over 850 companies including third party systems, design support, software and training
providers which combined provide a complete solution for products based on the ARM
Architecture.

3.2.THE ARM ARCHITECTURE

The ARM architecture is the most widely used 32-bit embedded RISC solution in the
world. Latest reports show that ARM’s market share of the embedded RISC microprocessor
market is more than 75 percent, with ARM Partners shipping almost 4 billion ARM
processor-based devices per year. It has excelled because it is an open architecture that
provides unparalleled levels of compatibility and design reusability, combined with superior
performance, compact code density and low cost per DMIPS.

3.3 ARM7 PROCESSOR FAMILY

The ARM7 processor family is a range of 32- bit RISC processors optimized for cost
and power sensitive applications. The ARM7 processor family feature a 3 stage pipeline
execution unit to provide exceptional area efficiency with very low power consumption,
ideally suited for application specific SoC designs. The ARM7 processor family is made up
of the ARM7TDMI® and ARM7TDMI-S™ processors.
Typical applications include:
•Mobile phones (baseband processor)
•MP3 players
• Digital still cameras

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3.4 WHY CHOOSE AN ARM PROCESSOR?
Package, price and peripheral support are, of course, extremely important factors
when choosing which processor to use for any design. However the performance, power
consumption and overall development cost of the entire system will also have a large impact
on the success of the project. Choosing an ARM processor provides designers with access to
a huge range of third party development tools, operating systems and software. Furthermore
you will experience the power of 32-bit performance in a scalable architecture to ensure your
investment in software development is protected should you wish to move to higher
performance ARM processors in the future. The ARM processor portfolio provides designers
with a range of solutions for applications across the full performance spectrum, from the
extremely low cost Cortex™-M0 and Cortex-M3 processor to the high-performance, >2000
DMIPS Cortex-A8 processor and the Cortex-A15 MPCore™ multi core processor as well as
the Mali family of Graphics Processing Units (GPU) This document provides more
information about ARM, the processors and the development tools available, which can be
used to support your design.
The LPC2141/42/44/46/48 microcontrollers are based on a 16-bit/32-bit
ARM7TDMI-S CPU with real-time emulation and embedded trace support, that combine
microcontroller with embedded high-speed flash memory ranging from 32 kB to 512 kB. A
128-bit wide memory interface and unique accelerator architecture enable 32-bit code
execution at the maximum clock rate. For critical code size applications, the alternative 16-bit
Thumb mode reduces code by more than 30 % with minimal performance penalty. Due to
their tiny size and low power consumption, LPC2141/42/44/46/48 are ideal for applications
where miniaturization is a key requirement, such as access control and point-of-sale. Serial
communications interfaces ranging from a USB 2.0 Full-speed device, multiple UARTs, SPI,
SSP to I2C-bus and on-chip SRAM of 8 kB up to 40 kB, make these devices very well suited
for communication gateways and protocol converters, soft modems, voice recognition and
low end imaging, providing both large buffer size and high processing power. Various 32-bit
timers, single or dual 10-bit ADC(s), 10-bit DAC, PWM channels and 45 fast GPIO lines
with up to nine edge or level sensitive external interrupt pins make these microcontrollers
suitable for industrial control and medical systems.

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3.5 LPC2148:

3.5.1 general description

The LPC2141/42/44/46/48 microcontrollers are based on a 16-bit/32-bit

ARM7TDMI-S CPU with real-time emulation and embedded trace support, that combine
microcontroller with embedded high-speed flash memory ranging from 32 kB to 512 kB. A
128-bit wide memory interface and unique accelerator architecture enable 32-bit code
execution at the maximum clock rate. For critical code size applications, the alternative 16-bit
Thumb mode reduces code by more than 30 % with minimal performance penalty. Due to
their tiny size and low power consumption, LPC2141/42/44/46/48 are ideal for applications
where miniaturization is a key requirement, such as access control and point-of-sale. Serial
communications interfaces ranging from a USB 2.0 Full-speed device, multiple UARTs, SPI,
SSP to I2C-bus and on-chip SRAM of 8 kB up to 40 kB, make these devices very well suited
for communication gateways and protocol converters, soft modems, voice recognition and
low end imaging, providing both large buffer size and high processing power. Various 32-bit
timers, single or dual 10-bit ADC(s), 10-bit DAC, PWM channels and 45 fast GPIO lines
with up to nine edge or level sensitive external interrupt pins make these microcontrollers
suitable for industrial control and medical systems.

3.5.2 Features

 16-bit/32-bit ARM7TDMI-S microcontroller in a tiny LQFP64 package.

 8 kB to 40 kB of on-chip static RAM and 32 kB to 512 kB of on-chip flash memory.
 128-bit wide interface/accelerator enables high-speed 60 MHz operation
 In-System Programming/In-Application Programming (ISP/IAP) via on-chip boot
loader software. Single flash sector or full chip erase in 400 ms and programming
of 256 bytes in 1 ms.
 Embedded ICE RT and Embedded Trace interfaces offer real-time debugging with
the on-chip Real Monitor software and high-speed tracing of instruction execution.
 USB 2.0 Full-speed compliant device controller with 2 kB of endpoint RAM.
 In addition, the LPC2146/48 provides 8 kB of on-chip RAM accessible to USB by
DMA.
 One or two (LPC2141/42 vs. LPC2144/46/48) 10-bit ADCs provide a total of 6/14
analog inputs, with conversion times as low as 2.44 s per channel.
 Single 10-bit DAC provides variable analog output (LPC2142/44/46/48 only).

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  Two 32-bit timers/external event counters (with four capture and four compare
channels each), PWM unit (six outputs) and watchdog.
 Low power Real-Time Clock (RTC) with independent power and 32 kHz clock input.
 Multiple serial interfaces including two UARTs (16C550), two Fast I2C-bus (400
kbit/s), SPI and SSP with buffering and variable data length capabilities.
 Vectored Interrupt Controller (VIC) with configurable priorities and vector
addresses.
 Up to 45 of 5 V tolerant fast general purpose I/O pins in a tiny LQFP64 package.
 Up to 21 external interrupt pins available.
 60 MHz maximum CPU clock available from programmable on-chip PLL with
settling time of 100 s.
 On-chip integrated oscillator operates with an external crystal from 1 MHz to 25
MHz.
 Power saving modes include Idle and Power-down.

3.6 ON-CHIP STATIC RAM (SRAM)

On-chip Static RAM (SRAM) may be used for code and/or data storage. The on-chip
SRAM may be accessed as 8-bits, 16-bits, and 32-bits. The LPC2141/2/4/6/8 provides
8/16/32 kB of static RAM, respectively. The LPC2141/2/4/6/8 SRAM is designed to be
accessed as a byte-addressed memory. Word and half word accesses to the memory ignore
the alignment of the address and access the naturally-aligned value that is addressed (so a
memory access ignores address bits 0 and 1 for word accesses, and ignores bit 0 for half word
accesses). Therefore valid reads and writes require data accessed as half words to originate
from addresses with address line 0 being 0 (addresses ending with 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, A, C, and E in
hexadecimal notation) and data accessed as words to originate from addresses with address
lines 0 and 1 being 0 (addresses ending with 0, 4, 8, and C in hexadecimal notation). This rule
applies to both off and on-chip memory usage.

The SRAM controller incorporates a write-back buffer in order to prevent CPU stalls
during back-to-back writes. The write-back buffer always holds the last data sent by software
to the SRAM. This data is only written to the SRAM when another write is requested by
software (the data is only written to the SRAM when software does another write). If a chip
reset occurs, actual SRAM contents will not reflect the most recent write request (i.e. after a
"warm" chip reset, the SRAM does not reflect the last write operation). Any software that

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checks SRAM contents after reset must take this into account. Two identical writes to a
location guarantee that the data will be present after a Reset. Alternatively, a dummy write
operation before entering idle or power-down mode will similarly guarantee that the last data
written will be present in SRAM after a subsequent reset.

3.7 KEY FEATURES OF THE ARM INSTRUCTION SET

 Load-store architecture
 3-address data processing instructions
 Conditional execution of EVERY instruction
 Inclusion of load and store multiple register instructions
 Perform a general shift operation and a general ALU operation in a single instruction
executed in one cycle
 can extend instruction set through the coprocessor instruction set, including adding
new registers and data types.

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3.8. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF LPC2148

Fig3.1: Block diagram of LPC2148

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3.9 PIN DIAGRAM OF LPC 2144/46/48

Fig3.2. pin diagram of LPC2148

PINSEL 0: It contains GPIO pins 0.0 to 0.15

PINSEL 1: It contains GPIO pins 0.16 to 0.31
PINSEL 2: It is a special case, and is used to control whether pins 1.16 to 1.31 are used as
GPIO pins, or as a debug port in combination with a hardware JTAG debugger. These pins
will not be available to use as GPIO during testing and development.
Each associated ‘pin’ in PINSEL0 and PINSEL1 is assigned a 2-bit address.p0.0, for
example, uses the first two bits in PINSEL0, p0.1 uses the next two bits, and so on.

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3.10 SYSTEM CONTROL BLOCK FUNCTIONS

The System Control Block includes several system features and control registers for a
number of functions that are not related to specific peripheral devices. These include:

• Crystal Oscillator
• External Interrupt Inputs
• Miscellaneous System Controls and Status
• Memory Mapping Control
• PLL
• Power Control
• Reset
• APB Divider
• Wakeup Timer

Each type of function has its own register(s) if any are required and unneeded bits are
defined as reserved in order to allow future expansion. Unrelated functions never share the
same register addresses.
3.11 MEMORY MAP CONCEPTS AND OPERATING MODES

The basic concept on the LPC2141/2/4/6/8 is that each memory area has a "natural"
location in the memory map. This is the address range for which code residing in that area is
written. The bulk of each memory space remains permanently fixed in the same location,
eliminating the need to have portions of the code designed to run in different address ranges.
Because of the location of the interrupt vectors on the ARM7 processor (at addresses0x0000
0000 through 0x0000 001C, a small portion of the Boot Block and SRAM spaces need to be
re-mapped in order to allow alternative uses of interrupts in the different operating modes
described. Re-mapping of the interrupts is accomplished via the Memory Mapping Control
feature.

3.12 MEMORY RE-MAPPING

In order to allow for compatibility with future derivatives, the entire Boot Block is
mapped to the top of the on-chip memory space. In this manner, the use of larger or smaller
flash modules will not require changing the location of the Boot Block (which would require
changing the Boot Loader code itself) or changing the mapping of the Boot Block interrupt
vectors. Memory spaces other than the interrupt vectors remain in fixed locations. The

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portion of memory that is re-mapped to allow interrupt processing in different modes
includes the interrupt vector area (32 bytes) and an additional 32 bytes, for a total of 64 bytes.
The re-mapped code locations overlay addresses 0x0000 0000 through 0x0000 003F. A
typical user program in the Flash memory can place the entire FIQ handler at address 0x0000
001C without any need to consider memory boundaries. The vector contained in the SRAM,
external memory, and Boot Block must contain branches to the actual interrupt handlers, or to
other instructions that accomplish the branch to the interrupt handlers.

There are three reasons this configuration was chosen:

1. To give the FIQ handler in the Flash memory the advantage of not having to take a
memory boundary caused by the remapping into account.
2. Minimize the need to for the SRAM and Boot Block vectors to deal with arbitrary
boundaries in the middle of code space.

3. To provide space to store constants for jumping beyond the range of single word
branch instructions. Re-mapped memory areas, including the Boot Block and interrupt
vectors, continue to appear in their original location in addition to the re-mapped address

3.13 THE THUMB CONCEPT:

The key idea behind THUMB is that of a super-reduced instruction set. Essentially,
the ARM7TDMI processor has two instruction sets:

• the standard 32-bit ARM set

• a 16-bit THUMB set
The THUMB set’s 16-bit instruction length allows it to approach twice the density of
standard ARM code while retaining most of the ARM’s performance advantage over a
traditional 16-bit processor using 16-bit registers. This is possible because THUMB code
operates on the same 32-bit register set as ARM code.

THUMB code is able to provide up to 65% of the code size of ARM, and 160% of the
performance of an equivalent ARM processor connected to a 16-bit memory system.

3.14 THUMB’S ADVANTAGES:

THUMB instructions operate with the standard ARM register configuration, allowing
excellent interoperability between ARM and THUMB states. Each 16-bit THUMB

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instruction has a corresponding 32-bit ARM instruction with the same effect on the processor
model.

The major advantage of a 32-bit (ARM) architecture over a 16-bit architecture is its
ability to manipulate 32-bit integers with single instructions, and to address a large address
space efficiently. When processing 32-bit data, a 16-bit architecture will take at least two
instructions to perform the same task as a single ARM instruction.

THUMB breaks this constraint by implementing a 16-bit instruction length on a 32-bit

architecture, making the processing of 32-bit data efficient with a compact instruction coding.
This provides far better performance than a 16-bit architecture, with better code density than
a 32-bit architecture.

THUMB also has a major advantage over other 32-bit architectures with 16-bit
instructions. This is the ability to switch back to full ARM code and execute at full speed.

Thus critical loops for applications such as

a) Fast interrupts

b) DSP algorithms

can be coded using the full ARM instruction set, and linked with THUMB code. The
overhead of switching from THUMB code to ARM code is folded into sub-routine entry
time. Various portions of a system can be optimised for speed or for code density by
switching between THUMB and ARM execution as appropriate

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3.15 ARM7 TDMI FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM:

The functional diagram of ARM7 TDMI is shown in the figure 4.3.

Fig.3.3 ARM7TDMI Functional Diagram

3.15.1 Signal Description:

The following table lists and describes all the signals for the ARM7TDMI.

3.15.2 Transistor sizes

For a 0.6 mm ARM7TDMI:
INV4 driver has transistor sizes of P = 22.32 mm/0.6 mm
N = 12.6 mm/0.6 mm

INV8 driver has transistor sizes of P = 44.64 mm/0.6 mm

N = 25.2 mm/0.6 mm

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Key to signal types
IC - Input CMOS driver
08 - Output with INV8 driver thresholds
P - Power
04 - Output with INV4

Processor Operating States:

From the programmer’s point of view, the ARM7TDMI can be in one of two states:

• ARM state which executes 32-bit, word-aligned ARM instructions.

• THUMB state which operates with 16-bit, halfword-aligned THUMB
instructions. In this state, the PC uses bit 1 to select between alternate
halfwords
3.15.3 Interrupt controller:

The Vectored Interrupt Controller (VIC) accepts all of the interrupt request inputs and
categorizes them as:
1) Fast Interrupt Request (FIQ)
2) Vectored Interrupt Request (IRQ)
3) Non-vectored IRQ
Fast Interrupt Request (FIQ):

Fast interrupt request (FIQ) has the highest priority. If more than one request is
assigned to FIQ, the VIC combines the requests to produce the FIQ signal to the ARM
processor. The fastest possible FIQ latency is achieved when only one request is classified as
FIQ, because then the FIQ service routine does not need to branch into the interrupt service
routine but can run from the interrupt vector location. If more than one request is assigned
to the FIQ class, the FIQ service routine will read a word from the VIC that identifies which
FIQ source(s) is (are) requesting an interrupt.

Vectored Interrupt Request (IRQ):

Vectored IRQs have the middle priority. Sixteen of the interrupt requests can be
assigned to this category. Any of the interrupt requests can be assigned to any of the 16
vectored IRQ slots, among which slot 0 has the highest priority and slot 15 has the lowest.

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 Vectored Interrupt Request:
Non vectored IRQs have the lowest priority. The VIC combines the requests from all
the vectored and non-vectored IRQs to produce the IRQ signal to the ARM processor. The
IRQ service routine can start by reading a register from the VIC and jumping there. If any of
the vectored IRQs are pending, the VIC provides the address of the highest-priority
requesting IRQs service routine, otherwise it provides the address of a default routine that is
shared by all the non-vectored IRQs. The default routine can read another VIC register to
see what IRQs are active.

Interrupt sources:

Each peripheral device has one interrupt line connected to the Vectored Interrupt
Controller, but may have several internal interrupt flags. Individual interrupt flags may also
represent more than one interrupt source.

Reset:

When the nRESET signal goes LOW, ARM7TDMI abandons the executing
instruction and then continues to fetch instructions from incrementing word addresses. When
nRESET goes HIGH again, ARM7TDMI:

• Overwrites R14_svc and SPSR_svc by copying the current values of the PC and CPSR
into them. The value of the saved PC and SPSR is not defined.
• Forces M[4:0] to 10011 (Supervisor mode), sets the I and F bits in the CPSR, and
clears the CPSR’s T bit.
• Forces the PC to fetch the next instruction from address 0x00.
• Execution resumes in ARM state.
3.16 ARM ADDRESSING MODES:

The five addressing modes used with ARM® instructions. They are

• Data-processing operands
• Load and Store Word or Unsigned Byte
• Miscellaneous Loads and Stores
• Load and Store Multiple
• Load and Store Coprocessor

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 1) Data Addressing Operands:

This instruction operand is produced by the value of register Rm rotated right by the
value in the least significant byte of register Rs. As bits are rotated off the right end, they are
inserted into the vacated bit positions on the left. The carry-out from the shifter is the last bit
rotated off the right end, or the C flag if the shift amount is zero.

Syntax:

<Rm>, ROR <Rs>

where ROR/ROL- Indicates rotate right or left

Rm- Specifies the register whose value is to be rotated
Rs- Is the register containing the value of the rotation
2) Load and Store Word or Unsigned Byte:

There are nine formats used to calculate the address for a Load and Store Word or
Unsigned Byte instruction. The general instruction syntax is:

LDR|STR{<cond>}{B}{T} <Rd>, <addressing_mode>

3) Miscellaneous Loads and Stores:

There are six formats used to calculate the address for load and store (signed or
unsigned) halfword, load signed byte, or load and store double word instructions. The general
instruction syntax is:

LDR|STR{<cond>}H|SH|SB|D <Rd>, <addressing_mode>

4) Load and Store Multiple:

Load Multiple instructions load a subset (possibly all) of the general-purpose registers
from memory. Store Multiple instructions store a subset (possibly all) of the general-purpose
registers to memory.

Load and Store Multiple addressing modes produce a sequential range of addresses.
The lowest-numbered register is stored at the lowest memory address and the highest-
numbered register at the highest memory address.

The general instruction syntax is:

LDM|STM{<cond>}<addressing_mode> <Rn>{!}, <registers>{^}

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5) Load and Store Coprocessor:

There are four addressing modes which are used to calculate the address of a Load or
Store Coprocessor instruction. The general instruction syntax is:

<opcode>{<cond>}{L} <coproc>,<CRd>,<addressing_mode>

3.17 ARM7 LPC2148 Microcontroller:

LPC2148 Pro Development Board is a powerful development platform based on

LPC2148 ARM7TDMI microcontroller with 512K on-chip memory. This board is ideal for
developing embedded applications involving high speed wireless communication, USB based
data logging, real time data monitoring and control, interactive control panels etc. The on-
chip USB controller provides direct high speed interface to a PC/laptop with speeds up to
12Mb/s. The UART boot loader eliminates need of an additional programmer and allows you
to program using serial port. The on board peripherals include SD/MMC card interface,
USB2.0 interface, 4Kbit I2C EEPROM, Xbee wireless module interface, ULN2003 500mA
current sinking driver, L293D DC motor controller, 16X2 character LCD and many more.
The on-chip peripherals and the external hardware on the development board are
interconnected using pin headers and jumpers. The I/O pins on the microcontroller can be
accessed from a 50 pin male header. The board is made from double sided PTH PCB board to
provide extra strength to the connector joints for increased reliability. It supports the
operating supply voltage between 7V to 14V and has built-in reverse polarity protection.

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 CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE COMPONENTS

4.1 POWER SUPPLY:

Figure.4.1.power supply

4.1.1 TRANSFORMER:

Transformer is a static device used to convert the voltage from one level to another
level without change its frequency. There are two types of transformers

1. Step-up transformer
2. Step-down transformer
Step-up transformer converts low voltage level into high voltage level without change its
frequency.

Step-down transformer converts high voltage level into low voltage level without change its
frequency.

In this project we using step-down transformer which converts 230V AC to 12V AC [or]
230V AC to 5V as shown below.

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 Figure.4.2.Transformers

4.1.2 DIODES:

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol
shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve
and early diodes were actually called valves.

Figure.4.3. Diode Symbol

A diode is a device which only allows current to flow through it in one direction. In this
direction, the diode is said to be 'forward-biased' and the only effect on the signal is that there
will be a voltage loss of around 0.7V. In the opposite direction, the diode is said to be
'reverse-biased' and no current will flow through it.

4.1.3 RECTIFIER

The purpose of a rectifier is to convert an AC waveform into a DC waveform (OR)

Rectifier converts AC current or voltages into DC current or voltage. There are two different

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rectification circuits, known as 'half-wave' and 'full-wave' rectifiers. Both use components
called diodes to convert AC into DC.
The Half-wave Rectifier
The half-wave rectifier is the simplest type of rectifier since it only uses one diode, as
shown in figure.

Figure.4.4Half Wave Rectifier

Figure 2 shows the AC input waveform to this circuit and the resulting output. As you can
see, when the AC input is positive, the diode is forward-biased and lets the current through.
When the AC input is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and the diode does not let any
current through, meaning the output is 0V. Because there is a 0.7V voltage loss across the
diode, the peak output voltage will be 0.7V less than Vs.

Figure.4.5Half-Wave Rectification

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While the output of the half-wave rectifier is DC (it is all positive), it would not be suitable as
a power supply for a circuit. Firstly, the output voltage continually varies between 0V and
Vs-0.7V, and secondly, for half the time there is no output at all.

The Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

The circuit in figure 3 addresses the second of these problems since at no time is the
output voltage 0V. This time four diodes are arranged so that both the positive and negative
parts of the AC waveform are converted to DC. The resulting waveform is shown in figure 4.

Figure.4.6. Full-Wave Rectifier

Figure.4.7. Full-Wave Rectification

When the AC input is positive, diodes A and B are forward-biased, while diodes C and D are
reverse-biased. When the AC input is negative, the opposite is true - diodes C and D are
forward-biased, while diodes A and B are reverse-biased.

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While the full-wave rectifier is an improvement on the half-wave rectifier, its output still isn't
suitable as a power supply for most circuits since the output voltage still varies between 0V
and Vs-1.4V. So, if you put 12V AC in, you will 10.6V DC out.

4.1.4 CAPACITOR FILTER

The capacitor-input filter, also called "Pi" filter due to its shape that looks like the
Greek letter pi, is a type of electronic filter. Filter circuits are used to remove unwanted or
undesired frequencies from a signal.
A typical capacitor input filter consists of a filter capacitor C1, connected across the
rectifier output. The capacitor C1 offers low reactance to the AC component of the rectifier
output while it offers infinite reactance to the DC component. As a result the AC components
are going to ground. At that time DC components are feed to Regulator.

Figure.4.8.Centered Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier with a Capacitor Filter

4.1.5 VOLTAGE REGULATOR:

A voltage regulator is an electrica lregulator designed to automatically maintain a
constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active
electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC
or DC voltages. There are two types of regulator are they.
 Positive Voltage Series (78xx) and
 Negative Voltage Series (79xx)
78xx:’78’ indicate the positive series and ‘xx’ indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7805
produces the maximum 5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is 5V.

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79xx:’78’ indicate the negative series and ‘xx’ indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7905
produces the maximum -5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is -5V.
These regulators consists the three pins there are
Pin1: It is used for input pin.
Pin2: This is ground pin for regulator
Pin3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.

Figure.4.9.Regulator

4.2 RFID
4.2.1 RFID PRINCIPLES
Many types of RFID exist, but at the highest level, we can divide RFID devices into two
classes:
Active and Passive.

Figure 4.10 Active and Passive RFID

1. Active tags require a power source i.e., they are either connected to a powered
infrastructure or use energy stored in an integrated battery. In the latter case, a tag’s
lifetime is limited by the stored energy, balanced against the number of read
operations the device must undergo. However, batteries make the cost, size, and
lifetime of active tags impractical for the retail trade.

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 2. Passive RFID is of interest because the tags don’t require batteries or maintenance.
The tags also have an indefinite operational life and are small enough to fit into a
practical adhesive label. A passive tag consists of three parts: an antenna, a
semiconductor chip attached to the antenna and some form of encapsulation. The tag
reader is responsible for powering and communicating with a tag. The tag antenna
captures energy and transfers the tag’s ID (the tag’s chip coordinates this process).
The encapsulation maintains the tag’s integrity and protects the antenna and chip from
environmental conditions or reagents.

4.2.2 RFID TECHNOLOGY AND ARCHITECTURE

Before RFID can be understood completely, it is essential to understand how Radio
Frequency communication occurs.

RF (Radio Frequency) communication occurs by the transference of data over

electromagnetic waves. By generating a specific electromagnetic wave at the source, its
effect can be noticed at the receiver far from the source, which then identifies it and thus the
information.
In an RFID system, the RFID tag which contains the tagged data of the object generates a
signal containing the respective information which is read by the RFID reader, which then
may pass this information to a processor for processing the obtained information for that
particular application.
Thus, an RFID System can be visualized as the sum of the following three components:
 RFID tag or transponder
 RFID reader or transceiver
 Data processing subsystem

Figure 4.11 RFID Architecture

An RFID tag is composed of an antenna, a wireless transducer and an encapsulating material.

These tags can be either active or passive. While the active tags have on-chip power, passive

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tags use the power induced by the magnetic field of the RFID reader. Thus passive tags are
cheaper but with lower range (<10mts) and more sensitive to regulatory and environmental
constraints, as compared to active tags.

An RFID reader consists of an antenna, transceiver and decoder, which sends periodic signals
to inquire about any tag in vicinity. On receiving any signal from a tag it passes on that
information to the data processor. The data processing subsystem provides the means of
processing and storing the data.

4.2.3 RFID FREQUENCIES

Much like tuning into the favourite radio station, RFID tags and readers must be tuned into
the same frequency to enable communications. RFID systems can use a variety of frequencies
to communicate, but because radio waves work and act differently at different frequencies, a
frequency for a specific RFID system is often dependant on its application. High frequency
RFID systems (850 MHz to 950 MHz and 2.4 GHz to 2.5 GHz) offer transmission ranges of
more than 90 feet, although wavelengths in the 2.4 GHz range are absorbed by water, which
includes the human body and therefore has limitations.

4.2.4 RFID MODULE AND PRINCIPLE OF WORKING

RFID Reader Module, are also called as interrogators. They convert radio waves returned
from the RFID tag into a form that can be passed on to Controllers, which can make use of it.
RFID tags and readers have to be tuned to the same frequency in order to communicate.
RFID systems use many different frequencies, but the most common and widely used &
supported by our Reader is 125 KHz.

Figure 4.12 RFID Module

An RFID system consists of two separate components: a tag and a reader. Tags are analogous
to barcode labels and come in different shapes and sizes. The tag contains an antenna
connected to a small microchip containing up to two kilobytes of data. The reader or scanner

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functions similarly to a barcode scanner. However, while a barcode scanner uses a laser beam
to scan the barcode, an RFID scanner uses electromagnetic waves. To transmit these waves,
the scanner uses an antenna that transmits a signal communicating with the tags antenna. The
tag’s antenna receives data from the scanner and transmits its particular chip information to
the scanner.

The data on the chip is usually stored in one of two types of memory. The most common is
Read-Only Memory (ROM), as its name suggests, read-only memory cannot be altered once
programmed onto the chip during the manufacturing process. The second type of memory is
Read/Write Memory, though it is also programmed during the manufacturing process, it can
later be altered by certain devices.

4.2.5.FEATURES OF RFID:
Reading colocated tags
One commercial objective of RFID systems is to read and charge for all tagged goods
in a standard supermarket shopping cart as it is pushed through an instrumented checkout
aisle. Such a system would speed up the checkout process and reduce operational costs.

Enabling a distributed memory revolution

Another distinguishing feature of modern RFID is that tags can contain far more
information than a simple ID. They can incorporate additional read only or read-write
memory, which a reader can then further interact with. Read-only memory might contain
additional product details that don’t need to be read every time a tag is interrogated but are
available when required. For example, the tag memory might contain a batch code, so if some
products are found to be faulty, the code can help find other items with the same defects.
Tag memory can also be used to enable tags to store self-describing information.
Although a tag’s unique ID can be used to recover its records in an online database,
communication with the database might not always be possible. For example, if a package is
misdirected during transportation, the receiving organization might not be able to determine
its correct destination. Additional destination information written into the tag would obviate
the need and cost of a fully networked tracking system.

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 RFID that incorporates sensing
One of the most intriguing aspects of modern RFID tags is that they can convey
information that extends beyond data stored in an internal memory and include data that
onboard sensors created
dynamically. Commercial versions of RFID technology can already ensure that critical
environmental parameters haven’t been exceeded. For example, if a package is dropped on
the floor, the impact might have damaged the enclosed product. A passive force sensor can
supply a single bit of information that can be returned along with an RFID tag’s ID, alerting
the system about the problem.

Privacy concerns
RFID has received much attention in recent years as journalists, technologists and
privacy advocates have debated the ethics of its use. Privacy advocates are concerned that
even though many of the corporations considering RFID use for inventory tracking have
honorable intentions, without due care, the technology might be unwittingly used to create
undesirable outcomes for many customers.

4.2.6 APPLICATION AREAS:

RFID, Radio Frequency Identification is a technology, which includes wireless data
capture and transaction processing. Proximity (short range) and Vicinity (long range) are two
major application areas where RFID technology is used. Track and trace applications are long
range or vicinity applications. This technology provides additional functionality and benefits
for product authentication. Access control applications are Short range or proximity type of
applications. AgileSense Technologies is focused on delivering innovative, high value RFID
solutions assisting company’s track assets, people and documents. AgileSense provides
robust and complete RFID solutions built on top of its extensible middleware/framework for
Government, Healthcare, Manufacturing and Aerospace industries.

Current and Potential Uses of RFID:

Asset Tracking:
Static or in-motion assets tracking or locating like a healthcare facility, wheelchairs or IV
pumps in, laptops in a corporation and servers in a data center was not so easy task.
User can instantly determine the general location of tagged assets anywhere within the
facility with the help of active RFID technology. Control point detection zones at strategic

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locations throughout the facility allow the user to define logical zones and monitor high
traffic areas. Tagged assets moving through these control points provide instant location data.
Asset tracking applications will see an almost vertical growth curve in the coming years and
the growth rate in this area will be much higher than the growth rate of general RFID market.
Passports
The first RFID passports ("E-passport") were issued by Malaysia in 1998. In addition to
information also contained on the visual data page of the passport, Malaysian e-passports
record the travel history (time, date and place) of entries and exits from the country.
Standards for RFID passports are determined by the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO). ICAO refers to the ISO/IEC 14443 RFID chips in e-passports as
"contactless integrated circuits". ICAO standards provide for e-passports to be identifiable by
a standard e-passport logo on the front cover.

Security and Access Control

RFID has long been used as an electronic key to control who has access to office buildings or
areas within office buildings. The first access control systems used low-frequency RFID tags.
Recently, vendors have introduced 13.56 MHz systems that offer longer read range. The
advantage of RFID is it is convenient (an employee can hold up a badge to unlock a door,
rather than looking for a key or swiping a magnetic stripe card) and because there is no
contact between the card and reader, there is less wear and tear, and therefore less
maintenance.

As RFID technology evolves and becomes less expensive and more robust, it's likely that
companies and RFID vendors will develop many new applications to solve common and
unique business problems.

People Tracking:
People tracking system are used just as asset tracking system. Hospitals and jails are most
general tracking required places. Hospital uses RFID tags for tracking their special patients.
In emergency patient and other essential equipment can easily track. It will be mainly very
useful in mental care hospitals where doctors can track each and every activity of the patient.
Hospitals also use these RFID tags for locating and tracking all the activities of the newly
born babies.

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The best use of the people tracking system will be in jails. It becomes an easy tracking system
to track their inmates. Many jails of different US states like Michigan, California, and
Arizona are already using RFID-tracking systems to keep a close eye on jail inmates.
Document tracking:
This is most common problem. Availability of large amount of data and documents brings
lots of problem in document management system. An RFID document-tracking system saves
time and money by substantially reducing:
 Time spent searching for lost document
 The financial and legal impact associated with losing documents.
Government Library:
Many government libraries use barcode and electromagnetic strips to track various assets.
RFID technology uses for reading these barcodes unlike the self-barcode reader RFID
powered barcode reader can read multiple items simultaneously. This reduces queues and
increases the number of customers using self-check, which in turn will reduce the staff
necessary at the circulation desks.

Healthcare:
Patient safety is a big challenge of healthcare vertical. Reducing medication errors, meeting
new standards, staff shortages, and reducing costs are the plus points of use of RFID
solutions.
Transportation payments
Governments use RFID applications for traffic management, while automotive companies
use various RFID tracking solutions for product management. Many of these solutions may
work together in the future, though privacy regulations prevent many initiatives from moving
forward at the same pace that technology allows.

Promotion tracking
Manufacturers of products sold through retailers promote their products by offering discounts
for a limited period on products sold to retailers with the expectation that the retailers will
pass on the savings to their customers. However, retailers typically engage in forward buying,
purchasing more product during the discount period than they intend to sell during the
promotion period. Some retailers engage in a form of arbitrage, reselling discounted product
to other retailers, a practice known as diverting. To combat this practice, manufacturers are
exploring the use of RFID tags on promoted merchandise so that they can track exactly which
product has sold through the supply chain at fully discounted prices.

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Manufacturing
RFID has been used in manufacturing plants for more than a decade. It's used to track parts
and work in process and to reduce defects, increase throughput and manage the production of
different versions of the same product.

Supply Chain Management

RFID technology has been used in closed loop supply chains or to automate parts of the
supply chain within a company's control for years. As standards emerge, companies are
increasingly turning to RFID to track shipments among supply chain partners.

Retailing
Retailers such as Best Buy, Metro, Target, Tesco and Wal-Mart are in the forefront of RFID
adoption. These retailers are currently focused on improving supply chain efficiency and
making sure product is on the shelf when customers want to buy it.

The Future of RFID

RFID is said by many in the industry to be the frontrunner technology for automatic
identification and data collection. The biggest, as of yet unproven, benefit would ultimately
be in the consumer goods supply chain where an RFID tag attached to a consumer product
could be tracked from manufacturing to the retail store right to the consumer's home.

Many see RFID as a technology in its infancy with an untapped potential. While we may talk
of its existence and the amazing ways in which this technology can be put to use, until there
are more standards set within the industry and the cost of RFID technology comes down we
won't see RFID systems reaching near their full potential anytime soon.

4.3 LED BOARD

An LED board, informally a screen, is a display device for presentation of images, text,
or video transmitted electronically, without producing a permanent record. Electronic visual
displays include television sets, computer monitors, and digital signage. By the above
definition, an overhead projector (along with screen onto which the text, images, or video is
projected) could reasonably be considered an electronic visual display since it is a display
device for the presentation of an images, plain text, or video transmitted electronically

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without producing a permanent record. They are also ubiquitous in mobile
computing applications like tablet computers, smartphones, and information appliances.

Figure 4.13 LED Display

4.4. GSM

4.4.1 DEFINITION OF GSM

GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is an open, digital cellular

technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services.

GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) is a digital mobile telephone

system that is widely used in Europe and other parts of the world. GSM uses a variation of
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and is the most widely used of the three digital
wireless telephone technologies (TDMA, GSM, and CDMA). GSM digitizes and compresses
data, then sends it down a channel with two other streams of user data, each in its own time
slot. It operates at either the 900 MHz or 1,800 MHz frequency band. It supports voice calls
and data transfer speeds of up to 9.6 kbit/s, together with the transmission of SMS (Short
Message Service).

4.4.2.HISTORY

In 1982, the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations

(CEPT) created the Group Special Mobile (GSM) to develop a standard for a mobile
telephone system that could be used across Europe. In 1987, a memorandum of
understanding was signed by 13 countries to develop a common cellular telephone system
across Europe. Finally the system created by SINTEF lead by TorleivMaseng was selected.

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 In 1989, GSM responsibility was transferred to the European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI) and phase I of the GSM specifications were published in 1990.
The first GSM network was launched in 1991 by Radiolinja in Finland with joint technical
infrastructure maintenance from Ericsson.
By the end of 1993, over a million subscribers were using GSM phone networks
being operated by 70 carriers across 48 countries. As of the end of 1997, GSM service was
available in more than 100 countries and has become the de facto standard in Europe and
Asia.
4.4.3.GSM FREQUENCIES
GSM networks operate in a number of different frequency ranges (separated into
GSM frequency ranges for 2G and UMTS frequency bands for 3G). Most 2G GSM networks
operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Some countries in the Americas (including
Canada and the United States) use the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands because the 900 and
1800 MHz frequency bands were already allocated. Most 3G GSM networks in Europe
operate in the 2100 MHz frequency band. The rarer 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are
assigned in some countries where these frequencies were previously used for first-generation
systems.
GSM-900 uses 890–915 MHz to send information from the mobile station to the base
station (uplink) and 935–960 MHz for the other direction (downlink), providing 124 RF
channels (channel numbers 1 to 124) spaced at 200 kHz. Duplex spacing of 45 MHz is used.
In some countries the GSM-900 band has been extended to cover a larger frequency range.
This 'extended GSM', E-GSM, uses 880–915 MHz (uplink) and 925–960 MHz (downlink),
adding 50 channels (channel numbers 975 to 1023 and 0) to the original GSM-900 band.
Time division multiplexing is used to allow eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech
channels per radio frequency channel. There are eight radio timeslots (giving eight burst
periods) grouped into what is called a TDMA frame. Half rate channels use alternate frames
in the same timeslot. The channel data rate for all 8 channels is 270.833 Kbit/s, and the frame
duration is 4.615 ms.
The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in
GSM850/900 and 1 watt in GSM1800/1900. GSM operates in the 900MHz and 1.8GHz
bands in Europe and the 1.9GHz and 850MHz bands in the US. The 850MHz band is also
used for GSM and 3G in Australia, Canada and many South American countries. By having
harmonized spectrum across most of the globe, GSM’s international roaming capability
allows users to access the same services when travelling abroad as at home. This gives
consumers seamless and same number connectivity in more than 218 countries.

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 Terrestrial GSM networks now cover more than 80% of the world’s population. GSM
satellite roaming has also extended service access to areas where terrestrial coverage is not
available.

4.4.4.MOBILE TELEPHONY STANDARDS

Table.4.2.Mobile Telephony Standards

1G-FIRST GENERATION OF MOBILE NETWORK

The first generation of mobile telephony (written 1G) operated using analogue
communications and portable devices that were relatively large. It used primarily the
following standards:
 AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System), which appeared in 1976 in the United
States, was the first cellular network standard. It was used primarily in the Americas,
Russia and Asia. This first-generation analogue network had weak security
mechanisms which allowed hacking of telephones lines.
 TACS (Total Access Communication System) is the European version of the AMPS
model. Using the 900 MHz frequency band, this system was largely used in England
and then in Asia (Hong-Kong and Japan).
 ETACS (Extended Total Access Communication System) is an improved version of
the TACS standard developed in the United Kingdom that uses a larger number of
communication channels.
The first-generation cellular networks were made obsolete by the appearance of an
entirely digital second generation.

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2G-SECOND GENERATION OF MOBILE NETWORKS

The second generation of mobile networks marked a break with the first generation of
cellular telephones by switching from analogue to digital. The main 2G mobile telephony
standards are:

 GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is the most commonly used
standard in Europe at the end of the 20th century and supported in the United States.
This standard uses the 900 MHz and 1800 MHz frequency bands in Europe. In the
United States, however, the frequency band used is the 1900 MHz band. Portable
telephones that are able to operate in Europe and the United States are therefore
called tri-band.
 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) uses a spread spectrum technique that
allows a radio signal to be broadcast over a large frequency range.
 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) uses a technique of time division of
communication channels to increase the volume of data transmitted simultaneously.
TDMA technology is primarily used on the American continent, in New Zealand and
in the Asia-Pacific region.
With the 2G networks, it is possible to transmit voice and low volume digital data, for
example text messages (SMS, for Short Message Service) or multimedia messages
(MMS,for Multimedia Message Service). The GSM standard allows a maximum data rate of
9.6 kbps.

Extensions have been made to the GSM standard to improve throughput. One of these is
the GPRS (General Packet Radio System) service which allows theoretical data rates on the
order of 114 Kbit/s but with throughput closer to 40 Kbit/s in practice. As this technology
does not fit within the "3G" category, it is often referred to as 2.5G

The EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution) standard, billed as 2.75G,
quadruples the throughput improvements of GPRS with its theoretical data rate of 384 Kbps,
thereby allowing the access for multimedia applications. In reality, the EDGE standard allows
maximum theoretical data rates of 473 Kbit/s, but it has been limited in order to comply with
the IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telecommunications-2000) specifications from the ITU
(International Telecommunications Union).

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3G-THIRD GENERATION OF MOBILE NETWORK

The IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telecommunications for the year 2000)

specifications from the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) defined the
characteristics of 3G (third generation of mobile telephony). The most important of these
characteristics are:

1. High transmission data rate.

2. 144 Kbps with total coverage for mobile use.
3. 384 Kbps with medium coverage for pedestrian use.
4. 2 Mbps with reduced coverage area for stationary use.
5. World compatibility.
6. Compatibility of 3rd generation mobile services with second generation networks.

3G offers data rates of more than 144 Kbit/s, thereby allowing the access to multimedia
uses such as video transmission, video-conferencing or high-speed internet access. 3G
networks use different frequency bands than the previous networks: 1885-2025 MHz and
2110-2200 MHz.

The main 3G standard used in Europe is called UMTS (Universal Mobile

Telecommunications System) and uses WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple
Access) encoding. UMTS technology uses 5 MHz bands for transferring voice and data, with
data rates that can range from 384 Kbps to 2 Mbps. HSDPA (High Speed Downlink Packet
Access) is a third generation mobile telephony protocol, (considered as "3.5G"), which is able
to reach data rates on the order of 8 to 10 Mbps. HSDPA technology uses the 5 GHz
frequency band and uses WCDMA encoding.

4.4.5.INTRODUCTION TO THE GSM STANDARD

The GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) network is at the start of the
21st century, the most commonly used mobile telephony standard in Europe. It is called as
Second Generation (2G) standard because communications occur in an entirely digital mode,
unlike the first generation of portable telephones. When it was first standardized in 1982, it
was called as Group Special Mobile and later, it became an international standard called
"Global System for Mobile communications" in 1991.
In Europe, the GSM standard uses the 900 MHz and 1800 MHz frequency bands. In
the United States, however, the frequency band used is the 1900 MHz band. For this reason,

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portable telephones that are able to operate in both Europe and the United States are
called tri-band while those that operate only in Europe are called bi-band.
The GSM standard allows a maximum throughput of 9.6 kbps which allows
transmission of voice and low-volume digital data like text messages (SMS, for Short
Message Service) or multimedia messages (MMS, for Multimedia Message Service).

4.4.5.1.GSM STANDARDS

GSM uses narrowband TDMA, which allows eight simultaneous calls on the same
radio frequency. There are three basic principles in multiple access, FDMA (Frequency
Division Multiple Access), TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access), and CDMA (Code
Division Multiple Access). All three principles allow multiple users to share the same
physical channel. But the two competing technologies differ in the way user sharing the
common resource.

TDMA allows the users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal
into different time slots. Each user takes turn in a round robin fashion for transmitting and
receiving over the channel. Here, users can only transmit in their respective time slot.

CDMA uses a spread spectrum technology that is it spreads the information contained
in a particular signal of interest over a much greater bandwidth than the original signal.
Unlike TDMA, in CDMA several users can transmit over the channel at the same time.

4.4.6.THE CONCEPT OF CELLULAR NETWORK

Mobile telephone networks are based on the concept of cells, circular zones that
overlap to cover a geographical area.

Figure.4.14 Cells

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 Cellular networks are based on the use of a central transmitter-receiver in each cell,
called a "base station" (or Base Transceiver Station, written BTS). The smaller the radius of a
cell, the higher is the available bandwidth. So, in highly populated urban areas, there are cells
with a radius of a few hundred meters, while huge cells of up to 30 kilometers provide
coverage in rural areas.
In a cellular network, each cell is surrounded by 6 neighbouring cells (thus a cell is
generally drawn as a hexagon). To avoid interference, adjacent cells cannot use the same
frequency. In practice, two cells using the same frequency range must be separated by a
distance of two to three times the diameter of the cell.

4.4.7.ARCHITECTURE OF THE GSM NETWORK

In a GSM network, the user terminal is called a mobile station. A mobile station is
made up of a SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) card allowing the user to be uniquely
identified and a mobile terminal. The terminals (devices) are identified by a unique 15-digit
identification number called IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity). Each SIM card
also has a unique (and secret) identification number called IMSI (International Mobile
Subscriber Identity). This code can be protected using a 4-digit key called a PIN code.

The SIM card therefore allows each user to be identified independently of the
terminal used during communication with a base station. Communications occur through a
radio link (air interface) between a mobile station and a base station.

All the base stations of a cellular network are connected to a base station
controller (BSC) which is responsible for managing distribution of the resources. The system
consisting of the base station controller and its connected base stations is called the Base
Station Subsystem (BSS).

Finally, the base station controllers are themselves physically connected to the Mobile
Switching Centre (MSC), managed by the telephone network operator, which connects them
to the public telephone network and the Internet. The MSC belongs to a Network Station
Subsystem (NSS), which is responsible for managing user identities, their location and
establishment of communications with other subscribers. The MSC is generally connected to
databases that provide additional functions:

1. The Home Location Register (HLR) is a database containing information (geographic

position, administrative information etc.) of the subscribers registered in the area of
the switch (MSC).

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 2. The Visitor Location Register (VLR) is a database containing information of users
other than the local subscribers. The VLR retrieves the data of a new user from the
HLR of the user's subscriber zone. The data is maintained as long as the user is in the
zone and is deleted when the user leaves or after a long period of inactivity (terminal
off).
3. The Equipment Identify Register (EIR) is a database listing the mobile terminals.
4. The Authentication Centre (AUC) is responsible for verifying user identities.
5. The cellular network formed in this way is designed to support mobility via
management of handovers (movements from one cell to another).
Finally, GSM networks support the concept of roaming i.e., movement from one operator
network to another.

4.4.8.INTRODUCTION TO MODEM

Figure.4.15 Modem

Modem stands for modulator-demodulator.

A modem is a device or program that enables a computer to transmit data over

telephone or cable lines. Computer information is stored digitally, whereas information
transmitted over telephone lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A modem
converts between these two forms.

Fortunately, there is one standard interface for connecting external modems to

computers called RS-232. Consequently, any external modem can be attached to any
computer that has an RS-232 port, which almost all personal computers have. There are also
modems that come as an expansion board that can be inserted into a vacant expansion slot.
These are sometimes called onboard or internal modems.

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 While the modem interfaces are standardized, a number of different protocols for
formatting data to be transmitted over telephone lines exist. Some, like CCITT V.34 are
official standards, while others have been developed by private companies. Most modems
have built-in support for the more common protocols at slow data transmission speeds at
least, most modems can communicate with each other. At high transmission speeds, however,
the protocols are less standardized.
Apart from the transmission protocols that they support, the following characteristics
distinguish one modem from another:
 Bps: How fast the modem can transmit and receive data. At slow rates, modems are
measured in terms of baud rates. The slowest rate is 300 baud (about 25 cps). At
higher speeds, modems are measured in terms of bits per second (bps). The fastest
modems run at 57,600 bps, although they can achieve even higher data transfer rates
by compressing the data. Obviously, the faster the transmission rate, the faster the
data can be sent and received. It should be noted that the data cannot be received at a
faster rate than it is being sent.
 Voice/data: Many modems support a switch to change between voice and data
modes. In data mode, the modem acts like a regular modem. In voice mode, the
modem acts like a regular telephone. Modems that support a voice/data switch have a
built-in loudspeaker and microphone for voice communication.
 Auto-answer: An auto-answer modem enables the computer to receive calls in the
absence of the operator.
 Data compression: Some modems perform data compression, which enables them to
send data at faster rates. However, the modem at the receiving end must be able to
decompress the data using the same compression technique.
 Flash memory: Some modems come with flash memory rather than conventional
ROM which means that the communications protocols can be easily updated if
necessary.
 Fax capability: Most modern modems are fax modems, which mean that they can
send and receive faxes.
4.4.9. GSM MODEM
A GSM modem is a wireless modem that works with a GSM wireless network. A
wireless modem behaves like a dial-up modem. The main difference between them is that a
dial-up modem sends and receives data through a fixed telephone line while a wireless
modem sends and receives data through radio waves.

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 A GSM modem can be an external device or a PC Card / PCMCIA Card. Typically,
an external GSM modem is connected to a computer through a serial cable or a USB cable. A
GSM modem in the form of a PC Card / PCMCIA Card is designed for use with a laptop
computer. It should be inserted into one of the PC Card / PCMCIA Card slots of a laptop
computer. Like a GSM mobile phone, a GSM modem requires a SIM card from a wireless
carrier in order to operate.
A SIM card contains the following information:
 Subscriber telephone number (MSISDN)
 International subscriber number (IMSI, International Mobile Subscriber Identity)
 State of the SIM card
 Service code (operator)
 Authentication key
 PIN (Personal Identification Code)
 PUK (Personal Unlock Code)
Computers use AT commands to control modems. Both GSM modems and dial-up
modems support a common set of standard AT commands. In addition to the standard AT
commands, GSM modems support an extended set of AT commands. These extended AT
commands are defined in the GSM standards. With the extended AT commands, the
following operations can be performed:
 Reading, writing and deleting SMS messages.
 Sending SMS messages.
 Monitoring the signal strength.
 Monitoring the charging status and charge level of the battery.
 Reading, writing and searching phone book entries.

The number of SMS messages that can be processed by a GSM modem per minute is very
low i.e., about 6 to 10 SMS messages per minute.
Introduction to AT Commands
AT commands are instructions used to control a modem. AT is the abbreviation of
ATtention. Every command line starts with "AT" or "at". That's the reason, modem
commands are called AT commands. Many of the commands that are used to control wired
dial-up modems, such as ATD (Dial), ATA (Answer), ATH (Hook control) and ATO (Return
to online data state) are also supported by GSM modems and mobile phones.

Besides this common AT command set, GSM modems and mobile phones support an
AT command set that is specific to the GSM technology, which includes SMS-related

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commands like AT+CMGS (Send SMS message), AT+CMSS (Send SMS message from
storage), AT+CMGL (List SMS messages) and AT+CMGR (Read SMS messages).
It should be noted that the starting "AT" is the prefix that informs the modem about
the start of a command line. It is not part of the AT command name. For example, D is the
actual AT command name in ATD and +CMGS is the actual AT command name in
AT+CMGS.
Some of the tasks that can be done using AT commands with a GSM modem or mobile
phone are listed below:
 Get basic information about the mobile phone or GSM modem. For example, name of
manufacturer (AT+CGMI), model number (AT+CGMM), IMEI number
(International Mobile Equipment Identity) (AT+CGSN) and software version
(AT+CGMR).
 Get basic information about the subscriber. For example, MSISDN (AT+CNUM) and
IMSI number (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) (AT+CIMI).
 Get the current status of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For example,
mobile phone activity status (AT+CPAS), mobile network registration status
(AT+CREG), radio signal strength (AT+CSQ), battery charge level and battery
charging status (AT+CBC).
 Establish a data connection or voice connection to a remote modem (ATD, ATA, etc).
 Send and receive fax (ATD, ATA, AT+F*).
 Send (AT+CMGS, AT+CMSS), read (AT+CMGR, AT+CMGL), write (AT+CMGW)
or delete (AT+CMGD) SMS messages and obtain notifications of newly received
SMS messages (AT+CNMI).
 Read (AT+CPBR), write (AT+CPBW) or search (AT+CPBF) phonebook entries.
 Perform security-related tasks, such as opening or closing facility locks (AT+CLCK),
checking whether a facility is locked (AT+CLCK) and changing
passwords(AT+CPWD).
(Facility lock examples: SIM lock [a password must be given to the SIM card every
time the mobile phone is switched on] and PH-SIM lock [a certain SIM card is
associated with the mobile phone. To use other SIM cards with the mobile phone, a
password must be entered.])
 Control the presentation of result codes / error messages of AT commands. For
example, the user can control whether to enable certain error messages (AT+CMEE)
and whether error messages should be displayed in numeric format or verbose format
(AT+CMEE=1 or AT+CMEE=2).

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  Get or change the configurations of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For
example, change the GSM network (AT+COPS), bearer service type (AT+CBST),
radio link protocol parameters (AT+CRLP), SMS center address (AT+CSCA) and
storage of SMS messages (AT+CPMS).
 Save and restore configurations of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For
example, save (AT+CSAS) and restore (AT+CRES) settings related to SMS
messaging such as the SMS center address.

It should be noted that the mobile phone manufacturers usually do not implement all AT
commands, command parameters and parameter values in their mobile phones. Also, the
behavior of the implemented AT commands may be different from that defined in the
standard. In general, GSM modems, designed for wireless applications, have better support of
AT commands than ordinary mobile phones.

4.4.10.BASIC CONCEPTS OF SMS TECHNOLOGY

1. Validity Period of an SMS Message

An SMS message is stored temporarily in the SMS center if the recipient mobile
phone is offline. It is possible to specify the period after which the SMS message will be
deleted from the SMS center so that the SMS message will not be forwarded to the recipient
mobile phone when it becomes online. This period is called the validity period. A mobile
phone should have a menu option that can be used to set the validity period. After setting it,
the mobile phone will include the validity period in the outbound SMS messages
automatically.
2. Message Status Reports
Sometimes the user may want to know whether an SMS message has reached the
recipient mobile phone successfully. To get this information, you need to set a flag in the
SMS message to notify the SMS center that a status report is required about the delivery of
this SMS message. The status report is sent to the user mobile in the form of an SMS
message.
A mobile phone should have a menu option that can be used to set whether the status
report feature is on or off. After setting it, the mobile phone will set the corresponding flag in
the outbound SMS messages for you automatically. The status report feature is turned off by
default on most mobile phones and GSM modems.

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3. Message Submission Reports
After leaving the mobile phone, an SMS message goes to the SMS center. When it
reaches the SMS center, the SMS center will send back a message submission report to the
mobile phone to inform whether there are any errors or failures (e.g. incorrect SMS message
format, busy SMS center, etc). If there is no error or failure, the SMS center sends back a
positive submission report to the mobile phone. Otherwise it sends back a negative
submission report to the mobile phone. The mobile phone may then notify the user that the
message submission was failed and what caused the failure.
If the mobile phone does not receive the message submission report after a period of
time, it concludes that the message submission report has been lost. The mobile phone may
then send the SMS message again to the SMS center. A flag will be set in the new SMS
message to inform the SMS center that this SMS message has been sent before. If the
previous message submission was successful, the SMS center will ignore the new SMS
message but send back a message submission report to the mobile phone. This mechanism
prevents the sending of the same SMS message to the recipient multiple times.
Sometimes the message submission report mechanism is not used and the
acknowledgement of message submission is done in a lower layer.
4 .Message Delivery Reports
After receiving an SMS message, the recipient mobile phone will send back a
message delivery report to the SMS center to inform whether there are any errors or failures
(example causes: unsupported SMS message format, not enough storage space, etc). This
process is transparent to the mobile user. If there is no error or failure, the recipient mobile
phone sends back a positive delivery report to the SMS center. Otherwise it sends back a
negative delivery report to the SMS center.
If the sender requested a status report earlier, the SMS center sends a status report to
the sender when it receives the message delivery report from the recipient.If the SMS center
does not receive the message delivery report after a period of time, it concludes that the
message delivery report has been lost. The SMS center then ends the SMS message to the
recipient for the second time.
Sometimes the message delivery report mechanism is not used and the
acknowledgement of message delivery is done in a lower layer.

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 CHAPTER 5

SOFTWARES

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO KEIL SOFTWARE:

The LPC2148 microcontroller is supported by various commercially available IDEs
for compiling and debugging of the code. Keil being one of them is the widely used IDE for
LPC family of microcontrollers. The μVision4 IDE is Windows-based software development
platforms that combines a robust editor, project manager, and make facility. μVision4
integrates all tools including the C compiler, macro assembler, linker/locator, and HEX file
generator. The evaluation version of Keil μVision4 IDE is used for demonstrating the sample
codes that are included in the CD.

The open source community has been doing a lot in the development of open source
tools for ARM architecture based microcontrollers. The open source tools are available at
zero cost and are being improved with time. Eclipse being one of them and is most
commonly used IDE due to its unique features like auto complete, project tree, etc. It requires
GCC tool chain for code compilation.

5.2.INSTALLING KEIL MICRO VISION4 IDE:

Step1:
To install Keil μVision4 IDE, Go to “Software” folder in the documentation CD and
locate “mdk412.exe” file. Click on “mdk412.exe” to start the installation process. Once the
installation process is started KeilμVision welcome screen will appear. Please read the
instructions on the welcome window and click Next>>to start the installation.

Step 2:
Please read the license agreement carefully. If it is acceptable click the check box and
click Next>>to continue.

Step 3:
Select the destination folder where setup will install files. It is always recommended
to select the default location. To create backup of old installation, select the backup option
and clickNext>>to continue.

Step 4:
In the next window enter your information and click Next>>to continue.

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Step 5:
On clicking next the file copying process will begin. Wait till setup is complete.

Step 6:
Click Finish to complete installation process.

5.3 USING FLASH MAGIC TOOL:

The LPC series of microcontrollers are preloaded with the boot loader firmware
which allows self programming of microcontrollers using serial port. Flash magic is a utility
which provides an interface for reading, writing and verifying the flash memory of the
microcontroller.

Step 1:
To install Flash Magic, Go to “Software” folder in the documentation CD and locate
“FlashMagic.exe” file. Click on “FlashMagic.exe” to start the installation process. Once the
installation process is started Flash Magic welcome screen will appear.

Step 2:
Please read the license agreement carefully. If it is acceptable click the radio button
and
clickNext>>to continue.

Step 3:
Select the destination folder and click Next>to continue.

Step 4:
In the next window choose the appropriate folder and click Next>to continue.

Step 5:
Select the desired option and click Next>to continue.

Step 6:
Setup is now ready to begin installing flash magic. Click Install to continue.

Step 7:
Wait till setup installs Flash Magic on your computer.

Step 8:
Click Finish to complete the installation process

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5.4 OVERVIEW OF KEIL ΜVISION4 IDE:
To start Keil IDE click Start>Programs>Keil μVision4. The initial screen will appear
followed by the main window.

Figure5.1: Keil Main Window

The Keil IDE main window in basic configuration is mainly divided into three areas.

1) Editor:
It is the area where .c and .h files of the project are edited.

2) Project Explorer:
It shows the project tree.

3) Output Window:
This window shows the messages related to compiling, project building and
debugging.

5.5 CREATE A PROJECT IN KEIL FOR LPC2148 DEVELOPMENT BOARD:

1. To create a new project, Select Project>New uVision Project from the main menu.
2. Create a new directory and name it as First Project. Click open to enter in to this
directory.
3. Inside this directory create a new project and name it as First Project and click Saveto
continue.

4. In the next window locate NXP (founded by Philips) tree and expand it.

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 Figure 5.2.: Select the required ARM Processor Company

5. Now select target device as LPC2148 and click OK to continue.

Figure 5.3: Select the target device

6. Click Yesto copy Startups file to project folder. This file configures stack, PLL and maps
memory as per the configurations in the wizard. It is discussed in the later sections.

7. Observe the project explorer area in the main window.

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8. Now click Project>Manage>Components, Environments, Books from the main menu to
ensure compiler settings.

9. In the Folders/Extensions tab ensure the compiler settings are as shown in the fig. below.
If you have installed keil software at a different location then change Tool Base Folder
location. Click OK to continue.

Figure 5.4.Tool Base Folder

10. Now click File>New to create a new file.

Figure 5.5.New File

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11. Save the new file in to the same folder that was created earlier and name it as main.cand
click Saveto continue.

Figure 5.6 Saving to folder

12. Now add “main.c” to the source group by right clicking on the Source Group 1 from the
project explorer and select the highlighted option as shown in the fig. below.

Figure 5.7 Source group

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13. Select “main.c” file to be added and click ADD to continue.

Figure 5.8 Main.c

14. Observe that “main.c” file is added to the source group in the project explorer window.

Figure 5.9 Adding files to group source

15. Right click Target1 in the project explorer window and select the highlighted option as
shown in the fig. below.

16. In the appearing window select Target tab and set Xtal frequency as 12MHz.

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 Figure 5.10 Setting Frequency

17. In the Output tab ensure that Create HEX File option is selected.

Figure 5.11 Creating HEX File

18. In the Linker tab ensure that the highlighted option is selected and click OK to continue.

19. Now since the project is almost setup we can start writing code in the “main.c” file that
was created earlier. For demonstration purpose you can copy the following code and paste it

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in the “main.c” file. For example, this code is written to blink LEDs on LPC2148
development board in the sequential order starting from LED1.

5.6 FLASH MAGIC

Steps to Load Code into Microcontroller using Flash magic:
1. Click Start>Programs>Flash Magic>Flash Magic to start Flash Magic utility.
2. Click Select Device to select LPC2148 microcontroller

Figure 5.12 Select Device

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3. Expand the ARM7 tree and select LPC2148 from the displayed list of microcontrollers.

Figure 5.13.Selecting LPC2148

4. After selecting the microcontroller, select the COM port that you are going to use and
ensure that other settings are as shown in the figure in next page.

Figure 5.1.4.Verifying the settings

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5. To select the hex file click Browse and point to the folder that was created earlier and
select the hex file.

Figure 5.15.Select HEX File

6. Before loading the hex file prepare LPC2148 development board by doing the following
hardware setup.

• Connect a DB9 cable between the selected COMxport on your PC and the UART0
port on LPC2148 development board.
• Plug in an AC/DC 9V/1A supply to the development board and slide ON/OFF switch
to ON position.
• Enter in to boot load mode by keeping the BOOT switch pressed and then press
RESET switch.

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7. After ensuring the hardware setup in step 6 click start to begin programming the hex file.

Figure 5.16.Begin of Program

8. Observe the status bar at the bottom of the Flash Magic tool. Wait for the “Finished”
status and press “Reset” on the LPC2148 development board and observe the LEDs.

Figure 5.17.Finished

If not successful then repeat again from step 6.

5.6 USING UVISION DEBUGGER IN SIMULATOR MODE:

To use Debugger in simulator mode first we need to setup the debugger so as to use
simulator.

1. Right click Target 1 and select the highlighted option as shown in the figure below.
2. In the debug tab make sure that the highlighted settings are done. Click OK to
continue.

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3. Start Debug session by clicking on Debug>Start/Stop Debug Session from the main
menu.
4. Click OK to continue.
5. Go to Peripherals>System Control Block>Phase Locked Loop 0 to observe the
PLL settings on the microcontroller.
6. In the Crystal Oscillator & Processor Clock section observe that XTAL is 12MHz
and CCLK is 60MHz. This is because the debugger has already executed the start up
code when we started the debug session. It also ensures that PLL settings that we had
done in the configuration wizard of the startup code are properly working.
7. Now click Peripherals>Pin Connect Block to include pin connect block,
8. Similarly select Port 1 window.
9. Now use Step function to step through the code. Alternatively you can press
Ctrl+F11. Observe the changes in the Pin connect block and Port1 block as you step
through the code.
10. When you encounter the delay function you can simply use Step Out function. It will
execute the delay function and take execution to the next line immediately after the
delay function.
11. Now press the Reset button to Reset the CPU and observe the PLL window.
12. Observe that CCLK is also reset and now it is equal to XTAL frequency. Similarly the
GPIO and pin connect block vales are also reset.
13. Now let us setup a break point at line no. 25 i.e. at the beginning of the main function.
It will halt the execution when the debugger encounters this line.
14. Now click Run to start the execution.
15. After clicking on RUN observe the change in the CCLK field. The execution has also
halted at the breakpoint that was setup earlier. Now again if you click Run the code
will continue to execute.

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 CHAPTER 6
RESULTS

Figure.6.1. Photocopy of the result

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 CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

7.1. CONCLUSION

. The prototype of the GSM based display toolkit was efficiently designed. This
prototype has facilities to be integrated with a display board thus making it truly mobile. The
toolkit accepts the SMS, stores it, validates it and then displays it in the LCD module. The
SMS is deleted from the SIM each time it is read, thus making room for the next SMS. The
major constraints incorporated are the use of „*‟ as the termination character of the SMS and
the display of one SMS as a time. These limitations can be removed by the use of higher end
microcontrollers and extended RAM. The prototype can be implemented using commercial
display boards. In this case, it can solve the problem of instant information transfer in the
campus.

7.2. FUTURE SCOPE

The use of microcontroller in place of a general purpose computer allows us to

theorize on many further improvements on this project prototype. Temperature display during
periods wherein no message buffers are empty is one such theoretical improvement that is
very possible. The ideal state of the microcontroller is when the indices or storage space in
the SIM memory are empty and no new message is there to display. With proper use of
interrupt routines the incoming message acts as an interrupt, the temperature display is halted
and the control flow jumps over to the specific interrupt service routine which first validates
the sender‟s number and then displays the information field. Another very interesting and
significant improvement would be to accommodate multiple receiver MODEMS at the
different positions in a geographical area carrying duplicate SIM cards. With the help of
principles of TDMA technique, we can choose to simulcast and /or broadcast important
notifications. After a display board receives the valid message through the MODEM and
displays it, it withdraws its identification from the network & synchronously another nearby
MODEM signs itself into the network and starts to receive the message. The message is
broadcast by the mobile switching center for acontinuous time period during which as many
possible display board MODEMS “catch” the message and display it as per the constraint of
validation.

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REFERENCES

1. The 8051 Micro controller and Embedded Systems

2. MuhammadAli Mazidi
3. Janice Gillispie Mazidi
4. The 8051Microcontroller Architecture, Programming&Applications
5. Kenneth J. Ayala
6. Fundamentals of Microprocessors and Micro computers
7. B. Ram
8. Electronic Components
9. D.V. Prasad
10. Robotics fundamental concepts and analysis-Ashitavaghosal
11. http://www.electrical4u.com/
12. http://www.electronics.howstuffworks.com/
13. http://www.google.co.in/
14. http://www.en.wikipedia.com/
15. http://www.slideshare.net/
16. www.national.com
17. www.atmel.com
18. www.microsoftsearch.com
19. www.geocities.com

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