Black Holes: A Different Perspective: Carmine Cataldo

International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science (IJAERS) [Vol-6, Issue-4, Apr- 2019]
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijaers.6.4.14 ISSN: 2349-6495(P) | 2456-1908(O)
Black Holes: a Different Perspective

Carmine Cataldo
Independent Researcher, PhD in Mechanical Engineering, Battipaglia (SA), Italy
Email: catcataldo@hotmail.it
Abstract—In this paper we propose a full revised version G represents the Gravitational Constant, c the Speed of
of a simple model, which allows a formal derivation of an Light, Rm the mean value of the radius of the 4-ball, and
infinite set of Schwarzschild-Like solutions (non-rotating Mtot,m the corresponding mass. According to our model, Rm
and non-charged “black holes”), without resorting to and Mtot,m can be conventionally considered as being real
General Relativity. A new meaning is assigned to the usual values, since the metric variation of the cosmological
Schwarzschild-Like solutions (Hilbert, Droste, Brillouin, distances is not thought to be a real phenomenon (in other
Schwarzschild), as well as to the very concepts of “black terms, we hypothesize that the real amount of space
hole” and “event horizon”. We hypothesize a closed between whatever couple of points remains constant with
Universe, homogeneous and isotropic, characterized by a the passing of time) [4] [5]. In this regard, we specify how,
further spatial dimension. Although the Universe is in order to legitimize the so-called Cosmological Redshift,
postulated as belonging to the so-called oscillatory class the Plank Constant may vary over time [6] [7].
(in detail, we consider a simple-harmonically oscillating
Universe), the metric variation of distances is not thought Replacing, for convenience, Mtot,m with Mtot, and Rm with
to be a real phenomenon (otherwise, we would not be able Rs (the Schwarzschild Radius), from (1) we have:
2𝐺𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡 (2)
to derive any static solution): on this subject, the 𝑅𝑠 =
𝑐2
cosmological redshift is regarded as being caused by a
The Universe we have hypothesized may be approximately
variation over time of the Planck “constant”. Time is
described, with obvious meaning of the notation, by the
considered as being absolute. The influence of
following inequality:
matter/energy on space is analysed by the superposition of
(3)
three three-dimensional scenarios. A short section is 𝑥12 + 𝑥22 + 𝑥32 + 𝑥42 ≤ 𝑅𝑠2
dedicated to the so-called gravitational redshift which,
The Universe we are allowed to perceive (static
once having imposed the conservation of energy, may be
configuration) can be assimilated to the Hyper-Surface
ascribable to a local variability of the Planck “constant”.
defined by the underlying identity:
Keywords—Black Holes, Schwarzschild, Hilbert, Droste, (4)
Brillouin, Extra Dimension, Weak Field, Redshift. 𝑥12 + 𝑥22 + 𝑥32 + 𝑥42 = 𝑅𝑠2
Let us denote with C the centre of the 4-ball, with O and P

I. INTRODUCTION two points on the surface, the first of which taken as origin,
We hypothesize a closed Universe, homogeneous and and with O’ the centre of the so-called Measured
isotropic, belonging to the so-called Oscillatory Class [1]. Circumference, to which P belongs. Both O and O’ are
The existence of a further spatial dimension is postulated. considered as belonging to x4. The Angular Distance
Although space, as we are allowed to perceive it, is curved, between O and P, as perceived by an ideal observer placed
since it can be approximately identified with a Hyper-
in C, is denoted by .
Sphere (the radius of which depends on the state of motion)
The arc bordered by O and P, denoted by Rp, represents the
[2], the Universe in its entirety, assimilated to a Four-
so-called Proper Radius (the measured distance between
Dimensional Ball, is to be considered as being flat. All the
the above-mentioned points). We have:
points are replaced by straight line segments [3] [4]: in (5)
other terms, what we perceive as being a point is actually 𝑅𝑝 (𝜒) = 𝑅𝑠 𝜒
a straight-line segment crossing the centre of the 4-Ball. The straight-line segment bordered by O’ and P, denoted
Consequently, matter is not to be regarded as evenly spread by Rc, represents the so-called Predicted (or Forecast)
on the (Hyper)Surface of the 4-Ball, but rather as Radius (the ratio between the perimeter of the Measured
homogeneously filling the 4-Ball in its entirety.
Circumference and 2). We have:
We have elsewhere [4] deduced the following identity: (6)
2𝐺𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑚 (1) 𝑅𝑐 (𝜒) = 𝑋(𝜒) = 𝑅𝑠 sin 𝜒
𝑅𝑚 =
𝑐2 From the previous we immediately deduce:
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𝑋 (7) The Hyper-Surface S3 defined in (12) is associated to a
𝜒 = arcsin ( )
𝑅𝑠 Hyper-Spherical Sector, denoted by V4. We have:
𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑠
Consequently, we have:
𝑉4 (𝜒) = ∫ 𝑆3 (𝑅, 𝜒)𝑑𝑅 = 2𝜋(𝜒 − sin 𝜒 cos 𝜒) ∫ 𝑅3 𝑑𝑅
𝑑𝑋 0 0 (14)
𝑑𝑅𝑝 = 𝑅𝑠 𝑑𝜒 =
2
(8) 1
√1 − ( 𝑋 ) = 𝜋𝑅𝑠4 (𝜒 − sin 𝜒 cos 𝜒)
2
𝑅𝑠
The scenario is qualitative depicted in Figure 1. II. GRAVITY: HOW MASS “BENDS” SPACE
1. Gravitational “Singularities”
As previously stated, the (curved) space we are allowed to
perceive can be approximately identified with a Hyper-
Sphere, the radius of which depends on our state of motion:
at rest, this radius equates Rs. In our simple model the total
amount of mass is constant: in other terms, mass can only
be redistributed. Let us consider a generic point Q,
belonging to the surface of the 4-Ball, and let us denote
with max the angular distance between this point and the
origin O. In order to create a “gravitational singularity” in
correspondence of the origin, we have to ideally
concentrate in O, from the point of view of an observer at
rest (who is exclusively allowed to perceive a three-
dimensional curved universe), all the mass enclosed in the
2-Sphere defined by (10) (with =max). This surface
Figure 1. 4-Ball represents the border of the Hyper-Spherical Cap defined
in (12) (with =max) which, in turn, is associated to the
At this point, for the Hyper-Surface defined in (4), the hyper-spherical sector defined by (14) (with =max).
Friedmann–Robertson–Walker metric [8] can be written: According to our theory, in enacting the ideal procedure
𝑑𝑋 2
𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑡 2 − − 𝑋 2 (𝑑𝜃 2 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜑 2 ) (9) previously expounded, we actually hypothesize that all the
𝑋 2 mass of the Hyper-Spherical Sector earlier defined may be
1−( )
𝑅𝑠
concentrated (and evenly spread) along the material
Let us denote with S2 the 2-Sphere characterized by a segment bordered by C and O. The procedure entails a
radius of curvature equal to Rc. In order to simplify the linear mass (energy) density increment, no longer
notation, from now onwards we shall denote with the same compatible with the previous radial extension:
symbol both the geometrical object and the corresponding consequently, both the segment and the corresponding
surface area or volume. Consequently, we have: space undergo a radial contraction (the segment shortens
2𝜋 𝜋 4𝜋
𝑆2 (𝜒) = 𝑋 2 ∫ ∫ sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑 = 𝑋 2 ∫ 𝑑𝛺 = 4𝜋𝑋 2 (10) together with space) and the surrounding spatial lattice, the
𝜑=0 𝜃=0 0 integrity of which must be in any case preserved, results
= 4𝜋𝑅𝑠2 sin2 𝜒 deformed. We want to determine the new radial extension
The above-mentioned surface is simultaneously border of of the segment (that represents the singularity) and the
a 3-Ball, denoted by V3, and of a Hyper-Spherical Cap, shape of the deformed spatial lattice.
denoted by S3. V3 represents the Predicted (or Forecast) It is worth specifying how, abiding to the global symmetry
Volume, S3 the Proper Volume. We have: elsewhere introduced [2] [4] and herein taken for granted,
𝑅𝑐 𝑋
4 the procedure previously exploited is symmetric with
𝑉3 (𝜒) = ∫ 𝑆2 (𝜒)𝑑𝑅𝑐 = 4𝜋 ∫ 𝑋 2 𝑑𝑋 = 𝜋𝑋 3 respect to the centre of the 4-Ball: consequently, we should
0 0 3 (11)
4 have actually considered two opposite Hyper-Spherical
= 𝜋𝑅𝑠2 sin3 𝜒 Sectors, characterized by the same amplitude, and a single
3
𝑅𝑝 𝜒 material segment, crossing the centre C, bordered by O and
𝑆3 (𝜒) = ∫ 𝑆2 (𝜒) 𝑑𝑅𝑝 = 4𝜋𝑅𝑠3 ∫ sin2 𝜒 𝑑𝜒 (12) its antipodal point.
0 0
= 2𝜋𝑅𝑠3 (𝜒 − sin 𝜒 cos 𝜒) 2. Three-Dimensional Scenarios

We can generalize the foregoing as follows: From (3), by setting equal to zero, one at a time, x1, x2 and
𝑆3 (𝑅, 𝜒) = 2𝜋𝑟 3 (𝜒 − sin 𝜒 cos 𝜒) 𝑅 ∈ [0, 𝑅𝑠 ]
(13) x3, we obtain the following three-dimensional scenarios:

2 (15) measured distance remains constant. Actually, there is no
𝑥4,1 + 𝑥22 + 𝑥32 ≤ 𝑅𝑠2
point in hypothesizing a different behaviour.
𝑥12 + 𝑥4,2
2
+ 𝑥32 ≤ 𝑅𝑠2
(16) From now onwards, we shall resort to the subscript “g”
every time we refer to a quantity measured after the
(17) creation of the singularity.
𝑥12 + 𝑥22 + 𝑥4,3
2
≤ 𝑅𝑠2
We must impose the following:
Evidently, if we take into consideration one among the 𝜒
𝑑𝑟 2 (23)
static scenarios we have just obtained, the procedure 𝑅𝑝,𝑔 = ∫ √( ) + 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜒 = 𝑅𝑠 𝜒 = 𝑅𝑝
0 𝑑𝜒
previously discussed (the creation of the singularity) is
equivalent to concentrating along a segment the mass of a 𝑑𝑟 2 (24)
𝑅𝑠2 = ( ) + 𝑟 2
spherical sector. 𝑑𝜒
Let us denote with S2-1, the Circumference defined by the From the previous we easily obtain the following banal
following relation: differential equation:
(18) 𝑑2 𝑟
𝑆2−1 (𝜒) = 2𝜋𝑋 (25)
+𝑟 = 0
𝑑𝜒 2
In the three dimensional scenario we have been
The boundary conditions can be easily determined by
considering, S2-1 “plays the role” of S2, defined in (10).
resorting to the well-known shell theorem: in other terms,
The circumference defined in (18) is simultaneously
we have to impose that, for all the points belonging to the
border of a Disc, denoted by V3-1, and of a Sphere, denoted
circumference defined in (18) once having set =max
by S3-1. In the three-dimensional scenario we have been
(actually, for all the points belonging to the 2-Sphere
considering, the first “plays the role” of the Predicted (or
defined in (10), once having set =max), there must be no
Forecast) Volume V3, defined in (11), while the second
difference between the initial condition and the final one
“plays the role” of the Proper Volume S3, defined in (12).
(matter concentrated in a single point).
We have:
𝑅𝑐 Therefore, we have:
𝑉3−1 (𝜒) = ∫ 𝑆2−1 (𝜒)𝑑𝑅𝑐 𝑑𝑟 (26)
0 (19) (𝜒 )=0
𝑑𝜒 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑋
= 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑋𝑑𝑋 = 𝜋𝑋 2 = 𝜋𝑅𝑠2 sin2 𝜒 𝑟(𝜒𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = 𝑅𝑠
(27)
0
𝑅𝑝 𝜒
𝑆3−1 (𝜒) = ∫ 𝑆2−1 (𝜒) 𝑑𝑅𝑝 = 2𝜋 ∫ sin 𝜒 𝑑𝜒 From (25), taking into account (26) and (27), we obtain:
(20)
0 0 (28)
𝑟(𝜒) = 𝑅𝑠 cos(𝜒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜒)
= 2𝜋𝑅𝑠2 (1 − cos 𝜒)
We can generalize the foregoing as follows: From the previous, we can immediately deduce:
(29)
(21) 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑟(0) = 𝑅𝑠 cos 𝜒𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆3−1 (𝑅, 𝜒) = 2𝜋𝑟 2 (1 − cos 𝜒) 𝑅 ∈ [0, 𝑅𝑠 ]
Consequently, S3-1 is associated to a Spherical Sector, The scenario is qualitative depicted in Figure 2
denoted by V4-1, characterized by a volume provided by the
following relation:
𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑠
𝑉4−1 (𝜒) = ∫ 𝑆3−1 (𝑅, 𝜒)𝑑𝑅 = 2𝜋(1 − cos 𝜒) ∫ 𝑅2 𝑑𝑅
0 0 (22)
2
= 𝜋𝑅𝑠3 (1 − cos 𝜒)
3
In the three dimensional scenario we have been
considering, V4-1 “plays the role” of V4, defined in (14).
As previously highlighted, the new radial extension of the
segment (that represents the singularity) is still unknown,
as well as the shape of the deformed spatial lattice. Let us
carry out some hypotheses.
Let us denote with r the Radial Coordinate of a generic
point of the warped surface. Now, let’s suppose that, Figure 2. Gravitational Singularity
notwithstanding the deformation of the spatial lattice
Figure 2 qualitatively shows how space results in being
induced by the mass, if the angular distance between
deformed due to the Gravitational Singularity, perceived as
whatever couple of points does not vary, the corresponding
being placed in Og. At the beginning, the origin coincides

with O. If we concentrate in O (actually along the segment Figure 3 shows once again how the singularity, perceived
bordered by C and O) the mass of the Spherical Sector as being placed in Og, does not influence the measured
(actually a Hyper-Spherical Sector) with an amplitude distance (the proper radius). The arc bordered by O and P,
equal to 2max, space undergoes a contraction. The new as previously underlined, is evidently equal to the one
origin coincides with Og, and the surrounding space is bordered by Og and Pg. On the contrary, the “Flat”
symmetrically warped. The initial radial coordinate of a Coordinate (the Forecast Radius) undergoes a reduction.
generic point P (actually its initial radial extension) is The segment bordered by B and P represents the Forecast
represented by the segment bordered by C and P. The Radius (X) when matter is evenly spread; the segment
corresponding angular distance is denoted by . The final bordered by Bg and Pg represents the Reduced Forecast
coordinate (actually the final radial extension), represented Radius (x).
by the segment bordered by C and Pg, is shorter than the
initial one, and its value is provided by (28). The proper III. QUANTIZATION
radius does not undergo any modification: the arc bordered If mass homogeneously fills the 4-Ball with which we
by O and P, in fact, is evidently equal to the one bordered identify the Universe (static configuration), by virtue of the
by Og and Pg. symmetry [3] [4], the Energy of a Material Segment,
If we denote with x the Reduced “Flat” Coordinate (the provided with a mass M, can be written as follows:
(35)
Reduced Forecast Radius), we have: 𝐸 = 𝑀𝑐 2
(30)
𝑅𝑐,𝑔 = 𝑥 = 𝑟 sin 𝜒 = 𝑅𝑠 sin 𝜒 cos(𝜒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜒)
The Linear Mass Density [3] [4] is defined as follows:
𝑀 (36)
Moreover, with obvious meaning of the notation, we can ̅=
𝑀
𝑅𝑠
immediately write:
(31) By virtue of the foregoing, the (Linear) Energy Density can
𝛿(𝜒) = 𝑅𝑠 − 𝑟(𝜒) = 𝑅𝑠 [1 − cos(𝜒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜒)]
be defined as follows:
(32) 𝐸 𝑀𝑐 2 (37)
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝛿(0) = 𝑅𝑠 (1 − cos 𝜒𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) 𝐸̅ = = ̅ 𝑐2
=𝑀
𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑠
If we denote with Mtot the mass of the Ball (that “plays the If we denote with ∆Rm the (Radial) Quantum of Space [4],
role” of the 4-Ball with which we identify our Universe), the Punctual Mass, denoted by m, is defined as follows:
and with M,max the mass contained in the spherical sector 𝑀 (38)
̅ ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑚=𝑀 ∆𝑅
with an amplitude equal to 2max (which, as previously 𝑅𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛
remarked, “plays the role” of a Hyper-Spherical Sector), As for the corresponding Energy, by virtue of (37) and
we can write, taking into account (32), the following: (38), we can immediately write:
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 (33) 𝑀𝑐 2 (39)
= 1 − cos 𝜒𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸𝑚 = 𝐸̅ ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑠
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝐺𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 (34) Let us denote with Mmin the Minimum Linear Mass. The
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅𝑠 = = 𝑅𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑐2 corresponding Energy can be obviously written as follows:
In other terms, the procedure entails a reduction of the (40)
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑐 2
radial coordinate of O (actually, the material segment
bordered by C and O undergoes a contraction) the size of As for the Minimum Linear Mass Density we have:
𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 (41)
which is equal to the Schwarzschild radius of Mmax. ̅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑀
𝑅𝑠
The scenario is qualitatively portrayed in the following
figure, where the singularity (as we can perceive it) The Minimum (Linear) Energy Density is clearly provided
coincides with the point Og. by the following:
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑐 2 (42)
𝐸̅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = ̅𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑐 2
=𝑀
𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑠
The Minimum Punctual Mass, denoted by mmin, is defined
as follows:
𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 (43)
̅𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑀 ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑠
Consequently, as for the Energy related to the above-
mentioned mass, we have:
𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑐 2 (44)
𝐸𝑚,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸̅𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑐 2
𝑅𝑠
Figure 3. Gravitational Singularity (Particular)

By virtue of (34), we can write the expression for the From (56), taking into account (43) and (52), for the
Minimum Schwarzschild Radius: Minimum Punctual Mass we have:
2𝐺𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 (45)
𝑅𝑠,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 1 ℏ𝑐 (57)
𝑐2 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √
𝑅𝑠 𝒩 𝒩 𝐺
Now, taking into account the symmetry, the Maximum
Wavelength for a photon can be written as follows: Finally, from (45) and (56), we obtain the value of the
(46) (Radial) Quantum of Space:
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜋𝑅𝑠
2𝐺𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℏ𝐺 (58)
Denoting with h, as usual, the Planck Constant, we can 𝑅𝑠,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2
= 2√ 3 = 2ℓ𝑃 = ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑐 𝑐
determine the Minimum (Perceived) Energy:
ℎ𝑐 (47) At this point, we can also carry out a Time Quantization.
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛,𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 Taking into account the previous, denoting with tp the so-
From (44) and (47), we can easily obtain the expression for called Planck Time, we define the Quantum of Time as
the Minimum Punctual Mass: follows:
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 (48) ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2 ℏ𝐺 (59)
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑐 2 ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2 = 2√ 5 = 2𝑡𝑃
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜋𝑅𝑠 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
ℎ (49)
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛 = We can now start concretely building our simple model of
𝜋𝑐𝑅𝑠
(non-rotating and non-charged) “Black Hole”.
For a (linear) mass to induce a spatial deformation (a radial
contraction), the value of the corresponding Schwarzschild IV. “BLACK HOLES”
Radius must be greater than or equal to the value of the 1. Short Introduction
(Radial) Quantum of Space. Let us suppose that the total available mass may be
Consequently, we have: concentrated in O. Abiding by our model, from (27) and
𝑅𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≥ ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 (50) (28), by setting max=/2, we can write the following:
𝜋 (60)
𝑟(𝜒) = 𝑅𝑠 cos ( − 𝜒) = 𝑅𝑠 sin 𝜒
If we banally impose that Mmin represents the value of 2
linear mass, still unknown, below which no deformation of 𝜋 (61)
𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑟 ( ) = 𝑅𝑠
spatial lattice (no radial contraction) occurs, we can carry 2
out the following (upper-limit) position: Evidently, the value of the Radial Coordinate (the Reduced
(51) Radial Extension) coincides, for any χ, with the one of the
𝑅𝑠,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
Predicted Radius provided by (6):
When mass homogeneously fills the 4-Ball, denoting with (62)
𝑅𝑐 = 𝑋 = 𝑟
𝒩 an integer (the Number of Radial Quanta), we have:
(52) For the Reduced Predicted Radius, we have:
𝑅𝑠 = 𝒩∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
(63)
𝑅𝑐,𝑔 = 𝑅𝑐 sin 𝜒
Now, from (43), (45) and (51) we have:
2
𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 2𝐺𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 (53) (64)
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝑠,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝑐,𝑔 = 𝑥 = 𝑋 sin 𝜒 = 𝑅𝑠 sin2 𝜒
𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑠 𝑐 2
From the previous, by virtue of (49), we obtain: The scenario is qualitatively portrayed in Figure 4.
2
2𝐺𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ (54)
=
𝑅𝑠 𝑐 2 𝜋𝑐𝑅𝑠
From the previous, taking into account the definition of
Reduced Planck Constant, we finally obtain:
2
ℎ 𝑐 ℏ𝑐 (55)
𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 =( ) =
2𝜋 𝐺 𝐺
ℏ𝑐 (56)
𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √ = 𝑀𝑃
𝐺
The previous represents the Minimum Value for Linear

Mass. It is worth underlining how this value formally
coincides with the one of the so-called Planck Mass, herein
denoted with Mp.
Figure 4. “Black Hole”

As for S2, V3 and S3, the Singularity induces the following In other terms, we have been hypothesizing a local
modifications: variability of the Planck “Constant”. From the previous,
(65) taking into account (60), we easily deduce the following:
𝑆2,𝑔 (𝜒) = 4𝜋𝑥 2 = 4𝜋𝑅𝑠2 sin4 𝜒
ℎ𝜒 𝑟 2 ℎ𝜒 (75)
𝑅𝑐,𝑔 𝑥 = ( ) = sin2 𝜒 =
4 ℎ 𝑅𝑠 ℎ𝜋/2
𝑉3,𝑔 (𝜒) = ∫ 𝑆2,𝑔 (𝜒)𝑑𝑅𝑐,𝑔 = 4𝜋 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋𝑥 3
0 0 3 (66) The Variable Quantum of Time is defined as follows:
4
= 𝜋𝑅𝑠3 sin6 𝜒 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 ℏ𝜒 𝐺 (76)
3 ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑔 (𝜒) = ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 = = 2√ 5 = 2𝑡𝑃,𝜒
𝑅𝑝 𝜒 𝑐 𝑐
𝑆3,𝑔 (𝜒) = ∫ 𝑆2,𝑔 (𝜒) 𝑑𝑅𝑝 = 4𝜋𝑅𝑠3 ∫ sin4 𝜒 𝑑𝜒
0 0 By virtue of (59) and (73), from the previous we obtain:
(67) ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 1
𝜋 3 (77)
= 𝑅 (𝜒 − sin 𝜒 cos 𝜒 + = = sin 𝜒 =
2 𝑠 ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2 ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜂∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
− 2 sin3 𝜒 cos 𝜒)
3. “Gravitational” Mass
2. Variable Space-Quantum In case of singularity, a material segment does not undergo
We want to carry out a quantization of the coordinate r. As any radial reduction (in other terms, it does not shorten
shown in (60), this coordinate depends on the angular within space): as previously remarked, both the segment
distance χ: the more we approach the “Singularity”, the and the corresponding space undergo a radial contraction
more the value of r decreases. (the segment shortens together with space).
However, once again, r does not shorten within space: it Consequently, if we denote with M the Mass of a “Test”
shortens together with space, since space itself undergoes Material Segment, the (Variable) Linear Mass Density, in
a progressive (radial) contraction in approaching the case of gravitational singularity, con be defined as follows:
“singularity”. 𝑀 (78)
̅=
𝑀
Consequently, we consider a Variable (Radial) Space- 𝑟
Quantum, denoted with ∆rχ,min, the value of which depends As for the Mass of a Test Particle (the mass we perceive),
on the angular distance χ. by virtue of (71) and (78), we can write, with obvious
If 𝒩 represents the same integer introduced in (52), we meaning of the notation, the following:
impose the following: ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2 (79)
̅ ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 = 𝑀
𝑚𝜒 = 𝑀 =𝑀 = 𝑚𝜋/2
(68) 𝑟 𝑅𝑠
𝑟 = 𝒩∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒
From the previous, by virtue of (38) and (52), we have:
According to the previous, taking into account (52) and 𝑀 𝑀 (80)
𝑚𝜒 = 𝑚𝜋/2 = ∆𝑅 = =𝑚
(61), we must have: 𝑅𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝒩
(69) In other terms, thanks to the position in (68) (the meaning
𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝒩∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2 = 𝑅𝑠 = 𝒩∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
of which should now be clearer), the “Gravitational” Mass
Consequently, by virtue of (58), we can write: and the inertial one coincide (as requested by the
(70) Equivalence Principle) [9].
∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2 = ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2ℓ𝑃
From (68) and (69) we immediately obtain: 4. Conservation of Energy

𝑟 𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑠 (71)
𝒩= = = As elsewhere deduced, the Conservation of Energy for a
∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2
Free Material Segment can be written as follows [3] [4]:
From the foregoing, taking into account (60), we have: 𝑟 2 (81)
𝐸 = 𝑀𝑐 2 = 𝑀𝑟 𝑣 2 + ( ) 𝑀𝑟 𝑐 2 + (𝑀 − 𝑀𝑟 )𝑐 2
∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 𝑟 (72) 𝑅𝑠
= = = sin 𝜒
∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2 ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑠 In our case, by virtue of what has been specified in the
In the light of the previous relation, we can now introduce previous paragraph, bearing in mind the meaning of r, we
the following Non-Dimensional Parameter, which have to banally impose:
represents nothing but a simple Scale Factor: (82)
𝑀 = 𝑀𝑟
∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2 ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑠 1 (73)
𝜂∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = =
∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 𝑟 sin 𝜒 As a consequence, for a Test Material Segment, the motion
Now, from (58) and (72), we immediately obtain: of which is induced by a (Gravitational) Potential, from
(81) and (82) we immediately obtain:
ℏ𝐺 ℏ𝜒 𝐺 (74) 𝑟 2
∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 = sin 𝜒∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 sin 𝜒 √ = 2√ 3 = 2ℓ𝑃,𝜒 (83)
𝑐3 𝑐 𝐸 = 𝑀𝑐 2 = 𝑀𝑣 2 + ( ) 𝑀𝑐 2
𝑅𝑠

From the previous relation, taking into account (80), we 6. Speed of a Free-Falling Particle
immediately obtain the Conservation of Energy for a From (2), (97) and (99), we have:
(Free-Falling) Test Particle: 2𝐺𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡 2𝐺𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑅𝑠 (100)
𝐸 𝑀 𝑀 𝑟 2𝑀 2 (84) 𝑣 = √2𝜙 = √ ∗ = 𝑐 √ 2 ∗ = 𝑐 √ ∗ = 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒
𝐸𝑚 = = 𝑐2 = 𝑣2 + ( ) 𝑐 𝑅 𝑐 𝑅 𝑅
𝒩 𝒩 𝒩 𝑅𝑠 𝒩
𝑟 2 (101)
(85) 𝑣 = 𝑐 cos 𝜒
𝐸𝑚 = 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + ( ) 𝑚𝑐 2
𝑅𝑠
The Speed consists of two Components, denoted by vI and
vII. We can evidently write:
5. The (Gravitational) Potential and the Coordinate R*
(102)
From (60) and (85) we can easily deduce: 𝑣 = √𝑣𝐼 2 + 𝑣𝐼𝐼 2
𝑟 2 (86) From (100) we can easily deduce:

𝑣 = 𝑐√1 − ( ) = 𝑐 cos 𝜒
𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑠 2𝜙 (103)
=
𝑅∗ 𝑐 2
𝑟 𝑣 2 (87) Consequently, vI and vII assume the following forms:
= √1 − ( ) = sin 𝜒
𝑅𝑠 𝑐
𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑠 2𝜙 2𝜙 2 (104)
2 𝑣𝐼 = 𝑐 sin 𝜒 cos 𝜒 = 𝑐 √(1 − ) = 𝑐 √ −( )
1 1 𝑟 1 1 (88) 𝑅∗ 𝑅∗ 𝑐2 𝑐2
𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑐 2 [1 − ( ) ] = 𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑐 2 cos2 𝜒 = 0
2 2 𝑅𝑠 2 2
𝑅𝑠 2𝜙 (105)
From (2) we immediately obtain: 𝑣𝐼𝐼 = 𝑐 cos2  = 𝑐 =
𝑅∗ 𝑐
2𝐺𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡 (89)
𝑐2 = The components of speed are depicted in Figure 5
𝑅𝑠
Consequently, we have:
1 𝐺𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡 (90)
− 𝑐 2 cos2 𝜒 = − cos2 𝜒
2 𝑅𝑠
Let us introduce a New Coordinate [10], denoted by R*,
defined as follows:
𝑅𝑠 (91)
𝑅∗ (𝜒) =
cos2 𝜒
Obviously, from the previous we have:
(92)
𝑅∗ (0) = 𝑅𝑠
lim 𝑅∗ = +∞ (93)
→𝜋/2
Figure 5. Speed of a Free-Falling Particle
𝑅𝑠 (94) Figure 5 shows how, when a test particle approaches the
cos 𝜒 = √ ∗
𝑅 singularity, the value of vI decreases while, on the contrary,
the value of vII increases. It is commonly said that, in
𝑅𝑠 (95)
sin 𝜒 = √1 − approaching the singularity, the Space-Like Geodesics
𝑅∗
become Time-Like, and vice-versa. In our case, the above-
From (), taking into account (), we obtain: mentioned interpretation is not correct, since the radial
1 𝐺𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡 (96) coordinate is nothing but the extension of a material
𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚=0
2 𝑅∗ segment, that we perceive as being a material point (the
Let us define the Pseudo-Newtonian Potential, denoted by Test Particle). The straight-line segment bordered by C
φ, as follows: (that evidently coincides with Og) and Pg represents the
𝐺𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡 1 (97) radial extension of the particle, the one bordered by Og’ and
− = − 𝑐 2 cos2 𝜒 = 𝜙(𝜒)
𝑅∗ 2 Pg represents the Reduced “Flat Coordinate” (the Radius
Evidently, with obvious meaning of the notation, from the of the Reduced Circumference).
previous we have:
1 (98) 7. Parameterization
𝑅∗ = 𝑅𝑠 ⟹ 𝜙(𝜒) = 𝜙(0) = 𝜙𝑚𝑖𝑛 = − 𝑐 2
2 We want to find two new coordinates, related to each other,
From (), taking into account (), we immediately obtain: that could “play the role” of Rs and r.
1 (99)
𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝜙𝑚 = 0 Firstly, in the light of (23), we must impose:
2

In Figure 6 a useful comparison between old and new
𝜒
𝑑𝑟𝐾∗ 2
∫ √( ) + 𝑟𝐾∗2 𝑑 = 𝑅𝑝,𝑔
∗ = 𝑅∗
(Parameterized) Coordinates, once having set K=Rs, is
0 𝑑 𝑝
(106) qualitatively displayed.
𝜒
𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ 2
= ∫ √( ) + 𝑅𝐾∗ 𝑑
0 𝑑
Secondly, in the light of (60), we must additionally impose:

(107)
𝑟𝐾∗ = 𝑅𝐾∗ sin 
From (106) and (107) we easily obtain the following:

𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ (108)
= 2 tan  𝑑
𝑅𝐾∗
The general solution of the foregoing, denoting with K an
arbitrary constant, is:
𝐾 (109)
𝑅𝐾∗ =
cos2 𝜒
Figure 6. Parameterization (K=Rs)
From the previous we immediately deduce the underlying
noteworthy identity: 8. Parameterized Quantization
𝐾 The parameterization also affects the quantization.
(110)
sin 𝜒 = √1 − Obviously, it is not a real phenomenon.
𝑅𝐾∗
Coherently with the parameterization we have been
From (109) we have: resorting to, by virtue of (52) we must now impose:
𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ sin 𝜒 (111) ∗ ∗ (120)
= 2𝐾 𝑅𝐾∗ = 𝒩∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝒩∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2
𝑑𝜒 cos3 𝜒
From (107) and (109), we have: From the previous, taking into account (109), we obtain:
sin 𝜒 (112) ∗
𝑅𝐾∗ 𝐾 1 (121)
𝑟𝐾∗ = 𝑅𝐾∗ sin 𝜒 = 𝐾 ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = =
cos2 𝜒 𝒩 𝒩 cos2 𝜒
𝑑𝑟𝐾∗ 1 + sin2 𝜒 (113) If we set K=Rs, taking into account (52), the foregoing can
=𝐾
𝑑𝜒 cos3 𝜒 be written as follows:
As for the Predicted Radius, coherently with (62), we have: ∗ 𝑅𝑠 1 ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 (122)
∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = =
(114) 𝒩 cos2 𝜒 cos2 𝜒
𝑅𝑐∗ = 𝑋𝐾∗ = 𝑅𝐾∗ sin 𝜒 = 𝑟𝐾∗
Obviously, by virtue of (68), we must also impose:
In the light of (63), the relation between the Predicted ∗
𝑟𝐾∗ = 𝒩∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 (123)
Radiuses with (additional subscript “g”) and without (no
additional subscript) the Singularity must be the following: From the previous, taking into account (112), we obtain:
∗ = 𝑅 ∗ sin 𝜒 (115) ∗
𝑟𝐾∗ 𝐾 sin 𝜒 (124)
𝑅𝑐,𝑔 𝑐 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 = =
𝒩 𝒩 cos2 𝜒
Therefore, as for the Reduced Predicted Radius we have: If we set K=Rs, taking into account (68), the foregoing can
∗ = 𝑥 ∗ = 𝑅 ∗ sin 𝜒 = 𝑋 ∗ sin 𝜒 = 𝑟 ∗ sin 𝜒 = 𝑅 ∗ sin2 𝜒 (116) be written as follows:
𝑅𝑐,𝑔 𝐾 𝑐 𝐾 𝐾 𝐾
∗
𝑅𝑠 sin 𝜒 1 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 (125)
∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2
=
From the previous, taking into account (109), we obtain: 𝒩 cos 𝜒 cos2 𝜒
𝐾 (117) Evidently, by virtue of (121) and (124), we can write:
𝑥𝐾∗ = 𝐾 tan2 𝜒 = − 𝐾 = 𝑅𝐾∗ − 𝐾
cos2 𝜒 ∗ ∗ (126)
∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2 = ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑥𝐾∗ 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ (118)
=
𝑑𝜒 𝑑𝜒 From (72), (122) and (124), taking into account the
According to (106), the Proper Radius is not influenced by foregoing, we have:
∗ ∗
∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 (127)
the singularity. Therefore, from (109) and (111) we obtain: = = = = sin 𝜒
∗ ∗
∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2 ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2
𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ 2 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ 1
𝑑𝑅𝑝∗ = √( ) + 𝑅𝐾∗ 2 𝑑𝜒 = √1 + 𝑑𝜒 In the light of the previous, resorting to (110), we can now
𝑑𝜒 𝑑𝜒 4 tan2 𝜒
(119) introduce the new following Parameterized Scale Factor:
∗
1 ∗
∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 1
= √1 + 𝑑𝑅 ∗ = 𝑑𝑅𝑝,𝑔
∗ 𝜂∆𝑟 = ∗ = = = (128)
4 tan2 𝜒 𝐾
𝑚𝑖𝑛
∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 sin 𝜒 𝐾
√1 −
𝑅𝐾∗

The Parameterized Quantum of Time is defined as follows: (140)
∗
√𝐶(𝑅𝐾∗ ) = 𝑅𝐾∗
∗ ∗
∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 (129)
∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑔 (𝜒) = ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 =
𝑐 Thanks to the previous, (139) can be written as follows:
Taking into account (77), (127) and (128), from the 𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝐴∗ (𝑅𝐾∗ )𝑐 2 𝑑𝑡 2 − 𝐵∗ (𝑅𝐾∗ )𝑑𝑟 2
previous we obtain: − 𝑅𝐾∗2 (𝑑𝜃 2 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜑 2 ) (141)
∗ ∗
∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒
= = = = sin 𝜒 𝐴∗ (𝑅𝐾∗ ), 𝐵∗ (𝑅𝐾∗ ) >0
∗ ∗
∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2 ∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2
(130) As for the Metric Tensor, from (141) we obtain:
1 𝐾 𝐴∗ (𝑅𝐾∗ ) 0 0 0
= ∗ = √1 − ∗ 0 −𝐵∗ (𝑅𝐾∗ ) 0 0
𝜂∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝐾 𝑔𝑖𝑗 = (142)
0 0 −𝑅𝐾∗2 0
It is worth highlighting how, from (73), (87) and (128), [ 0 0 0 − 𝑅𝐾∗2 sin2 𝜃]
denoting with γ the so-called Relativistic Factor, we have: 1
1 1 0 0 0
∗
𝜂∆𝑟 = 𝜂∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = =𝛾 (131) 𝐴∗ (𝑅𝐾∗ )
𝑚𝑖𝑛 sin 𝜒 2 1
√ 1 − (𝑣 ) 0 − 0 0
𝑐 𝐵∗ (𝑅𝐾∗ )
𝑔𝑖𝑗 = (143)
1
0 0 − 0
V. METRICS 𝑅𝐾∗2
1. Initial “Flat” Metric (no singularity) 1
0 0 0 −
We can immediately write the following general metric: [ 𝑅𝐾∗2 sin2 𝜃]
𝑑𝑠 ∗2 = 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑡 ∗2 − 𝑑𝑅𝑝∗2 − 𝑅𝑐∗2 (𝑑𝜃 2 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜑 2 )

(132) Let’s deduce the Christoffel Symbols. Generally, we have:
1 𝜕𝑔ℎ𝑖 𝜕𝑔ℎ𝑗 𝜕𝑔𝑖𝑗
𝛤𝑖𝑗𝑘 = 𝑔𝑘ℎ ( 𝑗 + − ℎ) (144)
Bearing in mind the definition of Predicted Radius 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥
provided by (114), we have: The indexes run from 0 to 3. Clearly, 0 stands for t, 1 for r,
𝑋𝐾∗ 𝑟𝐾∗ (133)
lim ∗ = lim ∗ = lim sin 𝜒 = 1 2 for θ, and 3 for φ.
→𝜋/2 𝑅𝐾 →𝜋/2 𝑅𝐾 →𝜋/2
Setting k=0, from (142), (143) and (144), we obtain:
Consequently, far from the origin, Predicted Radius and 0 0
1 𝑑𝐴∗
𝛤01 = 𝛤10 = (145)
Radial Coordinate are interchangeable. We can write: 2𝐴∗ 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗
(134)
𝑅𝑐∗ ≅ 𝑅𝐾∗ All the other symbols (if k=0) vanish.
Now, we evidently have: 1 𝑑𝐴∗
1
𝛤00 =
1 (135) 2𝐵∗ 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗
lim √1 + =1 (146)
→𝜋/2 4 tan2 𝜒 1 𝑑𝐵 ∗ 𝑅𝐾∗ 𝑅𝐾∗
1 1 1 2
𝛤11 = ∗ ∗ , 𝛤12 = − ∗ , 𝛤13 = − ∗ sin 𝜃
2𝐵 𝑑𝑅𝐾 𝐵 𝐵
Far from the origin, therefore, by virtue of (119), Proper
Radius and Radial Coordinate are interchangeable: All the other symbols (if k=1) vanish.
(136) Setting k=2, from (142), (143) and (144), we obtain:
𝑑𝑅𝑝∗ ≅ 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗
2 2
1
𝛤12 = 𝛤21 = , 𝛤 2 = − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 (147)
Finally, far from the origin, (132) becomes: 𝑅𝐾∗ 33
(137) All the other symbols (if k=2) vanish.
𝑑𝑠 ∗2 = 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑡 ∗2 − 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗2 − 𝑅𝐾∗2 (𝑑𝜃 2 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜑 2 )
It is fundamental to underline how the approximation in 3 3
1 1
𝛤13 = 𝛤31 = , 𝛤 3 = 𝛤23
3
= (148)
(134) prevents the Predicted Radius from assuming a null 𝑅𝐾∗ 23 tan 𝜃
value. In detail, by virtue of (109), we have: All the other symbols (if k=3) vanish.
∗ (138) Let’s now deduce the components of the Ricci Tensor.
𝑅𝑐,𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝜒) = 𝑅𝑐∗ (0) = 𝑅𝐾∗ (0) =𝐾
Generally, with obvious meaning of the notation, we have:
𝜕𝛤𝑖𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝛤𝑖𝑗𝑘
2. Schwarzschild-Like Metric: Conventional Derivation 𝑅𝑖𝑗 = − + 𝛤𝑖𝑘𝑙 𝛤𝑗𝑙𝑘 − 𝛤𝑖𝑗𝑙 𝛤𝑘𝑙𝑘 (149)
𝜕𝑥 𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝑘
As is well known, the General Static, Spherically (and
By means of some simple mathematical passages, omitted
Time) Symmetric Solution can now be written as follows:
for brevity, we obtain all the non-vanishing components:
𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝐴(𝑅𝐾∗ )𝑐 2 𝑑𝑡 2 − 𝐵(𝑅𝐾∗ )𝑑𝑅𝐾∗2
1 𝑑 2 𝐴∗ 1 𝑑𝐴∗ 1 𝑑𝐴∗ 1 𝑑𝐵∗
− 𝐶(𝑅𝐾∗ )(𝑑𝜃 2 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜑 2 ) (139) 𝑅00 = − ∗ ∗2 + ∗ ∗ ( ∗ ∗ + ∗ ∗)
2𝐵 𝑑𝑅𝐾 4𝐵 𝑑𝑅𝐾 𝐴 𝑑𝑅𝐾 𝐵 𝑑𝑅𝐾
(150)
𝐴(𝑅𝐾∗ ), 𝐵(𝑅𝐾∗ ), 𝐶(𝑅𝐾∗ ) > 0 1 𝑑𝐴∗
− ∗ ∗ ∗
Let us carry out the following position [11]: 𝑅𝐾 𝐵 𝑑𝑅𝐾

1 𝑑2 𝐴∗ 1 𝑑𝐴∗ 1 𝑑𝐴∗ 1 𝑑𝐵∗ 𝐾2
𝑅11 = − ∗ ∗ ( ∗ ∗ + ∗ ∗) 𝐴∗ = 1 + (166)
∗
2𝐴 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗2 4𝐴 𝑑𝑅𝐾 𝐴 𝑑𝑅𝐾 𝐵 𝑑𝑅𝐾 𝑅𝐾∗
(151)
1 𝑑𝐵∗ Now, if ϕ represents the Gravitational Potential, for an
−
𝑅𝐾 𝐵 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗
∗ ∗
arbitrary metric we have:
1 𝑅𝐾∗ 1 𝑑𝐴∗ 1 𝑑𝐵 ∗ 𝜙 2 (167)
𝑅22 = ∗ + ∗( ∗ ∗ − ∗ ∗)−1 (152) 𝑔00 = (1 + )
𝐵 2𝐵 𝐴 𝑑𝑅𝐾 𝐵 𝑑𝑅𝐾 𝑐2
1 𝑅𝐾∗ 1 𝑑𝐴∗ 1 𝑑𝐵∗

The value of K2 can be directly deduced by resorting to the
𝑅33 = sin2 𝜃 [ + ( − ) − 1] so-called Weak Field Approximation:
𝐵∗ 2𝐵∗ 𝐴∗ 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ 𝐵∗ 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ (153)
𝜙 2 𝜙 (168)
= sin2 𝜃 𝑅22 (1 + ) ≅1+2 2
𝑐2 𝑐
If we denote with R the Ricci Scalar and with Tij the generic Far from the source from (97), (110) and (168) we have:
component of the Stress-Energy Tensor, the Einstein Field 𝜙 𝐾 (169)
𝐴∗ = 𝑔00 ≅ 1 + 2 = 1 − cos2 𝜒 = 1 − ∗
Equations [9] [12] can be written as follows: 𝑐2 𝑅𝐾
1 8𝜋𝐺
𝑅𝑖𝑗 − 𝑅𝑔𝑖𝑗 = 4 𝑇𝑖𝑗 (154) If we set K=Rs, the foregoing can be written as follows:
2 𝑐
2𝐺𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑅𝑠 (170)
If we impose that, outside the mass that produces the field, 𝐴∗ = 1 − =1− ∗
𝑐 2 𝑅∗ 𝑅
there is the “absolute nothing” (neither matter nor energy),
From (162) and (169), we have:
the first member of (154), that represents the so-called 1
Einstein Tensor, must vanish. Consequently, we have: 𝐵∗ = (171)
𝐾
1−
1 𝑅𝐾∗
𝑅𝑖𝑗 − 𝑅𝑔𝑖𝑗 = 0 (155)
2 If we set K=Rs, the previous can be written as follows:
From (155), exploiting the fact that the Einstein Tensor and 1
𝐵∗ = (172)
the Ricci Tensor are trace-reverse of each other, we have: 𝑅𝑠
1−
𝑅𝑖𝑗 = 0 (156) 𝑅𝐾∗
From (150), (151) and (156), we immediately obtain: At this point, the Schwarzschild-Like Metric can be
1 𝑑 2 𝐴∗ 1 1 𝑑𝐴∗ 1 𝑑𝐴∗ 𝑑𝐵∗ immediately written by substituting into (141) the values
− + ( + ) of A* and B* deduced, respectively, in (169) and (171).
2𝐴∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗2 4𝐴∗ 𝐵∗ 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ 𝐴∗ 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗
(157)
1 𝑑𝐴∗
− ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ =0 3. Schwarzschild-Like Metric: Alternative Derivation
𝑅𝐾 𝐴 𝐵 𝑑𝑅𝐾
According to our model, taking into account (106) and
1 𝑑2 𝐴∗ 1 𝑑𝐴∗ 1 𝑑𝐴∗ 1 𝑑𝐵∗
− ( + ) (115), from (137) we can deduce, in case of Singularity,
2𝐴∗ 𝐵∗ 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗2 4𝐴∗ 𝐵∗ 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ 𝐴∗ 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ 𝐵∗ 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗
(158) the following solution:
1 𝑑𝐵 ∗ (173)
− ∗ ∗ 2 𝑑𝑅 ∗
=0 𝑑𝑠𝑔∗2 = 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑡 ∗ 2 − 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗2 − 𝑅𝐾∗ 2 sin2 𝜒 (𝑑𝜃 2 + sin2 𝜃𝑑𝜑 2 )
𝑅𝐾 𝐵 𝐾
From (157) and (158), we have: The previous represents an analytic solution, built without
𝑑𝐵 ∗ 𝑑𝐴∗ taking into account the modified value of the Space-
=− (159)
𝐵∗ 𝐴∗ Quantum. The above-mentioned condition is expressed by
𝐾1 means of g00, the value of which is manifestly unitary:
𝐵∗ = (160)
𝐴∗ Space and Time Quanta, in fact, are related to each other
The value of the constant K1 can be deduced by imposing by means of (129).
that, at infinity, the Flat Metric in (137) must be recovered.
In other terms, we must impose the following condition: Obviously, t* represents the proper time (the time
lim 𝐴∗ (𝑅𝐾∗ ) = lim 𝐵 ∗ (𝑅𝐾∗ ) = 1 measured by an observer ideally placed at infinity, where
∗
𝑅𝐾 →∞ 𝑟→∞ (161)
the singularity has no longer effect).
From (160), taking into account (161), we obtain: We can rewrite (173) in the underlying form:
1 𝑑𝑠𝑔∗2 | = 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑡 ∗ 2 − 𝑑𝑅𝑝,𝑔
∗2 |
𝐵∗ = (162) 𝑔00 =1 𝑔00 =1 (174)
𝐴∗
∗2 |
− 𝑅𝑐,𝑔 (𝑑𝜃 2 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜑 2 )
𝑔00 𝑔11 = −1 (163) 𝑔00 =1
From (152) and (156) we have: In other terms, we have carried out the following positions:
𝑅𝐾∗ 𝐴∗ 1 𝑑𝐴∗ 𝑑 1
∗ |
𝑅𝑐,𝑔 = 𝑅𝑐∗ sin 𝜒 = 𝑅𝐾∗ sin 𝜒 (175)
𝑔00 =1
𝐴∗ + [ − 𝐴∗ ∗ ( ∗ )] − 1 = 0 (164)
2 𝐴∗ 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ 𝑑𝑅𝐾 𝐴 ∗ |
𝑑𝑅𝑝,𝑔 = 𝑑𝑅𝑝∗ = 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ (176)
𝑔00 =1
𝑑𝐴∗ 𝑑 ∗
𝐴∗ + 𝑅𝐾∗ ∗
∗ − 1 = 𝑅𝐾 (𝑟𝐴 ) − 1 = 0 (165) Now, from (130) we immediately obtain:
𝑑𝑅𝐾 𝑑

∗ ∗
∗ ∗
∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2 ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 The Singularity is not a point, but a 2-Sphere characterized
∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑔 (𝜒) = ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒 = ∗ = ∗
𝜂∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 by a radius equal to K. However, this strange phenomenon
(177)
is anything but real, since it is clearly and exclusively
∗
𝐾
= ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 √1 − ∗ caused by the approximation in (134). According to the
𝑅𝐾
new scenario, the value of the Escape Speed is now
In the light of the previous, we can write: provided by (104): it is easy to verify how this value
∗ formally coincides with the one that can be derived by
𝑑𝑡𝜋/2 𝑑𝑡 ∗ 𝐾 (178)
𝑑𝑡𝑔∗ = ∗ = ∗ = 𝑑𝑡 ∗ √1 − resorting to the Geodesic Equation.
𝑅𝐾∗
As for the New Proper Radius, we have:
From (175), taking into account (120) and (127), we have: 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ √(𝑅𝐾∗ − 𝐾) + 𝐾
∗ (179)
∗ =∫
𝑅𝑝,𝑔 =∫ 𝑑(𝑅𝐾∗ − 𝐾)
𝑅𝑐,𝑔 |
𝑔00 =1
= 𝒩 sin 𝜒 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2 = 𝒩∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒
√1 −
𝐾 √𝑅𝐾∗ − 𝐾
𝑅𝐾∗ (188)
Exploiting (134) and (175), we can temporarily introduce 2 2
to following Non-Dimensional (Normalized) Coordinates: = 2 ∫ √(√𝑅𝐾∗ − 𝐾) + (√𝐾) 𝑑(√𝑅𝐾∗ − 𝐾)
𝑅𝑐∗ 𝑅𝑐∗
𝑅̅𝑐∗ = ∗ = ∗ =𝒩 (180) We have just found an integral of the following kind:
∆𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜋/2
2 𝐾
∗
𝑅𝑐,𝑔 ∫ √𝑦 2 + (√𝐾) 𝑑𝑦 = ln (𝑦 + √𝑦 2 + 𝐾)
𝑅̅𝑐,𝑔
∗ |
= =𝒩 (181) 2 (189)
∗
𝑔00 =1 ∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝜒
𝑦
Evidently, the value of the Predicted Radius, as long as it + √𝑦 ′ 2 + 𝐾 + 𝐶𝐾
2
is expressed in terms of Space-Quanta, can be regarded as Consequently, from (188) and (189) we have:
being constant. Consequently, from (180) and (181) we can 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗
∗ =∫
𝑅𝑝,𝑔 = ln(√𝑅𝐾∗ + √𝑅𝐾∗ − 𝐾)
banally write: 𝐾
√1 − ∗ (190)
𝑅̅𝑐∗ = 𝑅̅𝑐,𝑔
∗ | (182) 𝑅𝐾
𝑔00 =1
+ √𝑅𝐾∗ (𝑅𝐾∗ − 𝐾) + 𝐶𝐾
Now, if we replace dt* with dtg*, taking into account (178),
we obtain a new value for g00: As for the constant Ck we have:
𝐾 1 (191)
(183) 𝑅𝑝∗ (𝐾) = 0 ⟹ 𝐶𝐾 = −𝐾 ln √𝐾
𝑔00 = 1 − = ∗2
𝑅𝐾∗ 𝜂∆𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Finally, from (190) and (191) we have:
The value of g00 reveals how we measure time (which is
√𝑅𝐾∗ − 𝐾 + √𝑅𝐾∗ (192)
still considered as being absolute) and space and nothing 𝑅𝑝,𝑔 = 𝐾 ln ( ) + √𝑅𝐾∗ (𝑅𝐾∗ − 𝐾)
√𝐾
else. In other words, we have simply changed the Units of
Measurement (we have modified the Scale Factor). The previous, by virtue of (117), can be written as follows:
By virtue of (183), we can rewrite (173) by changing the √𝑥𝐾∗ + √𝑥𝐾∗ + 𝐾 (193)
𝑅𝑝,𝑔 = 𝐾 ln ( ) + √𝑥𝐾∗ (𝑥𝐾∗ + 𝐾)
Scale Parameter: √𝐾
𝐾
𝑑𝑠𝑔∗2 | = (1 − ) 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑡 ∗ 2 − 𝑑𝑅𝑝,𝑔
∗2 |
𝑔00 =1/𝜂 2 𝑅𝐾∗ 𝑔00 =1/𝜂 2 (184) 4. Generalization
− ∗2 |
𝑅𝑐,𝑔 (𝑑𝜃 2 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜑 2 ) Taking into account (117), we have:
𝑔00 =1/𝜂 2
𝑥𝐾∗ 𝑅𝐾∗ − 𝐾 (194)
From (175), (176) and (183), we can write, with obvious lim ∗ = lim ∗ =1
→𝜋/2 𝑅𝐾 →𝜋/2 𝑅𝐾
meaning of the notation, the following:
∗
By virtue of the previous, we can write:
∗ |
𝑅𝑐,𝑔 = 𝜂∆𝑟 𝑅∗ | = 𝑅𝐾∗ = 𝑅𝑐,𝑔
∗
(185)
𝑔00 =1/𝜂 2 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑐,𝑔 𝑔00 =1 𝑥𝐾∗𝑎 𝑥𝐾∗𝑎 + 𝐾 𝑎
lim ∗𝑎 = lim
𝑑𝑅𝑝∗ |𝑔 ∗
= 𝜂∆𝑟 ∗ |
𝑑𝑅𝑝,𝑔 = 𝜂∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ →𝜋/2 𝑅𝐾 →𝜋/2 𝑅𝐾∗𝑎
2
00 =1/𝜂 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑔00 =1
(𝑅𝐾∗ − 𝐾)𝑎 + 𝐾 𝑎 (195)
𝑑𝑅𝐾∗ (186) = lim =1
= = 𝑑𝑅𝑝∗ →𝜋/2 𝑅𝐾∗𝑎
𝐾
√1 − ∗ 𝑎 ∈ ℛ+
𝑅𝐾
We can finally write the so-called Droste Solution [13]: Therefore, far from the source, we obtain:
𝐾 𝑑𝑅𝐾∗2 𝑅𝐾∗𝑎 ≅ (𝑅𝐾∗ − 𝐾)𝑎 + 𝐾 𝑎 (196)
∗2
𝑑𝑠𝑔∗2 | 1 = (1 − ∗ ) 𝑐 𝑑𝑡
2
−
𝑔00 = 2 𝑅𝐾 𝐾 𝑎 𝑎
𝜂 1− ∗ (187) 𝑅𝐾∗ ≅ √(𝑅𝐾∗ − 𝐾)𝑎 + 𝐾 𝑎 = √𝑥𝐾∗𝑎 + 𝐾 𝑎 = 𝑅𝐾,𝑎
∗ (197)
𝑅𝐾
∗ 2 (𝑑𝜃 2 2 2) ∗2 Evidently, moreover, we have:
− 𝑅𝐾 + sin 𝜃𝑑𝜑 = 𝑑𝑠𝑔
∗
𝜒 = 0 ⟹ 𝑅𝐾,𝑎 =𝐾 (198)
𝑅𝐾∗ > 𝐾

∗ 1−𝑎 ∗ 𝜂∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∗
𝜂∆𝑟
𝑑𝑅𝐾,𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 ∗𝑎−1 𝑑𝑥𝐾
= (𝑥∗𝑎
𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐾 +𝐾 ) 𝑥𝐾 >0 lim = lim = lim sin 𝜒
𝑑𝜒 𝑑𝜒 →𝜋/2 𝜂𝜆 →𝜋/2 𝜂𝜆 →𝜋/2
(199) (209)
𝜋 𝑣 2
0<𝜒< = lim √1 − ( ) = 1
2 𝑣→0 𝑐
From (195), (198) and (199) we deduce how the New
Consequently, far from the source, we can write:
Parametric Coordinate defined in (197) and the one 1 (210)
defined in (109) are fully interchangeable (since they 𝑧 ≅ 𝜂∆𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 1 = −1
sin 𝜒
behave exactly the same way). In other terms, we have:
From the foregoing, taking into account (110), we have:
∗ (200)
𝑅𝐾,𝑎 ≅ 𝑅𝐾∗ 𝜆∞ − 𝜆𝑅 ∗ 1
𝑧= = −1 (211)
𝜆𝑅 ∗ 𝐾
Taking into account the foregoing, by setting a=1 in (197), √1 −
𝑅𝐾∗
from (187) we obtain:
If we set K=Rs, according to (2) and (109), the previous
𝐾 𝑑𝑥𝐾∗2
𝑑𝑠𝑔∗2 = (1 − ∗ ) 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑡 ∗ 2 − can be written in the following well-known form:
𝑥𝐾 + 𝐾 𝐾
1− ∗ 1
𝑥𝐾 + 𝐾
(201) 𝑧= −1 (212)
− (𝑥𝐾∗ + 𝐾)2 (𝑑𝜃 2 + sin2 𝜃𝑑𝜑 2 ) √1 − 2𝐺𝑀 𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝑐2𝑅∗
𝑥𝐾∗ > 0
𝑐 2 𝑑𝑡 ∗ 2 𝐾 VII. BRIEF CONCLUSIONS
𝑑𝑠𝑔∗2 = − (1 + ∗ ) 𝑑𝑥𝐾∗2
𝐾 𝑥
1+ ∗ 𝐾 The coordinate deduced in (109), which appears both in the
𝑥𝐾
(202) metrics and at the denominator of the pseudo-Newtonian
− (𝑥𝐾∗ + 𝐾)2 (𝑑𝜃 2 + sin2 𝜃𝑑𝜑 2 )
relation we have obtained for the gravitational potential,
𝑥𝐾∗ > 0 does not represent a real distance nor a real radius of
The previous represents the original form of the so-called curvature. In fact, it is clear how the expression of the
Brillouin Solution [14]. above-mentioned coordinate arises from a banal
From (187), by setting a=3 in (197), we have: parameterization, by means of which we are able to write
∗ 3 (203) the initial “Flat” Metric in (137). From the latter, it is
𝑅𝐾,3 = √𝑥𝐾∗3 + 𝐾 3
possible to derive an infinite set of Schwarzschild-like
By substituting the previous into (187), we can finally Metrics, suitable for non-rotating and non-charged “Black
obtain the real Schwarzschild Form [15]. Holes”, without resorting to Relativity. According to the
simple model herein proposed, the minimum value for the
VI. GRAVITATIONAL REDSHIFT coordinate in (109) equates the Schwarzschild Radius.
If we impose the Conservation of Energy, we can write, When this coordinate equates the Schwarzschild radius,
with obvious meaning of the notation, the following: both the Proper Radius and the Forecast Radius are equal
(204) to zero: in other terms, we are exactly placed in
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛,𝜒 = ℎ𝜒 𝜈𝜒 = ℎ𝜋/2 𝜈𝜋/2 = 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛,𝜋/2
correspondence of the “Singularity”.
From the previous, by virtue of (75), we obtain:
ℎ𝜒 𝜈𝜋/2 (205) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
= = sin2 𝜒
ℎ𝜋/2 𝜈𝜒 I would like to dedicate this paper to my very little friend
If we impose the Speed of Light Constancy, we have: Carmine Vasco Costa, sincerely hoping he may preserve
(206) his great interest, already astonishingly deep despite his
𝑐 = 𝜆𝜒 𝜈𝜒 = 𝜆𝜋/2 𝜈𝜋/2
age, towards mathematics and physics.
The two foregoing relations allows to immediately define
REFERENCES
a New Scale Parameter:
[1] Harrison, E.R. (1967). Classification of Uniform
𝜆𝜋/2 ℎ𝜋/2 1 (207)
= = = 𝜂𝜆 Cosmological Models. Monthly Notices of the Royal
𝜆𝜒 ℎ𝜒 sin2 𝜒
Astronomical Society, 137, 69-79.
According to the definition of Gravitational Redshift [9], https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/137.1.69
usually denoted by z, from the previous we have: [2] Cataldo, C. (2016). Faster than Light: again on the
𝜆𝜋/2 − 𝜆𝜒 𝜆𝜋/2 (208)
𝑧= = − 1 = 𝜂𝜆 − 1 Lorentz Transformations. Applied Physics Research,
𝜆𝜒 𝜆𝜒
8(6), 17-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/apr.v8n6p17
From (131) and (207) we have: [3] Cataldo, C. (2016). From the Oscillating Universe to
Relativistic Energy: a Review. Journal of High Energy

Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology, 3, 68-77. [15] Schwarzschild, K. (1919). Über das Gravitationsfeld
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jhepgc.2017.31010 eines Massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie.
[4] Cataldo, C. (2019). Towards a New Concept of Closed Sitzungsber. der Deutschen Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin,
System: from the Oscillating Universe to the EM- 189-196 (On the Gravitational Field of a Mass Point
Drive. International Journal of Advanced Engineering according to Einstein’s Theory, translat. by Antoci and
Research and Science, 6(2), 43-52. Loinger, 1999). Retrieved from: http://zelmanov.ptep-
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijaers.6.2.7 online.com/papers/zj-2008-03.pdf
[5] LaViolette, P. (1986) Is the universe really expanding?
The Astrophysical. J., 301: 544–553. Retrieved from:
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1986ApJ...301.
.544L/0000544.000.html
[6] Seshavatharam, U. V. S., Lakshminarayana, S. (2013)
Is Planck’s Constant – A Cosmological Variable? Int.
Journal of Astronomy, 2(1): 11-15. Retrieved from:
http://article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.astronomy.2013020
1.02.html
[7] Seshavatharam, U. V. S., Lakshminarayana, S., Sai
B.V.S.T. (2013) Inadequacy of Modern Cosmology
and Basics of Atomic Cosmology. viXra.org open e-
Print archive. Retrieved From:
http://www.rxiv.org/pdf/1303.0214v1.pdf
[8] Friedmann A. (1922). Über die Krümmung des
Raumes. Zeitschrift für Physik, 10, 377-386. English
Translation (1999) On the Curvature of Space.
General Relativity and Gravitation, 31(12), 1991-
2000. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026751225741
[9] Cheng, Ta-Pei (2005). Relativity, Gravitation and
Cosmology: A Basic Introduction. Oxford University
Press Inc., New York. ISBN 0 19 852956 2
[10] Cataldo, C. (2017). On the Schwarzschild Solution: a
Review. International Journal of Advanced
Engineering Research and Science, 4(9), 48-52.
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijaers.4.9.10
[11] Antoci, S. (2003). David Hilbert and the origin of the
"Schwarzschild solution". Retrieved from:
https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0310104
[12] Einstein, A. (1916). Relativity: The Special and
General Theory (translated by R. W. Lawson, 1920).
Henry Holt and Company, New York. Retrieved from
https://archive.org/details/cu31924011804774
[13] Droste, J. (1917). The field of a single centre in
Einstein's theory of gravitation and the motion of a
particle in that field. Royal Netherlands Academy of
Arts and Sciences (KNAW), Proceedings, 19 I, 197-
215. Retrieved from:
http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/DL/publications/PU000123
46.pdf
[14] Brillouin, M. (1923). Les points singuliers de l'univers
d'Einstein. Journal de Physique et le Radium, 4(1), 43-
48 (The singular points of Einstein’s Universe,
translated by Salvatore Antoci, 2000). Retrieved from:
https://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0002009.pdf

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International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science (IJAERS) [Vol-6, Issue-4, Apr- 2019]

https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijaers.6.4.14 ISSN: 2349-6495(P) | 2456-1908(O)

Black Holes: a Different Perspective

Let us denote with C the centre of the 4-ball, with O and P

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= 2𝜋𝑅𝑠3 (𝜒 − sin 𝜒 cos 𝜒) 2. Three-Dimensional Scenarios

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The previous represents the Minimum Value for Linear

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From (68) and (69) we immediately obtain: 4. Conservation of Energy

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𝑟 2 (86) From (100) we can easily deduce:

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Secondly, in the light of (60), we must additionally impose:

From (106) and (107) we easily obtain the following:

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𝑑𝑠 ∗2 = 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑡 ∗2 − 𝑑𝑅𝑝∗2 − 𝑅𝑐∗2 (𝑑𝜃 2 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜑 2 )

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1 𝑅𝐾∗ 1 𝑑𝐴∗ 1 𝑑𝐵∗

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