Title: The influence of parenting styles on the academic performance of students in Mindanao

State University - Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT)

Proponent: Keven O. Opamin – BAELS
Duration:
January 2018 – February 2018

1 Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
Parenting style is a big factor which affects the performance of a student in school
(Zahedani et. al., 2016). Because of the relationship between parenting style and academic
achievement scholars have highlighted the various aspects of parenting styles that help in
boosting the academic outcomes of adolescents (Ahmad et.al., 2014).
Opada (n.d.) cited in her study that a philosophy is built on years of child development
research which shows that while each child is “pre-wired” with certain traits, temperament and
abilities, it’s the interaction with their environment, especially their parents, which ultimately
determines how these characteristics are manifested as they grow and develop into competent
adults. Parenting can be a daunting prospect even for the most accomplished and the most
prepared. Good parenting is a balance of many different factors and you will need to discipline
as well as spend good, quality time with your child. Although parenting is unarguably the most
important of occupations, it is one of the few that requires no formal education, no examination
to test a person’s ability to take on such a role, and no refresher course to ensure that a parent is
following healthy standards of childrearing (Opada, n.d.).
Based on the researchers’ observation in relation to the study, they have seen that the
academic performance of the students is greatly influenced by their parent’s attitude towards
them. The way parents communicate with their children has an effect in their overall
development – their self – esteem or their height of confidence, their sense of security, their
physical and emotional well-being, the way they interact and relate with others and their
performance in school. Parental guidance is essentially needed especially to the graduating
students where the emerging complexity of present day life has increased already.In addition,
this study is conducted for the purpose of distinguishing the relationship of students’ academic
behavior and the way they are treated by their parents. There is, therefore, a need to know the
relationship between parenting style and an adolescent’s academic behavior. Specifically, this
study aims to provide answers to the following questions:
1. What is status of the participants’ academic performance?
2. Is there a significant relationship between the participants’ academic performance and
their parents’ parenting style?
1.2 Objectives
This research is stimulated by the idea of determining the connection between the
parents’ parenting style of students from MSU-IIT specifically in the College of Arts and Social
Sciences and its effect on their academic performance. Therefore, this research generally aims to
distinguish the effects of the different parenting style to the students’ academic performance.
2 Review of Related Literature
The researchers found several reviews of related literatures and studies which supported
the research study. The importance of the different related literatures found by the researchers is
that it helps to figure out the depth of knowledge of the subject area, gain an impression about
the important aspects of the topic, identify relationship between the concepts, and identify ideas
for further consideration.
2.1.1 Related Literature
This chapter contains the themes that were used to conduct the study. The themes include
authoritarian parenting styles, authoritative parenting styles, permissive-indulgent parenting
style, and permissive-uninvolved parenting style.
2.1.2 Academic performance
Bandura (1977), as cited in Gyimah (2018), stated that the academic performance of a
student relates to the positive identity structures, which encompass self-esteem, self-efficacy, and
motivation. On the other hand, Zimmerman (2010) believed that academic performance can be
defined as a self-regulated learning, including excellence in sports, arts, culture, behavior,
confidence, and communication skills, and in order to academically achieve, it shows how
learners control their emotion, feelings, and actions.
A report by Kanere (2011), as cited in Andemicael (2011), pinpointed that many students
who attended schools in camps performed poorly during exams. However, different people had
different opinions about the root of this problem. The report showed that most students blamed
the teachers with an explanation that teachers did not explain lessons clearly and as a result,
students could not understand the material being taught and hence they did not score good marks
on exams. Some other students claimed that teachers speak in difficult English that was hard to
understand. Consequently, students were unable to grasp lessons and eventually performed
poorly.
The same study by Kanere (2011) sought to find out the opinion of the poor performance
from the teachers point of view and found out that, according to teachers the blame was on
students and their parents. Some teachers reported that students were not serious about their
education and that they do not respect their teachers including doing their assignments as
instructed. Other teachers said that students perform poorly because their parents were not
responsible enough.
However on their side, parents had different opinion on the cause of poor performance in
schools. For example some parents blamed the fact that classes were overcrowded and hence
teachers were unable to monitor students individually and therefore teachers could not identify
their students’ weaknesses and address them specifically. Consequently, according to the parents,
there are many teachers who were not qualified for the courses they are assigned to and hence
they were unlikely to explain their lessons properly which leads to students failing their exams
since they did not understand lessons in the first place.
2.1.3 Parenting Styles
Parenting styles are beneficial in understanding complex behaviors and attitudes
associated with child outcomes (Crowley, et al. 2011). Parenting is parental behaviors which
encompass pleasures, privileges, and profits as well as frustrations, fears, and failures.
Parenting style is one of the variables that have been studied extensively in human
development (Baldwin, et al. 2011). It is considered an important determinant of several aspects
of children’s outcome. The notion has been related to children and adolescent academic
achievement, optimism, confidence, motivation, externalizing problem behavior and attention
problems (Gadeyne et al., 2014). Moreover, parenting style depends on the behavior and attitude
of parents. Two major variables identified by Baumrind (2010) centered on parenting styles and
child outcomes. One of them was the responsiveness of parents to their child’s needs in a
reasonable, nurturing and supportive way.
 It is generally agreed that parenting style influences self-efficacy, self-esteem, and
identity development, which are associated with academic achievement (Brown & Iyengar,
2011). In addition, the progress in children’s achievement is influenced by the decision that is
made by both parents and their children to cooperate or confront each other .Furthermore,
children’s academic motivation and behavior are directly influenced by family activities and
parents’ behavior, which are seen as the external factor. For instance, there is a positive outcome
for 13 both parents and children when parents interact in a fun and loving way during children’s
homework time (Morawska, 2011).
Conversely, when parents are neglectful, academic disengagement and problem behavior
are generated (Brown & Iyengar, 2011). One study found that mothers who were better to
modulate emotion and ability to both intimacy and autonomy had children who had higher scores
for verbal and math achievement (Skowron, 2011). Further, parents are seen to communicate
their characteristics or explanations for their children’s achievement in terms of day-to-day
interactions and behavior with their children. Therefore, parents are influenced by their
children’s academic achievement, and children’s achievement is, in turn, influenced by their
parents (Phillipson, 2010).
The foundation for parenting style and academic achievement is formed by the belief
systems and attitudes in parents and their children (Brown & Iyengar, 2011). In general, children
are enhanced by authoritative parents and show higher academic competence, social
development, self-perception, and mental health compared to children with authoritarian and
permissive parents (Baumrind, 2010). Children’s self-concepts at home or at school are
influenced by parents’ views, whether positive or negative, and can be an important factor for
academic achievement (Bannerman, et al. 2013).
Whether parents practice democratic decision making with their children, which can be
defined as engagement in cooperative discussion prior to decision making, is a criterion that is
commonly used to measure parenting style. Authoritative parents tend to engage in discussions
with their child before a more or less joint decision is rendered. Authoritarian and permissive
parents, however, tend not to engage in discussions. Instead, unilateral decisions are the norm,
with authoritarian parents and children of permissive parents making the decisions. However,
most families are not completely democratic or undemocratic decision makers. Thus, this
dimension is best measured as a continuum of authoritativeness (Morawska, 2011).
2.1.4 Authoritarian Parenting style and academic performance
In this authoritarian style of parenting, children are expected to follow strict rules
established by the parents. Failure to follow such rules usually results in punishment.
Authoritarian parents fail to explain the reasoning behind these rules. If asked to explain, the
parent might simply reply, "Because I said so." These parents have high demands, but are not
responsive to their children. In addition, these parents are usually obedience and status oriented,
and they always expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation (Karavalis, 2013).
Parents in the restrictive pattern of parenting are identified as authoritarian. Parents in this
type attempt to sharpen, control, and evaluate the behavior and attitude of their children which is
usually formulated by a higher secular authority (Baumrind, 2010). These parents are high on
demandingness and low on responsiveness (Maccoby & Martin, 2011). Additionally, children
and adolescents with authoritarian parents were reported as having low self-esteem and
spontaneity, as well as withdrawal, antisocial, and delinquent behaviors (Coie & Dodge, 2011).
Parents in this pattern value obedience as a virtue and are punitive and forceful (Baumrind,
2010).
 A study conducted by Roberts, and Fraleigh (2010) indicated that authoritative parenting
positively related to grades; conversely, both authoritarian and permissive parenting negatively
related to grades. However, authoritarian parenting is inclined to have a stronger relationship
with grades rather than the other two parenting styles. This is because authoritarian parenting
tends to be characterized by power.
2.1.5 Authoritative parenting style and academic performance
The parents with an authoritative parenting style usually establish rules and guidelines
that their children are expected to follow. However, this parenting style is much more democratic
and the parents are more responsive to their children and willing to listen to questions. When
children fail to meet the expectations, these parents is more nurturing and forgiving rather than
punishing. Baumrind (2010) suggests that these parents usually monitor and impart clear
standards for their children’s conduct; they are assertive, but not intrusive and restrictive. Their
disciplinary methods are always supportive, rather than punitive since they want their children to
be assertive as well as socially responsible, and self-regulated as well as cooperative.
Authoritative parents have high demandingness and high or medium responsiveness.
Moreover, authoritative parents reasonably attempt to direct their children’s activities and use
more warm control, positivity during communication, feelings-oriented reasoning as well as
induction, and more responsiveness to children’s questions (Mize & Pettit, 1997). Interestingly,
adolescents with authoritative parents reported higher grades in school performance than
adolescents with neglectful parents, and demonstrated stronger school orientation, school
engagement, and bonding with teachers than adolescents with neglectful parents (Cauffman, et
al. 2016). Demanding parents are medium responsive and high demanding (Baumrind, 2010).
However, traditional parents exhibited a different structural role between 17 mothers and fathers.
For example, mothers are highly responsive however, relatively understanding. In contrast,
fathers are highly demanding, but quite coercive and non-responsive.
2.1.6 Permissive-indulgent parenting style and academic performance
Indulgent parents who are also known as permissive parents usually have very few
demands to make of their children. These parents rarely discipline their children because they
have relatively low expectations of maturity and self-control. According to Baumrind (2010),
permissive parents are more responsive than they are demanding. They are non-traditional and
lenient, they do not require mature behavior, they allow considerable self-regulation, and they
avoid confrontation. Permissive parents are generally nurturing and communicative with their
children, often taking on the status of a friend more than that of a parent (Grills, 2002; in Munyi,
2013).
Parents in the lenient pattern of indulgent parenting are composed of democratic,
permissive, and undifferentiated parents. Democratic parents are high responsive and medium
demanding while permissive parents are low or medium demanding and high responsive
(Baumrind, 2010). Also, parents in this type highly accept their children and make some
demands for the children’s behavior. The parents allow their children fundamental self-
regulation. Children of the undifferentiated parents would be expected to have the greater risk for
emotional and behavioral problems (Fite et al., 2011).
Permissive indulgent parents as explained by Barber (2017) believe that they are
responsible for making sure that their children are happy. Psychologists explained that parents
who practice indulgent parenting behaviors, had a rough time as children and therefore have
decided that they will do everything they can to make their children happy. As a result,
permissive indulgent parents tend to be highly responsive to their children's needs and desires,
and display low levels of demandingness. In influence, these parents are extremely supportive, to
the extent that the child winds up taking control of the situation. In many ways, this style is the
opposite of the authoritarian style. Permissive indulgent parents often believe that, "Nothing is
too good for my child." And they will readily go out of their way (Barber, 2017).
When parents adopt the permissive indulgent style of parenting their children display
several predictable outcomes. First, these children are the most at risk for becoming spoiled
children. They tend to grow up thinking that they should always get what they desire. Second,
these children tend to become highly demanding themselves. They often form the impression
that the world owes them something, just because they are so special. Third, these children tend
to display impatience with people who don't readily give them everything they want. Fourth,
these children tend to display relatively poor social skills. They are less likely than other children
to be concerned with the welfare of others, or to sacrifice their own needs. Part of the problem is
that they expect their friends’ lives to revolve around making them happy (Constanzo, 2012).
2.1.7 Permissive-uninvolved parenting style and academic performance
Neglectful parenting style is characterized by few demands, low responsiveness and little
communication. While these parents fulfill the child's basic needs, they are generally detached
from their child's life. In extreme cases, these parents may even reject or neglect the needs of
their children (Baumrind, 2010). Parents in who practice neglectful parenting styles are
exemplified in rejecting-neglecting and non-directive parents. By contrast, non-directive parents
are low demanding and medium responsive (Baumrind, 2010), while rejecting-neglecting parents
are low relative to both demandingness and responsiveness and are unlikely to take part in their
children’s activities. Interestingly, Ehnval and Parker (2013) found that female depressed
patients who underwent rejected or neglected parenting in their childhood had a higher chance of
attempting suicide at least once during their lifetime. In contrast, males who had rejected or
neglected experiences in their childhood were not as at risk of suicide attempts. A study by
Kassahun (2010), as cited in Munyi, (2013), found out that the predominance of neglectful
parenting style for high school aged males, since when males enter high school the parents
believe that their sons can manage themselves, and thus they reduce their control as well as their
close relationships.
Neglectful parenting style tend to display low levels of demandingness since they ask and
expect very little of their children. For instance, they rarely assign their children chores. These
parents also display low levels of responsiveness to their children. They tend to be relatively
uninvolved in their children's lives. As a result, these parents tend to grant their children a very
high degree of freedom to do as they wish. In addition, these parents tend not to be very
communicative with their children. The child outcomes associated with the neglectful style of
parenting are somewhat predictable. In general, these children tend to display poor social skills
(Constanzo, 1985; in Gyimah, 2018).
The relative lack of social interactions with adults at home does little to prepare them for
social interactions outside the home. On the other hand, they tend to come across as emotionally
needy. That is, these children appear to seek emotional guidance and reassurance from others,
especially in their close relationships. This is consistent with a tendency of these children to
display moderately low levels of self-esteem. This makes them somewhat vulnerable to others
who may try to take advantage of them. Unlike the children of authoritarian or tough love
parents, their verbal skills and initiative tend to remain intact, though not as good as children of
authoritative parents.
However, these children often display difficulties with self-discipline, in part for lack of
practice. This discipline issues finally translates in the child’s academic performance and
therefore display poor results as compared to children in authoritarian and authoritative parenting
styles (Morawska, 2007; in Munyi, 2013).
 2.2 Related Studies
In the study of Mehrafza (2015), it was examined that there was a connection between
parenting styles, creativity and academic achievement of the grade three students and presented
that there was a considerably positive relationship between the emotional environment of the
family, declining to the principles of democracy, and creativity.
Furthermore, it was understood that there was a considerably negative relationship
between the creativity and dictatorship principles but there was no probable relationship between
the emotional environment of the family, declining to absolute freedom, and creativity.
Zahedani (2012) in a study conclude that Parents have an important role in identifying
children’s talent and guiding them. Mutual understanding and close relationship between parents
and children are recommended. Therefore, it is recommended that the methods of correct
interaction of parents and children be more valued and parents familiarize their children with
roles of businesses in society and the need for employment in legitimate businesses and this
important affair should be more emphasized through mass media and family training classes.
3 Methodology
The study will be conducted on the 2nd semester of academic year 2018-2019. Before
conducting the study in MSU-IIT, the researcher will proceed first to the authorized person and
will ask a permission to administer the study in the said institution. Upon approval, the
researcher will conduct a pre-survey to the students in College of Arts and Social Sciences. The
purpose of the pre-survey is to identify how parenting styles affect the learners’ academic
performance.
The researchers’ collection of data is through survey questionnaires that comprises their
age, gender and students’ status. The problems that may encounter by the participants will be
identified through the survey questionnaires. After the participants have taken the tests; the
papers will be checked, tallied, interpreted and analyzed.
3.1 Locale of the study
This study will be conducted in Mindanao State University – Iligan Institute of
Technology (MSU-IIT) specifically in the College of Arts and Social Science (CASS).
3.2 Research Design and Procedure
This study will employ a descriptive research design. To define the descriptive type of
research, Creswell (2014) stated that the descriptive method of research is to gather information
about the present existing condition. The aim of descriptive research is to verify formulated
hypotheses that refer to the present situation in order to elucidate it. The descriptive approach is
quick and practical in terms of the financial aspect. Moreover, this method allows flexible
approach, thus, when important new issues and questions arise during the duration of the study,
further investigation may be conducted.

References
Ahmad, M. S., Masud, H., Thurasamy, R. (2014). Parenting styles and academic
achievement of young adolescents: A systematic literature review. Retrieved from
https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/213695149?q&versionld=234614724
Andemicael, A. (2011). Positive energy: A review of the role of artistic activities in
refugee camps. Retrieved from https://www.unhcr.org/4def858a9.pdf
Baldwin, F. (2018). Parenting Styles. Retrieved from
http://family.jrank.org/pages/1252/Parenting-Styles-Parenting-Styles.html
 Barber, B. K., Bose, K., McNeely, C. A., Olsen, J. A., Stolz, H. E., Xia, M. (2012).
Feeling disrespected by parents: refining the measurement and understanding of psychological
control. J Adolesc 2012. 35(2). 273-287. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.10.010
Baumrind, D., Larzelere, R. E., Owens, E. B. (2010). Effects of Preschool Parents’ Power
Assertive Patterns and Practices on Adolescent Development. Parenting>Science and Practice.
10(3). 157-201. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/15295190903290790
Brown, L., Iyengar, S. (2008). Parenting Styles: The Impact on Student Achievement.
Marriage & Family Review. 43(1-2). 14-38. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1080/01494920802010140
Creswell, K. D. (2014). An Empirical Review of Research Methodologies and Methods.
Retrieved from https://www.esculturasmorenocutando.com/descriptive-research-definition-by-
creswell.pdf
Crowley, R., Lock, K., McKee M., Wolfe I. (March 8, 2011). Improving the transition
between paediatric and adult healthcare: a systematic review. Arch Dis Child. 96(6). 548-53. doi:
10.1136/adc.2010.202473
Gyimah, E. K. (2018). The Role of Permissive and Neglectful Parenting Style in
Determining the Academic Performance of Adolescents in the Senior High Schools in the Birim
Municipality. Journal of Education and Practice. 9(4). 73-80. Retrieved from
https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEP/article/viewFile/41122/42282
Mehrafza, M. (2014). The relationship between parenting style and creativity of student
achievement in the third year of Tabriz [dissertation]. Tabriz: Medical school; Persian.
Munyi, E. W. (2013). Influence of Parenting Styles on Academic Performance of
Adolescents in Secondary Schools: A case of Manyatta Constituency, Embu County. Retrieved
from
http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/11295/60069/Munyi_%20Parenting%20styles%2
0on%20academic%20performance%20of%20adolescents.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y
Opada, J.R. (n.d.). Parenting Style in Relation to Academic Performance. Retrieved from
https://www.academia.edu/8912293/Parenting_Style_in_Relation_to_Academic_Performance
Phillipson, S. (2010). Modeling Parental Role in Academic Achievement: Comparing
High-Ability to Low- and Average-Ability Students. Talent Development & Excellence. 2(1). 83-
103. Retrieved from https://www.iratde.org/issues/1-2010/tde_issue_1-2010_07_phillipson.pdf
Skowron, E. A. (2004). Differentiation of Self and Attachment in Adulthood: Relational
Correlates of Effortful Control. Contemporary Family Therapy. 26(3). 337-357. DOI:
10.1023/B:COFT.0000037919.63750.9d
Zahedani, Z. (2016). The influence of parenting style on academic achievement and
career path. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4927255/
Zimmerman, B. J. (1990) Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement: An
Overview, Educational Psychologist. 25(1). 3-17. DOI: 10.1207/s15326985ep2501_2
Related Studies (ARTICLES)

Effects of Preschool Parents' Power Assertive Patterns and Practices on Adolescent

Development
By Diana Baumrind , Robert E. Larzelere & Elizabeth B. Owens
Pages 157-201 | Published online: 03 Aug 2010

Objective . The authors investigated the effects of preschool patterns of parental authority
on adolescent competence and emotional health and differentiated between confrontive and
coercive power-assertive practices which accounted partially for differential long-term effects of
the preschool patterns. Design . Participants were 87 families initially studied when children
were preschool students, with outcomes assessed during early adolescence. Families were drawn
from Baumrind's Family Socialization and Developmental Competence longitudinal program of
research.
The authors used comprehensive observational and interview data to test hypotheses
relating preschool power-assertive practices and patterns of parental authority to the children's
attributes as adolescents. Person-centered analyses contrasted adolescent attributes associated
with 7 preschool patterns of parental authority. The authors used variable-centered analyses to
investigate the differential effects of 5 coercive power-assertive practices that they hypothesized
were authoritarian-distinctive and detrimental and 2 confrontive practices (behavioral control and
normative spanking) that they hypothesized were neither authoritarian-distinctive nor
detrimental.
Results. Adolescents whose parents were classified as directive, democratic, or
authoritative (grouped as balanced-committed) when these adolescents were preschool students
were competent and well-adjusted relative to adolescents whose parents were classified as
authoritarian, permissive, or disengaged (grouped as imbalanced-uncommitted). Adolescents
from authoritarian families were notably incompetent and maladjusted. Variable-centered
analyses indicated verbal hostility and psychological control were the most detrimental of the
authoritarian-distinctive coercive power-assertive practices. Severe physical punishment and
arbitrary discipline were also authoritarian-distinctive and detrimental. Normative physical
punishment and confrontive discipline were neither. Confrontive discipline and maturity
demands contributed to authoritative parenting's effectiveness, whereas normative physical
punishment was neutral in its effects. Conclusions. The findings extend the consistently negative
outcomes of authoritarian parenting and positive outcomes of authoritative and authoritative-like
parenting to 10-year outcomes that control for initial child differences. Differential outcomes can
be partially attributed to the coercive practices of authoritarian parents versus the confrontive
practices of authoritative parents.
Source: http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2010-16301-001

Parenting Styles: The Impact on Student Achievement

By Lola Brown & Shrinidhi Iyengar
Pages 14-38 | Published online: 11 Oct 2008

Parenting style and its impact on student achievement in a multidimensional society

continues to pose significant challenges to clinicians, researchers, educators, and parents alike.
This literature review summarizes the research surrounding five domains: (1) parental control;
(2) gender and parenting style; (3) parental education; (4) perceptual differences between parents
and their children; and (5) ethnicity and diversity. Behavioral control and psychological control
were found to be two inherent features of parental style that have a direct affect on student
achievement. Adolescents' perceived level of independence when interacting with their parents
also seemed to have a direct relationship on their academic achievement. Research concerning
children's progress in mathematics as related to parenting style and gender stereotype was also
uncovered. Evidence was found to support the notion that parental education can have an indirect
impact on children's academic achievement in various cultures. Implications for future research
are identified including the need for applied research in learning communities factoring in
variables for family structure, expectations, ethnicity, communication, and involvement.
Source:
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01494920802010140?journalCode=wmfr20

Feeling disrespected by parents: Refining the measurement and understanding of

psychological control
By Brian K. Barber, Mingzhu Xia, Joseph A. Olsen, Clea A. McNeely, Krishna Bose
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.10.010Get rights and content

This study investigated parental psychological control of adolescents when construed as

disrespect of individuality. First, 120 adolescents from 5 cultures were interviewed and asked to
identify specific parental behaviors that communicated to them that they were disrespected as
individuals. The interview data were coded and 8 new survey items were constructed to reflect
key content. These items were then administered to 2100 adolescents in the same cultures along
with a traditional measure of psychological control (PCS). Confirmatory factor analyses
indicated that model fit was better when the two scales were kept separate, across culture and sex
of parent. In structural equation models, the new scale – labeled Psychological Control –
Disrespect – accounted for all and more of the variance in youth depression and antisocial
behavior than the PCS did. The discussion centers on the validation the study makes of the
construct and offers several suggestions for future research.
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140197111001333

Parenting Styles and Child Behavior

This article is authored by Jordan L. Mullins with the mentorship of Sarah M.
Tashjian and is a part of the 2018 pre-graduate spotlight week.

According to the American Psychological Association, parenting practices around the

world share three major goals: ensuring children’s health and safety, preparing children for life
as productive adults, and transmitting cultural values (APA, 2018). Needless to say, these
objectives are ambitious. Being a successful parent is no small feat and whether children
become competent, healthy, productive adults depends on a variety of environmental and
biological factors. The influences on child outcomes are numerous, but a wealth of literature
indicates parenting practices are an important part of the equation. The extent to which parenting
practices shape behavioral development in children is a complex question and, though we may
not be able to answer it with certainty, we can be certain that parents are important factors in
their children’s behavioral outcomes.
Research has found consistent links between parenting and child behavioral
adjustment. For instance, a mother’s parenting behaviors, including the extent to which she
displays affection toward and exerts behavioral and psychological control over her child, when
that child is five years of age are linked to later child internalizing and externalizing behaviors
(Aunola & Nurmi, 2005). Internalizing, or emotional, behavior problems often refer to anxiety
and depression (Akhter et al., 2011). Externalizing, or disruptive, behavior problems commonly
include attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and conduct problems (Akhter et al., 2011). These
are just a few common behavioral problems that are, in part, shaped by particular styles of
parenting.
The attempt to study the influence of parenting practices on child outcomes is complex
because there exists an overwhelmingly wide range of parenting behaviors and an equally wide
range of child behavioral outcomes. The causal relation between parenting practices and child
behavior outcomes is similarly opaque depending on the timing and measurement of the
behaviors in question. For example, in a study of adolescents’ perception of their parents’
psychological control, or the extent to which parents try to control their children’s emotions and
beliefs, and adolescents’ self-reported internalizing and aggressive behaviors, researchers found
child behavior as a stronger predictor of changes in parental psychological control than parental
behavior as a predictor of changes in adolescent behavior (Albrecht et al., 2007). Because this
relation is multidirectional, studying the influence of parenting practices over child behavioral
outcomes becomes even more complex.
A common way of addressing these complexities is to organize parenting behaviors
into four distinct parenting styles: authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved, and authoritative
(Maccoby & Martin, 1983). These four parenting styles are based on two parental dimensions:
parental warmth, which is related to parental affection toward and acceptance of the child, and
parental control, which is related to the active role parents play in promoting respect for rules
and social conventions (Maccoby and Martin, 1983). There has been extensive research on the
implications parenting styles have on behavioral outcomes in children.
The authoritarian parent combines low levels of warmth with high levels of control
and employs a strict discipline style characterized by minimal negotiation with the child, high
expectations, limited flexibility, frequent use of punishment, and one-way communication from
parent to child (Baumrind, 1991). Authoritarian parenting has been associated with child
outcomes such as hostility, delinquency, rebelliousness, and antisocial aggression (Baumrind,
1991). Research has also found that a child’s early experience with excessive parental control
tends to correlate with the development of anxiety (Chorpita & Barlow, 1998). It is possible this
anxiety stems from a lack of opportunity to develop autonomy through independent exploration
of the environment (Bowlby, 1977). It has also been proposed that the low warmth typical of
authoritarian parenting could be linked to child depression (Rapee, 1997).
Permissive
The permissive parent exhibits high levels of warmth and low levels of control. He or
she acts more like a friend than a parent, employing a lax discipline style with few rules, little to
no expectations, and minimal guidance or direction (Baumrind, 1991). Parents with this style
have a tendency to be very loving and nurturing, but also allow their children to solve problems
without parental involvement (Baumrind, 1991). In a study of permissive parenting, lack of
involvement, lack of follow through, and lack of confidence in parenting ability were important
predictors of child behavior problems reported by both parents and teachers (Calzada, 2001).
Because permissive parents tend to be non-demanding, it becomes much more difficult to control
children’s behaviors and outline boundaries in children’s environments (Baumrind & Black,
1967). Research has found links between the excessive parental indulgence often found in
permissive parenting practices and children’s decreased social competence and academic
achievement (Chen et al., 2000). Permissive parenting has been linked to bossy, dependent,
impulsive behavior in children, with low levels of self-control and achievement and a failure to
learn persistence and emotional control (Baumrind, 1967).
Uninvolved
The uninvolved parent combines low levels of warmth and low levels of control, and
does not utilize any particular discipline style (Baumrind, 1991). He or she often displays little
interest in being a parent. Communication is limited, nurturance is low, and the child, generally,
has an excessive amount of freedom (Baumrind, 1991). Because the uninvolved parent is neither
demanding, nor responsive, and because young children are highly dependent on parental
structure and support, uninvolved parenting has been associated with behavioral problems and
depression in children (Downey & Coyne, 1990). Additionally, adolescents who are exposed to
uninvolved parenting practices often perceive high levels of rejection and tend to exhibit more
externalizing behaviors, aggressive behaviors, delinquent behaviors, hostility, and attention
problems (Ruchkin et al., 1998; Meesters et al., 1995; & Barnow et al., 2002). It is also possible
that the effects of uninvolved parenting persist through adolescence and into adulthood (Nijhof
& Engles, 2007). In a study of first year college students, researchers found that individuals who
reported being raised by uninvolved parents showed more internalizing and externalizing
problems in reaction to negative emotions such as homesickness (Nijhof & Engles, 2007).
Additionally, these students, generally, coped with problems less effectively than individuals
who reported growing up in a loving and accepting home environment (Nijhof & Engles, 2007).
Authoritative
The authoritative parent displays both high levels of warmth and high levels of control
(Baumrind, 1991). Parents in this category are reasonable and nurturing, set high expectations,
explain disciplinary rules clearly, and engage in frequent communication with their children
(Baumrind, 1991). Authoritative parenting has been associated with greater child competence,
exceptional maturity, assertiveness, and self-control (Baumrind, 1991). Authoritarian parents
who employ child-centered disciplinary practices, and who use verbal reasoning and
explanations, tend to raise children who display high levels of moral reasoning, markers of moral
conscience, and prosocial behaviors (Krevans & Gibbs, 1996). Research has shown that
authoritative parenting may be the most effective style, however, it also tends to be the most
demanding in terms of parental energy and time (Greenberger & Goldberg, 1989). It is possible
that parents who are living under conditions of stress, such as poverty, may be less likely to
display authoritative parenting behaviors, and more likely to employ less effective parenting
practices. Research suggests parents of a higher socioeconomic status household, are more
likely to employ democratic (Hoffman, 1963) and child-centered (Sears et al., 1957) parenting
practices, in contrast to the authoritarian and parent-centered style that characterizes lower
socioeconomic status homes. This would lead to an increased likelihood of raising children who
display internalizing and externalizing behavior problems, which, in turn, is likely to put the
family under more stress. This circular trend has major implications for the future, as it
contributes to systemic inequity for families in poverty (Kohen, 1998).
More extensive research is critical to enhancing the field’s current understanding of
parenting styles and the role they play in child behavioral outcomes. An increased understanding
of the roots of different parenting practices, may enable the field to more effectively address the
environmental factors that lead parents to adopt less ideal strategies. This research should be
used to guide the development of more effective prevention and intervention programs aimed at
fostering adaptive behavioral development in children. Because parenting programs have been
found to demonstrate a large and sustained effect on early disruptive behavior problems (Comer
et al., 2013), it is important to ensure these programs are widely available to at-risk families, and
that these families are aware of their availability. Additionally, parenting programs are typically
delivered in a group format versus individualized therapy, which has been found to be cost-
effective, decrease stigma, and promote peer support (Comer et al., 2013; Gross et al., 2003;
Sanders, 1999). It is imperative parents are not blamed for their parenting practices or for their
children’s behavioral outcomes, but are instead given the opportunities and resources they need.
Taking advantage of these resources may help parents employ more appropriate parenting
practices and promote the adaptive behavioral development of their children.
Source: https://www.psychologyinaction.org/psychology-in-action-
1/2018/4/23/k17ziyfqt1vy9tlytr9l9k48epdnur