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Membrane Bioreactor Processes: Principles and Applications

Book · July 2015

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 Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................xvii
Author .............................................................................................................................................xix

Chapter 1 Principle of Membrane Filtration ................................................................................. 1

1.1 Classification of Filtration .................................................................................1
1.1.1 Surface Filtration and Depth Filtration ................................................ 1
1.1.2 Crossflow Filtration and Dead-End Filtration ......................................1
1.2 Filtration Theory ...............................................................................................3
1.2.1 Concentration Polarization ................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Resistance in Series Model .................................................................. 5
1.2.3 Cake Layer Compaction ....................................................................... 6
1.2.3.1 Mechanism............................................................................6
1.2.3.2 Structure of Cake Layer........................................................ 7
1.2.3.3 Model Equation ....................................................................8
1.2.3.4 Self-Acceleration of Cake Layer Compaction under
Constant Flux Mode ............................................................. 9
1.2.4 Dynamic Membrane ............................................................................. 9
1.2.5 Particle Back-Transport ...................................................................... 12
1.2.5.1 Overview............................................................................. 12
1.2.5.2 Brownian Diffusion ............................................................ 13
1.2.5.3 Shear-Induced Diffusion..................................................... 13
1.2.5.4 Inertial Lift ......................................................................... 14
1.2.5.5 Total Back-Transport Velocity and Critical Flux ................ 15
1.2.5.6 Effect on Cake Layer Structure .......................................... 16
1.2.6 Critical Flux ....................................................................................... 18
1.2.6.1 Definition ............................................................................ 18
1.2.6.2 Measurement....................................................................... 18
1.2.7 Effect of TMP on Flux ....................................................................... 19
1.2.7.1 Theory................................................................................. 19
1.2.7.2 Where Do Submerged and Sidestream Membranes
Stand in the Curve?............................................................. 21
1.2.8 Effect of Membrane Resistance on Operating Flux ........................... 21
1.2.9 Effect of Temperature on Flux ........................................................... 23
1.2.10 Filtration Theory for Nonporous Membrane......................................24
1.3 Membrane Fouling ..........................................................................................26
1.3.1 Constant Flux versus Constant Pressure ............................................26
1.3.2 Membrane Fouling Roadmap ............................................................. 27
1.3.2.1 Constant Flux Mode ........................................................... 27
1.3.2.2 Constant Pressure Mode .....................................................28
1.3.2.3 Sudden TMP Increase......................................................... 29
1.4 Effect of Membrane Surface Property on Flux ............................................... 31
1.4.1 Streaming Zeta Potential of Membrane Surface ................................ 31
1.4.1.1 Definition and Measurement .............................................. 31
1.4.1.2 Effect of Zeta Potential on Membrane Fouling .................. 33

vii

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1.4.2 Contact Angle .....................................................................................34

1.4.2.1 Theory.................................................................................34
1.4.2.2 Effect of Contact Angle on Membrane Fouling ................. 36
1.4.3 Surface Roughness ............................................................................. 37
1.4.4 Pore Size and Distribution.................................................................. 39
1.4.5 Internal Pore Connectivity ................................................................. 41
1.4.6 Limitation of the Theory .................................................................... 41
1.5 Membrane Chemistry and Manufacturing ...................................................... 42
1.5.1 Membrane Structure........................................................................... 42
1.5.2 Membrane Chemistry......................................................................... 43
1.5.3 Porous Membrane Manufacturing ..................................................... 45
1.6 Why Is Increasing Design Flux Hard in Membrane Process? ........................ 47
1.6.1 History of Flux ................................................................................... 47
1.6.2 Self-Limiting Nature of Flux ............................................................. 48
1.6.3 Economic Constraints on Flux ........................................................... 49

Chapter 2 Membrane Process ..................................................................................................... 51

2.1 Classification of Membrane Process ............................................................... 51
2.1.1 Depending on Pore Size ..................................................................... 51
2.1.2 Membrane and Module Configuration ............................................... 53
2.1.3 Sidestream MBR versus Submerged MBR ........................................ 58
2.1.3.1 Sidestream MBR................................................................. 58
2.1.3.2 Submerged MBR ................................................................ 59
2.1.4 Integrated versus Separated Membrane Tank ....................................60
2.2 Hollow Fiber Membranes ................................................................................ 62
2.2.1 Outside-In versus Inside-Out Filtration Mode ................................... 62
2.2.1.1 Outside-In Mode ................................................................. 62
2.2.1.2 Inside-Out Mode ................................................................. 63
2.2.2 Internal Pressure Loss ........................................................................64
2.2.2.1 Overview.............................................................................64
2.2.2.2 Theory.................................................................................64
2.2.2.3 Internal Pressure and Flux Profile as a Function of
Average Flux .......................................................................66
2.2.2.4 Road Map of Flux Profile in Hollow Fibers ....................... 67
2.2.2.5 Effect of Internal Pressure Drop in Crossflow and
Dead-End Modes ................................................................ 70
2.2.2.6 Commercial Modules ......................................................... 71
2.3 Flat Sheet Modules .......................................................................................... 72
2.4 Tubular Membrane .......................................................................................... 74
2.4.1 Tubular Membranes with Single-Phase Flow .................................... 74
2.4.1.1 Optimization Issue .............................................................. 74
2.4.1.2 Optimization of System Design and Operation .................. 76
2.4.2 Tubular Membranes with Two-Phase Flow ........................................ 77
2.4.2.1 Horizontally Mounted Tubular Membrane at High
Crossflow Velocity .............................................................. 77
2.4.2.2 Vertically Mounted Tubular Membrane at Low
Crossflow Velocity .............................................................. 77
2.5 Submerged Rotating Disc Modules .................................................................80
2.6 Filtration of Water with a Low Amount of Suspended Solids ........................ 81

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2.6.1 Pressure Filtration .............................................................................. 81

2.6.2 Vacuum Filtration ............................................................................... 82
2.6.3 Effect of Flux on System Performance .............................................. 82
2.6.4 Pathogen Removal .............................................................................. 83
2.6.4.1 Log Removal Value ............................................................ 83
2.6.4.2 Virus Removal ....................................................................84
2.6.4.3 Coliform Removal .............................................................. 86
2.7 Membrane Integrity Monitoring...................................................................... 86
2.7.1 Overview ............................................................................................ 86
2.7.2 Direct Method .................................................................................... 88
2.7.2.1 Bubble Point Test ................................................................ 88
2.7.2.2 Pressure Decay Test ............................................................90
2.7.2.3 Diffusive Air Flow Test ......................................................92
2.7.2.4 Vacuum Decay Test ............................................................92
2.7.3 Indirect Method .................................................................................. 93
2.7.3.1 Turbidity Monitoring .......................................................... 93
2.7.3.2 Particle Counting ................................................................ 93
2.7.3.3 Microbial Challenge Test .................................................... 93
2.7.3.4 Nanoparticle Challenge Tests ............................................. 95
2.8 Membrane Suppliers ........................................................................................ 95

Chapter 3 Submerged Membrane Process ..................................................................................97

3.1 Overview .........................................................................................................97
3.2 Operation of Submerged Membrane ............................................................... 98
3.2.1 Permeate Drawing .............................................................................. 98
3.2.1.1 Intermittent Permeate Drawing .......................................... 98
3.2.1.2 Gravity-Driven Permeate Drawing ..................................... 98
3.2.2 Intermittent Aeration ..........................................................................99
3.2.2.1 Intermittent Aeration with Defined Cycle ..........................99
3.2.2.2 Intermittent Aeration with Undefined Cycle .................... 102
3.2.3 Specific Air Demand and Specific Energy Demand ........................ 104
3.2.4 Removal Efficiency .......................................................................... 106
3.2.4.1 Effluent Quality ................................................................ 106
3.2.4.2 Heavy Metals Removal ..................................................... 108
3.2.5 Membrane Cleaning ......................................................................... 109
3.2.5.1 Backwashing ..................................................................... 109
3.2.5.2 Maintenance Cleaning ...................................................... 109
3.2.5.3 Recovery Cleaning ........................................................... 110
3.2.6 Diffuser Cleaning and Maintenance ................................................ 112
3.3 Fundamentals of Air Scouring in Submerged Membrane ............................ 114
3.3.1 Membrane Scouring Mechanism ..................................................... 114
3.3.2 Effect of Airflow on Membrane Fouling ......................................... 117
3.3.3 Effect of Bubble Size on Flux .......................................................... 119
3.3.3.1 Overview........................................................................... 119
3.3.3.2 Flat Sheet .......................................................................... 119
3.3.3.3 Hollow Fiber ..................................................................... 123
3.4 Optimization of Submerged Hollow Fiber Module ....................................... 124
3.4.1 Effect of Fiber Looseness ................................................................. 124
3.4.2 Effect of Fiber Flexibility ................................................................. 126

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3.4.3 Effect of Internal Pressure Loss ....................................................... 128

3.4.3.1 Membrane Fouling Induced by Internal Pressure Loss.... 128
3.4.3.2 Advantages of Long and Thin Hollow Fibers .................. 128
3.4.3.3 A New Direction to Improve Hollow Fiber Membrane
Performance ...................................................................... 129
3.4.4 Hollow Fiber Dimension Optimization ............................................ 130
3.4.5 Packing Density................................................................................ 132
3.4.5.1 Effect of Packing Density on Productivity ....................... 132
3.4.5.2 Packing Density of Commercial Modules ........................ 133
3.4.6 Effect of Fiber Location ................................................................... 133
3.4.7 Vertical Mount versus Horizontal Mount ........................................ 135
3.4.8 Header Design .................................................................................. 136
3.4.8.1 Bottom Header .................................................................. 136
3.4.8.2 Open Top Header .............................................................. 137
3.4.9 Connections among the Factors Affecting Module Optimization ... 138
3.5 Optimization of Submerged Flat Sheet Membrane ....................................... 140
3.5.1 Overview .......................................................................................... 140
3.5.2 Design Parameters............................................................................ 140
3.5.3 Upflow Pattern and Its Effect on Fouling......................................... 141
3.5.4 Modified Module Design ................................................................. 143

Chapter 4 Activated Sludge Process ......................................................................................... 145

4.1 Overview ....................................................................................................... 145
4.2 Wastewater Microbiology .............................................................................. 147
4.2.1 Microorganisms................................................................................ 147
4.2.1.1 Virus ................................................................................. 147
4.2.1.2 Prokaryote......................................................................... 147
4.2.1.3 Eukaryote.......................................................................... 149
4.2.2 Bacterial Composition and Nutrient Requirement ........................... 150
4.2.3 Kinetics ............................................................................................ 152
4.2.4 Distinguished Microbial Properties of MBR from CAS ................. 154
4.3 Operational Issues ......................................................................................... 155
4.3.1 Foaming............................................................................................ 155
4.3.2 Sludge Bulking and Pin Floc............................................................ 157
4.3.3 Sludge Rise in the Secondary Clarifier in CAS ............................... 158
4.3.4 Chemical Treatment ......................................................................... 158
4.3.5 Effect of Foaming, Sludge Bulking, and Pin Floc in MBR ............. 159
4.4 Nitrogen Removal .......................................................................................... 161
4.4.1 Nitrification ...................................................................................... 161
4.4.1.1 Mechanism........................................................................ 161
4.4.1.2 Effect of pH Level and Alkalinity .................................... 162
4.4.1.3 Temperature Effect ........................................................... 163
4.4.1.4 Dissolved Oxygen Effect .................................................. 164
4.4.2 Denitrification .................................................................................. 164
4.4.2.1 Effect of Oxidation Reduction Potential........................... 164
4.4.2.2 Requirement of Readily Biodegradable COD .................. 165
4.4.2.3 Oxygen Credit from Denitrification ................................. 166
4.4.2.4 Alkalinity Production from Denitrification ...................... 166
4.4.2.5 Simultaneous Nitrification and Denitrification ................ 166

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4.5 Phosphorus Removal ..................................................................................... 167

4.5.1 Biological Phosphorus Removal....................................................... 167
4.5.2 Chemical Phosphorus Removal ....................................................... 169
4.5.2.1 Overview........................................................................... 169
4.5.2.2 Chemicals Used ................................................................ 169
4.5.2.3 Mechanism........................................................................ 170
4.5.2.4 Factors Affecting Removal Efficiency.............................. 171
4.5.2.5 Effect of the Me/P Ratio on Removal Efficiency ............. 174
4.5.2.6 Toxicity of Inorganic Coagulant ....................................... 175
4.6 BNR Process.................................................................................................. 176
4.6.1 Constraints in Process Design.......................................................... 176
4.6.2 MLE Process .................................................................................... 177
4.6.3 Hyundai Advanced Nutrient Treatment Process .............................. 178
4.6.4 Modified UCT Process ..................................................................... 179
4.6.5 Step Feed Process............................................................................. 181
4.6.6 Case Studies ..................................................................................... 182
4.6.6.1 Traverse City, Michigan, USA .......................................... 182
4.6.6.2 Nordkanal, Germany (Brepols 2011) ................................ 185
4.7 Posttreatment ................................................................................................. 188
4.7.1 Disinfection ...................................................................................... 188
4.7.2 Advanced Oxidation Process for Trace Organic Removal .............. 190
4.7.3 Adsorption ........................................................................................ 191
4.7.3.1 Principle ............................................................................ 191
4.7.3.2 Application for the Secondary Effluent Treatment ........... 192
4.8 Rheology of Mixed Liquor ............................................................................ 193

Chapter 5 Membrane Fouling in Membrane Bioreactor ........................................................... 197

5.1 Overview ....................................................................................................... 197
5.2 Factors Affecting Membrane Performance ................................................... 197
5.2.1 Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids ...................................................... 197
5.2.2 SMP and EPS ................................................................................... 199
5.2.2.1 Definition and Quantification ........................................... 199
5.2.2.2 Effect on Membrane Fouling ............................................ 201
5.2.3 Organic Loading ..............................................................................203
5.2.3.1 Effect of F/M Ratio on Membrane Fouling ......................203
5.2.3.2 Effect of F/M Ratio on SMP/EPS.....................................204
5.2.3.3 Effect of F/M Ratio on Membrane Fouling in
Anaerobic MBR ................................................................204
5.2.3.4 Effect on Subsequent Reverse Osmosis Membrane
Fouling in Water Recycle .................................................206
5.2.4 Dissolved Oxygen.............................................................................206
5.2.5 Fat, Oil, and Grease..........................................................................207
5.2.6 Antifoam ..........................................................................................208
5.2.7 Effect of Unsteady Operation ...........................................................208
5.2.7.1 Normal Fluctuation of F/M Ratio .....................................208
5.2.7.2 Shock Hydraulic Loading ................................................. 210
5.2.7.3 Shock Organic Loading at Low DO ................................. 212
5.2.7.4 Shock Organic Loading at High DO ................................ 213
5.2.8 Water Temperature ........................................................................... 213

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5.2.9 Salinity ............................................................................................. 214

5.2.10 Shear Stress ...................................................................................... 217
5.2.10.1 MBR with Submerged Membrane .................................... 217
5.2.10.2 MBR with Sidestream Membranes................................... 217
5.2.11 Nutrient Balance............................................................................... 218
5.2.12 Scaling .............................................................................................. 220
5.3 Mixed Liquor Characterization ..................................................................... 221
5.3.1 Overview .......................................................................................... 221
5.3.2 Direct Method .................................................................................. 221
5.3.2.1 Free Drainage Test ............................................................ 221
5.3.2.2 Time to Filter .................................................................... 222
5.3.2.3 Modified Free Drainage Test ............................................ 222
5.3.2.4 Modified Fouling Index .................................................... 222
5.3.2.5 Delft Filtration Characterization Method .........................224
5.3.3 Indirect Method ................................................................................ 225
5.3.3.1 Capillary Suction Time..................................................... 225
5.3.3.2 Colloidal TOC .................................................................. 226
5.3.3.3 Particle Size Analysis ....................................................... 227
5.3.3.4 Hydrophobicity of Floc ..................................................... 227
5.4 Methods to Reduce Fouling .......................................................................... 228
5.4.1 Use of Biocarrier (Biofilm-MBR) .................................................... 228
5.4.2 Use of Inorganic Coagulants and Adsorbents .................................. 230
5.4.3 Use of Water-Soluble Polymers ........................................................ 231
5.4.4 Experimental Methods ..................................................................... 233
5.4.4.1 Quorum Quenching .......................................................... 233
5.4.4.2 Vibration of Membrane or Mixed Liquor ......................... 234
5.4.4.3 Electrical Field .................................................................. 236
5.4.4.4 Ultrasonication.................................................................. 236
5.5 Effect of Flow Balancing on Membrane Performance .................................. 237
5.5.1 Scouring Air ..................................................................................... 237
5.5.1.1 Cause of Unbalanced Scouring Air .................................. 237
5.5.1.2 Consequence ..................................................................... 238
5.5.2 Permeate Drawing ............................................................................ 239
5.5.3 Mixed Liquor Circulation................................................................. 239
5.6 Excess Sludge Reduction Process ................................................................. 241
5.6.1 Principle ........................................................................................... 241
5.6.2 Sludge Reduction by Extending SRT: Economic Aspect ................. 241
5.6.3 Sludge Disintegration Methods ........................................................ 243
5.6.3.1 Biological Method ............................................................ 243
5.6.3.2 Chemical Method ............................................................. 243
5.6.3.3 Physicochemical Method ..................................................244
5.6.4 Effect of Sludge Reduction Process on Nutrient Removal ...............246
5.6.5 Effect of Sludge Reduction Process on Membrane Fouling ............ 247
5.6.6 Economics of Biosolid Reduction Process .......................................248
5.7 Scalability of MBR from Laboratory Scale to Full Scale ............................. 249

Chapter 6 MBR Design ............................................................................................................. 253

6.1 Lessons Learned from History ...................................................................... 253
6.2 Pretreatment .................................................................................................. 254
6.3 Biological System Design .............................................................................. 256

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6.3.1
Organic Loading Rate or F/M Ratio ................................................ 256
6.3.2
HRT/SRT .......................................................................................... 258
6.3.3
Oxygen Uptake Rate ........................................................................ 258
6.3.4
Sludge Yield ..................................................................................... 259
6.3.5
Oxygen Demand ............................................................................... 262
6.3.5.1 Overall Reaction ............................................................... 262
6.3.5.2 Oxygen Demand Calculation ............................................ 263
6.3.6 Comparison of CSTR with PFR....................................................... 265
6.3.6.1 Mixing Patterns in CSTR and PFR .................................. 265
6.3.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of PFR in the CAS
Process .............................................................................. 267
6.3.6.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of PFR in the MBR
Process .............................................................................. 267
6.4 Membrane System ......................................................................................... 269
6.4.1 Flux and Membrane Area ................................................................ 269
6.4.2 Specific Air Demand ........................................................................ 270
6.4.3 Air Scouring System ........................................................................ 270
6.5 Oxygen Transfer Efficiency ........................................................................... 272
6.5.1 Theory .............................................................................................. 272
6.5.1.1 Standardized Oxygen Transfer Efficiency ........................ 272
6.5.1.2 OTE Estimation in Process Water/Mixed Liquor ............ 273
6.5.2 Factors Affecting OTE ..................................................................... 275
6.5.2.1 Diffuser Pore Size............................................................. 275
6.5.2.2 Airflow Rate ..................................................................... 276
6.5.2.3 Spatial Distribution of Diffuser ........................................ 277
6.5.2.4 Diffuser Fouling ............................................................... 277
6.5.2.5 MLSS and Viscosity ......................................................... 278
6.5.2.6 SRT and F/M Ratio ........................................................... 278
6.5.2.7 Foaming ............................................................................280
6.5.2.8 Biocarriers and Flow Pattern in Aeration Tank................ 282
6.5.3 OTE Measurement ........................................................................... 283
6.5.3.1 Non–Steady State Absorption Method ............................. 283
6.5.3.2 Non–Steady State Desorption Method ............................. 285
6.5.3.3 Steady State Method ......................................................... 286
6.6 Oxygen Balance in MBR............................................................................... 287
6.7 Peak Flow Handling ...................................................................................... 288
6.8 Aeration Optimization ................................................................................... 290
6.9 Planning Hydraulic Grade Line .................................................................... 291
6.10 Membrane Life Span ..................................................................................... 292
6.10.1 Factors Affecting Membrane Life .................................................... 292
6.10.2 Manufacturer’s Estimation ............................................................... 293
6.10.3 Third Parties’ Estimation ................................................................. 294
6.11 Trace Organics Removal ............................................................................... 296
6.11.1 Removal Mechanism ........................................................................ 296
6.11.2 Factors Affecting Removal Efficiency ............................................. 297
6.11.2.1 Effect of Hydrophobicity of Compound ........................... 297
6.11.2.2 Effect of Temperature ....................................................... 298
6.11.2.3 Effect of SRT .................................................................... 298
6.11.3 Removal Efficiency .......................................................................... 299
6.11.4 Comparison with CAS Process ........................................................ 299

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6.12 Oily Wastewater Treatment ........................................................................... 301

6.12.1 Pretreatment ..................................................................................... 301
6.12.2 Produced Water ................................................................................ 303
6.12.2.1 Characteristics of Produced Water ................................... 303
6.12.2.2 Optimum Design Parameters ...........................................304
6.12.2.3 Treatment Efficiency.........................................................304
6.12.3 Petroleum Refinery Wastewater ....................................................... 305
6.13 Excess Sludge Treatment ...............................................................................306
6.13.1 Overview ..........................................................................................306
6.13.2 Sludge Pretreatment .........................................................................306
6.13.3 Sludge Thickening or Dewatering ....................................................309
6.13.4 Sludge Stabilization .......................................................................... 312
6.13.5 Sludge Disposal ................................................................................ 313
6.14 Practical Issues in MBR Design .................................................................... 314
6.15 Power Costs ................................................................................................... 316
6.15.1 Blower............................................................................................... 316
6.15.2 Pump ................................................................................................ 318
6.15.3 Motor ................................................................................................ 319
6.15.4 Power Factor ..................................................................................... 319
6.15.5 Price of Electrical Power .................................................................. 321
6.15.6 Case Example No. 1: MBR with Submerged Membranes ............... 321
6.15.6.1 Condition and Assumption ............................................... 321
6.15.6.2 Results............................................................................... 323
6.15.7 Case Example No. 2: MBR with Crossflow Membranes ................. 324
6.16 Capital Expenditure ....................................................................................... 328
6.17 SED of Submerged MBR .............................................................................. 329
6.18 Operating Expenditure .................................................................................. 331

Chapter 7 Other Applications ................................................................................................... 333

7.1 Direct Membrane Filtration of Wastewater ................................................... 333
7.1.1 Overview .......................................................................................... 333
7.1.2 DMF Based on Tubular Membrane .................................................. 333
7.1.3 DMF Based on Submerged Membrane ............................................ 334
7.2 Membrane Contactors for Gas Transfer ........................................................ 336
7.2.1 Overview .......................................................................................... 336
7.2.2 Fundamental Issues Associated with Membrane Contactors...........340
7.2.2.1 Lumen Condensation ........................................................340
7.2.2.2 Pore Wetting ..................................................................... 341
7.2.2.3 Biofilm Control Issue ........................................................ 342
7.2.3 Water Vapor Condensation Modeling .............................................. 342
7.2.4 Oxoanion Removal ........................................................................... 343
7.2.5 Membrane Distillation ..................................................................... 345
7.3 Membrane Process for Water Reclamation ................................................... 348
7.3.1 Nonpotable Reuse ............................................................................. 348
7.3.2 CAS Microfiltration or Ultrafiltration versus MBR as a
Pretreatment of Reverse Osmosis..................................................... 350
7.3.3 Indirect Potable Reuse...................................................................... 353
7.3.3.1 Concept ............................................................................. 353
7.3.3.2 Reclaimed Water Quality ................................................. 354
7.3.3.3 Groundwater Replenishment System................................ 355

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7.3.4 Membrane Integrity Test/Monitoring .............................................. 356

7.3.4.1 Overview........................................................................... 356
7.3.4.2 Method of Using Conductivity, TOC, and Sulfate ........... 356
7.3.4.3 Method of Using Fluorescent Dye .................................... 357
7.4 Anaerobic MBR............................................................................................. 359
7.4.1 Overview .......................................................................................... 359
7.4.2 Biological Aspect of AD .................................................................. 362
7.4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages Over Conventional AD .................. 363
7.4.4 Membrane Fouling ........................................................................... 365
7.4.5 Design of Mesophilic AnMBR ........................................................ 366
7.5 High-Retention Membrane Bioreactor .......................................................... 368
7.5.1 MBR with Nanofiltration Membrane ............................................... 368
7.5.2 Application of Forward Osmosis to MBR........................................ 370
7.5.2.1 Principle of Forward Osmosis .......................................... 370
7.5.2.2 Challenges of FO .............................................................. 371
7.5.2.3 Energetics.......................................................................... 373
7.5.2.4 FOMBR ............................................................................ 374
7.6 MBR with Woven or Nonwoven Textile Filter .............................................. 376
7.6.1 Overview .......................................................................................... 376
7.6.2 Factors Affecting the Performance .................................................. 377
7.6.3 Operating Experiences in Literature ................................................ 378
7.7 Thermophilic MBR ....................................................................................... 380
References ..................................................................................................................................... 383
Abbreviations ...............................................................................................................................407
Unit Conversion ............................................................................................................................ 411
Index .............................................................................................................................................. 413

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