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EVOLUTION OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
Bruce H. Clark, Associate Professor, Marketing, Northeastern University
Tim Ambler, Senior Fellow, London Business School
Biographical Notes: Bruce Clark is an Associate Professor in Marketing at Northeastern
University. A former direct marketing and software executive, Professor Clark is an active
researcher in marketing performance measurement. Coauthor of the book Marketing
Performance Assessment, his work in this area has also appeared in the Journal of
Marketing Management and the Journal of Strategic Marketing. He also researches
competitive strategy and managerial decision making. Work in these areas has appeared in
the Journal of Marketing, Journal of Strategic Marketing, Management Science, and
Marketing Letters, among others. He sits on the boards of the Journal of the Academy of
Marketing Science, Journal of Strategic Marketing, Marketing Management, and the
Performance Measurement Association. His MBA is from Harvard Business School and
his Ph.D. from the Graduate School of Business, Stanford University.
Tim Ambler joined the London Business School in 1991 and is a Senior Fellow. He leads
the PAN’AGRA program of research projects which include the measurement of marketing
performance and brand equity (‘Marketing Metrics’ and ‘Brand Stewardship’), advertising
and promotions effectiveness, marketing in China and overseas market entry. He has
published an introductory text, ‘Marketing: from Advertising to Zen’, in the Financial
Times Guide series, and, with Chris Styles, ‘The SILK road to international marketing:
Profit and PASSION in global business’. His latest book is 'Marketing and the Bottom Line'
(Financial Times Prentice Hall). He was previously joint Managing Director of
International Distillers and Vintners (IDV—now part of Diageo), responsible for strategy,
acquisitions, and marketing. He holds master’s degrees in Mathematics from Oxford
University and Business from the Sloan School of Management, MIT. He is a chartered
accountant.
MARKETING PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT:
EVOLUTION OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
Abstract
This article reviews the evolution of marketing performance measurement
from both research and practitioner perspectives. We find four historical
research stages that have evolved in sequence but now continue
concurrently, and explore how firms evolve their use of marketing
performance measures. Practitioners increasingly regard effectiveness as
more important than efficiency in marketing performance. The paper
extrapolates that evolution to suggest future directions for practitioners.
Identifying the impact of performance measurement systems over time is a
critical issue for both research and improved practice.
1 Introduction
At the dawn of a new century, the measurement of marketing performance has never
been more important for firms. Driven by the desire for sales growth, increasing customer
orientation, the need for longterm performance measurement, and demands for better
marketing activities and business performance. In the US, the Marketing Science
Institute elevated Marketing Metrics to become its equal top research priority [1,2], while
in the UK, several trade associations have sponsored a major project to research
Marketing Metrics [3].
This paper reviews the past, present and possible future directions of marketing
performance measurement from both academic and practitioner perspectives. We outline
four academic stages of measure development from the past to the present day, and then
articulate what we see as the typical evolution of marketing assessment by the firm, based
evolution of practice mirrors the evolution of academic research, and that effectiveness
thoughts on the challenge of developing a workable set of brand equity metrics for both
scholars and managers.
2
2 Evolution of scholarly research
2.1 Stage 1: Marketing Productivity
From earliest studies through the 1970s, most research on measuring marketing
manufacturing productivity, these efforts typically looked at measuring output per unit of
input as a means of assessing marketing’s contribution to company success. The goal of
this research was to guide marketing managers regarding how most efficiently to allocate
their marketing resources (e.g., advertising) to maximise financial return.
Sevin [4] laid out detailed profitability analysis for products and marketing
programs (see also Goodman [5]). Feder [6] borrowed from the microeconomic literature
to discuss comparing marginal revenues to marginal costs as a way of better allocating
marketing resources. Day and Fahey [7] advocated the use of discounted cash flows as a
way of calculating the net present value of marketing strategies, an approach that
continues to be discussed to this day [8].
In an extensive review, Bonoma and Clark [9] found that the most frequent
measures of output in firmlevel productivity studies were, in order, profit, sales (unit and
value), market share, and cash flow. The most common inputs were marketing expense,
investment, and number of employees. They also noted a large number (26) of
moderating factors, which they organised under categories of:
3
Market characteristicse.g., industry structure, competition, market volatility
Product characteristicse.g., life cycle position, product mix
Customer characteristicse.g., profitability, growth, mix
Task characteristicse.g., activity magnitude and frequency, transaction size
and frequency
4
2.2 Stage 2: NonFinancial Measures of Output
From the late 1970s through the late 1980s, there was a move to expand the consideration
of output measures to nonmonetary measures. Unit market share attracted tremendous
attention as an output variable in this period. Work by the Boston Consulting Group [10]
and the Profit Impact of Market Strategies (PIMS) project [11] concluded that market
share was a strong predictor of cash flow and profitability. The PIMS project, in
particular, drew a strong causal chain from relative perceived product quality to market
share to profitability [11]. The market shareprofit link has proven controversial [12,13].
Gale, one of the original PIMS authors, subsequently concluded that perceived product
quality drove market share and profit separately [14].
continuing attention, is the adaptability or innovativeness of a firm’s marketing [15,16].
behind measuring adaptability is that in a changing environment, firms that are unable to
adapt will fail [16]. Organisations may, for example, measure the percentage of sales
accounted for by new products.
attention as customer satisfaction. With a large and continuing academic research stream
(e.g., [17]), customer satisfaction measures have become important benchmarks in many
industries. The presumption is that firms with high customer satisfaction will perform
5
better financially in the long run, although the truth of this proposition has been difficult
to confirm (see Yeung and Ennew [18] for a discussion).
influence financial performance is through customer loyalty (e.g., [19]). Customers who
stay with a firm for a longer period of time are presumed to be more profitable through
higher frequency and amount of purchases as well as lower servicing costs [20]. As with
customer satisfaction, customer retention measurement and management has become a
highprofile initiative at many organisations. Especially in businesses that operate on a
subscription or contractual basis, it appears retention is a critical variable in customer
profitability, but Reinartz and Kumar [21] document that this is not necessarily true in
other businesses.
2.3 Stage 3: Measuring Market Orientation
The market orientation perspectivealso variously described as marketingoriented and
marketdriven [22,23]suggests that good marketing involves activities that develop and
use intelligence about the market. While definitions across studies vary (e.g., [2426]),
empirical evidence regarding the relationship between market orientation and overall
business performance is quite mixed [2429]. Empirical generalisations on this subject
6
are complicated due to the varying operationalisations of both market orientation and
business performance, as well as the role of moderating and mediating factors [30,31].
2.4 Stage 4: Measuring MarketBased Assets
Finally, there has been recent and continuing attention paid to market based assets [32,8].
Piercy defines an asset as a “valueproducing resource” for the firm, and notes marketing
assets are generally outside the scope of financial evaluation [32, pp. 910]. Srivastava et
al. [8] suggest that assets can be divided into relational and intellectual assets, the former
covering relationships with current external stakeholders (e.g., customers) and the latter
covering knowledge about the firm's environment.
One critical marketbased asset, which we call “brand equity”, takes time to
develop; if inimitable, it can represent a significant advantage in the marketplace. An
assetbased perspective suggests that good marketing develops brand equity, which in
turn generates superior business performance over the long term ([33,34] for reviews).
Strong brands, it is argued, (1) attract new customers and encourage existing
customers to buy more often and/or in larger quantities; (2) allow firms to charge price
premiums over unbranded or poorly branded products; (3) can be used to extend the
company’s business into other product categories (e.g., the Ivory brand name was
extended to introduce Ivory Shampoo); and (4) reduce perceived risk to customers (and,
perhaps, investors). Years of substantial and consistent marketing expense can create a
7
powerful brand; conversely, barring public relations disasters, this asset can take
substantial time to dissipate even with reduced marketing support.
The significance of the marketing asset concept is that it provides the means to
reconcile short and longterm perspectives. Marketing performance can be defined as
shortterm performance adjusted by the increase or decrease in the brand equity during
the period.
attempts to measure the differential effect of brand knowledge on customer response to
marketing of the brand [35]. Behavioural measures include sales and share, customer
acquisition, retention, loyalty and penetration. The financial approach attempts to divine
the financial value of the brand to its owner. A widely cited approach in this area was
developed by Simon and Sullivan [36], who define brand equity as the incremental cash
flows that accrue to branded products over and above the cash flows that would result
from the sale of unbranded products.
(mostly) the word “brand” excludes the product(s) on which it is based whereas in the
UK the products are included. This makes a big difference to the cash flows used for
valuation and to the role of marketing if increasing brand equity is the objective (see [37]
for a discussion of brand valuation).
8
There is little question that brands can make a powerful difference in how
customers respond to brands and brand extensions [34], and growing evidence that brand
equity has an influence on investors as well [36]. Barwise [33] notes, however, that we
know relatively little about the impact of a brand on longterm profitability.
3 Evolution of managerial practice
While no single sequence will characterise all firms, unpublished results from the
performance within a firm [3]. In the first stage, there is no awareness that marketing
might require separate measurement. The company simply tracks its overall financial
results. In the second stage, the firm applies financial measurement specifically to
marketing (e.g., sales and profitability analysis, brand valuation or estimating their return
on marketing investment). This stage resembles the productivity paradigm in research.
Some respondents indicated that, at some point, their firm found purely financial
indicators inadequate and moved to include nonfinancial measures of performance (e.g.,
customer satisfaction). Again this seemed to mirror the evolution in the literature.
Those who have been through the previous stages found they often had too many
measures to give a coherent view of marketing performance as a whole. Most firms in
this stage use at least 20 indicators, and the number can run as high as 100. This can
9
present serious interpretation problems. Ambler and Kokkinaki [38] suggest that there
are many sound marketing measures available, but that the challenge is correctly
measures appear likely to be intercorrelated [39].
To cope with a myriad of measures, the next stage in the firm’s evolution of
metrics is to condense, using experience rather than modelling, the measures to “metrics”
defined as meeting the standards of necessity, precision, consistency, and sufficiency.
Necessity involves removing measures that move in step with other measures, i.e.
accurate. Consistency means that measures are comparable across business units and
time. Finally, sufficiency mandates that no crucial indicators be excluded. Precision and
consistency appeared to be particular problems for firms. The latter is troubling in that
most firms recognised that metrics were only valuable as supplying trends over time.
The best practice frontier in marketing has moved to sophisticated quantitative
indicators appears to be where managerial marketing practice is heading. In the US,
major consumer products and market research firms have done extensive econometric
work using data acquired from checkout scanners [40]. The goal is to be able
conclusively to demonstrate the effect of present marketing activities and assets on future
sales and profit.
10
4 Current Managerial Practice
relatively rare. Three recent studies provide some comparisons. Ambler and Kokkinaki
[38] conducted a twostage study of British executives’ marketing assessment in practice,
with in depth followed by a quantitative survey of metrics at the category level across
retailing, consumer goods and services, and businesstobusiness goods and services.
Ambler and Riley [41] followed this with a survey of usage at the level of the individual
metrics. In the US, Clark [42] surveyed marketing vice presidents drawn from a broad
crosssection of firms in the Dun+Bradstreet database to examine what measures they
used and how they weighted them to evaluate marketing performance as a whole. The
results of these studies show some striking consistencies, as follows.
Executives use multiple measures in evaluating marketing performance. Ambler
evaluating marketing: 26 marketing respondents, for example, identified an average of
6.88 per respondent. Clark found his respondents checked off an average of 2.68
measures out of six.
Of these multiple measures, financial indicators are the most important. Ambler
and Kokkinaki found financial measures most frequently mentioned in their interviews,
11
and ranked highest in importance in their survey data. Further, financial measures, such
as sales, margin and profit, were collected more frequently than other indicators. Clark’s
data revealed that sales and profit were the most common measures used.
performance. Ambler and Kokkinaki identified the benchmarks against which marketing
results were compared. For example, financial measures were most frequently compared
to marketing plan, while customer measures were most frequently compared to previous
year measures. Clark found that comparison of results to plan/expectations was one of
the most important drivers of overall satisfaction with marketing performance.
against both the firm’s own objectives as shown, for example, in their plan, and by
external criteria, e.g. the performance of leading competitors or the market as a whole.
The literature on market based assets (brand equity) noted above modifies those
conclusions to the extent that it makes little difference whether performance is achieved
at the end of one period or the beginning of the next. Brand equity provides the
mechanism to deal with these arbitrary cutoffs. Firms need to evaluate brand equity at
the beginning and end of each period and incorporate the change in their comparisons
with internal targets and competitors.
Ambler and Riley [41] explored the individual metrics in use, together with
differences by measures emerged as being in common usage. There is a very long tail,
12
perhaps several hundred of metrics rarely used, even after removing conceptual
duplication such as measures for campaigns versus those for accounting periods, or
metrics which are products of existing metrics, or comparisons (this year as a percent of
last year for example). Using survey methodology, content validity and scale purification
techniques, the original 54 were reduced to a common practice list of 19 metrics on the
basis of top management review and perceived importance for assessing performance.
Practitioner issues suffer from confusion over what metrics are for. The classic
efficiency measures, such as ROI or shareholder value, even if they could be tied neatly to
Srivastava, Shervani, and Fahey [8] and Doyle [44] have not yet permeated management
thinking.
On the other hand, the classic non-financial market measures, such as perceived
quality and penetration, are more attuned to effectiveness, i.e. whether the marketing
achieves goals set in the plan or implied by past or competitor performance. Few
companies had any formal system for linking and reviewing efficiency and effectiveness
measures as a whole.
The common practice list, according to Ambler and Riley [41], for the UK is
shown by Table 1.
The asterisked metrics correlate with higher financial performance but that does
not imply any causal relationship. Table 1 includes some surprises, notably the absence of
market share. Perhaps firms are beginning to understand the perils of market share
identified earlier.
13
measures have come into vogue, e.g. customer satisfaction, and there is increasing
recognition of the need to monitor brand equity and marketing performance in general.
5 Future Research
We deduce three propositions to be tested in research before making broader proposals.
The previous informal comparison suggests that the practitioner evolution follows the
same pattern as the literature (P1). We propose to test this proposition in new research as
a series of stages:
P1A: Once the concept of assessing marketing performance appears on the top
management agenda at all, the first stage is financial or "productivity”.
P1B: The “many measures” stage involves both financial and nonfinancial
indicators but without discrimination. These >20 measures (in a large company)
follow the financial stage.
P1C: The actual state of the art is provided by those companies which have been
through those stages and now have focused down to fewer than 20 metrics, or
measured once or twice annually. These companies are now looking to the final
stage:
14
performance in later periods. These companies recognise that the metrics, though
important, are not as important as the links between them.
Note that this “evolution” applies to the sequence of origination: once started,
each stage may coexist with later ones. Similarly, our four stages in the evolution of
research in performance measurement suggest a sequence of emergence, not that one
stage supplants the previous stage.
dependent variable(s), there is a key distinction between efficiency and effectiveness
[9,45,46]. Any overall judgement must take into account the goals and objectives of the
decisionmakers themselves. Efficiency, in Drucker’s definition, is “doing things right,”
while effectiveness is “doing the right things” to meet the organisation’s objectives ([45],
p. 45) but this definition is unsatisfactory in that it does not lead to the selection of
metrics. Efficiency is the extent of performance along each dimension. This twists
dictionary definitions too far.
The Oxford English Dictionary is clear that effectiveness is the extent to which
intended goals were achieved. By extension if the goals were not explicit, effectiveness
can be inferred from the general expectation to improve on prior years, subject to any
environmental change, and/or to match or better competitors. Efficiency, on the other
15
hand, is essentially a ratio of inputs to outputs, e.g. the return on marketing expenditure.
On this basis it is a synonym for productivity. What this means is that research must take
into account how well marketing produces the desired outputs of the firm [46]. As firms
become more aware of the links between intermediary goals and final outcomes, such as
efficiency. Achieving intended goals is more important, in this perspective, than the cost
of achieving them. The same effect would also be achieved by the pressure for
accountability, i.e. inviting marketers to nominate exactly what they can visibly achieve.
To an economist, marketing expenditure can be seen as a “sunk cost”, i.e. it is the
price of doing business, and therefore the return on marketing expenditure has no
meaning. For example, a person would have difficulty in determining the financial return
on buying meals: food is essential for life. The sunk cost view may be too extreme but it
helps explain the difficulty marketers face in justifying their budgets. On the other hand,
they can more easily show the nonfinancial metrics likely to result from alternative
expenditures, i.e. effectiveness. For these reasons:
relative to efficiency.
from the limited results reported here, to be rare. Measuring marketing performance is
difficult and time consuming. Compelling research will be needed to convince managers
16
that they should give time to keeping score since that time, in their perception, will have
to come from making the runs. This research needs to identify the key metrics, if not
universally, then at least business unit by business unit. More importantly, we need to
understand the complete causal models among different marketing metrics, with ultimate
constructs such as market orientation and business performance, but causality has yet to
be demonstrated. We also need to understand how changes in brand equity can be used
demonstrate that the process of formal metrics assessment assists in both performance
and the optimal allocation of top management time between their various leadership and
review activities.
(snapshots), derivatives (trends) and double derivatives (rates of change in trends) [47].
Metrics without longitudinal comparison provide little information. We therefore expect
the real benefit of performance measurement to rise with the accumulation of data over
time:
P3A: Deployment of a performance measurement system leads to higher overall
business performance.
metrics usage by the top management group.
17
measurement, as the payoff from measurement systems may lie further in the future than
management would prefer.
Many of our research propositions require longitudinal measurement for effective
assessment. Ideally, one would like to follow the evolution of a company's measurement
approaches in real time over the space of years, but this would be a prohibitively time
consuming exercise if it were to result in a sample of any size. Allowing for the
company histories could be consulted, it is unlikely that they will provide sufficient
example, one could learn from establishing when a company began collecting specific
measures. However as Kokkinaki and Ambler show, collection by the company and use
difficulty recalling how many years previously a particular measure entered the system.
Another approach would be to group metrics usage according to the evolutionary
allow inference as to which metrics survived and were presumably seen as “fitter”.
18
6 Managerial implications
The pressures for greater accountability are leading to an evolution in metrics practice but
not yet to conviction that marketing can be measured or that valuable resources should be
adoption has already been noted: the possibly substantial time lag between the adoption
of a measurement system and actual improvement in performance.
A second impediment is that the search for measures that are universal across
individual, company, and situation is fraught with difficulty. Virtually all of the concepts
reviewed above appear subject to significant moderating factors. Bonoma and Clark [9]
found throughout these throughout their work. Competitiveness has been suggested as a
moderator in a number of studies [48,49]. Matsuno and Mentzer [31] note the
importance of strategy type. Ambler and Riley [41] note that the use and importance of
measures vary by industry sector, managerial role, and company nationality (see also
[50]). What Murray and Richardson [51] call the "critical few" objectives for any
strategy will and should vary across companies and situation.
This makes it difficult to make general recommendations to managers regarding
what they should measure. While we believe the 19 we propose are reasonable ones to
receive more than weak direct statistical support in a crosssectional study. This will also
performance measurement systems.
competitive practices and outcomes will affect the impact any firm obtains from its
measurement process. For example, a firm may be gaining advantage from developing
its metrics system and yet be losing ground if competitors are doing it faster and better.
The competitor activity would not show in the model so the results from metrics, in this
example, would be negative.
The actions of individual competitors and industry effects are likely to to have a
large impact on metrics both for competitive reasons and because managers share, to
some extent, their views of the mutual sector and move between these companies.
businesstobusiness products (e.g., Airbus) lie a range of customer behaviours, business
practices, and strategies that lead to different forms of measurement.
The third contextual factor arises from the temporal dynamics of measurement.
Scholars have noted that current measurements usually reflect behaviour, or goals, at
some undefined point in the past [52]. Furthermore, marketers are under constant
pressure to justify present actions on the basis of future, sometimes longterm future,
20
profits [44]. Forecasting the future is imprecise and measuring is impossible which
drives firms to measuring the market asset, namely brand equity, in much the same way
as firms measure other assets, e.g., inventory, to link shortterm accounting periods into a
consistent longterm picture. Note our earlier discussion of the brand asset and
longitudinal evaluation of our propositions in this context.
Given this, managers really face three choices. The first is to remain sceptical
accept the above recommendations and measures as plausible for their particular firms,
and invest the resources needed to accelerate the evolution of their metrics systems. The
third choice is to demand proof, whether through the testing of measures in their firm’s
context, or otherwise. The cost of the third choice may be high, and perhaps higher than
the cost of the second.
It is also important to note that not all firms can or should progress to the latest
stage of measurement evolution that we describe above. While we think any firm can
benefit from moving beyond purely financial measures, the appropriate degree of non
financial measurement will vary by firm. For example, three necessary conditions exist
for successful implementation of the "database and modelling" level of measurement.
First, high quality data must be available in large enough quantities over long enough
available to analyse these data. Finally, senior management must be comfortable with
statistical analysis.
Regardless of the measurement system adopted, we can hold out a ray of hope:
firms that are able to deploy an effective performance measurement system should enjoy
a significant competitive advantage. As with many internal business processes, it will be
difficult for competitors to observe how the measurement system works. Even if they
can observe the system, imitating it may prove both slow and costly.
7 Conclusion
Early perceptions of measuring marketing performance revolved around financial output
marketing performance, but they are snapshots of the past and say little about the
marketing health of the firm and its brands today, still less in the future.
Managers and scholars are increasingly aware of the need for multidimensional,
yet comprehensible performance measurement. Yet the case for broad, formal metrics
assessment rests on research to come on how that helps performance and the allocation of
management time and attention. The goal of research should be to identify a set or sets of
metrics that meet the standards of necessity, precision, consistency, and sufficiency, and
22
processes by which these can be used in current performance assessment and the
forecasting of future performance.
In this paper we have separated the roles of effectiveness (relative to intended
goals) and efficiency (ratio of benefits to costs) measurement. Both are needed. The
most advanced firms will have models that relate inputs with intermediate (usually non
financial) and then market performance (usually financial). Firms have the choice to
develop these models informally or use statistical techniques to test the model and
develop the coefficients that could be used for forecasting.
Generalised academic research may not convince a manager that similar results
would apply in his business. To the extent that marketing is context dependent, that
caution may be well placed. On the other hand, it should not debar a purposive
development of whatever metrics system the firm may now employ.
23
Table 1: Common UK key metrics
Source: [41]
Note: "Consumer" is used to refer to endusers in general, who may be individuals or
businesses.
24
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