Distinctive Elements

M INAR ETS

A minaret is a spire or tower-like structure featuring small windows and an enclosed

staircase. It is one of the oldest elements of Islamic architecture, and is found next to
most mosques. The primary function of the minaret is to allow the muezzin to call
worshippers to prayer from an elevated point. This occurs five times a day: at dawn,
noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and night.

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Since the 11th century, some mosques have been outfitted with more than
one minaret, traditionally indicating that it had been founded by a sultan.

DOM ES

Like many pioneering architectural movements—including Byzantine and Italian

Renaissance building traditions—Islamic architects also incorporate domes into their
designs.

The Dome of the Rock, a 7th-century shrine in Jerusalem, is the first Islamic building
to feature this architectural element. Inspired by Byzantine plans, the octagonal
edifice is topped with a wooden dome, which was plated in gold during the 16th
century. Unlike most Islamic domes—which rest on pendentives—the dome sits on a
drum supported by 16 piers and columns.

Pendentives are tapered structures that allow a circular base for a round or elliptical
dome to be placed on a square or rectangular room. In Islamic architecture,
pendentives are often decorated with tiles or muqarnas, a type of sculptural
decoration.

M UQAR NAS VAULT ING

Due to their sculptural composition and patterned aesthetic, Muqarnas are often
compared to stalactites or honeycomb. In addition to domes and pendentives, this
unique ornamentation also adorns vaults, culminating in monochromatic, sculptural
ceilings that contrast the surrounding tiles.
ARC HES

Another fixture of Islamic architecture is the arch. Evident in both entrances and
interiors, Islamic arches are categorized into four main
styles: pointed, ogee, horseshoe, and multifoil.

The pointed arch features a rounded design with a tapered apex. This type of arch
would eventually become an important element of Gothic architecture.

The ogee arch is similar to the pointed arch. However, its point is composed of two s-
shaped lines, culminating in a more sinuous silhouette.
The horseshoe arch (also known as a keyhole arch) is associated with Moorish
architecture. As its crown can be either rounded or pointed, this type of structure is
defined by the dramatic widening and narrowing of its sides.

Like the horseshoe arch, the multifoil arch is characteristic of Moorish architecture.
This arch features multiple foils, or “leaves,” resulting in a scalloped shape.
DEC OR ATIVE DETAILS

A final element of Islamic architecture is an attention to ornamental detail. Often

reserved for interiors, this lavish approach to decoration includes jewel-like tiles
arranged into geometric mosaics, patterned brickwork and kaleidoscopic stones, and
exquisite calligraphic adornments.

Along with monumental domes, mesmerizing muqarnas vaulting, and distinctive

arches, these eye-catching embellishments exhibit the transcendent nature of the
Islamic building practice.

INFLUENE ON HINDU ARHITETURE

Large scale building activity was seen in the 13th century CE after the Turkish conquest of north
India. By the 12th century CE, India though was familiar with monumental constructions and the
grandeur.

Beginning of Islamic architecture- The onslaught of the Ghurids close to 12th century CE
introduces the Indo-Islamic architecture in India. Muslims have inherited architectural patterns
from Sassanian and Byzantine empires and are also known to have a good taste for buildings.
Despite this, they have also adapted to the indigenous architecture.

Blend of two styles of architecture- Along with Islamic architecture came the arches and
domes. Although these did exist earlier in India, the achieved their full form only during the
Sultanate. The art of Delhi Sultanate showed the process of absorption and assimilation of the
techniques of art and architecture brought from the west Thus a blend of structural techniques,
styles and decoration came about as a new architectural style known as the Indo Islamic. Along
with the obvious Persian, Turkish and Indian influences a lot depended on the availability and
limitation of resources, skills and a sense of aesthetics among the patrons.
The different religious beliefs of the two religions ie Islam and Hindu, are reflected in the
architectural style which gave rise to an amalgamation of the two styles. Alai Darwaza is the
best example of Indian and Islamic blend.

Patterns of Islamic art- Since Islam does not allow the use of human or animal motifs as
decoration, their panels were filled with floral patterns along with verses from the Quran and
geometrical and arabesque designs. Motifs like swastika and lotus were incorporated by the
indigenous masons. These designs were carved on stone in low relief, cut on plaster, painted or
inlaid. Indian Islamic architecture would reach the summit in the era of the Mughal dynasty from
the 16th to 17th centuries.

Features of Indo Islamic architecture- Some of the distinguishing features of Indo Islamic
architecture are the decorative brackets, balconies, chhatris, minars. The use of mortar was
also a major introduction distinct from the traditional building style.

Mughal influence- The coming of the Mughals brought with it a different elaborate and
ornamented art. The Mughals were great patrons of art and architecture and enhanced the
country with their beautiful architecture.

The tomb architecture which was another feature of the Islamic architecture was further
enhanced by the Mughals by introducing gardens all around the tomb. The Mughals are also
credited to have brought in the double architecture and the pietra-dura style of inlay decorations.
The influence of Mughal style of architecture was seen at the capitals of Hindu rulers as well.
The palaces at Amber are quite similar to the palaces of Shahjahabad and Agra. The Mughal
style was followed in the construction of the temples. Specially, its influence on Jain temples is
quite evident.

THE RISE OF ISLAMI EMPIRES AND STATES

Islam initially spread through the military conquests of Arab Muslims, which
happened over a very short period of time soon after the beginning of Islam.
However, only a small fraction of the people who came under Arab Muslim
control immediately adopted Islam. It wasn’t until centuries later, at the end
of the eleventh century, that Muslims made up the majority of subjects of the
Islamic empires.
The spread of Islam through merchants, missionaries, and pilgrims was very
different in nature. These kinds of exchanges affected native populations
slowly and led to more conversion to Islam. As Islamic ideas traveled along
various trade and pilgrimage routes, they mingled with local cultures and
transformed into new versions and interpretations of the religion.

Another important thing to note is that not all military expansion was Arab
and Muslim. Early on in Islamic history, under the Rashidun caliphate—the
reign of the first four caliphs, or successors, from 632 to 661 CE—and the
Umayyad caliphate, Arab Muslim forces expanded quickly. With the
Abbasids, more non-Arabs and non-Muslims were involved in the
government administration. Later on, as the Abbasid caliphate declined, there
were many fragmented political entities, some of which were led by non-
Arab Muslims. These entities continued to evolve in their own ways,
adopting and putting forth different interpretations of Islam as they sought to
consolidate their power in different regions.

The first Arab Muslim empire

During the seventh century, after subduing rebellions in the Arabian
peninsula, Arab Muslim armies began to swiftly conquer territory in the
neighboring Byzantine and Sasanian empires and beyond. Within roughly
two decades, they created a massive Arab Muslim empire spanning three
continents. The Arab Muslim rulers were not purely motivated by religion,
nor was their success attributed to the power of Islam alone, though religion
certainly played a part.
Non-Muslim subjects under Arab Muslim rule were not especially opposed to
their new rulers. A long period of instability and dissatisfaction had left them
ambivalent toward their previous rulers. Like all other empires, the first Arab
Muslim empires were built within the context of the political realities of their
neighboring societies.

..

During the Rashidun caliphates, Arab Muslim forces expanded outward

beyond the Arabian peninsula and into the territories of the neighboring
Byzantine and Sasanian Empires. These empires were significantly weakened
after a period of fighting with one another and other peripheral factions like
the Turks, economic turmoil, disease, and environmental problems. The Arab
Muslim conquerors were primed to take advantage of this; they were familiar
with Byzantine and Sasanian military tactics, having served in both armies.

With the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires on the decline and strategically
disadvantaged, Arab Muslim armies were able to quickly take over vast
territories that once belonged to the Byzantines and Sasanians and even
conquer beyond those territories to the east and west.

Most conquests happened during the reign of the second caliph, Umar, who
held power from 634 to 644. The Rashidun caliphate constructed a massive
empire out of many swift military victories. They expanded for both religious
and political reasons, which was common at the time.

One political advantage the Rashidun caliphate held was their ability to
maintain stability and unity among the Arab tribes. Distinct, feuding Arab
tribes united into a cohesive political force, partially through the promise of
military conquest. However, this unity was tentative and ultimately gave way
to major divergences that disrupted state and religious institutions in the
coming centuries.

A new political structure

The Rashidun can be credited for military expansion, but did Islam truly
spread through their conquests? Significant conversion and cultural exchange
did not occur during their short rule, nor were complex political institutions
developed. It was not until the Umayyad Dynasty—from 661 to 750—that
Islamic and Arabic culture began to truly spread. The Abbasid Dynasty—
from 750 to 1258—intensified and solidified these cultural changes.
Before the Umayyads, Islamic rule was non-centralized. The military was
organized under the caliphate, a political structure led by a Muslim steward
known as a caliph, who was regarded as the religious and political successor
to the prophet Muhammad. The early caliphate had a strong army and built
garrison towns, but it did not build sophisticated administrations. The
caliphate mostly kept existing governments and cultures intact and
administered through governors and financial officers in order to collect
taxes.

The Rashidun caliphate was also not dynastic, meaning that political
leadership was not transferred through hereditary lineage.^11start superscript,
1, end superscript During this period, it seems the Arab tribes retained their
communal clan-based systems of choosing leaders.

However, to sustain such a massive empire, more robust state structures were
necessary, and the Umayyads began developing these structures, which were
often influenced by the political structures in neighboring empires like the
Byzantines and Sasanians. Under the Umayyads, a dynastic and centralized
Islamic political state emerged.

The Umayyads shifted the capital from Mecca to Syria and replaced tribal
traditions with an imperial government controlled by a monarch. They
replaced Greek, Persian, and Coptic with Arabic as the main administrative
language and reinforced an Arab Islamic identity. Notably, an Arab hierarchy
emerged, in which non-Arabs were accorded secondary status. The
Umayyads also minted Islamic coins and developed a more sophisticated
bureaucracy, in which governors named viziers oversaw smaller political
units.

The Umayyads did not actively encourage conversion, and most subjects
remained non-Muslim. Because non-Muslim subjects were required to pay a
special tax, the Umayyads were able to subsidize their political expansion.

A map depicting the extent of the Umayyad caliphate in 750 CE, which
extended from Spain in the west to northern India in the East and covered
northern Africa, southern Europe, Anatolia, and the Arabian Peninsula.
.

The Umayyads did not come into power smoothly. The transition between
the rule of the Rashidun and the first Umayyads was full of strife. Debates
raged about the nature of Islamic leadership and religious authority. These
conflicts evolved into major schisms between Sunni, Shia, and Ibadi Islam.
Ultimately, there were many factions that regarded the Umayyads as corrupt
and illegitimate, some of whom rallied around new leaders. These new
leaders claimed legitimacy through shared lineage with the prophet
Muhammad, through the prophet’s uncle, Abbas. They led a revolt against
the Umayyads, bringing the Abbasid caliphate to power.

The Abbasids were intent on differentiating themselves from their Umayyad

predecessors, though they still had a lot in common. Abbasid leadership was
also dynastic and centralized. However, they changed the social hierarchy by
constructing a more inclusive government in a more cosmopolitan capital
city, Baghdad. The distinction between Arab Muslims and non-Arab Muslims
diminished, with Persian culture exerting a greater influence on the Abbasid
court.

Under the Abbasids, Islamic art and culture flourished. They are famous for
inaugurating the Islamic golden age. Religious scholars, called ulema,
developed more defined religious institutions and took on judicial duties and
developed systems of law. It was also during Abbasid rule that many people
converted to Islam, for a multitude of reasons including sincere belief and
avoiding paying taxes levied on non-Muslims. As a result, Islamic culture
spread over the Abbasids’ vast territory.