Cartilage Tissue

Cartilage Tissue
• Avascular tissue
• Cells: Chondrocytes
• Sparse
• Essential in producing and maintaining the matrix
• ECM: highly specialized
• 95% volume
• Functional element
Cartilage Tissue
• Extracellular Matrix
• Solid and firm but pliable = resiliency
• Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs): type II collagen fibers
• Large ratio
• Permits diffusion of substances between blood vessels in the surrounding connective
tissue
Cartilage Tissue
• 3 types:
• Hyaline
• Elastic
• Fibrous
Cartilage Tissue: Hyaline
• Distinguished by a homogeneous, amorphous matrix
• Lacunae = spaces throughout the matrix where the chondrocytes are
located
• Functions:
• provides a low-friction surface
• participates in lubricating synovial joints
• distributes applied forces to the underlying bone
Cartilage Tissue: Hyaline
• Matrix
• Collagen
• Predominantly type II collagen fibers
• Proteoglycan aggregates containing GAGs
• Aggrecan – most abundant in hyaline cartilage
• Hyaluronan
• Chondroitin sulfate & keratan sulfate
• Joined to a core protein forming proteoglycan monomer (aggrecan)
• Multiadhesive glycoproteins (noncollagenous) proteins
• Chondronectin – binds specifically to GAGs, collagen, and integrins
Cartilage Tissue: Hyaline

• Chondrocytes
• Distribution:
• singularly
• clusters (isogenous groups)
• Represent cells that have recently divided
• Secrete metalloproteinases
• Enzymes that degrade cartilage matrix
allowing the cells to expand and reposition
themselves within the growing isogenous
group
Cartilage Tissue: Hyaline
• Perichondrium
• Covering of hyaline cartilage
• Except in articular cartilage of joints
• Essential for the growth and maintenance of cartilage
• Outer region – collagen type I fibers and fibroblasts
• Inner region – contains mesenchymal stem cells which provide a source for
new chondroblasts that divide and differentiate into chondrocytes
Cartilage Tissue: Hyaline
• Locations
• articular surfaces of movable joints
• walls of larger respiratory passages (nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi)
• Ventral ends of ribs, where they articulate with the sternum
• Epiphyseal plates of long bones
• In the embryo: forms the temporary skeleton that is gradually replaced by
bone
Cartilage Tissue: Hyaline
Cartilage Tissue: Elastic
• Similar to hyaline cartilage except that it contains an abundant
network of elastic fibers in addition to a meshwork of collagen type II
fibrils
• Locations
• Auricle of the ear
• Walls of the external auditory canals
• Auditory (Eustachian) tubes
• Epiglottis
• Upper respiratory tract (larynx)
Cartilage Tissue: Elastic
Cartilage Tissue: Fibrous
• Provide resistance to both compression and shearing forces
• Serves like a shock absorber

• Locations
• intervertebral discs
• symphysis pubis
• articular discs of the sternoclavicular and temporomandibular joints
• menisci of the knee joint
• triangular fibrocartilage complex of the wrist
• certain places where tendons attach to bones
Cartilage Tissue: Fibrous
• Composition: Chondrocytes, ECM & dense CT

• Chondrocytes: dispersed among the collagen fibers singularly, in rows,

and in isogenous groups
• ECM
• Type I collagen and type II collagen
• No surrounding perichondrium
Cartilage Tissue: Fibrous
Cartilage Tissue
Chondrogenesis
• Process of cartilage development
• Begins with the aggregation of chondroprogenitor mesenchymal cells
to form a mass of rounded, closely apposed cells
Embryonic mesenchyme is the
precursor tissue of all types of cartilage
Begins with agrregation of
mesenchymal cells forming rounded
cells called chondroblasts.

Chondrogenic nodule
aggregate of mesenchymal or
ectomesenchymal cells

Transcription factor SOX-9

triggers differentiation of cells of the
chondrogenic nodule to chondroblasts
(secrete cartilage matrix)
Chondroblasts are separated
from one another by their own
production of various matrix
components which collectively
swell with water and form a great
amount of ECM
Cells when completely surrounded
by matrix materials are called
chondrocytes.
Cartilage Growth
• Appositional growth
• Forms new cartilage at the surface of an existing cartilage
• resulting from the differentiation of perichondrial cells
• Interstitial growth
• Forms new cartilage within an existing cartilage mass
• from the mitotic division of preexisting chondrocytes
Repair of Cartilage Tissue
• Has limited ability for repair due to:
• Avascularity of cartilage
• The immobility of the chondrocytes
• Limited ability of mature chondrocytes to proliferate
• Low metabolic rate
• Repair can occur but only if the defect involves the perichondrium
• Results from activity of the pluripotential progenitor cells located in the
perichondrium
• Only few cartilage cells, if any, are produced
Repair of Cartilage Tissue
• Matrix of hyaline cartilage undergoes calcification as a regular
occurrence
• Articular cartilage that is in contact with bone tissue in growing and adult
bones is calcified
• Cartilage that is about to be replaced by bone (endochondral ossification)
during an individual’s growth period
• Part of the aging process
Cartilage tissue
Bone Tissue
Bone Tissue
• Provides solid support for the body
• Protects vital organs such as those in the cranial and thoracic cavities
• Encloses internal (medullary) cavities containing bone marrow
• Serves as a reservoir of calcium, phosphate, and other ions
• released or stored in a controlled fashion to maintain constant concentrations
in body fluids
• Provides levers for the muscles to act on
Bone Tissue: Cells
• Osteoprogenitor cells
• derived from mesenchymal stem cells; they give rise to osteoblasts
• Osteoblasts
• secrete the extracellular matrix of bone
• Osteocyte
• mature bone cells enclosed within lacunae of bone matrix
• extends numerous processes into small tunnels called canaliculi
Bone Tissue: Cells
• Osteoclasts
• bone-resorbing cells, present on bone surfaces where bone is being removed
or remodeled (reorganized) or where bone has been damaged
• Phagocytic cells
• Bone-lining cells
• remain on the bone surface no active growth
• derived from osteoblasts and cover bone that is not remodeling
Bone Tissue: ECM
• FIBER: Collagen, 90% TW
• Type I - major structural
• Type V – lesser amount
• Type III, XI, and XIII – trace amount
• GS: Noncollagenous, 10% of TW
• 4 Main Groups
• Proteoglycan macromolecules
• Multiadhesive glycoproteins (osteonectin)
• Bone-specific, vitamin K–dependent proteins
• Growth factors and cytokines
Bone Tissue: Periosteum &Endosteum
• Periosteum
• Like the perichondrium of cartilage, but also fibroblasts and blood vessels
• Inner layer is more cellular
• Perforating (or Sharpey) fibers
• Penetrate the bone matrix and bind the periosteum to the bone
• Endosteum
• Covers small trabeculae of bony matrix that project into the marrow cavities
Types of Bone
Types of Bone:
Compact vs Cancellous
• Compact (Cortical) Bone
• 80% of the total bone mass
• deeper areas with numerous
interconnecting cavities
• Cancellous (Trabecular) Bone
• 20% of total bone mass
• spongelike meshwork consisting of
trabeculae (thin, anastomosing
spicules of bone tissue)
Types of Bone:
According to shape
1. Long Bones
2. Short Bones
3. Flat Bones
4. Irregular Bones
Types of Bone:
According to shape
• Long Bones
Types of Bone: Lamellar Bone

• Mature Bone
• Characterized by multiple layers
or lamellae of calcified matrix
• Lamellae – organized as parallel
sheets or concentrically around a
central canal
• Type I collagen fibers
Types of Bone: Lamellar Bone
• Osteonal (Haversian) canal
• contains the vascular and nerve supply of the osteon
• Canaliculi
• contains the processes of osteocytes
• arranged in a radial pattern with respect to the canal
• passage of substances between the osteocytes and blood vessels
• Interstitial lamellae
• remnants of previous concentric lamellae found between the osteons
Types of Bone: Lamellar Bone
Types of Bone: Lamellar Bone

• Circumferential lamellae
• follow the entire inner and outer
circumferences of the shaft of a long bone
• Perforating canals (Volkmann’s canals)
• channels in lamellar bone through which
blood vessels and nerves travel
• periosteal and endosteal surfaces to the
osteonal canal
• also connect osteonal canals to one another
• osteons and of the bone
Types of Bone: Woven Bone
• First bone tissue to appear in embryonic development and in fracture
repair
• Differences from mature bone
• Contains more cells per unit area
• Cells randomly arranged
• More ground substance
• Has a lower mineral content
• Stains intensely with eosin
Osteogenesis
• Intramembranous ossification
• Which osteoblasts differentiate directly from mesenchyme and begin
secreting osteoid
• Endochondral ossification
• A preexisting matrix of hyaline cartilage is eroded and invaded by osteoblasts,
which then begin osteoid production
Osteogenesis:
Intramembranous ossification
Osteogenesis:
Endochondral ossification
Osteogenesis:
Endochondral ossification
• Zones in the epiphyseal cartilage
• zone of reserve cartilage
• no cellular proliferation or active matrix
production
• zone of proliferation
• cartilage cells undergo division and
organize into distinct columns
• zone of hypertrophy
• contains greatly enlarged (hypertrophic)
cartilage cells
• Chondrocytes remain metabolically active
• Cells secretes collagen II, and increases
secretion of type X collagen; also secretes
VEGF (initiates vascular invasion)
Osteogenesis:
Endochondral ossification
• Zones in the epiphyseal cartilage
• zone of calcified cartilage
• serves as an initial scaffold for
deposition of new bone
• chondrocytes at proximal part undergo
apoptosis
• zone of resorption/ossification
• calcified cartilage here is in direct
contact with the connective tissue of
the marrow cavity
• Small blood vessels and connective
tissue invade the region previously
occupied by the dying chondrocytes
• invading blood vessels are the source of
osteoprogenitor cells, which will
differentiate into bone-producing cells
Osteogenesis:
Endochondral ossification
• Epiphyseal growth plate – responsible for maintaining the growth
process
• Epiphyseal closure – elimination of the epiphyseal plate
Bone Repair
Metabolic Role of Bone
• Bone serves as a reservoir for body calcium
• ↓ blood calcium levels - Ca2+ may be delivered to the blood from the bone
• ↑ blood calcium levels - Ca2+ may be removed from the blood and stored in
the bone
• Hormones involved in Calcium regulation
• PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH)
• Secreted from the parathyroid gland
• Acts on the bone to raise low blood calcium levels to normal
• CALCITONIN
• Secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland
• Acts to lower elevated blood calcium levels to normal
Joints

• Classification:
• Synarthroses
• Diarthroses
• Synarthroses
• Allow very limited or no movement
• Subdivided into fibrous and cartilaginous joints
• Depends on the type of tissue joining the bones
• Major types of synarthroses
• Synostoses – bones linked to other bones and allow essentially no
movement
• Syndesmoses – join bones by dense connective tissue only
• Symphyses – thick pad of fibrocartilage between the thin articular
cartilage covering the ends of the bones
Joints

• Diarthroses
• Permit free bone movement
• Unite long bones and allow great mobility
• Elbows and knees
• Articular capsule
• Encloses a sealed joint cavity containing a
clear, viscous liquid called synovial fluid
Joints

• Diarthroses
• Joint cavity lining
• Synovial membrane made up of connective
tissue
• 2 cells
• Macrophage-like synovial cells (type A)
• Remove wear-and-tear debris from synovial
fluid
• Fibroblastic synovial cells (type B)
• Synthesize hyaluronan to lubricate and
nourish the articular cartilage
Bone Tissue
Blood
Composition of blood
• A specialized connective tissue composed of:
• Formed elements
• RBCs
• WBCs
• Platelets
• Fluid elements (ECM)
• Plasma or serum
Composition of blood
Composition of blood
Functions of blood
• Delivery of nutrients and oxygen directly or indirectly to cells
• Transport of wastes and carbon dioxide away from cells
• Delivery of hormones and other regulatory substances to and from
cells and tissues
• Maintenance of homeostasis by acting as a buffer and participating in
coagulation and thermoregulation
• Transport of humoral agents and cells of the immune system that
protect the body from pathogenic agents, foreign proteins, and
transformed cells (i.e., cancer cells)
Composition of Plasma
Component Percentage
Water About 92%
Plasma Proteins About 7%
• Albumin • About 58%
• Globulins • About 37%
• Fibrinogen • About 4%
• Regulatory proteins • Less than 1%
Other solutes About 1 %
• Electrolytes
• Nutrients
• Respiratory gases
• Wastes
Composition of Plasma
• Albumin
• Most abundant plasma protein
• Produced in the liver
• Maintains the osmotic pressure of the blood
• Globulins (α- and β-globulins)
• Produced in the liver and other cells
• Examples
• Transferrin and other transport factors
• Fibronectin
• Prothrombin and other coagulation factors
• Lipoproteins and other proteins entering blood from tissues
Composition of Plasma
• Immunoglobulins (antibodies or γ-globulins)
• Secreted by plasma cells in many locations.
• Fibrinogen
• Largest plasma protein (340 kD)
• Made in the liver
• During clotting, polymerizes as insoluble, cross-linked fibers of fibrin that
block blood loss from small vessels
• Complement proteins
• Comprise a defensive system important in inflammation and destruction of
microorganisms
Blood Cells
• Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells or RBCs)
• Terminally differentiated structures lacking nuclei
• Completely filled with the O2-carrying protein hemoglobin
• Does not require to leave the vasculature to function
• 7.5 µm in diameter, 2.6-µm thick at the rim, but only 0.75-µm thick in the
center
• Biconcave disks
• 3.9-5.5 million per µL in women and 4.1-6.0 million/µL in men
Blood Cells
• Erythrocytes
• Plasmalemma
• 40% lipid, 10% carbohydrate, and 50% protein
• Integral membrane proteins:
• Band 3 protein (anion transporter)
• Glycophorin A
• Peripheral proteins:
• Spectrin
• Ankyrin
• No nucleus and no mitochondria
• Survives for 120 days in circulation
Blood Cells
• Leukocytes (White Blood Cells or WBCs)
Blood Cells
• Leukocytes (White Blood Cells or WBCs)
Blood Cells
• Leukocytes
• Become active outside the circulation in a process involving cytokines,
selective adhesion, changes in the endothelium, and transendothelial
migration or diapedesis
• Granulocytes vs Agranulocytes
• Granulocytes have specialized lysosomes called azurophilic granules and smaller specific
granules with proteins for various cell-specific functions
Blood Cells
• Leukocytes
• Neutrophils
• Polymorphic, multilobed nuclei
• Specific granules contain various enzymes, complement activators, and antimicrobial
peptides (i.e., lysozymes, lactoferrins) for destroying microorganisms at sites of
inflammation
• Eosinophils
• Bilobed nuclei
• Eosinophilic-specific granules containing proteins that are cytotoxic to protozoans and
helminthic parasites.
• Associated with allergic reactions, parasitic infections, and chronic inflammation
Blood Cells
• Leukocytes
• Basophils
• Irregular lobed nuclei obscured by large, basophilic-specific granules
• Granules contain heparin, histamine, heparan sulfate, and leukotrienes
• Play an important role in allergic reactions and chronic inflammations
• Monocytes
• Indented nuclei
• After migration from the vascular system, they transform into macrophages and other
cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system.
• Function as antigen-presenting cells in the immune system
Blood Cells
• Leukocytes
• Lymphocytes
• Main functional cells of the immune system
• Vary in size and have dense spherical nuclei surrounded by a thin rim of cytoplasm
• Three major types
• T lymphocytes (T cells; involved in cell-mediated immunity)
• B lymphocytes (B cells; involved in antibody production)
• Natural killer (NK) cells (programmed to kill certain virus-infected and cancer cells)
Blood Cells
• Thrombocytes (Platelets)
• Small, membrane-bounded, anucleate cytoplasmic fragments derived from
megakaryocytes
• Help control blood loss and healing of wounds
• Divided into four zones based on their organization and function.
• Peripheral
• Structural
• Organelle
• Membrane
Blood