4.

20 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion

Kok S Ong, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kampar, Malaysia
Liben Jiang, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
Koon C Lai, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kampar, Malaysia
r 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

4.20.1 Introduction 795

4.20.1.1 Historical 795
4.20.1.2 Applications 797
4.20.1.3 Heat Exchangers 797
4.20.2 Thermoelectric Cooling 797
4.20.2.1 Introduction 797
4.20.2.2 Theory of Thermoelectric Cooling 797
4.20.2.3 Optimum Current for Maximum COPc 799
4.20.2.4 Maximum Current for Maximum Cooling Rate 799
4.20.2.5 Cooling With DTte ¼ 0 800
4.20.3 Thermoelectric Power Generation 800
4.20.3.1 Introduction 800
4.20.3.2 Applications 800
4.20.3.3 Literature Survey 800
4.20.3.4 Theory of Thermoelectric Power Generator 801
4.20.4 Heat Sink 802
4.20.4.1 Introduction 802
4.20.4.2 Rectangular Fin Heat Sink 802
4.20.5 Thermoelectric Cooling With Fin Heat Sink 803
4.20.5.1 Introduction 803
4.20.5.2 Air-Cooled Thermoelectric-Fin Heat Sink Assembly 804
4.20.5.3 Water-Cooled Thermoelectric-Heat Sink Assembly 805
4.20.6 Thermoelectric Characterization 806
4.20.6.1 Introduction 806
4.20.6.2 Literature Survey 806
4.20.6.3 Thermoelectric Characteristics 807
4.20.6.3.1 Seebeck coefficient and thermal conductivity 807
4.20.6.3.2 Internal resistance 807
4.20.7 Thermoelectric Power Generation From Exhaust Waste Heat and Solar Energy 808
4.20.7.1 Introduction 808
4.20.7.2 Radiative Waste Heat From Steel Industry 808
4.20.7.3 Flue Gas Waste Heat 809
4.20.7.4 Vehicle Exhaust 809
4.20.7.5 Solar Energy 810
4.20.7.6 Two-Stage Thermoelectric Power Generation 810
4.20.7.7 Heat Pipe Assisted Thermoelectric Power Generation 812
4.20.8 Case Study 812
4.20.8.1 Solar/Heat Pipe/Thermoelectric Hybrid 813
References 814
Further Reading 815

Nomenclature COPc,max Maximum coefficient of cooling performance

A Total area of the thermoelectric power FHS,TEG Shape factor (from heat source to
generation unit facing the heat source (m2) thermoelectric power generation)
Afin Fin cross-section area (m2) G Solar irradiation (W/m2)
Afin,b Bare fin wall area (m2) ha Heat transfer coefficient for air (W/m2 K)
At Total fin wall area (m2) IL Load current (A)
cpw Specific heat of water (J/kg K) Imax Maximum input current to thermoelectric for
COPc Coefficient of cooling performance maximum cooling rate (A)
COPh Coefficient of heating performance Iopt Optimum input current to thermoelectric (A)

794 Comprehensive Energy Systems, Volume 4 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809597-3.00433-8

 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion 795

Ite Input current to thermoelectric (A) T Temperature (K)

kfin Thermal conductivity of fin (W/m K) T1 Hot side thermoelectric junction temperature at
Kte Thermal conductance of thermoelectric module top layer (K)
(W/K) T2 Cold side thermoelectric junction temperature
Lc Corrected fin length at bottom layer (K)
Lfin Fin channel length (m) Ta Ambient air temperature (K)
m Constant in fin efficiency; number of p–n pairs Tb Temperature of unfinned portion of fin heat
at top layer of thermoelectric power generation sink (K)
n Number of p–n pairs at bottom layer of Tfm Base temperature of fin heat sink (K)
thermoelectric power generation THS Temperature of heat source (K)
m _a Mass flow rate of air (kg/s) Tm Mean thermoelectric temperature ( ¼(Th þ Tc)/
m _w Mass flow rate of water (kg/s) 2K)
Nfin Number of fins in heat sink Tc Cold side thermoelectric junction temperature (K)
Nte Number of thermoelectric elements in a module Tc,air Temperature of the incoming cold air (K)
PEH Power input to heat source (kW) Th Hot side thermoelectric junction temperature (K)
PL Power supplied to load (kW) Th,air Temperature of heat source (K)
Pte Input power to thermoelectric (kW) Ts Heat source temperature (K)
q_ c Heat transfer rate cold side (W) Tw Mean water temperature ( ¼(Two þ Twi)/2K)
q_ h Heat transfer rate hot side (W) TPV Photovoltaic panel’s temperature (K)
Qc Total heat transfer rate cold side (W) VL Voltage generated across thermoelectric (V)
Qh Total heat transfer rate hot side (W) VNL No-load voltage across thermoelectric (V)
QH Radiant heat transfer rate (W) Vte Voltage supplied to thermoelectric (V)
Qs,max Sonic limit of the heat pipe (W) VNL No-load voltage across thermoelectric (V)
Qb,max Boiling limit of the heat pipe (W) Vs Average wind speed (m/s)
Qe,max Entrainment limit of the heat pipe (W) Wfin Width of air channel (m)
Qv,max Viscous limit of the heat pipe (W) Dxbase Thickness of base of fin ( ¼ 0.004 m)
Rbase Thermal resistance of base of fin heat sink (K/W) Zte Figure of merit (K1)
Rfin Thermal resistance of surface of fin heat sink (K/ DTmax Maximum temperature difference across
W) thermoelectric at which no further cooling
Rct Thermal contact conductance (K/W) occurs (K)
RL Electrical load resistance (ohm) DTte Temperature difference across thermoelectric
Rte Thermal conductance of thermoelectric (K/W) ( ¼(Th–Tc) K)
RTE Internal electrical resistance of thermoelectric SRfin Total thermal resistance of fin heat sink (K/W)
(ohm) ate Seebeck coefficient (V/K)
RTEG Internal electrical resistance of thermoelectric Zgen Electrical conversion efficiency of thermoelectric
power generation (one layer) (ohm) (%)
RHP-TEG Total thermal resistance of heat pipe- Zf Fin efficiency (%)
thermoelectric power generation system (K/W) Zo Overall fin efficiency (%)
Rw Thermal conductance of water film (K/W) Zte Thermoelectric efficiency (%)
Rwall Wall thermal conductance (K/W) e Emissivity
Sfin Fin pitch (m) s Stefan–Boltzmann constant (5.67  108 W/m2
tfin Fin thickness (m) K 4)

Suffix i inlet
a air o outlet
c cold junction w water
h hot junction

4.20.1 Introduction

4.20.1.1 Historical
Thermoelectric (TE) is the direct conversion of temperature difference between the junctions of two dissimilar materials (ther-
mocouple) to electricity. This was discovered by Thomas Seebeck in 1821 and is known as the Seebeck effect. The Seebeck effect is
illustrated in Fig. 1 with thermocouple wires A and B attached to each other at both ends and with a voltmeter connected in one of
the wires, B.
796 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion

Th TC
B

+ –
VNL

Fig. 1 Seebeck effect across a thermocouple.

Heat source (Ts)

. Heat absorbed from heat source (Ts)
qc .
Cold junction Tc qc
Pte Tc
N P Th Power supplied
to TE (Pte)
.
qh
Heat sink (Ta ) .
qh
Hot junction Th
+ –
Heat dissipated to heat sink (Ta)
Ite
Vte
(A) (B)

Fig. 2 Thermoelectric cooling mode. (A) Peltier effect and (B) heat dissipation from thermoelectric (TE).

The potential difference across the junctions is proportional to the temperature difference between the hot and cold ends,
VNL ¼ ate DTte ð1Þ
where VNL is the no-load or open circuit voltage and
DTte ¼ Th  Tc ð2Þ
Jean Peltier in 1834 showed that the converse is true. A voltage applied between the junctions of the thermocouple creates a
temperature difference between them. The Seebeck effect could be utilized to generate electricity known as thermoelectric power
generation (TEG). The Peltier effect could be utilized to transfer heat from the cold junction to the hot junction. This application is
referred to as thermoelectric cooling (TEC). William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) in 1854 discovered that when current is flowing
in an electrical conductor with a temperature gradient, heat is absorbed or released across it depending upon material and
direction of current flow. Another effect termed the Joule heating effect discovered in 1840 by James Prescott Joule results when
current flows in an electrically resistant wire. The Thomson effect is reversible, whereas the Joule heating effect is irreversible. Some
interesting historical developments in TE technology are available in the Refs. [1,2].
A typical TE element consists of a pair of semiconductors heavily doped to create an excess (N-type) or deficiency (P-type) of
electrons. The thermocouple is sandwiched between two ceramic plates so that both surfaces are insulated, electrically connected
in series and thermally in parallel. A TE element under TEC cooling mode is shown schematically in Fig. 2. A DC voltage (Vte)
causes a temperature difference (DTte) to be created across the surfaces of the TE element. The cold surface (Tc) is in contact with a
high temperature heat source (Ts) and cooling it while the hot surface (Th) is in contact with a heat sink at ambient temperature
(Ta). Power (Pte) and current (Ite) are supplied to the TE. Heat is absorbed at the cold surface (q_ c ) and dissipated to the ambient
(q_ h ). Typical semiconductors are bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3), lead telluride (PbTe), and silicon germanium (SiGe).
A TE element under TEG power generating mode is shown schematically in Fig. 3. The hot surface of the TE (Th) is in contact
with a high temperature heat source (Ts) while the cold surface (Tc) is in contact with a low temperature heat sink (Ta). Heat is
absorbed from the high temperature heat source (q_ h ) and rejected to the lower temperature heat sink (q_ c ). During the process, a
DC voltage (VL), current (IL), and power (PL) are generated and delivered to the load (RL).
The performance of a TE device is determined by the Figure of merit
a2te
Zte Tm ¼ Tm ð3Þ
rte Kte
Most present day TE materials possess a Figure of merit of around 1. New developments could push this Figure to around 2–3.
The voltage output from a pair of thermocouple is very small, of the order of mV/K. Hence they are usually produced by
sandwiching many thermocouples (Nte) together between ceramic plates with high thermal conductivity but with low electrical
conductivity in a series-parallel pattern. The resulting array forms a TE module.
 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion 797

Heat source (Ts) Heat absorbed from heat source (Ts)

.
qh .
Hot junction Th qh
PL Th
N P Power generated
Tc from TE (PL)
.
qc
Heat sink (Ta) .
qc
Cold junction Tc
+ –
Heat dissipated to heat sink (Ta)
IL
RL, VL
(A) (B)

Fig. 3 Thermoelectric power generation mode. (A) Seebeck effect and (B) heat dissipation from thermoelectric (TE).

4.20.1.2 Applications
TEs can be applied for power production (TEG) or for thermal heating (TEH) and cooling (TEC). The advantages of TE lie in:

1. Passive in operation.
2. Small, compact and lightweight.
3. Noiseless and no vibration during operation.
4. Environmentally friendly to use.
5. Reliable.

Common applications are:

1. TEGs for cathodic protection of oil and gas pipelines.

2. Remote sensing and control in unmanned locations.
3. Off-grid power supply in remote locations.

The main disadvantage of TEG applications are their low conversion efficiencies, less than 5% and high costs of about $30/W.
With new material and technological developments it is hoped to raise their efficiencies and lower production costs.

4.20.1.3 Heat Exchangers

Heat transfers occur from both the hot and cold surfaces of the TE module between heat source and heat sink. Hence heat
exchangers and the thermal contact between the contacting surfaces play very important roles in the performances of the TE
systems. Conventional heat sinks include die-cast, extruded fin, radial fin, pin fin, folded fins, etc. and the newer heat pipes and
vapor chambers heat sinks [3]. Water and air-cooled heat sinks could be utilized. In air-cooled systems, natural or forced
convection play a very significant role in the performance of the heat sink.

4.20.2 Thermoelectric Cooling

4.20.2.1 Introduction
The Seebeck effect is when electricity is created between a thermocouple when the ends are subjected to a temperature difference
between them. The Peltier effect occurs when a temperature difference is created between the junctions by applying a voltage
difference across the terminals. A hot surface in contact with the cold junction of the TE will be cooled down and vice versa, a cold
surface in contact with the hot junction will be heated up. This effect can be used as a heat pump for heating (TEH) and cooling
(TEC) applications. Some useful references could be found in Refs. [4–8].

4.20.2.2 Theory of Thermoelectric Cooling

The temperature distribution and associated heat transfer rates in a TE element operating under heat pump or cooling mode is
shown in Fig. 4. A DC voltage applied across the terminals of a TE module (Vte) causes a temperature difference (DTte) to be
created across the surfaces of the TE element. The cold surface (Tc) is in contact with a high temperature heat source (Ts) and
cooling it while the hot surface (Th) is in contact with a heat sink at ambient temperature (Ta). Power (Pte) and current (Ite) are
supplied to the TE. Heat is absorbed at the cold surface (q_ c ) and dissipated to the ambient (q_ h ).
Heat transfer due to Peltier effect is given by

q_ pelt ¼ ate Ite T ð4Þ

798 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion

Heat source (Ts)

. Ts
qc Tc
+ Ite
Tc
Thermoelectric Th
Vte
module
Pte – . Th
qh
Ta
Heat sink (Ta)

Ambient (Ta)
(A) (B)

Fig. 4 Temperature distribution in a thermoelectric (TE) element under cooling mode (thermoelectric cooling, TEC). (A) TEC mode and (B)
temperature distribution across TE junctions.

Heat transfer due to Joule effect is given by

q_ joule ¼ Ite
2
Rte ð5Þ

It is assumed that the heat load is equally transferred to both cold and hot sides of the TE module. Conduction heat transfer
due to temperature difference between hot and cold junctions is given by
q_ cond ¼ Kte DTte ð6Þ
The net total heat transfer rate at the cold and hot sides are expressed as
q_ joule
q_ c ¼ q_ pelt   q_ cond ð7Þ
2

q_ joule
q_ h ¼ q_ pelt þ  q_ cond ð8Þ
2
From the above, we obtain
Ite
2
Rte
q_ c ¼ ate Ite Tc   Kte DT ð9Þ
2

Ite
2
Rte
q_ h ¼ ate Ite Th þ  Kte DTte ð10Þ
2
Assuming no heat losses and neglecting the Thomson effect, the power supplied to the TE module is equal to
Pte ¼ q_ h  q_ c ð11Þ
or
Pte ¼ ate Ite DTte þ Ite
2
Rte ð12Þ
Dividing the above by Ite one obtains the voltage supplied across the TE module as
Vte ¼ ate DTte þ Ite Rte ð13Þ
Current supplied is
1
Ite ¼ ðVte  ate DTte Þ ð14Þ
Rte
The coefficient of performance for cooling is defined as
q_ c
COPc ¼ ð15Þ
Pte
or
h i
I2 R
ate Ite Tc  te2 te  Kte DTte
COPc ¼   ð16Þ
ate Ite DTte þ Ite
2R
te

COP for heating may be calculated from

COPh ¼ 1 þ COPc ð17Þ
The performance of a TE module is dependent upon its properties. These in turn depend upon operating temperature.
 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion 799

4.20.2.3 Optimum Current for Maximum COPc

By differentiating the above equation for COPc with respect to the current I, and setting the resulting equation to zero we obtain an
optimum current, Iopt for maximum COPc.
ate DTte
Iopt ¼ h i ð18Þ
Rte ð1 þ Zte Tm Þ1=2  1
and
h i
1=2 Th
Tc ð1 þ Zte Tm Þ  Tc
COPc;max ¼ h i ð19Þ
DTte ð1 þ Zte Tm Þ1=2 þ 1

It can be seen that the maximum value of COPc,max would tend to equal (Tc/DT) as ZTE approaches 1. The optimum current
and maximum COPc,max equations may be rewritten accordingly as
h i
1 þ ð1 þ Zte Tm Þ1=2
Iopt ¼ Kte DTte ð20Þ
ate Tm
and
h i
1=2
Tm ð1 þ Zte Tm Þ  1 1
COPc;max ¼ h i ð21Þ
DTte ð1 þ Zte Tm Þ1=2 þ 1 2

The number of TEs (Nte) required in an array for a total cooling capacity, q_ crqd , can be determined from
q_ crqd
Nte ¼ h ITE
2 R
i ð22Þ
ate ITE Tc  2
te
 Kte DT

The heat transfer rate at the cold side at the optimum current from
a2te DTte
q_ c;Iopt ¼ ½2Tc ðA  1Þ  DT   Kte DTte ð23Þ
2Rte ðA  1Þ2
where
A ¼ ð1 þ ZTE T m Þ 1=2 ð24Þ
Similarly
a2te DTte
q_ h;Iopt ¼ ½2Th ðA  1Þ þ DT   Kte DTte ð25Þ
2Rte ðA  1Þ2

4.20.2.4 Maximum Current for Maximum Cooling Rate

As the current increases, Joule heating dominates. A point is reached when additional current will result in less cooling. Imax is the
maximum current at which no further cooling can be achieved. Maximum voltage Vmax and maximum temperature difference
DTmax will occur at maximum current.
From the heat transfer rate equation at the cold side with no cooling load, one obtains
 
1 I2 Rte
DTmax ¼ ate Ite Tc  te ð26Þ
Kte 2
Differentiating with respect to ITE leads to
dDTmax 1
¼ ½ate Tc  Ite Rte  ð27Þ
dIte Kte
Setting the above to zero, one obtains the maximum current for optimum performance at which no further cooling can occur
ate Tc
Imax ¼ ð28Þ
Rte
The following corresponding values can be derived:

2 Zte Tc  DTte
1 2
COPc;max ¼ ð29Þ
Zte Th Tc
Subsequently, by substituting Imax into the heat transfer rate equations, one obtains
 2 2 
a T
q_ c;Imax ¼ te c  Kte DTte ð30Þ
2Rte
800 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion

   
a2te Tc Tc
q_ h;Imax ¼ Th þ  Kte DTte ð31Þ
Rte 2
1 a2te
DTmax ¼ T2 ð32Þ
2 Kte Rte c
or
1
DTmax ¼ Zte Tc2 ð33Þ
2
Vmax ¼ ½ate DTmax þ Imax Rte  ð34Þ
Since
Tc ¼ Th  DTmax ð35Þ
we can rewrite some of the equations in terms of Th as
ate
Imax ¼ ðTh  DTte Þ ð36Þ
Rte
and
1
DTmax ¼ Zte ðTh  DTte Þ2 ð37Þ
2

4.20.2.5 Cooling With DTte ¼ 0

Further, cooling power at Imax and DT¼ 0 is given by
a2te Tc2
q_ c;Imax ;DTte ¼ 0 ¼ ð38Þ
2Rte

4.20.3 Thermoelectric Power Generation

4.20.3.1 Introduction
Present day TE costs are high. Their conversion efficiency from heat source to output power is relatively low. The question posed is
then “Why use TEG”?
Some advantages in promoting TE power generation are outlined as follows:

1. In applications that employ waste heat as heat source it is a totally green technology.
2. The low conversion efficiency is offset by the free energy available.
3. It is an environmentally friendly power source.
4. It is a passive device with no moving parts.
5. Silent in operation.
6. Extremely reliable.
7. Does not require maintenance.
8. Small size.

4.20.3.2 Applications
Some potential applications of TE power generation are in the following areas:
1. Microscale terrestrial electrically powered TE semiconductor cooling of the order of mW to large size solar powered MW power
generators in space applications.
2. Fossil-fueled generators in terrestrial communication industry to power wireless networks like radios, television, microwave
and telephone stations.
3. Energy recovery from hot industrial exhaust gas (steel manufacturing plants and stack exhaust of cogeneration plants and
municipal solid waste incinerators) and automobile engines.

In the near future, TE waste heat recovery will make a significant contribution to reducing fossil fuel consumption and global
warming.

4.20.3.3 Literature Survey

Rowe and Min [9] evaluated the performance of TE modules for power generation using low temperature waste heat in terms of
power output, conversion efficiency and reliability. They also evaluated the potential for improving its performance based on
power and cost-effectiveness and showed that there is potential for electrical power generation using waste heat in the temperature
 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion 801

range of 300–400K. Rowe [10] presented an overview of recent advances in the development of high performance TE materials,
novel devices and application and assessed the potential of TE waste heat recovery as a renewable energy source.
Yu and Zhao [11] presented a numerical model for TEG with TE modules sandwiched in between parallel-plate heat exchangers
based on one-dimensional (1D) differential equations representing energy conservation. Parallel and counter-flow arrangements
with hot and cold fluids were considered. Their simulation showed that power output and conversion efficiency increased with
increased inlet fluid temperatures and flowrates.
Niu et al. [12] tested a TE device for low temperature waste heat power recovery using 56 numbers of series-connected TE
standard modules sandwiched in between parallel water channels. Junction temperatures were generated with hot and cold water
flowing in a combination of counter/parallel flow channels. Hot fluid inlet temperatures were kept between 50 and 1501C and
cold fluid inlet temperatures between 20 and 301C and flowrates between 0.2 and 0.6 m3/h. They found that power output and
corresponding conversion efficiency (maximum at 4.44%) were greatly affected by operating conditions of inlet temperatures and
flowrates. They concluded that their earlier numerical model [9] over-predicted their present experimental results due possibly to
heat losses in the system and more to the variation of module resistance with operating temperature.
Some recent patents involving TE power generation using waste heat energy were presented by Ismail and Ahmed [13] and
Sateikis et al. [14] carried out an energy evaluation of the thermoelectric generator (TEG) operating at a low temperature difference
using two rows of three TE modules connected in series placed in between water flows in a counter-flow arrangement. The hot
water circuit was connected to a hot water storage tank.
In order to increase the output power of TEGs, an array of multiple TE modules is usually employed. However, in such multiple
modules systems, the final output performance result could be affected by the manner in which the individual modules are
connected, whether in series or parallel because of the different properties and operating temperature difference between each
module. Liang et al. [15] presented an analytical model to predict the performance of a TEG system consisting of parallel-
connected TEGs. Their results showed that the system performance is affected by the differences in contact resistances and
operating temperature difference between the modules. Suzuki and Tanaka [16] analyzed the output of multiple arrays arranged in
15 various flow configurations and presented an equation describing the maximum power output from them. Wu [17] presented a
waste heat TE power generator model to account for the irreversibility effects. Crane and Jackson [18] optimized the use of cross
flow heat exchangers for TE waste heat recovery.

4.20.3.4 Theory of Thermoelectric Power Generator

The temperature distribution in a TE element under power generating mode (TEG) is shown in Fig. 5. The hot surface of
the TE (Th) is in contact with a high temperature heat source (Ts) while the cold surface (Tc) is in contact with a low temperature
heat sink (Ta). Heat is absorbed from the high temperature heat source (q_ h ) and rejected to the lower temperature heat sink (q_ c ). In
the process, a voltage is generated across the terminals of the TE module. The open circuit or no-load voltage is denoted by VNL. If a
power absorbing device with resistance RL is connected as shown, the current through it is IL and power generated
is PL.
Heat transfer rates at the hot side of the TE module is given by
IL2 Rte
q_ h ¼ ate IL Th  þ Kte DTte ð39Þ
2
The power developed by the TE module is given by
PL ¼ IL2 RL ð40Þ
The efficiency of the generator is calculated from
PL
Zgen ¼ ð41Þ
q_ h

Heat source (Ts)

.
qh Th Ts
+ IL Th
VL Thermoelectric Tc
module Tc
PL – . Ta
qc
Heat sink (Ta)
Ambient (Ta)

(A) (B)

Fig. 5 Temperature distribution in a thermoelectric (TE) element under power generating mode (thermoelectric power generation (TEG)). (A) TEG
mode and (B) temperature distribution across TE junctions.
802 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion

which can be rewritten as

IL2 RL
Zgen ¼ IL2 Rte
ð42Þ
ate IL Th  2 þ Kte DTte
The heat rejected at the cold side of the TE from the heat sink to the ambient is
IL2 Rte
q_ c ¼ ate IL Tc þ þ Kte DTte ð43Þ
2
From an energy balance
PL ¼ q_ h  q_ c ð44Þ
Power developed can then be rewritten as
PL ¼ ate DTte IL  IL2 Rte ð45Þ
By differentiating the above and setting the resulting equation to zero, we obtain the optimum current for maximum power
output as
ate DTopt
Iopt ¼ ð46Þ
Rte
and the maximum power
PL;max ¼ aTE DTte Iopt  Iopt
2
Rte ð47Þ
Power developed at the TE module may also be calculated from
VL2
PL ¼ ð48Þ
RL
According to circuit theory, maximum power is developed when its external load resistance is equal to the module resistance.
Substituting RTE ¼ RL and voltage generated with load connected VL ¼ VNL/2 into the above, we obtain maximum power as
VNL
2
PL;max ¼ ð49Þ
4Rte
A TE module consists of an array of thermocouples. For a TE module consisting of a number of thermocouples (Nte), it can be
shown that efficiency at the point of maximum power is
  
Nte DTte 4 DTte 1
ZL;max ¼ þ2 ð50Þ
2 Th Zte Th 2Th

4.20.4 Heat Sink

4.20.4.1 Introduction
In order to perform cooling efficiently the cold side of the TE module has to dissipate heat effectively. This entails the incor-
poration of a very efficient heat sink with low thermal resistance. Water is best for cooling. However, its use in the electronics
industry is curtailed because of safety issues. Hence air-cooled devices like the fin heat sink are preferred. Force convection fin heat
sinks operate far better than natural convection cooling. However, it involves parasitic power for the air circulation. Optimization
for the fin heat sink involves the determination of material, orientation, fin thickness, fin height, fin spacing, color, etc. A problem
normally encountered in thermal management of electronic packages is thermal heat spreading resistance which occurs as heat
flows by conduction from a high temperature heat source to a low temperature heat sink with different cross-sectional area. Multi-
dimensional heat flows are complicated and involve the use of computer software or computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
modeling for their solution. The following discussion involves the 1D heat flow across a conventional finned heat sink.

4.20.4.2 Rectangular Fin Heat Sink

An isometric view of a conventional rectangular profile straight fin and wall heat sink combination is shown in Fig. 6(A) and the
associated temperature distribution along the fin in Fig. 6(B). For a straight fin of uniform cross-section and a corrected fin length
with an adiabatic tip, the fin efficiency is given by [19–21].
tanhðmfin Lfin;c Þ
Zfin ¼ ð51Þ
ðmfin Lfin;c Þ
where
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2ðWfin þ tfin Þha
mfin ¼ ð52Þ
Wfin tfin kfin
 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion 803

ΔXbase
ha T

tfin Tfm Tb Tfm Tb Ta .

kfin qh
Lfin Wfin Rbase Rfin
Tfm Ta
Ta
Sfin Tb
L ΣRfin1
ΔXwall 0 Lfin

(A) (B) (C)

Fig. 6 Rectangular profile fin heat sink. (A) Cross-section of fin heat sink. (B) Temperature distribution along fin. (C) Fin heat sink thermal
resistance.

and the corrected fin length

tfin
Lfin;c ¼ Lfin þ ð53Þ
2
In an array consisting of a number of fins, the total heat transfer surface area of the heat sink is given by
At ¼ Nfin Afin þ Afin;b ð54Þ
where the heat transfer surface area of each fin is
Afin ¼ ð2Lfin þ tfin ÞWfin ð55Þ
and the total heat transfer surface area of the non-finned or bare portion of the heat sink array is
Afin;b ¼ ðSfin  tfin ÞWfin ðNfin  1Þ ð56Þ
The overall surface fin efficiency of a multi fin array and the base surface to which they are attached to is given by
Nfin Afin
Zo ¼ 1  ð1  Zfin Þ ð57Þ
At
The total heat transfer rate from the heat sink is shown in Fig. 6(C) and is given by
q_ h ¼ Zo ha At ðTfm  Ta Þ ð58Þ
The thermal resistance of the surface of the fin heat sink is calculated from
1
Rfin ¼ ð59Þ
Zo ha At
For a plane wall of thickness Dxbase, wall thickness resistance is given by
Dxbase
Rbase ¼ ð60Þ
kfin Wfin ½Sfin ðNfin  1Þ þ tfin 
The total thermal resistance of the fin heat sink is
SRfin ¼ Rfin þ Rbase ð61Þ
In terms of temperature differential, the following fin thermal resistances are given by
Tb  Ta
Rfin ¼ ð62Þ
q_ h

Tfm  Tb
Rbase ¼ ð63Þ
q_ h

Tfm  Ta
SRfin ¼ ð64Þ
q_ h

4.20.5 Thermoelectric Cooling With Fin Heat Sink

4.20.5.1 Introduction
Thermal management or cooling of a hot surface with TE modules requires the heat developed at the hot source to be conducted
away efficiently and quickly to a heat sink device where it is finally dissipated to the ambient in the case of an air-cooled unit or to
a coolant water source in the case of a water-cooled unit.
804 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion

.
qh

Ta

Fin heat sink Ta

Tfmm ΣRfin
Tfm
Thermal interface Th Rcr2
Ite
Th
+
TE module Pte Rte
Vte Tc
– Tc
Rcr1
Thermal interface Ts
Ts

Heat source .
qc

(A) (B)

Fig. 7 Thermoelectric-fin heat sink assembly for cooling hot surface. (A) Thermoelectric (TE)-fin heat sink assembly. (B) Temperature distribution
and thermal network of TE-fin heat sink assembly.

4.20.5.2 Air-Cooled Thermoelectric-Fin Heat Sink Assembly

A TE heat pump cooling device for this heat exchange involves combining a TE module with an air-cooled fin heat sink as shown
in Fig. 7(A). Natural or force convection air cooling could be employed. A voltage (Vte) imposed and current supplied (Ite) to the
TE module creates a temperature difference (DTte) between the cold and hot sides of the TEC. The temperature distribution and the
associated thermal resistance network for the assembly are shown in Fig. 7(B). Heat is absorbed from the heat source surface (q_ c )
and dissipated to the ambient (q_ h ). Interface temperatures are shown, viz., heating surface (Ts), TE cold side (Tc), TE hot side (Th),
base of fin heat sink (Tfm), and ambient (Ta). Temperature differences occur between the solid interfaces due to thermal contact
resistances (Rc1 and Rc2). These contact resistances are due primarily to surface roughness effects. They vary from 0.3 to 0.6 m2 K/W
for a silicon chip in contact with a lapped aluminum surface to 0.07 m2 K/W for an aluminum surface coated with thermal paste or
grease. Assuming perfect insulation with no heat loss, the heat transfer rate at the cold side is equal to the power supplied by the
heater (PEH).
The heat transfer rate at the cold side of the TEC module is expressed as
Ite
2
Rte
q_ c ¼ ate Ite Tc   Kte DTte ð65Þ
2
Heat transfer rate at the hot side is given by
Ite
2
Rte
q_ h ¼ ate Ite Th þ  Kte DTte ð66Þ
2
Power supplied to the TE module is
Pte ¼ ate Ite DT þ Ite
2
Rte ð67Þ
The voltage supplied to the TE module is
Vte ¼ ate DTte þ Ite Rte ð68Þ
Rewriting the above
ðVte  Ite Rte Þ
DTte ¼ ð69Þ
ate
The current flowing in each TE module is
1
Ite ¼ ðVte  ate DTte Þ ð70Þ
Rte
The coefficient of performance for cooling is defined as
q_ c
COPc ¼ ð71Þ
Pte
From the thermal resistance network shown in Fig. 7(B) the following thermal resistances can be determined:
 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion 805

Cold water in Tw Hot water out .

qh
. Tw
mw
Twim Water-cooled heat sink Tw Rw
Twalli
Twalli Rwall
Thermal interface Twallo
Ite Twallo
Rcr2 Th
+
Vte TE module Th Pte Rte
– Tc
Rcr1
Thermal interface Tc Ts

Heat source Ts .
qc

(A) (B)

Fig. 8 Thermoelectric-water-cooled heat sink assembly for cooling hot surface. (A) Thermoelectric (TE)-water cooled heat sink assembly. (B)
Temperature distribution and thermal network of TE-water cooled heat sink assembly.

Fin heat sink resistance

Tfm  Ta
Rf ¼ ð72Þ
PEH
TE resistance
Th  Tc
RTE ¼ ð73Þ
PEH
Contact resistances
Ts  Tc
Rcr1 ¼ ð74Þ
PEH
and
Th  Tfm
Rcr2 ¼ ð75Þ
PEH

4.20.5.3 Water-Cooled Thermoelectric-Heat Sink Assembly

A water-cooled TE-heat sink assembly is shown in Fig. 8(A). The air-cooled fin heat sink shown previously is replaced with a water
heat exchanger. Force convection is normally employed because of the large pressure drop required for circulating the water. A
voltage (Vte) imposed and current supplied (Ite) to the TE module creates a temperature difference (DTte) between the cold and hot
sides of the TEC. Heat is absorbed from the heat source (q_ c ) and dissipated to the coolant water (q_ h ). The temperature distribution
and the associated thermal resistance network for the assembly are shown in Fig. 8(B). Interface temperatures are shown, viz.,
heating surface (Ts), TE cold side (Tc), TE hot side (Th), base of fin heat sink (Tfm), and ambient (Ta). Temperature differences occur
between the solid interfaces due to thermal contact resistances (Rc1 and Rc2). Water enters the heat exchanger cold (Twi) and leaves
hot (Two). Perfect insulation around the heater and the heat exchanger can be assumed for simulation purposes.
The total heat gained by the water stream is
q_ h ¼ m
_ w cpw ðTwo  Twi Þ ð76Þ

The mean water temperature is defined as

ðTwi þ Two Þ
Tw ¼ ð77Þ
2
Equating the above we obtain
q_ h ¼ 2m
_ w cpw ðTw  Twi Þ ð78Þ

From the thermal resistance network shown in Fig. 8(B) the following thermal resistances can be determined. The heat transfer
rate to the water at the hot junction is also given by
Film resistance of water

ðTwalli  Tw Þ
Rw ¼ ð79Þ
q_ c
806 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion

Channel wall resistance

ðTwallo  Twalli Þ
Rwall ¼ ð80Þ
q_ c
TE resistance
Th  Tc
Rte ¼ ð81Þ
q_ c
Contact resistances
Ts  Tc
Rcr1 ¼ ð82Þ
q_ c
and
Th  Twallo
Rcr2 ¼ ð83Þ
q_ c

4.20.6 Thermoelectric Characterization

4.20.6.1 Introduction
A TE module is fabricated with a number of pairs of thermocouple elements (Nte) connected electrically in series and thermally in
parallel. Normally, a typical module may consist of 127 individual thermocouples. A TE device incorporates an array of TE
modules connected in series or in parallel, depending upon its application. The physical properties of a TE module, such as
Seebeck coefficient (aTE), internal electrical resistance (RTE), and thermal conductivity (KTE), are required for design purposes.
Manufacturers usually provide data only at specific hot and cold side temperatures or present performance curves based on
limiting values. Operating conditions may vary from these specified temperatures. In most, if not all cases of TE applications, the
operating temperature of each module in the array varies, depending upon system design and especially if connected in series. In
order to develop good and reliable thermal performance simulations and optimization, the variation of the properties with
temperature have to be accurately determined.

4.20.6.2 Literature Survey

Huang et al. [22] presented a system design method for a TE cooler. Their simulation depended upon experimentally determined
performance curves of the TE modules. An automatic test apparatus was built to determine the TE properties. The apparatus
consisted of a TE module tightly clamped between an electrical heating element and a water-cooled jacket. Experiments were
conducted by controlling the hot-end temperature. Seebeck coefficient and thermal conductivity were measured from a pure
conduction test with no input voltage. The internal resistance of the TE module was determined by powering up the module and
measuring the current input to the module and the resulting interface temperatures between the hot and cold junctions. These
property values were then utilized to analyze the system performance of the cooler using a thermal resistance network procedure.
Their simulation showed the importance of the sink design in the overall performance of the TE cooler.
Ciylan and Yilmaz [23] proposed a novel experimental test method of determining very quickly the properties of an opera-
tional TE system with minimum interference to the system. Luo [24] and Palacios et al. [25] presented procedures to obtain
property parameters from performance curves made available by manufacturers of commercial TE modules. Ahiska and Ahiska
[26] developed a new method for investigation of all output parameters of a TE module based on the thermo-EMF measurement
of a working module. Hsu et al. [27] measured the Seebeck coefficient of a TEG module clamped between an electrical heater and a
water-cooled heat sink under two different clamping forces. Their measured values were lower than the manufacturer’s value by
about 30%. They attributed the difference to effects caused by the physical contact and the material properties in the thermal
resistor network in the actual construction of the TEG module.
Leephakpreeda [28] presented an experimental procedure for determining the properties of TE modules by a transient heat
pump method. The experimental setup consisted of setting up the TE modules in the heat pump mode of operation. TE modules
with 45, 60, and 91.2 W were utilized. The Seebeck coefficient was determined by initially providing power to the TE module and
cooling the hot junction with an electric fan. The power was then switched off and the TE module allowed to cool down. The
induced open circuit voltage and the temperature difference were then measured and the Seebeck coefficient determined from the
ratio of voltage over temperature difference. The electrical resistance of the TE module was determined by supplying an input
voltage to the TE and measuring the current and the temperature difference created. Knowing the value of the Seebeck coefficient
determined earlier, the resistance could be determined. The thermal conductance of the TE module was measured by providing a
copper plate under the hot junction. An initial 12 V was supplied to the TE module to heat it up. The power was then switched off
and the module allowed to cool down. The temperature difference and the temperature of the copper plate were measured to
determine the heat dissipated to the ambient and hence the thermal conductance could be calculated. The plate was insulated to
ensure no heat loss and that heat transfer only occurred from the TE module to the plate during the cooling down process. He
 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion 807

Ta
.
Fin heat sink qc
. Tc
qc
Ta
Th
PL
TE module

.
qh Tc
Ts
Al block
Th
PHE IEH
Electrical heater VEH
Ts
IL
Rref Load RL .
qh

+ Vref –
VNL, VL

(A) (B)

Fig. 9 Experimental setup for thermoelectric (TE) characterization. (A) Thermoelectric (TE)-fin heat sink assembly. (B) Temperature distribution
and thermal network of TE-fin heat sink assembly.

found that for the modules used, the Seebeck coefficient was 0.041 V/K and the thermal conductance was 0.3499 W/K. The
electrical resistances for the 91.2, 60, and 45 W modules were 2.91, 3.56, and 4.85 O, respectively.

4.20.6.3 Thermoelectric Characteristics

In order to simulate the performance of a TE module it is necessary to first determine its characteristics like Seebeck coefficient
(ate), thermal conductance (Kte) and internal resistance (Rte). An experimental setup for this purpose is shown in Fig. 9. The TE
module under test is clamped between an electrical heater and an air-cooled die-cast aluminum fin heat sink. Cooling is performed
under either natural or forced air convection. Heating (PEH) is provided by the heating element and dissipated at ambient air
temperature (Ta). An aluminum heat spreader block is placed in between the TE module and the heater in order to spread out the
heat uniformly from the heating element. Grooves are machined into the base of the heat sink and the aluminum block to
accommodate thermocouples to measure the temperatures at the surface of the heating element (Ts) and the TE cold (Tc) and hot
junctions (Th). It is also possible to determine the TE hot side temperature (Th) by drilling through the fin heat sink and inserting
the thermocouple probes from the top. No-load or open circuit condition is maintained by opening the switch. A load resistor (RL)
is connected in series with a resistor of known resistance (Rref). The latter would allow the current through the load (IL) to be
determined by measuring the voltage developed across the reference resistor.

4.20.6.3.1 Seebeck coefficient and thermal conductivity

Open circuit (no-load) voltage across the TE module is given by

VNL ¼ ate DTte ð84Þ

Seebeck coefficient could be determined from

VNL
ate ¼ ð85Þ
ðTh  Tc Þ
and thermal conductivity from
PEH
Kte ¼ ð86Þ
ðTh  Tc Þ

4.20.6.3.2 Internal resistance

With load connected, the output voltage drops as a result of the internal resistance of the module. The voltage generated across the
module with a load connected is given by

VL ¼ ate DT  IL Rte ð87Þ

808 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion

Since the TE module and the load are connected in series, the current through them are the same and is given by
ate DT
IL ¼ ð88Þ
Rte þ RL
From the above we obtain
VNL
VL ¼ VNL  Rte ð89Þ
Rte þ RL
Rearranging,
 
RL
VL ¼ VNL ð90Þ
Rte þ RL
The electrical internal resistance of the module can thus be determined from
 
VNL
RTE ¼ RL 1 ð91Þ
VL

4.20.7 Thermoelectric Power Generation From Exhaust Waste Heat and Solar Energy

4.20.7.1 Introduction
Industries generate a large amount of industrial waste heat into the environment even after some heat recovery processes have been
applied. That waste heat accounts for nearly a third of the total energy consumed. Many well-approved technologies to recover the
waste heat include heating/preheating via a heat exchanger, and cooling via a thermo-driven refrigeration system. Due to its low
temperature leading to low conversion efficiency, waste heat is hardly ever used to generate power by traditional methods.
Solid-state TEGs provide an alternative way to generate power from the waste heat by applying the Seebeck effect. The
technologies, however, are mostly in the research stage. Further work needs to be done to enable them to become commercially
viable. The common practice to use TEG to generate power from the waste heat source is to connect the high temperature waste
heat source to the hot side of the TEG, and the low temperature cooling air to the cold side of the TEG. In order to enhance the heat
transfer rate between the heat source, TEG, and TEG cooling media interfaces, utmost consideration should be given to the optimal
design of the heat exchanger/heat sink such as (1) number of fins, (2) fin height on the flat plate heat sink, and (3) convective heat
transfer coefficient.
When applied to a waste heat recovery system, TEG usually operates at the maximum power conditions, where its thermal-to-
electric efficiency, Zte, is given by [29].
Th  Tc ZTh
Zte ¼ ð92Þ
Th ZTm þ ZTh þ 4
where, ZTh and ZTm are the ZT values at hot side temperature (Th) and average TE temperature (Tm), respectively.
The following discussions will look at some special cases where different technologies are applied for TE power generation from
radiative waste heat sources from the steel industry, flue gas, vehicle exhaust gas and solar energy. Single-stage and two-stage
systems are also discussed.

4.20.7.2 Radiative Waste Heat From Steel Industry

The steel industry usually has high temperatures due to the nature of the work. Heat loss via radiation is significant. Kajihara et al.
[30] presented research using a BiTe based TEG module to harvest the radiant waste heat without contacting the heat source. As
illustrated in Fig. 10, the heat transfer between the heat source and hot surface of TEG is governed by
4

QH ¼ esAFHS;TEG THS  Th4 ð93Þ

Heat source

Heat collection plate

TEG module

Heat sink
Fig. 10 Schematic diagram of a thermoelectric power generation (TEG) unit receiving radiant heat. Reproduced from Ref. [30].
 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion 809

Chimney
Preheater

Flue gas
Thermal

oil TEG unit

heater
Fan

Fig. 11 Schematic diagram of thermoelectric power generation (TEG) arrangement within the system. Reproduced from Ref. [31].

Chimney

Flue gas

TEG + cold
Fins plate

Water inlet
Water outlet

Fig. 12 Schematic diagram of water-cooled thermoelectric power generation (TEG) for waste heat recovery. Reproduced from Ref. [32].

The temperature of the heat source could be as high as up to 1000C. Its power output with BiTe unit varied from 180 to 450 W
when heat source temperature changed from 700 to 1000C. [30]

4.20.7.3 Flue Gas Waste Heat

TEG could be obtained by inserting TE modules inside the exhaust duct of the flue gas before it enters the stack or by embedding
the TE modules on the walls of the chimney. The temperature of the exhaust gas from the thermal oil heater of fossil fuel burners is
usually high, varying from 523 to 573K. Air or water preheaters can be used to recover the heat before the flue gas gets to the
chimney with moderately high temperatures. Barma et al. [31] proposed a TEG system in the flue gas ductwork before the
preheater (see Fig. 11). Apart from the optimal design of heat sinks, they pointed out the better combined materials, p-type (Bi,
Sb)2Te3 and n-type hot forged Bi2Te3, could deliver maximum power output 18.9% higher than those from commercial modules.
Yang et al. [32] embedded a water-cooled TEG module on the surface of a chimney wall to recover the exhaust waste heat (see
Fig. 12). Their 3D turbulent flow numerical simulation considered geometric parameters of the finned plate, operational para-
meters on TEG performance, and pressure loss within the chimney. The net power output (TEG power output minus pumping
power) was also taken into account. The results showed a relation exists between maximum net power output and flue gas velocity.
They obtained an average thermal-to-electric efficiency around 3%–4% under the tested conditions.

4.20.7.4 Vehicle Exhaust

Vehicle exhaust gas has an exit temperature of up to 600C. Significant variation of temperature occurs when the engine switches
on/off (from zero to 100% of full power). Also because of the temperature changes in the flow direction, there exists an optimal
TEG area when it is used to recover the waste heat from the exhaust gas under the maximum power output conditions [33].
Research also found the optimal area was mainly affected by the gas mass flow rate, but not its temperature, and it led to the
minimum deviation of the peak power output [33].
810 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion

TE unicouple
TEG module
Nanobulk
half-heusler

1 kW TEG system

Nano powder TEG subsystem

Fig. 13 Schematic diagram of the fabrication processes of thermoelectric power generation (TEG). Reproduced from Ref. [29].

PV panel

Heat sink

TEG modules

Heat sink

Fig. 14 Schematic diagram of solar photovoltaic (PV) – thermoelectric power generation (TEG) integrated system. Reproduced from Ref. [34].

Alongside the traditional TEG modules for the waste heat recovery from the vehicle exhaust gas, nanostructured bulk
half-Heusler alloys were developed to construct the TEG module, which gave an empirical formula to govern its power output
[6], i.e.,

PL ¼ 2:90  105  DT 2 þ 1:46  103  DT  9:60  102 ð94Þ

where, 2001CoDTo5001C with relative error of 2% for the TEG power output.
Large-scale application of 1 kW TEG using the same material was proposed and tested under the high temperature (550C)
exhaust gas (see Fig. 13), and 2.1% thermal-to-electric efficiency was obtained, which opened an opportunity for industrial
applications [29].

4.20.7.5 Solar Energy

A solar photovoltaic (PV) panel is a device that can convert solar energy directly to electricity. However, thermal energy accu-
mulating in PV panels inevitably results in the increase of its temperature, leading to the decrease of PV’s efficiency, which is
already low. Combining PV panel with the hot side of TEG could enhance the PV’s power output. At the same time, additional
power can be generated by TEG, contributing to the overall performance of the integrated system. Verma et al. [34] proposed a PV-
TEG system, as illustrated in Fig. 14, where the PV panel’s temperature (TPV) equals the hot junction’s temperature of TEG (Th). PV
panel’s temperature depends on various conditions, such as solar irradiation, ambient temperature and wind speed, etc. Its
approximate governing equation can be expressed as [35].
Th ¼ TpV ¼ 0:943 Ta þ 0:028 G  1:521 Vs þ 4:3 ð95Þ

4.20.7.6 Two-Stage Thermoelectric Power Generation

A two-stage TEG system increases its overall conversion efficiency and power output. At the same time, it can overcome some
disadvantages of a single-stage system, such as:
1. High temperatures – a normal TE module cannot withstand temperatures greater than 600K.
2. Uneven temperature distribution and possible sudden temperature change in the waste heat, which is common in vehicle
exhaust, for example.
 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion 811

Heat junction,
T1
m pairs
p-n leg
Tm

n pairs

Cold junction,
T2

Fig. 15 Schematic diagram of two-stage thermoelectric power generation (TEG). Reproduced from Ref. [36].

8
4 3
7

5
1

1 6
2
6 7 8
5 4 3
Fig. 16 Design of the prototype. 1. The inner side of the tube. 2. Central support tube. 3. Conducting oil. 4. Thermoelectric (TE) module. 5. Thin
aluminum plate. 6. The second stage TE module. 7. Cooling plate. 8. fin (if choose air cooling). Reproduced from Ref. [36].

A cascaded two-stage TEG is illustrated in Fig. 15 with m and n pairs of TE elements for upper and lower layers, respectively
[36]. Similar to the single-stage TEG system, Qc and Qh, can be expressed as

1
Qh ¼ maIT1  mI2 RTEG þ mKðT1  Tm Þ ð96Þ
2

1
Qc ¼ naIT2 þ nI2 RTEG þ nKðTm  T2 Þ ð97Þ
2

The heat transfer rate between the two layers can be expressed as follows, assuming there is no heat loss between them:

1
Qm ¼ maITm þ mI2 RTEG þ mKðT1  Tm Þ
2

1
¼ naITm  nI2 RTEG þ nKðTm  T2 Þ ð98Þ
2

One can obtain the temperature between the two layers (Tmn) from the above equation:

2 ðm þ nÞI2 RTEG þ mKT1 þ nKT2

1
Tmn ¼ ð99Þ
aIðn  mÞ þ Kðm þ nÞ

A two-stage TEG system was used to recover the heat from vehicle exhaust with the temperature between 450 and 670K [36]. A
hexahedral arrangement for TEGs was made alongside the direction of the exhaust pipe (see Fig. 16). The experimental work
showed that the two-stage TEG system achieved 5.35% thermal-to-electric efficiency, 32% higher than that from the single-stage
TEG (4.04% under the same conditions).
812 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion

Cold temperature
Warm fresh air for
from ambient
air/water heating

TEG
Heat sink Heat pipe #2 on
TEG cold side

Heat pipe #1 on
TEG hot side
Heat sink

Low temperature High temperature

exhaust gas exhaust gas

Fig. 17 Schematic diagram of a heat pipe – thermoelectric power generation (TEG) system. Reproduced from Ref. [37].

4.20.7.7 Heat Pipe Assisted Thermoelectric Power Generation

Apart from the TE material itself, the effective heat transfer on both sides of a TEG plays a crucial role in the performance delivery.
Traditional ways to increase heat transfer coefficient and reduce the thermal resistance include the appropriate design of fins,
forced ventilation, water cooling on the cold side, etc.
A heat pipe is one of the best devices in the heat transfer areas because of the high level of heat transfer rate, simple and
compact structure, reliability, lightweight, and affordability. It applies the basic principles of phase changes of a working fluid
within the heat pipe, transferring a large amount of heat from one point to another with a small temperature difference between
the locations. It is an excellent device especially when the waste heat source is some distance away from the media which needs to
be heated up.
Remeli et al. [37] applied heat pipes in their HP-TEG system to transfer heat from the high temperature waste exhaust gas to the
hot side of the TEG and then to the cold side of the TEG and finally to the cold ambient air. As illustrated in Fig. 17, the heat
transfer rates directly linking to the TEG, i.e., Qh and Qc, are coupled with the heat transfer rates by two sets of heat pipes, viz.
 
Qh ¼ min Qs;max ; Qb;max ; Qe;max ; Qv;max hotside ð100Þ

 
Qc ¼ min Qs;max ; Qb;max ; Qe;max ; Qv;max coldside ð101Þ

The sonic limit (Qs,max), boiling limit (Qb,max), entrainment limit (Qe,max), and viscous limit (Qv,max) of the heat pipe depend
on the material, shape, wick structure, and working fluid within the heat pipes. The total heat transfer through HP-TEG can be
addressed as

Th;air  Tc;air
Q¼ ð102Þ
RHP;TEG

The total thermal resistance of the system (RHP,TEG) is given by the sum of thermal resistances on the hot and cold air sides (due
to convection), heat pipes (hot and cold sides), soldering materials, heat sinks, thermal interface materials (e.g., thermal grease),
and TEG, etc. Due to the different operating temperatures and heat transfer rates for the heat pipes (#1 and #2 in Fig. 17), their
two thermal resistances are most likely to be different, even though both sets of heat pipes have the same physical configurations.
The proposed system can deliver 0.7% of thermal-to-electric efficiency with a temperature limit of 125C for TEG.
Another application of using heat pipe with TEG can be seen in the Nuwayhid’s research to recover waste heat from the
stovetop [38], where a loop-type thermosyphon heat pipe was integrated with the cold side of TEG to reject the heat into the
environment by natural convection (see Fig. 18). In order to maintain the operation of the thermosyphon, the heat rejected from
the TEG should be bigger than the heat of nucleation of the working fluid (in Nuwayhid’s research, it was water) [39].

4.20.8 Case Study

TE devices could be employed for TEG from solar energy and exhaust waste heat. A case study is included here to demonstrate the
applicability of TEGs from these sources. A review of some past investigations on the topic is available in Ref. [40].
 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion 813

Condenser section

Flow
direction

Evaporator section Heat sink on

Heat sink on TEG cold side
TEG hot side

TEG modules

Fig. 18 Schematic diagram of thermoelectric power generation (TEG) with thermosyphon loop. Reproduced from Ref. [38].

Water cooled
Evacuated glass tube Y jacket (4 nos)

Heat pipe Aluminum Water cooled

X
block jacket TE module

X
Aluminum fin TE module Aluminum Condenser
Y (4 nos)
block section
Evaporator section
Condenser
section
(A) (B)

Outer glass
Inner glass

Aluminum
fin

Heat pipe

(C)

Fig. 19 Details of proposed solar/heat pipe/thermoelectric hybrid. (A) Longitudinal cross-section view. (B) Section Y–Y. (C) Section X–X.

4.20.8.1 Solar/Heat Pipe/Thermoelectric Hybrid

Solar Energy is a renewable heat source freely and widely available throughout the year. Heat pipes are passive and very efficient
heat transfer devices. A combined solar energy/heat pipe/thermoelectric hybrid (SHPTE) system shown in Fig. 19 could provide
both power and hot water simultaneously. It consists essentially of four units of TEG modules together with four units of water-
cooled jackets fitted over the end of an evacuated glass tube solar collector (ETHPSC) by incorporating an aluminum block. The
glass tube consists of an evacuated double-walled glass tube. An aluminum fin is wrapped tightly around the ETHPSC which is in
very close contact with the inside surface of the inner glass tube. The outer surface of the inner glass tube is coated with a selective
814 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion

coating. An aluminum block is machined to fit over the condenser end of the heat pipe. An array of four TE modules is placed on
the outer surfaces of the aluminum block. Four units of water-cooled jackets are placed over the TE modules. Solar energy
absorbed by the ETHPSC is transmitted along the HP to the aluminum block in contact with the condenser ends of the HP and to
the TE modules. Heat rejected from the TE modules heats up the coolant water flowing inside the water jacket. The heated water
could be circulated to an insulated hot water storage tank by force pump circulation or by natural convection. The temperature
difference generated across the hot and cold surfaces of the TE device results in DC power being generated. Hot water is produced
simultaneously.
Experiments were conducted on such a system throughout the day from 10:00 to 17:00 h with various coolant water mass
flowrates. System performance was determined from the TEG power output and hot water temperatures obtained. Power and hot
water production rose in the morning and peaked towards mid-afternoon before decreasing towards the evening. Total electrical
efficiency for the TE modules fluctuated according to the radiation pattern and increased continuously throughout the day and
beyond 17:00 h. Electrical efficiency was low, about 0.16% (maximum) at around 15:30 h. The thermal efficiency is expected to be
around 50%.

References

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[3] Astrain D, Martínez Á. Heat exchangers for thermoelectric devices. In: Mitrovic J, editor. Heat exchangers – basics design applications. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech; 2012.
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Further Reading
Gou X, Xiao H, Yang S. 2010. Modeling, experimental study and optimization on low-temperature waste heat thermoelectric generator system. Appl Energy 2010;87:3131–6.
Kempf N, Zhang Y. 2016. Design and optimization of automotive thermoelectric generators for maximum fuel efficiency improvement. Energy Convers Manag 2016;121:224–31.