PROCEEDiNGS OF THE

XViii LATiN AMERiCAN CONFERENCE

iN AUTOMATiC CONTROL

PONENCIAS

24 - 26, Octubre, 2018

Quito, Ecuador

III
 XViii Congreso Latinoamericano
de Control Automático

CLCA 2018

COMITÉ ORGANIZADOR
© Cada uno de los autores sobre sus respectivos aportes, 2018
Chair: IPC-Chair: Co-Chair:
ISBN: 978-9942-35-525-6 Danilo Chávez Jaime Moreno Oscar Camacho

Comisión Técnica: Dr. Patricio Cruz, Dr. Paulo Leica, Dr. Marcelo Pozo, MSc. Luis Morales,
MSc. Jorge Luis Medina, MSc. Marco Herrera.

© EPN Editorial | Ingeniería Eléctrica y Electrónica Miembros

Escuela Politécnica Nacional, 2018
Facultad de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Electrónica
Departamento de Automatización y Control Industrial Paulo Leica (EPN) Iván Escandón (UPS)
Jackeline Abad (EPN) Mariela Cerrada (UPS)
Diseño y diagramación Patricio Cruz (EPN) Diego Arcos (ESPE)
Centro de Multimedios Javier Urquizo (ESPOL) Ramiro Brito (UIDE)
Escuela Politécnica Nacional Douglas Plaza (ESPOL) Diego Ordoñez (UTE)
Cristian Basurto Salazar César Martín (ESPOL)

Portada | Diseño y diagramación

Centro de Multimedios Comité Internacional del Programa
Escuela Politécnica Nacional
Cristian Basurto Salazar
Adriana Amicarelli (Argentina) Gerardo Espinoza (México)
Fotografía portada Vicente Mut (Argentina) Hebertt Sira (México)
Fís. Marcelo Arias Erazo Gustavo Scaglia (Argentina) Javier Sotomayor (Perú)
Profesor Titular Escuela Politécnica Nacional Víctor Hinojosa (Chile) Carlos Smith (USA)
Pablo Rivadeneira (Colombia) Rafael Fierro (USA)
Ladrón de Guevara E11-253 Roda Correa G. (Colombia) Sandip Roy (USA)
PO-Box 17-01-2759 Diego Patiño (Colombia) Alberto Sánchez (Ecuador)
(+593) 2 2976 300 Orestes Llanes (Cuba) Diego Benítez (Ecuador)
Quito, Ecuador - 2018 Carlos Ocampo (España) Andrés Rosales (Ecuador)
http://clca2018.epn.edu.ec Pedro Albertos (España) Marcelo Pozo (Ecuador)

Queda prohibida la reproducción total o parcial de esta obra, por medios conocidos o por
conocer, sin la autorización escrita de la Escuela Politécnica Nacional. Se autoriza su uso
académico, debidamente citado.

IV V
PREFACiO

El XVIII Congreso Latinoamericano de Control Automático (CLCA 2018) tiene lugar

en esta ocasión en la bella ciudad de Quito, Ecuador, entre los días 24 y 26 de Octu-
bre de 2018. Esta edición sigue a la realizada en Medellín, Colombia, en 2016, y es
auspiciada por la International Federation of Automatic Control (IFAC). Nos acoge
el Departamento de Automatización y Control Industrial (DACI) de la Facultad de
Ingeniería Eléctrica y Electrónica de la Escuela Politécnica Nacional.

El CLCA 2018 cubrirá todas las áreas de control automático y es el espacio natural
de reunión de la comunidad científica latinoamericana que trabaja en esta área.
Este evento será un catalizador para aumentar el interés en el área de control y
a su vez una inigualable oportunidad para explorar y compartir los avances en la
investigación, aplicación y enseñanza en esta fascinante área del saber humano en
Latinoamerica.

Con cerca de 63 artículos sometidos, de más de 14 países, esta XVIII edición del
CLCA constituye un paso más en la larga serie de encuentros de la comunidad de
control en Latinoamérica. Cerca de 30 revisores han estado a cargo de la evaluación
de la calidad técnica de los trabajos sometidos. Como resultado, se recibieron unas
150 revisiones, que condujeron a la aceptación de 41 artículos, que constituyen el
programa final del CLCA 2018. El Programa del CLCA 2018 consistirá en seis con-
ferencias magistrales, una de las cuales será realizada mediante videoconferencia, y
se realizarán también sesiones técnicas. Además se impartirán 3 Workshops sobre
redes inteligentes, identificación de sistemas y redes industriales. La organización
de los tres días de la conferencia se ha arreglado para albergar un programa rico en
conferencias magistrales y presentaciones técnicas. Además, el CLCA 2018 se rea-
lizará en la Ciudad de Quito, que es Patrimonio Cultural de la Humanidad, y ofrece
amplias oportunidades de enriquecerse de su acervo cultural e histórico.

Dr. Jaime Moreno

IPC CHAIR

VII
mensaje del chair clca 2018

“La práctica sin teoría es ciega y la teoría sin práctica es estéril”,

Kant 1793

El Congreso Latinoamericano de Control Automático CLCA, es una de las reuniones

más importantes de Control Automático a nivel de Latinoamérica, que reúne a los
investigadores, profesores y estudiantes, así como a representantes de la Industria.
Esta ocasión se realiza por primera vez en el Ecuador, en el campus de la Escuela
Politécnica Nacional, contando con el trabajo decidido y entusiasta de profesores,
alumnos y personal administrativo del Departamento de Automatización y Control
Industrial (DACI) perteneciente a la Facultad de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Electrónica
FIEE.

Cabe resaltar el apoyo de las autoridades de la EPN, quienes brindaron las mayores
facilidades para la organización de este evento, así como el apoyo de la IFAC en la
difusión de este evento.

Agradecemos el apoyo de todos los expositores nacionales e internacionales que

dieron relevancia a este evento, así como al comité organizador tanto nacional como
internacional que coadyuvaron para el éxito de este evento.

Estamos seguros que será un punto de inflexión en el desarrollo de todas las activi-
dades de Control Automático en el Ecuador, tanto a nivel académico con el fortale-
cimiento de redes de investigación y colaboración, asi como a nivel industrial donde
nuestra labor es impactar en la matriz productiva con la incorporación de ingenios
en los procesos de la industria y empresa, y así hacer posible una cooperación más
efectiva para que rinda los frutos esperados.

Danilo Chávez
Chair del CLCA 2018
Escuela Politécnica Nacional
Quito, Ecuador

IX
contenido

SISTEMAS DE CONTROL
Predictive Active Disturbance Rejection Control using LMI...........................................................................3
Aboukheir H.

Fault Tolerant MPC Controller For Electric Heater Control............................................................................5
Alzate R., Martínez D., Mena J., Sabogal B., Tombé J.

Impulsive Multi-Model Model Predictive Control for Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus.............................................7
Caicedo M., Rivadeneira P., González A.

Algebraic IDA-PBC for Polynomial Systems with Input Saturation: An SOS-based Approach.......................9
Cieza O., Reger J.

Efficient solution of nonlinear model predictive control by restricted enumeration method.......................11
Isaza J., Muñoz D., Alvarez H.

Proportional-Integral Controller Design for Selective Harmonic Mitigation.................................................13

Magossi R., Han S., Oliveira V., Bhattacharyya S.

Una Técnica para la Admisibilidad de SD tipo LPV a Tiempo Discreto.........................................................15

Ríos A., Sotomayor J.

Diseño e Implementación de un Sistema de Información al Usuario Usando Algoritmos de Planificación

de Rutas para el Transporte Público del Distrwito Metropolitano de Quito Caso de Estudio Sector
Centro Norte..................................................................................................................................................17
Suárez D., Rosales A.

Controladores PD/PID para sistemas con retardo, inestables y ceros de fase mínima.................................19
Vásquez C., Marquez J., del Muro B.

Aplicación de MPC por Zonas con eliminación de offset ante variaciones paramétricas en pacientes
diabéticos.......................................................................................................................................................21
Villa M., Rivadeneira P.

CONTROL DE PROCESOS
Multi-variable PID Control of a Coupled Tank System: A comparative study................................................27
Coelho S., Santana H., Almeida O.

Actuator Fault Tolerant PI-Control Design on TITO Process..........................................................................29
Córdova-Claros J., Sotomayor-Moriano J., Pérez-Zúñiga C.

Optimizing the Biogas production of an anaerobic reactor throughout Model Predictive Control..............31
Hernandez A., Sanchez J., Machado M.

An Extended version of the Super Twisting Algorithm..................................................................................33

Jauch G., Moreno J.

Modelado de base fenomenológica del secador ATM-52 empleado en el proceso de producción de pasta
cerámica.........................................................................................................................................................35
López A., Walteros M., Rivadeneira P.

Collaborative Control Strategy Applied to an Aerobic Reactor....................................................................37

Morales K., Alvarez H., Francisco M. Revollar S., Vega P.

XI
Real-time QFT Control for Temperature in Greenhouses..............................................................................39 SISTEMAS DE POTENCIA
Núñez R., Corzo C. Decentralized Passivity-Based Control for Microgrids....................................................................................79
Ávila S., Montoya O., Espinosa G., Garcés A.
A passive fault-tolerant control strategy for non-linear system: An application to the two tank conical
non-interacting level control system..............................................................................................................41 The Extended Kalman Filter in the Dynamic State Estimation of Electrical Power Systems..........................81
Patel H., Shah Vipul A. Cevallos H., Intriago G., Plaza D.

Control por modos deslizantes de un sistema de intercambio de calor: validación experimental...............43 Control of a Switched-Capacitor Quadratic Boost Converter for Fuel-Cell Systems.....................................83
Pérez-Pirela M., García-Sandoval J. Diaz L., Leyva J., Langarica D., Morales J.

Detección automática del nivel de daño de la cenicilla polvorienta en hojas de cucurbitáceas a través de Robust Regional Pole Placement Synthesis Applied to Structured PSS Design.............................................85
firmas espectrales..........................................................................................................................................45 Giglio de Andrade G., Pellanda P., Mota A., Silveira B.
Rivera-Romero C., Palacios-Hernández E., Trejo-Durán M., Vite-Chávez O., Morales-Saldaña J.
BLDC Motor Controller Response to PWM Compensation...........................................................................87
Criterion for model order reduction of a gasification reactor.......................................................................47 Gutierrez C., Sahonero G.
Santamaria-Padilla L., Alvarez-Icaza L., Alvarez J.
EDUCACIÓN EN INGENIERÍA
Análisis de un Sistema Anaerobio de Producción de Biogás en Dos Fases..................................................49 Active Disturbance Rejection Control Applied to a Low-Cost Educational Prototype..................................93
Vargas A., Sepúlveda-Gálvez A. Luna J., Maldonado J., Garrido R.

MECATRÓNICA Y ROBÓTICA Data analysis and tools applied to modeling and simulation of a PV system in Ecuador..............................95
A Fuzzy Sliding Mode Controller for Planar 4-Cable Direct Driven Robot ....................................................55 Benavides D., Jurado F., González L.
Aguas X., Cuaycal A., Paredes I., Herrera M.
Entorno virtual de Simulación de un Sistema de 4 Tanques Acoplados........................................................97
Aids based on speech recognition technology for people with motor disabilities and reduced mobility.....57 Soto M., Sotomayor J., Pérez G., Cruz C.
Armas C., Álvarez R., Romero L.
Root-Locus Analysis of Delayed First and Second Order Systems ................................................................99
Event-Triggered Control for a Three DoF Manipulator Robot.......................................................................59 Ríos M., Márquez J., Del Muro B., Aranda E.
Benitez S., Villarreal M.
Modelling of Learning Styles in Relation to University- level Lectures.........................................................101
Trajectory tracking for spacecraft attitude control.........................................................................................61 Cueva R., Salazar D., Grijalva G.
Cortés R., Rodriguez H.

Control of a mobile robots platoon based on a time-varying gap separation...............................................63

Domínguez C., Cruz R., Rodríguez A., Velasco M.

Cognitive social zones for improving the pedestrian collision avoidance with mobile robots.......................65
Herrera D., Giménez J., Monllor M., Robertí F., Carelli R.

Robotic Exoskeleton for Therapy of Rehabilitation Through Passive Mobilization of the

Tibioastragal Joint...........................................................................................................................................67
Mejía J., Sánchez D. Gonzales E., Muñoz C.

Concurrent design of a lower limb rehabilitation mechanism........................................................................69
Muñoz J., Villareal M., Corona L., Castro R.

Fractional Order Modeling of a Nonlinear Electromechanical System...........................................................71
Rendón J., Mejia C.

Access Control System Based on the Side Profile of a person using Machine Vision....................................73
Rodriguez J., Alvarez R.

XII XIII
Sistemas
de control
 18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático

Predictive Active Disturbance Rejection Control using LMI

Aboukheir. Hanna*.

*Universidad Nacional Experimental Rafael María Baralt. Ciudad Ojeda, Venezuela
e-mail: Hanna2k2@hotmail.com

Abstract: On recent times Active Disturbance Rejection Control has drawn both the attention of
industrial and scientific community due to its capability to handle uncertainties and nonlinearities without
using an explicit model of the system; on this paper a modification of the ADRC algorithm is presented,
first an Extended State Predictor is calculated and later, a controller is built using the LMI approach, the
proposal is evaluated through simulations on the Cayley-Rodriguez representation of the Monoaxial
satellite.
Keywords: State Estimation, Linear Matrix Inequalities, Process Control, Digital Control, Kalman
Filtering.

~
x (kT  1)  ~x (kT )  u(kT )  K E ( y(kT )  C~ x (kT )) (4)
1. INTRODUCTION
The value of KE is obtained by solving the Ricatti Equation
On this paper, the Extended State Observer is transformed Åström et al (1998) , Tanaka et al (2015):
into an Extended State Predictor; taking as starting point the P E  Q  TE PE  E  TE PE ( R  ET PE E ) 1 ET P E (5)
works of Miklosovic et al (2006) and Tanaka et al (2015), a
Kalman filter in prediction mode is built, this done to deal not Where E  C T and  E  T
only with the unknown dynamics and disturbances but also The gain of the predictor is described by:
unknowns time delays. On the other hand, the controller is 
K E ( RE  ET PE E ) 1 ET P E T (6)
obtained by using the LMI approach as systematic way to
tune the controller not only when the dynamic of the plant is with Q  0 and R  0 .
unknown but also if the process is presented in polytopic
form. 3. CONTROLLER DESIGN

2. EXTENDED STATE PREDICTOR Once the Extended State Predictor is designed, the following
step is to build the corresponding controller. Consider a
In order to build the corresponding ESP, consider the reduced representation of (3), which is controllable and
following unknown second order transfer function: observable:
y( s)

b0 (1)  T
1 T 
u ( s) s 2  a1s  a0
x(kT  1)    x ( kT )  b0 2 u (kT )
This is written in the following state space representation: 0 1  b T 
 0 
(7)
0 1 0  0
y (kT )  1 0x(kT )
x  0 0 1 x  b0 u (t )
(2) On this work b0 is considered as part of the system to be
0 0 0  0 
controlled, the control law that stabilizes the system on (7) is
y  1 0 0x obtained by solving the following Linear Matrix Inequality
Equation (2) is discretized assuming a non-pathological with P>0, Stoorvorgel et al (1998):
sampling period T according to Miklosovic et al (2006) using T P  P  QC T P   x (8)
Åström et al (1998), this is: xT u T   T
 P
   0
 ( RC   P) u 
T
 T2  T

1 T b0 2  Where the control law is expressed by:
2 
x(kT  1)  0 1 T  x(kT )   b0T u (kT ) (3) L  L1 L2   ( RC  T P) 1 T P (9)
 
0 0 1  0  From the values of (9) the parameters of the ADRC controller
   
are obtained according to Zheng(2009) adapted for discrete
y (kT )  1 0 0x(kT )
time on this work from Jantzen(1998), this leads to:
On this work is proposed to use (3) with a Kalman Filter on
prediction mode, for this reason, consider Åström et al (1998) u(kT )  L1 r (kT )  x1 (kT )  L2 r (kT )  r (kT  1)  x2 (kT )  x3 (kT ) (10)
where the system is presented as a one step ahead predictor of
the form:

3
 SiSTEMAS DE CONTROL
4. CASE STUDY
In order to study the Predictive ADRC controller presented
before, the Cayley-Rodriguez representation of the
Monoaxial satellite found in Sira et al (2005) and
Andymar(2006) is selected:
x1  0.5(1  x1 ) 2 x2
1 American Control Conference 2006, Minneapolis, Mn,
x2  u (11)
J Jimmy Tombé Andrade ∗
y  x1
Where x1 is the orientation angle of the satellite respect of an
oblique’s axis and x2 is the angular speed respect the
principal axis, J is the inertia and u is the applied torque. The
first step is to build the discrete time representation of the
unknown system, assuming a sampling period of T  0.1s
and considering b0=0.01 substituting on (3). The
Matlab/Simulink toolboxes where used for all the
calculations. According to Sira et al (2002) the Output of the
system is x1 and its desired reference is x1=1.5 with J=90
Andymar(2006), the simulation is presented as follows
against a disturbance of the 50% of the nominal value:
Fig. 1: Predictive ADRC with unknown model
As shown on (Fig. 1), the Predictive ADRC effectively
regulates the system and also has the capability to reject
larger disturbances. On the second experiment, the discrete
nominal linearized model of (11) is used, assuming x1=1.5
and x2=0 as equilibrium points, the discrete linearized model
with sampling period T  0.1 is presented as follows:
Against the same reference signal and disturbance, the system
is shown as follows:
Fig. 2: Predictive ADRC with Nominal Model
The response is improved when the overshoot is reduced; this
is because the controller has more information of the system
than the unknown model presented before.
5. CONCLUSIONS
On this paper a modification of the typical ADRC algorithm
is presented, first an ESO is used as a predictive estimator
that feeds the ADRC controller on discrete time, which is
tuned using the LMI´s approach, resulting on a controller
4 5
who can reject disturbance and track the desired reference, on
future works a physical implementation of this controller is
considered on test system..
REFERENCES
Z, Gao.(2006). "Active Disturbance rejection Control a
paradigm Shift in System Control Design" Proceeding
EUA.
Q, Zheng.(2009). ”On Active Disturbance Rejection Control
Stability Analysis and aplications in disturbance
decoupling control”. Phd Thesis, Cleveland State
University.
Q, Zheng. Z, Gao.(2010). “On Practical Aplications of Active
Disturbance Rejection Control”. Proceedings of the 29th
Chinese Control Conference, Beijing. China.
P, Teppa. M, Bravo. G, Garcia. (2012). "Control por rechazo
activo de perturbaciones del nivel de líquido de un
sistema de tanques acoplado" Revista Faraute de Ciencia
y Tecnología, Vol 7, No 1,10-18.
P Teppa. (2012). "Notas en control por desigualdades
lineales matriciales", Universidad Simón Bolívar.
R, Miklosovic. Z,Gao.(2006). "Discrete Implementation and
generalization of the extended State Observer",
Proceeding American Control Conference 2006,
Minneapolis, Mn, EUA.
B, Alexander. R, Rarick. L, Dong. (2008). “A novel
application of an extended State Observer for High
Performance control of NASA’s HSS Flywheel and
Fault Detection” Proceeding American Control
Conference 2008, Seattle, Washington, EUA.
R, Tanaka. T, Murakami. Y, Ishida.(2015) “Model Matching
Control Based on Discrete time improved ADRC
considering plant input disturbances”. 2015 Third
International Conferences on Artificial Intelligence,
Modelling and Simulation. Kota Kinabalu, Sabah,
Malaysia.
K, Astrom. B, Wittenmark.(1998). "Computer Controlled
System: Theory and Design", Prentice Hall.
E, Kaszkurewicz. A, Bhaya. (2006). "Matrix Diagonal
Stability in Systems and Computation", Birkhauser.
D, Xue. Y, Chen.(2009). "Solving applied mathematical
problems with Matlab" CRC Press.
M Oishi.(2008). "Global quadratic lyapunov function",
Lecture Notes, University of British Columbia.
G Hermann.(2006). "Linear Matrix Inequalities in Control",
Lecture Notes, Leicester University.
T, Alamo Cantarero.(2012). “Minicurso LMI”, Lecture
Notes, UNED.
A, Stoorvorgel. A, Saberi.(1998). “The Discrete Algebraic
Ricatti Equation and Linear Matrix Inequalities”. Linear
Algebra and Its Applications 274:317-365.
J, Jantzen. (1998) “Tunning of Fuzzy PID controllers”
Technical University of Denmark, Department of
Automation, Bldg 326, DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark.
Tech. report no 98-H 871 (fpid).
H, Sira Ramires. R, Marquez. F, Rivas. O, Llanes. (2005).
"Control de Sistemas Nolineales", Pearson.
R Andymar.(2006). "Uso de GNU Octave para simulacion de
sistemas Nolineales", Tesis de Grado ULA.
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
Fault Tolerant MPC Controller For Electric
Heater Control
Raul Esteban Alzate, Diego Martı́nez Castro,
Juan Carlos Mena, Bernardo Roger Sabogal Abril,
∗
e-mail: [raul esteban.alzate, dmartinez, jcmena, brsabogal,
jtombe]@uao.edu.co
Grupo de Investigacin de Sistemas de Telemando y Control
Distribuido - GITCoD. Universidad Autónoma de Occidente, Cl. 25
#115-85, Cali, Valle del Cauca.
Abstract: MPC Controllers are good achieving zero steady state error even if the controlled
system is affected by disturbances. But MPC strategy by itself was not intended to endure
proper operation under faulty conditions. Fault tolerant control consist of control algorithms,
fault detection and compensation strategies. In this work a MPC controller is implemented
using dynamic matrix control strategy. Also a model based residual generator is developed
to detect fault occurrence. Artificial neural networks combined with band pass filter allows
fault quantification to compensate the MPC behavior under faulty operation. The implemented
compensation schema improved the controller’s recovery time significantly.
Keywords: Fault tolerant, Fault detection, Fault diagnosis, Predictive control, Quadratic
control, Dynamic modeling.
1. INTRODUCTION With this was possible to analyze how the system’s model
is affected due to a fault. It was observed that a grid
Nowadays robustness is a very important characteristic in voltage drop only affected the linear model gain while the
control design. Controllers able to operate properly even time constant remained unchanged.
under faulty conditions can reduce cost and avoid critical
Θa − Θ
damages to the controlled system. This is why fault detec- Θ̇Cw = k1 u1 + + u2 h(Θ)(Θa − Θ) (1)
Rth (Θ)
tion and correction capabilities are becoming a key aspect
for controller design. Despite MPC technique has shown to
be a very successful technique, it lacks fault detection and
correction capabilities. The latter becomes more critical
due to the controlled plants model will become inaccurate
under fault conditions. To extend MPC capabilities under
faulty conditions, this work proposes and test a fault
detection and correction scheme that aims to improve
the MPC robustness. Experimental results showed that
additive compensation offers a superior performance when
compared with the proposed schema which updates the
MPC model according to the fault magnitude. The present
work concludes that it is better to invest more effort to the
development of additive based compensators rather than
strategies based on updating the models employed by the
Fig. 1. Heater-Cooler system used to implement the MPC
plants controller.
control and fault compensation schema.
2. METHODOLOGY
The fault detection was achieved computing a residual
signal as the difference between the measured temperature
In order to implement a model based fault compensator a
non linear model was obtained for the plant using classical and the calculated with the model in equation1. When the
residual signal is around zero, the system is in fault free
thermodynamics. In figure 1 is depicted the water heating
system used for the present work. The systems’s model is operation. When the residual signal exceeds a threshold
a fault has occurred. For this work the threshold was
shown in equation 1. It can be seen that is a non-linear
set as ±1.4K based on experimental data. In order to
system.
quantify the fault faster, the residual signal is filtered with
Afterwards faults were induced in a controlled manner a bandpass filter. This filter performs a derivative action
using a variac connected in series with the heater resistor. and cleans the residual derivative from unwanted noise. In
 SiSTEMAS DE CONTROL
figure 2 the residual signal is depicted with red color while
the residual derivative is represented by the blue curve.
Fig. 2. Residual signal (red curve) and band passed resid-
ual, experimental results.
An Artificial Neural Network was trained to compute the
heater gain changes according to the residual derivative
maximal value, which is proportional to the fault magni-
tude. Once the actual gain is known under fault operations
conditions, the MPC linear model is updated.
In this work was also considered another alternative
scheme, which is an additive compensation strategy. in this
scheme the residual derivative is used directly, hence the
artificial neural network is not required. This strategy is
depicted in figure 3.
Fig. 3. Control scheme to compensate fault inspired in the
additive compensation scheme.
3. RESULTS
Updating MPC linear model did not improved recovery
time. The performance index IAE was approximately 5820
for both cases. To see if updating MPC model could have
any impact in the recovery time the MPC was updated
with the quarter value of the actual gain (that is, the fault
was magnified to the MPC). The result is shown in figure 4
in which 40% fault is induced at t = 1500s. The blue curve
is the response without compensation. The green curve
is the response when the proposed compensation schema
6 7
Fig. 4. Experimental results comparing recovery time with
and without fault compensation schema. With fault
compensation represented by green curve. without
compensation represented by blue curve.
magnifies the fault to the MPC, hence the counter action
is also magnified.
It can be seen that the recovery time is improved, IAE =
4040. This is not a successful result due to the MPC was
not updated with the actual gain under fault condition.
The latter motivated tests with an additive compensation
schema, inspired in Noura et al. (2009). This compensation
strategy showed better results, the obtained IAE was 3718
and the fault occurrence at t = 1500s was imperceptible.
This result is better than showed in figure 4.
4. CONCLUSION
Updating MPC models according to the fault magnitude
did not provided the expected performance. In Noura et al.
(2009) is presented an additive law using the residual
signal. Using such approaches the system’s robustness
can be greatly improved when compared to the method
presented in this work. The latter is clearly show when
comparing the obtained IAE indexes. Also it is important
to notice that the computation time is lower since the
ANN are not necessary for the additive compensation.
The present work suggest that it is better to opt for
additive compensation strategies rather than MPC model
correction. Further works in this topic should aim putting
this additive correction into a firm mathematical ground.
REFERENCES
Noura, H., Theilliol, D., Ponsart, J.C., and Chamseddine,
A. (2009). Fault-tolerant control systems: Design and
practical applications. Springer Science & Business
Media.
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
Impulsive Multi-Model Model Predictive
Control for Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Michelle Caicedo ∗ Pablo S. Rivadeneira ∗
Alejandro H. González ∗∗
∗
Departamento de Energı́a Eléctrica y Automática, Universidad
Nacional de Colombia, Medellı́n, Colombia (e-mail:
{macaicedoa,psrivade}@unal.edu.co).
∗∗
INTEC-Facultad de Ingenierı́a Quı́mica, UNL-CONICET, Santa Fe,
Argentina (e-mail: alejgon@santafe-conicet.gov.ar)
Abstract: Type 1 diabetes mellitus is a chronic and autoimmune disease that affects over
25 million people around the world. Recently, several control strategies as model predictive
control (MPC) and PID have been developed for the implementation of the artificial pancreas
to accomplish blood glucose regulation. However, a realistic and robust approach to treatment
for T1DM is still needed. In this paper, a new impulsive robust model predictive control strategy
based on a multi-model scheme is presented, to avoid hypoglycemic and severe hyperglycemic
events against meal disturbances, plant-model mismatch and parametric variations which lead
to hypo and hyperglycemia when an MPC with a nominal plant is used.
Keywords: Artificial pancreas, blood glucose regulation, parametric variation, model predictive
control, robust control, multi-model control.
1. INTRODUCTION the state and the impulsive input at times τk consists in a
set of linear impulsive differential equations of the form:
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) is a chronic and au-
toimmune disease that causes progressive destruction of ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + E, x(0) = x0 ,
pancreatic β-cells. The consequence is a decrease in insulin (1)
production resulting in a dysfunctional glycemic regula- x(τk+ ) = x(τk ) + Bu(τk ), k ∈ N,
tion and therefore the risk of hyperglycemic events. One The impulsive system (1) is then characterized at times τk
of the limitations for developing an artificial pancreas is and τk+ leading a discrete time version of it.
the lack of robust control algorithms for the regulation of
BG under several scenarios of plant-model mismatch, per- 4. PARAMETER SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
turbations and parameter variations (Bequetteb (2005)).
In this work, the problem of the robustness is addressed For this case, glucose sensitivity with respect to insulin
from a different point of view. First, insulin pumps do sensitivity (Si ), the rate of self-regulating (K), the time
not deliver insulin continuously but in small pulses, which constant of the insulin concentration (tmax,IA ) and time
means that the problem could be taken as an impulsive constant of glucose levels after meals (tmax,G ) are studied.
system. Second, fixed model-plant mismatch and intra-
5. MULTI-MODEL DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT
patient parameter variations are considered by means of a
multi-model uncertainty scheme, which is essentially dif-
The model used for predictions is augmented with a
ferent and less conservative than the uncertainty schemes
constant state disturbance to account for the mismatch
of the traditional RMPCs.
between the model prediction and the real plant. In this
paper, the multi-model formulation is developed following
2. GLUCOSE-INSULIN MODEL the idea of a stable formulation using artificial variables
considering a finite collection of linear (augmented) models
According to Ruan et al. (2017), an affine model is con- for predictions.
sidered with 5 continuous state variables representing the
three subsystem dynamics describing blood glucose, in- 6. IMPULSIVE ROBUST MPC
sulin action and absorption.
The optimization problem cost solved by the MPC takes
into account only the predictions corresponding to the
3. LINEAR IMPULSIVE SCHEME
nominal model, as follows (Ferramosca et al. (2017)):
Consider the inputs as impulses applied by means of a
VN (x, d, x•T s
ar
; u, ua , xa ) = (2)
drug bolus, instead of continuous delivery. The dynamic
dyn
system of interest which relates the state at time τk+ with VN (xno , dno ; u, uano , xano ) + Vest (xa , x•T
s
ar
),
 SiSTEMAS DE CONTROL
The optimization problem solved by the MPC at each time
k is given by:
PRM P C (x, d, x•T
s
ar
):
min VN (x, d, x•T
s
ar
; u, ua , xa )
u,ua ,xa
s.t.
xi (0) = x̂i
xi (j + 1) = A•i xi (j) + Bi• u(j) + E • + di (j),
di (j + 1) = di (j),
xi (j) ∈ X , u(j) ∈ U ,
xi (N ) = xai ,
xai = A•i xai + Bi• uai + E • + di (j)
JN (xi , di , x•T
s
ar
; u, uai , xai ) ≤ J˜N (xi , di , x•T
s
ar
; ũi , ũai , x̃ai ),
7. STUDY CASE
The performance of the controller presented in Section 5
is tested in simulation using the virtual patient adolescent
001 identified from the UVA/Padova metabolic simulator.
The impulsive multi-model MPC is evaluated under pa-
rameter variation.
8. CONCLUSION
In this paper, a novel impulsive robust MPC is presented.
The offset-free model was proposed to eliminate plant-
model mismatch and write down the multi-model ap-
proach. Parameter sensitivity analysis is made in order to
know how parameter variations affect glucose. Simulation
results show robustness when the controller is tested under
fixed model-mismatch and meal disturbances.
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Atherton, R.W., Schainker, R.B., and Ducot, E.R. (1975).
On the statistical sensitivity analysis of models for
chemical kinetics. AIChe Journal, 21(3), 441–448.
Badgwell, T.A. (1997). Robust model predictive control of
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Bequetteb, B. (2005). A critical assessment of algorithms
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ficial pancreas. Diabetes Technology and Therapeutics,
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Colmegna, P., Sánchez Peña, R.S., Gondhalekar, R., Das-
sau, E., and Doyle, F.J. (2014). Reducing risks in type
1 diabetes using h∞ control. IEEE Transactions on
Biomedical Engineering, 61(12), 2939–2947.
Ferramosca, A., González, A.H., and Limón, D. (2017).
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zone control. Journal of Process Control, 19(1), 110–
122.
Hamby, D. (1994). A review of techniques for parameter
sensitivity analysis of environmental models. Enviro-
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8 9
Khalil, H.K. (1992). Nonlinear Systems. Macmillan, New
York.
Kirchsteiger, H. and Del Re, L. (2013). Robust tube-based
predictive control of blood glucose concentration in type
1 diabetes. In 52nd IEEE Conference on Decision and
Control, 2085–2089.
Kovács, L., Maszlag, C., Mezei, M., and Eigner, G. (2017).
Robust nonlinear model predictive control of diabetes
mellitus. In IEEE 15th International Symposium on
Applied Machine Intelligence and Informatics, 55–60.
Maeder, U., Francesco, B., and Morari, M. (2009). Linear
offset-free model-predictive control. Automatica, 45,
2214—-2222.
Muske, K.R. and Badgwell, T.A. (2002). Disturbance
modeling for offset-free linear model predictive control.
Journal of Process Control, 12, 617—-632.
Ozyetkin, M.M., Nath, N., Tatlicioglu, E., and Dawson,
D.M. (2012). A new robust nonlinear control algorithm
for the regulation of blood glucose in diabetic patients.
In IEEE International Conference on Control Applica-
tions (CCA), 1057–1061.
Pannocchia, G. and Rawlings, J.B. (2003). Disturbance
models for offset-free model-predictive control. AIChE
Journal, 49(2), 426—-437.
Penet, M., Gueguen, H., and Belmiloudi, A. (2013). A
robust receding horizon control approach to artificial
glucose control for type 1 diabetes. In 9th IFAC
Symposium on Nonlinear Control Systems, 833–838.
Perriello, G., De Feo, P., Torlone, E., Fanelli, C., Santeu-
sanio, F., Brunetti, P., and Bolli, G.B. (1991). The
dawn phenomenon in type 1 (insulin-dependent) dia-
betes mellitus: magnitude, frequency, variability, and
dependency on glucose counterregnlation and insulin
sensitivity. Diabetologia, 34, 21–28.
Resalat, N., Youssef, J.E., Reddy, R., and Jacobs, P.G.
(2017). Evaluation of model complexity in model pre-
dictive control within an exercise enabled artificial pan-
creas. IFAC PapersOnLine, 50(17).
Rivadeneira, P.S., Ferramosca, A., and González, A.H.
(2015). Mpc with state window target control in linear
impulsive systems. IFAC - PapersOnLine, 48(23), 507–
512.
Rivadeneira, P.S., Ferramosca, A., and González, A.H.
(2017). Control strategies for non-zero set-point reg-
ulation of linear impulsive systems. IEEE Transactions
on Automatic Control, PP(99), 1–1.
Ruan, Y., Wilinska, M.E., Thabit, H., and Hovorka, R.
(2017). Modeling day-to-day variability of glucose–
insulin regulation over 12-week home use of closed-
loop insulin delivery. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical
Engineering, 64(6), 1412–1419.
Schaller, S., Lippert, J., Schaupp, L., Pieber, T.R., Schup-
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Wang, Y., Zisser, H., Dassau, E., Jovanovic, L., and Doyle,
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Process Systems Engineering, AiChe Journal, 56(6),
1510–1518.
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
Algebraic IDA-PBC for Polynomial
Systems with Input Saturation: An
SOS-based Approach
Oscar B. Cieza 1 , Johann Reger 2
Control Engineering Group, Technische Universität Ilmenau, Germany,
(e-mail: oscar.cieza@tu-ilmenau.de, johann.reger@tu-ilmenau.de)
Abstract: The necessity to deal with partial differential equations (PDEs) and the dissipation
condition are the main adversities in the application of Interconnection and Damping Assign-
ment Passivity-Based Control (IDA-PBC). Recently, an algebraic solution of IDA-PBC has been
explored for a class of affine polynomial systems by using sum of squares (SOS) and semidefinite
programming (SDP). In this work, we extend the previous method by incorporating actuator
saturation (AS) and two minimization objectives in the SDP. Our results are validated on two
polynomial systems.
Keywords: Port-Hamiltonian Systems, IDA-PBC, Polynomial Systems, Sum of Squares,
Actuator Saturation.
1. INTRODUCTION PBC at the expense of an adequate parametrization and
selection of the Hamiltonian. To the best knowledge of the
The standard Interconnection and Damping Assignment authors there is no definitive solution to the AS design
Passivity-Based Control (IDA-PBC) method requires a problem with IDA-PBC. The underlying work shall now
two step procedure: energy shaping (ES) and damping also incorporate AS and two SDP minimization objectives,
injection. The first step depends on the solution of partial extending the algorithm of Cieza and Reger (2018).
differential equations (PDEs). Therefore, methods such as
constructive procedures (Romero et al., 2017), implicit 2. IDA-PBC FOR POLYNOMIAL SYSTEMS
port-Hamiltonian (Castaños and Gromov, 2016) and also
algebraic approaches (Batlle et al., 2007), among others, We consider the class of polynomial systems given by
have been proposed. The second step together with zero Γ(x)ẋ = f (x) + g(x)u (1)
state detectability guarantees asymptotic stability. Here, and the desired closed loop port-Hamiltonian system
dissipation in the under-actuated degrees of freedom, see    
g⊥ (x) F1 (x) 1 ∂z  (x)P −1 z(x)
(Gómez-Estern and Van der Schaft, 2004), may also turn Γ(x)ẋ = , (2)
g  (x) F2 (x) 2 ∂x
out an obstacle for the implementation of IDA-PBC. In
addition, it has been shown by Batlle et al. (2007) that a where g⊥ is the full rank left annihilator, Γ is nonsingular,
two step IDA-PBC may be restrictive in some cases, thus and Γ, g, g⊥ , z, g⊥ f are polynomial functions. Addi-
introducing a single step procedure. tionally, we use Prop. 3–5 from Cieza and Reger (2018),
rephrasing them into new Prop. 1 and 2 (see full paper 3 )
It is well-known that actuator saturation (AS) may lead s.t. they meet our requirements. These propositions expose
to closed-loop instability. In this context, for instance, Wei sufficient conditions for synthesizing the control law
 
and Yuzhen (2010) analyzed saturation in the damping u = (g  g)−1 F2 (∂x z) P −1 z − g  f (3)
injection term, Macchelli et al. (2003) developed a variable
that transforms (1) into the locally (asymptotically) stable
structure approach to ES and Sprangers et al. (2015) used
system (2). Application of the algebraic IDA-PBC starts
reinforcement learning with ES to show robust properties
with selection of Λ1 , z, g⊥ and N according to (1), (2),
under AS. Additionally, in polynomial systems the sum
and some conditions exposed in the full paper. Then we
of squares (SOS) approach with semidefinite program-
ming (SDP) may also enable to synthesize AS-focused choose Xh which involves h and find some P = P   0,
S1 (x)  0 and F2 (x) s.t.
controllers (Ichihara, 2013).
−Φ(x) − Φ (x) − h(x)S1 (x)  0, (4)
Lately, Cieza and Reger (2018) for a class of polynomial  
affine systems have presented an algebraic method the where Φ = Γd N  P Λ 1 F 
2 with some bounds on P .
conditions of which are met by means of SOS and SDP
In comparison, Prop. 2 requires to solve smaller LMIs
solutions. The method solves the typical problems of IDA- (reduced (4)) to calculate the parametrized function F2
or to guarantee its existence, whereas Prop. 1 defines
1 Support by Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst, Germany, F2 as general function s.t. (4) is satisfied, granting more
and by Programa Nacional de Becas y Crédito Educativo, Peru.
2 Support by the European Union Horizon 2020 research and innova- flexibility at the expense of computational cost.
tion program, Marie Sk€lodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 734832. 3 For brevity, the reader shall consult the full paper for Prop. 1–4.
 SiSTEMAS DE CONTROL
3. MAIN RESULT
The new obtained Prop. 1 and 2 extend the results of
Cieza and Reger (2018) so as to also consider AS. For
this purpose, we introduce Prop. 3 which entails additional
conditions such that the control law (3) is constrained to
a set Uc = {u ∈ Rm | u Su−1 (x)u ≤ 1} with Su (x)  0 for
any x ∈ XP ⊂ Xh .
Following for example the works of Ichihara (2013) we
use the polytope or polytopic saturation model within the
algebraic IDA-PBC to state Prop. 4, which implies that, if
there is a solution to the conditions of Prop. 1 and 3 with
a modified (4), then there also exists an (asymptotically)
stabilizing control law with F2 in polytopic representation.
Afterwards we adopt the independent input saturation,
see (Ichihara, 2013), given by usat-i = sat(ux , u, u), where
ux is calculated by Prop. 4 and u, u are maximum and
minimum values of u in Uc . Additionally, to reduce 2m−1
inequalities and polynomial matrices, we select a new
saturation function usat-n which depends on all the inputs.
Prop. 1–3 only guarantee a solution for P and F2 (x)
without any (maxi-)minimization objective in the SDP.
Therefore, we define the following optimizations
• Optimization 1: volume maximization of XP by
means of maximizing the minimum bound of P , and
• Optimization 2: volume minimization of Uc which
minimizes the upper bound of Su , namely u.
4. SIMULATIONS
It is well-known that the SOS property is a sufficient
condition for checking the non-negativity of a polynomial
function. For this reason, we may search for positive
semidefinite matrices that are matrix SOS polynomials in
Prop. 1–4. The algorithm is processed in Matlab by use
of SOSTOOLS and SDPT3. To validate our results we use
two examples: a nonlinear second order system and a third
order multiple input system with AS.
In the second order system we evaluate:
E1 Prop. 1 with Opt. 1,
E2 Prop. 1 and 3 with Opt. 2,
E3 Prop. 1 and 3 with Opt. 1 and
E4 a small comparison between Prop. 1 and 2.
For example, the results of E3 can be seen in Figure 1,
which shows sets XP ⊂ Xh , XP ⊂ Uc , and the phase por-
trait in x1 –x2 plane of the closed-loop for 10 extreme initial
positions x0 represented by symbol “∗”. All trajectories
converge to the origin as expected.
Finally, we consider a third order system given by
    
1 x1 0 ẋ1 x2 − 2x3 − 2x1 x2 − 2x22
−x1 1 0 ẋ2 =   Available numerical methods to solve the non-convex op-
x 1 x 2 + u1
0 0 1 ẋ3
x 2 x 3 + u2
and calculate an asymptotically stabilizing (the origin)
saturated control law usat-n using Prop. 1, 3 and 4 with
Opt. 1 for Su = diag(10, 8), obtaining again good results.
10
XP
Uc
0
Xh
x2
−5
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x1
Fig. 1. Sets XP , Xh , Uc , and phase portrait for 10 extreme
initial positions.
5. CONCLUSION
In this paper we provide an algebraic solution for IDA-
PBC that is able to also resolve problems from AS and
optimization objectives. To this end, we restrict the design
to a class of polynomial systems that yield conditions
which are solvable with SOS and SDP. Additionally, we
enjoy features as: no need to solve a PDE, dissipation
in design and one step IDA-PBC. Simulations of two
polynomial example systems validate our approach.
REFERENCES
Batlle, C., Dòria-Cerezo, A., Espinosa-Pérez, G., and
Ortega, R. (2007). Simultaneous interconnection and
damping assignment passivity-based control: Two prac-
tical examples. In Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Methods
for Nonlinear Control 2006, 157–169. Springer.
Castaños, F. and Gromov, D. (2016). Passivity-based
control of implicit port-Hamiltonian systems with holo-
nomic constraints. Systems & Control Letters, 94(1),
11–18.
Cieza, O.B. and Reger, J. (2018). IDA-PBC for Polynomial
Systems : An SOS-based Approach. In IFAC Conference
on Modelling, Identification and Control of Nonlinear
Systems (MICNON), 366–371.
Gómez-Estern, F. and Van der Schaft, A. (2004). Physical
Damping in IDA-PBC Controlled Underactuated Me-
chanical Systems. European Journal of Control, 10(5),
451–468.
Ichihara, H. (2013). A Convex Approach to State Feedback
Synthesis for Polynomial Nonlinear Systems with Input
Saturation. SICE Journal of Control, Measurement, and
System Integration, 6(3), 186–193.
Macchelli, A., Melchiorri, C., Secchi, C., and Fantuzzi, C.
(2003). A variable structure approach to energy shaping.
In European Control Conference (ECC), 1309–1314.
Romero, J.G., Donaire, A., Ortega, R., and Borja, P.
(2017). Global Stabilisation of Underactuated Mechan-
ical Systems via PID Passivity-Based Control. In IFAC
World Congress, 9577–9582.
Sprangers, O., Lopes, G.A.D., and Babuska, R. (2015).
Reinforcement learning for port-Hamiltonian systems.
IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics, 45(5), 1017–1027.
Wei, A. and Yuzhen, W. (2010). Stabilization and H∞ con-
trol of nonlinear port-controlled Hamiltonian systems
subject to actuator saturation. Automatica, 46(12),
2008–2013.
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
Efficient solution of nonlinear model
predictive control by a restricted
enumeration method
Jhon Isaza ∗ Diego A. Muñoz ∗∗ Hernan Alvarez ∗∗∗
∗
Instituto Tecnológico Metropolitano de Medellı́n, Facultad de
Ingenierı́as. Cra. 65 N 98 A-75, Medellı́n, Colombia. (e-mail:
jhonisaza@itm.edu.co)
∗∗
Optimización Matemática de Procesos ÓPTIMO, Centro de Ciencia
Básica, Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, Circular 1, 70-01,
Medellı́n, Colombia, (e-mail: diego.munoz@upb.edu.co).
∗∗∗
KALMAN, Grupo de investigación en Procesos Dinámicos,
Universidad Nacional de Colombia-Sede Medellı́n, Facultad de Minas.
Cra 80 N 65-223 Medellı́n, Colombia. (e-mail: hdalvare@unal.edu.co)
Abstract: This work presents an alternative method to solve the nonlinear program (NLP)
for nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) problems. The NLP is the most computational
demanding task in NMPC, which limits the industrial implementation of this control strategy.
Therefore, it is important to consider algorithms that can solve the nonlinear program, not only
in real time but also guaranteeing feasibility. In this work, the restricted enumeration method
is proposed as alternative to solve the NLP for NMPC problems, showing successful results for
pH control in a sugar cane process plant. This method enumerates in restricted way a set of
final control element positions around the current one. Next, it tests all positions in that set to
find the best one, taken as the optimization solution.
Keywords: restricted enumeration method; nonlinear programs (NLP); nonlinear model
predictive control (NMPC); pH control.
1. INTRODUCTION feasible solutions and quite close to the global optimum;
ii) dynamic programming, like iterative dynamic program-
Model predictive control (MPC) is a successful control ming (Luus, 1996) and blurred dynamic programming
technique for plants with slow dynamics like chemical and (Alkan et al., 1994), but the disadvantage of dynamic
petrochemical processes. Although these kind of plants programming methods is the high computation costs; and
are nonlinear, in some cases, the performance of linear iii) heuristic methods such as genetic algorithms, Bacterial
MPC has been suitable (Rao and Rawlings, 2000; Mayne Chemotactism (BCh) and simulated annealing. Although
et al., 2000; Xi et al., 2013; Darby and Nikolaou, 2012). those methods provide feasible solutions very close to the
However, in order to improve the MPC performance a global optimum, they consume a lot of computation time
nonlinear model of the process should be used, which leads (Holland, 1992). Therefore, to provide simple optimization
to nonlinear MPC (NMPC) (Chen and Allgöwer, 1998; procedures allow the industrial implementation of NMPC.
de Oliveira Kothare, 1996). The main disadvantage of The aim of this work is to propose the restricted enumer-
NMPC is the complexity related with the resulting non- ation method to solve the nonlinear-nonconvex optimiza-
linear optimization problem, which is usually nonconvex tion problem of NMPC to increase the possibilities of its
(Mishra, 2011) and must be solved in real time (Chen and implementation in industrial processes.
Allgöwer, 1998; Camacho and Bordons, 2007). A typical
solution to solve the resulting nonlinear program (NLP) in
2. METHODOLOGY
real time implies the use of high performance computing,
however, in industrial facilities it is not available (Richalet,
This work follows the typical methodology of scientific
1993). Additionally, any required complex computation for
method. A review of current state of the art allows to
control implies an increase in maintenance protocols for
propose a new method for the optimization task in non-
which the fail probabilities also increase.
linear model predictive control (NMPC). The solution of
the optimization problem in this kind of controller has
timization problems for NMPC can be classified in three the highest computational cost, in particular when the
sub-groups: i) Direct enumeration, which is not very ef- considered model and constraints are non-linear. To this
ficient at the computation level when the process model aim, in this work, a direct enumeration method is pro-
is not compact enough, but with models that can be posed, which consists in the generation of control poli-
evaluated at a good speed, this technique always produces cies to find a minimum value for the NMPC objective
11
 SiSTEMAS DE CONTROL
function. It should be notice that the attained ”degree
of optimality” of the problem depends on the amount of
policies that are generated. Under these circumstances,
there are three different techniques to generate policies:
Random, staggered and restricted enumeration. Random
and staggered techniques chose the control policies without
knowledge of the process, while the restricted enumeration
not only includes possible positions of actuator but also
takes into account the dynamic response of the used final
control element (FCE). The construction of this set of FCE
movements imitates the branch and bound technique to
solve decision trees used in Artificial Intelligence (AI). In
this way, a drastic and organized reduction of the search
space is obtained, and the time for solving the NMPC
optimization problem is reduced compared to direct enu-
meration methods. Thus, the method of generating control
policies by restricted enumeration allows an organized and
successful choice of the “near to best” control action at
each sampling time unlike the other two previous methods
(random and staggered).
3. RESULTS
The case study considered in this work corresponds to the
pH control of sugar cane juice in the sugar industry. pH
is an important variable to be tracked in order to keep
the standard of final sugar. The aim is to control the
pH in the alkalinization section of a sugar cane plant.
Alkalinization is a part of juice clarification sub-process,
but affecting subsequently processes as evaporation and
crystallization. During alkalinization, the juices is added
with a lime slurry to compensate the pH after sulphitation
process. The purpose of this process is to neutralize the
juice to pH=7.0 dealing with the highly nonlinear and
complex dynamics inherent to pH variable. Note that these
facts difficult the use of conventional control systems as
PID.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The main restriction of the industrial use of advanced
control techniques is the complexity and robustness of
their algorithms. From the practical point of view, the
optimization by restricted enumeration (ORE) method
was implemented showing feasible results. However, the
most important contribution of the OER method is its
algorithmic simplicity, which is easily programmable in
industrial control equipment such as the PLC. Thus,
industrial implementation of advanced control techniques
based on optimization is enhanced.
As a future work, to extend the control horizon for multi-
steps ORE, the number of possible combinations that this
method requires to solve the optimization problem must
be reduced. A predictive controller with enough dynamic
information of the near future of the plant will have more
possibilities to correct errors or future disturbances. In
other words, it is not the same to excite the prediction
model once and to keep the control action value during
the prediction horizon, than to excite the model with a
variable control action, which allows the model to exhibit
dynamic characteristics of interest, and such that there is
greater predictability on the part of the controller.
12
REFERENCES
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18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
Proportional-Integral Controller Design for
Selective Harmonic Mitigation 
Rafael F. Q. Magossi ∗ Sangjin Han ∗∗ Vilma A. Oliveira ∗
Shankar P. Bhattacharyya ∗∗
∗
Department of Electrical and Computing Engineering, Universidade
de São Paulo, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
(e-mail:rafael.magossi,voliveira@usp.br)
∗∗
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas A&M
University, College Station, USA (e-mail: sangjin.han@tamu.edu,
bhatt@ece.tamu.edu)
Abstract: In this paper, we propose a graphical design method for Proportional-Integral (PI)
controllers mitigating selective harmonics. The method utilizes the stabilizing set and computes
subsets for prescribed levels of harmonic mitigation at given frequencies. With this method, it is
possible to design PI controllers to satisfy specifications considering selective harmonics present
in the system.
Keywords: PI controllers, harmonics, controllers, error transfer functions, bounded
disturbances.
1. INTRODUCTION disturbance, y(t) the output of the plant and e(t) the
error between the reference and the output. From Fig. 1,
An important requirement in Power Electronics is to applying the Laplace transform in e(t), we can write:
attenuate the amplitude selected harmonics in a system E(s) = Su (s)R(s) − Su (s)Pd (s)D(s), (1)
(Aguiar et al. (2015)). Besides, an important performance where
requirement is the H∞ norm bound on the error transfer 1
function of the system (Han et al. (2018)). However, it was Su (s) := , (2)
1 + Pu (s)C(s)
a conservative solution, since it is considered all frequencies
is called the error transfer function. Consider an H∞ norm
while there are only a few frequencies required to be
bound γ > 0 on the error transfer functio Su (s)∞ < γ,
taken into account (Aguiar et al. (2015)). In this paper we
which is equivalent to
use the stabilizing set for PID controllers (Bhattacharyya
et al. (2009)) and the results to synthesize a PI/PID 1
|1 + Pu (jω)C(jω)|> , ∀ ω ∈ [0, ∞). (3)
controller with an H∞ norm (Han et al. (2018)) to design γ
a PI controller which tracks steps reference signal and
We can use the above inequality to develop a design
mitigates the disturbance harmonics present in a system
method where we superimpose the condition (3) on the
simultaneously.
stabilizing set for some selected frequencies instead of
[0, ∞).
2. METHODOLOGY
d(t)
In this section we briefly summarize a design constraint
r(t) + e(t) u(t) y(t)
on the error transfer function and present the proposed C(s) P (s)
graphical design. −
2.1 H∞ Norm Constraint on the Error Transfer Function
Fig. 1. Unity feedback under disturbance.
We summarize the results in Han et al. (2018). Thus,
consider a unity feedback control loop with a disturbance Consider the general dynamical plant of interest illustrated
input to the plant as shown in Fig. 1, where r(t) is the in the Fig. 2. Let Yd (s) be the transfer function of yd (t) in
reference input, u(t) the input to the plant, d(t) the the closed-loop system, then assume that the disturbance
 We acknowledge the financial support of the Brazilian National is a linear combination of sinusoidal signals, for fixed
frequencies ωd ∈ {ω1 , . . . , ωnd }, thus:
Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) under  
Ciência Sem Fronteiras Program grant 400401/2013-4 and São Paulo  Pd (jωd ) 
|Yd (jωd )| =   Ad (4)
Research Foundation (FAPESP) under project 2016/25017-1 and
1 + C(jωd )Pu (jωd ) 
grant 2017/21577-5. This paper is an extended abstract of a regular  
paper submitted to the XVIII Congreso Latinoamericano de Control
 1 
=   |Pd (jωd )|Ad (5)
Automatico (CLCA 2018) 1 + C(jωd )Pu (jωd ) 
13
 SiSTEMAS DE CONTROL 18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático

= |Su (jωd )| |Pd (jωd )| Ad . (6) 3. RESULTS

Let us consider the following continuous-time LTI plant:

d(t) s−5 Una Técnica para la Admisibilidad de SD
Pu (s) = , (13)
10 s2 + 16 s + 2 tipo LPV a Tiempo Discreto
and the disturbance transfer function as:
Pd (s) 20 s2 + 8 s + 1
Pd (s) = . (14) Addison Rı́os-Bolı́var ∗ Javier Sotomayor-Moriano ∗∗
10 s2 + 16 s + 2
yd (t) ∗
Universidad de Los Andes, Facultad de Ingenierı́a, Escuela de
The reference input for this system is a unit step and it
Sistemas, La Hechicera, Mérida 5101, Venezuela.
yu (t) + + is subject to a disturbance signal d(t) = d1 (t) + d2 (t)
(e-mail: ilich@ula.ve).
u(t) Pu (s) y(t) with d1 (t) = 0.6 sin(2t) and d2 (t) = 0.4 sin(3t). Suppose ∗∗
Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Departamento de
P (s) that the specifications to be attained are the amplitude of
Ingenierı́a, Av. Universitaria 1801 San Miguel, Lima 32, Perú.
the harmonic at 2 and 3 rad/s less than 2. We found the
(e-mail: jsotom@pucp.edu.pe).
complete set of stabilizing PI controllers for a given plant
Fig. 2. A detailed look of P (s).
using signature concepts (Bhattacharyya et al. (2009)) and
applied the proposed method, the • is the designed point Resumen: Cuando se combina el modelado de procesos fı́sicos considerando parámetros
Let Ed be a desired upper bound for the amplitude of the to be selected to satisfy all the specifications as shown in inciertos, surgen dinámicas que representan SD con incertidumbres. Ası́, en este trabajo se
harmonic at frequency ωd on yd (t), that is, Fig. 3. aborda el análisis de la admisibilidad robusta para una clase de SD a tiempo discreto y con
|Yd (jωd )| < Ed , (7) incertidumbres de tipo politópicas en los parámetros dependientes. Los SD se consideran con
thus, 0 incertidumbres paramétricas de tipo politópicas y con perturbaciones externas, tal como se
describe por:
|Su (jωd )| |Pd (jωd )| Ad < Ed E(ρ)zk+1 = F(ρ)zk + Buk , hk = C(ρ)zk
-5
Ed donde ρ es la variación paramétrica. El análisis y sı́ntesis se fundamenta en el uso de las
⇔ |Su (jωd )| < (8)
|Pd (jωd )| Ad caracterizaciones de las normas H2 -H∞ como LMIs, que surgen de funciones de Lyapunov
   -10
=:γd
dependientes de parámetros. La clase de SD son aquellos donde existe una aplicación lineal que
representa la inversa generalizada de la matriz E, que permite transformar el SD dependiente
which has the same form as (3). Thus, it is possible to -15 de parámetros a un sistema LPV tı́pico. La existencia de la transformación lineal garantiza
design a controller to compensate each harmonic present que los resultados del análisis de las propiedades del sistema LPV transformado se trasladen
in the disturbance by requiring the magnitude of the -20 a los modos finitos del SD dependiente de parámetros original. De igual manera, el diseño del
frequency response of the error signal at ωd to be less control robusto, para el sistema LPV transformado, es garantı́a de satisfacer la admisibilidad
than γd . In the next subsection we graphically design a y el desempeño robusto para el sistema SD de origen. Ası́, se analiza la condición para la
-25
PI controller. -20 -10 0 10 20 realimentación estática de la salida (SOF) sobre el sistema LPV transformado. La sı́ntesis del
controlador por SOF se obtiene considerando ı́ndices de desempeño en H2 y H∞ , descritos como
desigualdades matriciales lineales, LMIs, bajo la presencia de incertidumbres y perturbaciones.
2.2 PI Controller Fig. 3. Stabilizing set with harmonic mitigation con- Para obtener la ganancia de SOF extendida se considera una ganancia de realimentación para
straints. la salida, y una ganancia de realimentación para su derivada discreta.
The classical PI controller is given by:
ki 4. CONCLUSION Keywords: Descriptor systems. LPV systems. Discrete-time systems. Static output feedback
C(s) = kp + . (9)
s (SOF). Robust control.
In this paper, the error transfer function was used in
Assumption 1. The plant has no jω axis zeros located at order to design the PI controller to mitigate the unde-
ωd , which yields sired harmonics present in the system. We showed that 1. INTRODUCCIÓN buscan soluciones numéricas a través de LMIs de manera
|Pu (jωd )| = 0. (10) the subsets lie outside of ellipses in the stabilizing set. eficiente y simple, Chaabane et al. (2011); Yoneyama et al.
Assumption 2. r(t) is a step function with arbitrary am- Future work include the application of the graphical design (2012).
plitude. procedure to PID controllers, data-driven control and also Desde su introducción en Luenberger (1977), los sis-
other performance objectives simultaneously. temas descriptores (SD), denominados también sistemas 2. FORMULACIÓN DEL PROBLEMA
Now, write Pu (jω) = Pr (jω) + jωPi (jω) and following the singulares, sistemas de semi-estado, sistemas diferencial-
steps in Han et al. (2018) using (3) we can rewrite (8) as: REFERENCES algebraicos o sistemas generalizados de estado-espacio; han Se considera el SD
sido uno de los campos principales de investigación dentro
Aguiar, C.R., Bastos, R.F., Gonalves, A.F.Q., Neves, de la teorı́a de control. Desde entonces, un considerable
(ki − c1 )
2
(kp − c2 )
2
R.V.A., Reis, G.B., and Machado, R.Q. (2015). Fre- progreso ha sido hecho en la investigación de tales sis- E(ρ)zk+1 = F(ρ)zk + B1 (ρ)ωk + Buk
+ >1 (11) quency fuzzy anti-islanding for grid-connected and is-
a2 b2 temas, Duan (2010); Feng and Yagoubi (2017). hk = C(ρ)zk + D1 (ρ)ωk (1)
where landing operation in distributed generation systems.
IET Power Electronics, 8(7), 1255–1262. En otro orden de ideas, los sistemas lineales a parámetros yk = C2 zk
−ωd2 Pi (ωd ) −Pr (ωd ) Bhattacharyya, S.P., Datta, A., and Keel, L.H. (2009). variables (LPV, por sus siglas en inglés), son referidos
c1 = , c2 = , entonces se establece:
|Pu (jωd )|2 |Pu (jωd )|2 Linear Control Theory: Structure, Robustness, and Op- como aquellos sistemas dinámicos lineales cuyas represen-
(12) tationes en espacio de estados dependen de parámetros no Problema 1. Diseñar un control uk para el sistema (1)
ωd 1 timization, volume 33. CRC press.
a= ,b= . estacionarios exógenos Shamma (2012). tal que el correspondiente sistema en lazo cerrado sea
γd |Pu (jωd )| γd |Pu (jωd )| Han, S., Keel, L.H., and Bhattacharyya, S.P. (2018). admisible y el efecto de la perturbación ωk sobre la salida
PID controller design with an H∞ criterion. In 3rd Los principales resultados en el análisis y sı́ntesis de SD controlada hk sea mı́nimo con criterios de normas H2 -H∞ .
which is equivalent to kp , ki lying outside of the axis
−ω 2 P (ω )
IFAC Conference on Advances in Proportional-Integral- dependientes de parámetros se basan en funciones de Lya-
parallel ellipse with center at |Pud(jωi d )|d2 , |P−P r (ωd )
u (jωd )|
2 and Derivative Control PID, 400 – 405. punov paramétricas, que permiten minimizar el conser- La metodologı́a para la solución consiste en transformar
2 2ωd vatismo de las funciones de Lyapunov clásicas, cuando se (1) en un sistema LPV, utilizando la inverse generalizada
principal axes γd |Pu (jωd )| , γd |Pu (jωd )| .

14 15
 SiSTEMAS DE CONTROL
de E(ρ) para luego diseñar un controlador robusto medi- para i = 1, . . . , l, donde Φ = GAi + BXC2i + BY C2 Ai y
ante SOF extendida: Υ = GB1i + BY C2 B1i . Las ganancias de la realimentación
uk = K0 yk + K1 C2 zk+1 , (2) son:
K0 = MZ −1 X; K1 = MZ −1 Y (9)
mediante la caracterización de las normas H2 -H∞ como
LMIs, Pipeleers et al. (2009); Hilhorst et al. (2014). donde GB = BZ y M = I + Z −1 Y C2 B.
−1
4. CONCLUSIONES
3. ESTABILIZACIÓN DE SISTEMAS
DESCRIPTORES LPV DISCRETOS
Las contribuciones de este trabajo están centradas en
Los resultados principales surgen del sistema transfor-
la sı́ntesis de controladores para una clase de sistemas
descriptores lineales a tiempo discreto y dependientes de
mado: parámetro. El diseño de los controladores está motivado
por la admisibilización robusta de los sistemas descrip-
xk+1 = A(ρ)xk + B1 (ρ)ωk + Buk tores. Se ha considerado un modelo de sistemas descrip-
hk = C1 (ρ)xk + D1 (ρ)ωk (3) tores lineales a parámetros variables en todas las matrices
que definen la dinámica del sistema. Luego, se ha presen-
yk = C2 (ρ)xk tado un análisis de admisibilidad robusta para una clase
donde de sistemas descriptores inciertos, definida por aquellos
∂Γ(ρ) donde existe una aplicación lineal que permite transformar
A(ρ) = F(ρ)Γ(ρ) − E(ρ) ρk+1 .
∂ρ el sistema descriptor incierto a un sistema LPV regular. El
Proposición 2. Sea el sistema (3). Si para todo ρ el par diseño del control en el sistema transformado, es garantı́a
(A(ρ), B) es controlable y el par (C2 (ρ), A(ρ)) observable, de satisfacer la admisibilidad y el desempeño robusto para
entonces el sistema (1) es finito estabilizable y controlable el sistema descriptor original. La sı́ntesis del control se
de impulso; y finito detectable y observable de impulso. ha realizado por medio de la realimentación estática de
la salida extendida, lo cual se hace por la obtención de
Como consecuencia, el problema de admisibilidad para SD una ganancia realimentación para la salida y una ganancia
tipo LPV se transforma en un problema de control robusto de realimentación para su derivada discreta. Esas ganan-
de sistemas LPV. cias se derivan por estabilización y desempeño robusto de
sistemas LPV, mediante el uso de las caracterizaciones
de las normas H2 -H∞ como LMIs. La técnica de diseño
3.1 Estabilización y desempeño robusto
permite, además, imponer especificaciones multiobjetivos
El control, entonces, a considerar es, Rı́os-Bolı́var (2014): y ubicación especı́fica de polos.
−1
uk = (I − K1 C2 B) (K0 C2 (ρ) + K1 C2 A(ρ)) xk (4) REFERENCIAS
para lo cual, el sistema en lazo cerrado es:
Chaabane, M., Tadeo, F., Mehdi, D., and Souissi, M.
(2011). Robust admissibilization of descriptor systems
xk+1 = Ac xk + Bc ωk by static output-feedback: an LMI approach. Mathe-
hk = C1 (ρ)xk + D1 (ρ)ωk (5) matical Problems in Engineering, 2011.
Duan, G.R. (2010). Analysis and Design of Descriptor
Diseño en H2 Linear Systems. Springer, New York.
Feng, Y. and Yagoubi, M. (2017). Robust Control of Linear
Teorema 3. Sea el sistema (3). Existe una ley de control
Descriptor Systems. Springer, New York, USA.
(4), que garantiza un desempeño sub-óptimo H2 para el
sistema en lazo cerrado (5), si tr(W ) < µ2 y se satisface Hilhorst, G., Pipeleers, G., Oliveira, R., Peres, P., and
    Swevers, J. (2014). On extended LMI conditions for
G + G T − Pi Φ Υ W C 1i D 1i
T H2 /H∞ control of discrete-time linear systems. In Proc.
 ΦT Pi 0  > 0, (C1i ) Pi 0  > 0, (6)
T
19th IFAC World Congress, volume 1, 9307–9312. IFAC,
T
Υ 0 I (D1i ) 0 I Cape Town, South Africa.
para i = 1, . . . , l, donde Φ = GAi + BXC2i + BY C2 Ai y Luenberger, D.G. (1977). Dynamic equations in descriptor
Υ = GB1i + BY C2 B1i . Las ganancias de la realimentación form. IEEE Trans. Automat. Control, 22(3), 312–321.
son: Pipeleers, G., Demeulenaere, B., Swevers, J., and Vanden-
K0 = MZ −1 X; K1 = MZ −1 Y (7) berghe, L. (2009). Extended LMI characterizations for
donde GB = BZ y M = I + Z −1 Y C2 B.
−1 stability and performance of linear systems. Systems &
Control Letters, 58(7), 510–518.
3.2 Diseño en H∞ Rı́os-Bolı́var, A. (2014). Control de Sistemas Lineales:
Realimentando la salida. Editorial Académica Española,
Alemania.
Teorema 4. Sea (3). Existe un control (4), que garantiza
Shamma, J.S. (2012). Control of Linear Parameter Vary-
un desempeño en H∞ para el sistema en lazo cerrado (5),
ing Systems with Applications, chapter An Overview of
si  
G + G T − Pi Φ Υ 0 LPV Systems, 3–26. Springer.
 Yoneyama, J., Takada, R., and Uchida, Y. (2012). Ro-
Pi 0 (C1i ) 
T
 ΦT  > 0. bust control design of uncertain discrete-time descriptor
 (8)
0 γI (D1i ) 
T T
Υ systems with delays. INTECH Open Access Publisher.
0 C1i D1i γI
16
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
Diseño e Implementación de un Sistema de
Información al Usuario Usando Algoritmos
de Planificación de Rutas para el
Transporte Público del Distrito
Metropolitano de Quito Caso de Estudio
Sector Centro Norte
Denisse E. Suárez, Andrés Rosales ∗
∗
Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Ladrón de Guevara, Quito 170517
Ecuador (Tel: +593 9 928 73745; e-mail: andres.rosales@epn.edu.ec).
Resumen: Los algoritmos de planificación de rutas son muy usados en diversos campos como:
la robótica móvil autónoma, enrutamiento de paquetes, mejora de la gestión de transporte,
entre otras aplicaciones. Uno de los caminos para usar estos algoritmos es modelar el problema
usando la teorı́a de grafos y resolver uno de los problemas más frecuentes que consiste en
encontrar el camino más corto entre dos puntos de un grafo. En este proyecto se plantea aplicar
estos algoritmos para mejorar las funcionalidades de un sistema de información de transporte
público, en el que se implementará el algoritmo de Dijkstra para calcular la ruta más corta
para llegar desde un punto A a un punto B dentro de la ciudad de Quito, usando como caso de
estudio las rutas de buses del sector centro norte.
Keywords: Sistema de planificación de rutas, sistema de transporte público, movilización
urbana, algoritmo de Dijkstra, teorı́a de grafos.
1. INTRODUCCIÓN facto propuesta por Google para organizar la información
de transporte público. (Google (2012))
En Quito, aproximadamente el 73 % de la movilización El tener la información organizada en este formato per-
de los habitantes se la realiza usando transporte público. mitirá el uso de varias herramientas libres para graficar
Por otro lado, debido a la baja calidad del servicio, el las rutas en un mapa digital, adicionalmente permite or-
número de vehı́culos privados en la ciudad incrementa a ganizar datos sobre el viaje como: horario, frecuencia, la
un ritmo anual del 5.7 % (Sanchez et al. (2015)). Este cooperativa que presta el servicio, tarifas y caracterı́sticas
problema generado por la falta de planificación de rutas adicionales de la ruta.
afecta directamente a: ciudadanos quiteños, turistas; y,
Para validar los resultados se usó la información de rutas y
migrantes extranjeros o nacionales.
paradas del sector Centro Norte del Distrito Metropolitano
Se desarrollará e implementará un sistema de planificación de Quito, que limita con la parroquia Mariscal Sucre al
de rutas en formato digital que procesa archivos estanda-
sur-este, la parroquia Belisario Quevedo al sur-oeste, la
rizados de transporte público, analiza la información en parroquia Rumipamba al nor-oeste, la parroquia Iñaquito
base a un modelo matemático y algoritmo especı́fico; y, al nor-este.
entrega resultados útiles para los usuarios. A través de
este proyecto se demuestra la importancia de los sistemas 3. PRUEBAS DE USABILIDAD
de planificación de rutas digitales en la movilización de los
usuarios. Se realizaron pruebas con usuarios reales del sistema im-
plementado, donde se compara del tiempo usado para es-
coger una ruta usando el planificador de ruta en contraste
2. METODOLOGÍA
con medios no digitales o con un sistema que solo indique
las rutas de manera estática. Ası́ también se hicieron prue-
Para la construcción de un planificador de rutas de trans-
bas de usabilidad dónde se analizará qué tan fácil resulta
porte público, se usó el algoritmo de Dijkstra para calcular
ingresar origen y destino, ası́ como procesar la información
el camino más corto optimizando en base a la distancia to-
entregada y usarla para movilizarse.
tal recorrida y se creó una aplicación web para presentar al
usuario la información necesaria para completar su viaje. Para realizar las pruebas de usabilidad con los distintos
usuarios se definió la siguiente metodologı́a y herramientas
La ubicación de las paradas y rutas disponibles se obtuvo
de apoyo:
del sistema de mapas abiertos OpenStreetMap. Esta infor-
mación se usó para la creación de GTFS, un estándar de Se definirá 3 tipos de usuarios
17
 SiSTEMAS DE CONTROL
Cada prueba de usabilidad tuvo una duración estima-
da de: 10 a 15 minutos.
Cada prueba de usabilidad estará compuesta de tres
fases:
Primera Fase: En esta fase se le preguntará al
usuario las rutas de transporte público que conoce
para llegar del punto A hacia el punto B.
Segunda Fase: Durante esta fase el usuario debe
identificar las rutas existentes del punto A hacia
el punto B con el apoyo de una hoja de rutas de
Street Maps; y, comentar su experiencia durante la
prueba.
Tercera Fase: Para esta fase el usuario debe ingre-
sar los puntos A y B al sistema de Mi Bus; y, nave-
gar por la interfaz para interpretar los resultados,
al final el usuario deberá comentar su experiencia.
Para realizar las pruebas de usabilidad del sistema se
definió 3 tipos de usuarios: Turistas, Migrantes Nacionales
y Extranjeros, y Ciudadanos Quiteños.
En base a la descripción de los perfiles, el siguiente paso fue
definir los destinos del Centro Norte de Quito y plantear
los escenarios de trabajo para cada tipo de usuario.
4. RESULTADOS Y DISCUSIÓN
Para comprobar la usabilidad del sistema se realizará una
prueba manual, que será contrastada con la información
proporcionada por cada Servicio del Sistema y validada
con el Planificador de Rutas de Google Maps.
Para realizar la prueba manual se localizó todas las para-
das entre los puntos seleccionados y se analizó sus IDs y
sus costos (distancia en kilómetros entre las paradas).
Luego se realiza la búsqueda usando el sistema implemen-
tado y se compara la respuesta obtenida del procesamiento
manual obteniendo la misma respuesta.
En base a los resultados obtenidos de la prueba de usa-
bilidad se puedo observar que el sistema de información
al usuario de rutas y paradas de transporte público si
ayudó a los usuarios a encontrar diferentes opciones para
movilizarse en bus dentro a los diferentes puntos dentro
del sector centro norte de Quito.
Durante la primera etapa de la prueba, en la que el
usuario daba información de cómo movilizarse en bus
usando su conocimiento actual, se pudo notar que las
personas que han vivido menos de 2 años en la ciudad
les resultó muy difı́cil poder dar nombres de rutas para
movilizarse a los puntos de la ciudad especificados en la
prueba. Las personas que han vivido en la ciudad de Quito,
debido a que estaban más familiarizadas con el sistema de
transporte público, les resultó un poco más fácil poder dar
instrucciones para llegar al destino, aunque no conocı́an
todas las rutas disponibles, ni las podian organizar en base
a un criterio de optimización.
En la tercera parte de las pruebas, cuando los usuarios
usan el sistema de Mi bus, se puede ver una gran mejora en
el número de rutas que el usuario que el usuario descubre
para llegar a los diferentes puntos de la ciudad establecidos
en la prueba.
18
Este método les resulto más cómodo a todos los usuarios,
debido a que no requerı́a conocimiento previo de trans-
porte público o de la ciudad para realizar la búsqueda de
rutas, solo necesitaban tener claro el origen y destino.
5. CONCLUSIONES
El algoritmo de Dijkstra (algoritmo para encontrar la ruta
más óptima) constituye una pieza fundamental en la cons-
trucción de sistemas automáticos para brindar información
de rutas y paradas; lo que facilita la movilización de los
usuarios de transporte público dentro de un perı́metro
especı́fico.
Es indispensable contar con herramientas digitales que
permitan procesar la información del transporte público
en formato GTFS de manera eficiente. Además, se debe
reconocer la importancia de centralizar y estandarizar la
información de las diferentes rutas de transporte en este
formato (GTFS); ya que, permite integrar datos, reducir
costos de investigación e implementación; y, construir
sistemas con mayores beneficios para los usuarios.
Por otro lado, este proyecto comprueba la importancia
y la necesidad de validar el funcionamiento del sistema
implementado a través de pruebas usabilidad con distintos
perfiles de usuario.
REFERENCIAS
Agencia de promoción económica CONQUITO (2016).
Bus UIO una alternativa emprendedora que promueve
el uso del transporte público. http://www.conquito.
org.ec. [Último acceso: 17 Septiembre 2017].
Antrim, A. and Barbeau, S.J. (2013). The many uses of
GTFS data–opening the door to transit and multimo-
dal applications. Location-Aware Information Systems
Laboratory at the University of South Florida.
Cormen, T. (2009). Introduction to Algorithms. MIT
Press, Massachusetts.
Google (2012). Referencia de la especificación general
de feeds de transporte público. https://developers.
google.com/transit/gtfs/reference. [Último acce-
so: 28 junio 2017].
Google (2014). Feedvalidator. https://github.com/
google/transitfeed/wiki/FeedValidator. [Último
acceso: 30 Julio 2017].
Masse, M. (2011). REST API Design Rulebook: Designing
Consistent RESTful Web Service Interfaces. O’Reilly
Media, Inc., Sebastopol, California.
Pimploi Tirastittam, P.W. (2014). Public transport plan-
ning system by dijkstra algorithm: Case study bangkok
metropolitan area. Engineering and Technology Inter-
national Journal of Social, 8, 54–59.
Sanchez, E., Chacón, D., and Garrica, S. (2015). Ordenan-
za metropolitana que regula la implementación de los
sitemas inteligentes de transporte, en el sistema metro-
politano de transporte público de pasajeros del distrito
metropolitano de Quito, Secretaria de Movilidad.
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
Controladores PD/PID para sistemas con
retardo, inestables y ceros de fase mı́nima
C.D Vázquez Rosas ∗ J.F Marquez Rubio ∗
B del Muro Cuéllar ∗
∗
Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), ESIME Unidad
Culhuacan,Santa Ana 1000, México D.F., 04430, México (e-mail:
carlos daniel vaz@hotmail.com)(e-mail:
jfcomr23@yahoo.com.mx)(e-mail: bdelmuro@yahoo.com).
Abstract: En este artı́culo se presentan de manera explı́cita las condiciones suficientes que
aseguran la existencia de un control tipo PD/PID que pueda estabilizar y controlar sistemas de
alto orden, con un polo inestable, n polos reales y estables, m ceros de fase mı́nima y retardo en
su dinámica. Dichas condiciones están expresadas con base en la posición de los polos y ceros
del sistema, ası́ como el tamaño máximo de retardo. Se presentan simulaciones numéricas con
un ejemplo para mostrar la efectividad de la estrategia de control propuesta.
Keywords: Retardos, ceros, inestable, PID, PD
1. INTRODUCCIÓN utilizado en plantas estables [6]. Con otras perspectivas,
diversos autores han realizado modificaciones a la estruc-
tura original propuesta por Smith para contrarrestar sus
Los retardos de tiempo siempre están presentes en los limitaciones, en [7] se proponen modificaciones con el fin de
procesos fı́sicos, una definición de tiempo de retardo en el estabilizar sistemas de primer orden inestables con retardo
contexto de sistemas de control es ”El intervalo de tiempo en su dinámica, en [8] se propone un esquema de control
desde la aplicación de la señal de control hasta cualquier con dos grados de libertad para procesos inestables. En
cambio observable en el proceso” [1]. Si además del re- [10] se muestran las condiciones suficientes para estabilizar
tardo, el sistema a lazo abierto es inestable, es un problema sistemas lineales con un polo inestable, n polos reales
de control difı́cil de abordar debido a su complejidad y lim- estables y n − 1 ceros de fase mı́nima, sin embargo, esta
itaciones en cuestiones de estabilidad y comportamiento. técnica se limita a tener un sistema con el mismo número
Podemos encontrar este fenómeno en sistemas biológicos, de polos y ceros en su dinámica, lo cual limita el tipo de sis-
transmisión de material e información, procesos quı́micos temas donde esta técnica puede ser utilizada. En estudios
e industriales [2], etc. Es común dentro de la industria más recientes [11] se aborda la estabilización de sistemas
de procesos,encontrar el caso de sistemas inestables con inestables de alto orden (un polo inestable)con “m” ceros
retardo, un ejemplo es un reactor de tanque continuamente de fase mı́nima utilizando un control proporcional para
agitado [3]. La presencia de retardos de tiempo en un hacer la estabilización del sistema.
sistema de control regularmente causa efectos indeseables
En este artı́culo se muestran de manera explı́cita las
dentro de su comportamiento dinámico como oscilaciones,
condiciones suficientes que aseguran la existencia de un
poca robustés e incluso inestabilidad. Diversas estrategias
controlador tipo PD/PID tal que pueda estabilizar un tipo
de control han sido propuestas para resolver el problema
de sistemas inestables con retardo: el método de Ziegler- de sistema de alto orden, inestables con retardo, con un
polo inestable, n polos reales estables, y m ceros de fase
Nichols modificado [4], controladores tipo Proporcional
(P), Proporcional-Integral (PI), Proporcional-Derivativo mı́nima utilizando como herramienta de análisis el criterio
de estabilidad de Nyquist.
(PD) y Proporcional-Integral-Derivativo (PID) son am-
pliamente utilizados para la estabilización y control de
sistemas con retardo. En [5] se utiliza una metodologı́a 2. RESULTADOS PRELIMINARES
basada en el teorema de Hermite-Biehler para cuasipoli-
nomios buscando solucionar el problema de estabilización
El problema principal que aborda este trabajo es encon-
de sistemas de primer orden con retardo utilizando con-
trar las condiciones bajo las cuales existe un controlador
troladores PD/PID, llegando a estabilizar plantas con re-
PD/PID como la estructura dada por C1 (s) y C2 (s) re-
tardos considerables de hasta dos veces la constante de
tiempo inestable del sistema. spectivamente conectado en una configuración como se
muestra en la Fig 1 tal que estabilice el proceso inestable
Otra solución para afrontar el problema del control de (??), esto es, que el sistema en lazo cerrado presente
sistemas con retardo es el predictor de Smith (SP), el cual un comportamiento estable. Esto lo hacemos utilizando
tiene el efecto de eliminar el tiempo de retardo del lazo una metodologia basada en el análisis de la frecuencia
de control, sin embargo, esta técnica no cuenta con un del sistema, dicha metodologia se basa en los siguientes
paso para estabilizar sistemas, por lo tanto solo puede ser resultados preliminares.
19
 SiSTEMAS DE CONTROL 18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático

dinámica, limitándose en su mayorı́a a sistemas que solo

Fig. 1. Configuración del controlador C(s) a lazo cerrado
Ahora considere la función de transferencia a lazo abierto
descrita en (7) y el esquema de control mostrado en la Fig
1, produce el siguiente sistema en lazo cerrado:
Y (s) Qi (s)
= (1)
R(s) 1 + Qi (s)
Lema 1 [12] Dada la función de transferencia a lazo abierto
mostrada en (1) con P + polos inestables, el sistema a lazo
cerrado (1) es estable si la gráfica de Nyquist encierra el
punto crı́tico (1, j0) , P + veces en sentido anti-horario.
Lema 2 [12]Para el sistema a lazo abierto descrito en (1)
lim |G1 (jω)| < 1 (2)
ω→∞
Es necesario para la estabilidad a lazo cerrado de (1) .
Lema 3 [12] Dado el sistema a lazo abierto mostrado en (1)
con P + ≥ 1 polos inestables, una condición necesaria para
la estabilidad en lazo cerrado de (1) es que dMdω G(ω)
< 0
para una ω ∗ > 0 donde M G(ω) representa la magnitud
del sistema G(ω)
Lema 4 [12] Para el sistema a lazo abierto descrito en (1)
con P + ≥ 1 polos inestables, una condición necesaria para
la estabilidad en lazo cerrado de (1) es dφG(ω) > 0 para
dω
ω ∗ > 0, donde φG(ω) representa la fase de G(ω)
3. RESULTADO PRINCIPAL
Teorema 1. El sistema con retardo mostrado en (7) puede
estabilizarse utilizando un controlador PD/PID si:
|G(0)| + |min(ai )(0)| > |G(ω)| ∀ω > 0 (3)
m
 n muro Cuéllar, Stability conditions for unstable high order
1 1 1 1
τ< + + max( ) − (4)
a1 bl ai a
i=2 i
l=1
4. CONCLUSIONES
La presencia de un retardo de magnitud no despreciable
es uno de los escenarios más indeseables en un sistema de
control, más aún si a lazo abierto, el sistema es inestable.
Pocos trabajos dentro de la literatura abordan el problema
de estabilización de sistemas que contengan ceros en su
contienen un cero. En este trabajo se hace un análisis en
el dominio de la frecuencia para un tipo de sistemas de
alto orden, inestables con retardo que cuenta con un polo
inestable, n polos estables y m ceros de fase mı́nima en su
dinámica.Mediante un ejemplo en simulación numérica, se
ilustra el uso del resultado principal
5. BIBLIOGRAFIA
[1] Qing-Guo Wang, Tong H Lee, Kok k. Tan. (1999).
Finite-Spectrum Assignment for Time-Delay Systems,
Springer-Verlag London,
[2] Liu T., Zhang W. and Gu D. (2005). Analytical
design of two-degree-offreedom control scheme for open-
loop unstable processes. Journal of Process Control 15,559-
572.,
[3] Qing-Chang Z. (2006). Robust Control of Time-Delay
Systems, Springer.
[4] DePaor AM, OMalley M.(1989). Controllers of Ziegler-
Nichols type for unstable process with time delay. Int J
Control 1989;49:1273-84.
[5] Silva, G.J., Datta, A., and Bhattacharyya., S. (2004).
PID Controllers for Time-Delay Systems. Control Engi-
neerEngineering. Birkhauser.
[6] Smith, O.J.M. (1957). Close Control of Loops with
Dead Time. Chem. Eng. Prog., 53, 217–219.
[7] Seshagiri A., Rao V. S. R. and Chidambaram M. (2007).
Simple analytical design of modified smith predictor with
improved performance for unstable firstorder plus time
delay processes. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
Research 46, 4561-4571
[8] Márquez J.F., del Muro, B., Velasco, M., and Alvarez,
J. (2010). Control based in an observer scheme for first-
order systems with delay. Revista Mexicana de Ingenierı́a
Quimica 9, 43-52.
[9] Novella Rodrı́guez, D.F., del Muro-Cuéllar, B., and
Sename, O. (2014). Observer-based scheme for the control
of high order systems with two unstable poles plus time
delay. Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering, 9(2),
167–180.
[10] C.D Vázquez Rosas, J.F Márquez Rubio and B del
muro Cuéllar, Condiciones de estabilidad para un tipo de
sistemas inestables de alto orden con retardo que contienen
ceros, Congreso Latinoamericano de control Automático
(CLCA), Medellı́n, Colombia octubre 2016
[11] C.D Vázquez Rosas, J.F Márquez Rubio and B del
systems with minimum-phase zeros plus time delay., Con-
greso de la asociación de México de Control Automático
(AMCA), Nuevo León, México, octubre 2017
[12] Xiang C., Wang Q.-G., Lu X., Nguyen L., and T. H.
Lee, Stabilization of second order unstable delay processes
by simple controllers,”J. Proc. Contr., vol. 17, pp.675-682,
2007.
Aplicación de MPC por Zonas con
eliminación de offset ante variaciones
paramétricas en pacientes diabéticos
Marı́a F. Villa Tamayo ∗ , Pablo S. Rivadeneira ∗,∗∗
∗
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Minas, Grupo GITA,
Cra. 80#65-224 (e-mail: {mfvillat,psrivade}@unal.edu.co).
∗∗
INTEC - CONICET, Güemes 3450, Santa Fe, Argentina
Abstract: An application of off-set free ZMPC control to a model of type 1 diabetic patients
is developed and evaluated. In real life, the parameters in the model are different from the
plant, even can vary in time generating offset, hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, and in the worst
cases, instability. Therefore, it is necessary to generate a control to compensate such effects
and to maintain the control goals. The selected model is linear, but its parameters depend on
the human physiology. To determine which parameters are the most influential to the blood
glucose variability a parameter sensitivity analysis is performed. The sensitivity to the insulin,
the insulin peak time, the carbohydrates-insulin coefficient and the absorption meal peak time
result as the most important values. Variations up to ±30% were considered in these parameters
and the off-set free control strategy is applied by using an estimation of the disturbances with
the Kalman observer. It is shown that this observer not only helps to eliminate parameter
variations effects but also can compensate measurement noise. The performance of the control
strategy results acceptable since the parameter disturbances and noise were rejected adequately.
Keywords: Type 1 diabetes, linear systems, zone MPC, off-set free control, Kalman estimation.
1. INTRODUCCIÓN se logra alcanzar la zona objetivo y se reduce la posibilidad
de episodios de hipoglicemia e hiperglicemia. El error entre
la planta y el modelo se simula con diferentes escenarios
El proyecto llamado ”Páncreas Artificial” es uno de los de variación de los parámetros más significativos en el
tratamientos desarrollados para la diabetes mellitus tipo 1 comportamiento de la glucosa en sangre. Estos son deter-
(T1DM). Este se realiza a través de una bomba de insulina, minados por un análisis de sensibilidad. Posteriormente, se
el monitoreo continuo de glucosa en sangre y estrategias
hacen pruebas incluyendo la estrategia de control con elim-
de control en lazo cerrado. La estrategia de control más
inación de offset, y se selecciona el estimador de Kalman
aplicada al páncreas artificial es la de control predictivo como el observador para corregir el problema de ruido
basado en modelo por zonas (ZMPC). Se ha mostrado que inherente al sensor.
con esta se logra una reducción significativa de los eventos
de hipoglicemia (Glucosa en sangre < 70mg/dL) y de
2. METODOLOGÍA
hiperglicemia (Glucosa en sangre > 180mg/dL) (Grosman
et al., 2010). El desarrollo de la estrategia de ZMPC con eliminación
Un factor importante en el ZMPC es el modelo de de offset al Páncreas Artificial consta de tres secciones
predicción utilizado para describir la dinámica de la glu- fundamentales:
cosa en sangre, la insulina en sangre y la absorción de ali-
mentos. Sin embargo, las técnicas de control se basan en el 2.1 Modelo de pacientes diabéticos tipo 1
supuesto de que el modelo representa de manera adecuada
El modelo empleado, dado en Magdelaine et al. (2015) y
la dinámica real de la glicemia, lo cual no es del todo cierto
debido al error o mismatch implicado por la variabilidad flexibilizado en Colorado et al. (2017), es lineal y de ajuste
y no linealidad en la fisiologı́a humana. Como resultado a largo plazo con datos clı́nicos. Este es de la forma:
de dicha suposición, cuando el control resultante se aplica
ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + Bu u(t) + Br r(t) + E (1)
al paciente, pueden obtenerse eventos de hipoglicemia o
hiperglicemia desfavorables para el mismo.
En donde los estados y entradas del modelo son: x1 la
En este artı́culo, se adopta la estrategia de control ZMPC concentración de glucosa en sangre (mg/dl), x2 la tasa
con garantı́a de eliminación de offset para contrarrestar de insulina en sangre (U/min), x3 la tasa de insulina
dicho inconveniente. Para implementarlo, el sistema se en el compartimento subcutáneo (U/min), x4 la tasa de
aumenta con un modelo de perturbación y se agrega un aparición de glucosa en sangre debido a la absorción de
observador de estado para estimar y predecir el error exis- alimentos (g/min) y x5 la tasa de absorción de alimentos
tente entre la planta y el modelo (Maeder et al., 2009). Ası́, por parte del compartimento estómago-duodeno (g/min).

20 21
 SiSTEMAS DE CONTROL

Las entradas son la tasa de insulina exógena u (U/min) y

Glicemia (mg/dl)
la tasa de ingesta de alimentos r (g/min). 200 Zona hiperglicemia ZMPC sin mismatch planta-modelo
ZMPC libre de offset con mismatch
150
ZMPC estándar con mismatch

2.2 Diseño del observador 100

Zona normoglicemia
50 Zona hipoglicemia
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Con el propósito de estimar tanto los estados como la Tiempo (min)
perturbación, el modelo discretizado se expande con un u

Insulina exógena (U)

1
ZMPC sin mismatch planta-modelo
modelo de perturbación para caracterizar el error planta- ZMPC libre de offset con mismatch

modelo: 0.5 ZMPC estándar con mismatch

0
x(k + 1) = Ad x(k) + Bud u(k) + Brd r(k) + Ed 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
d(k + 1) = d(k) (2) Tiempo (min)
y(k) = Cx(k) + Cd d(k)
Fig. 1. Comparación del comportamiento de la glicemia
En esta formulación, se emplea el estimador de Kalman e insulina exógena sin variaciones en los parámetros
discreto como el observador de estado requerido. Por el (azul) y con variaciones del 30% al aplicar el ZMPC
principio de separación, el estado estimado se utiliza en la estándar (amarilla) y al aplicar el ZMPC con elimi-
estrategia de control. nación de offset (roja).
2.3 Diseño ZMPC con eliminación de offset estacionario y se atenua el efecto de las perturbaciones por
ingesta de comidas evitando el episodio de hiperglicemia.
El problema de optimización (3) al sistema aumentado (2) Resultados similares se obtienen ante los diferentes esce-
incluye las restricciones de los estados y de la acción de narios de variación de hasta un 30% en los parámetros,
control. En este, uref es el control de equilibrio para alcan- logrando mantener la glicemia en el rango normal, 70 -
zar la referencia, Hp y Hu son los horizontes de predicción 120 mg/dL sin ingesta de comidas y 70 - 180 mg/dL con
y de control respectivamente, Q, R, P son matrices de peso ingesta de comidas.
definidas positivas y δ es una variable de decisión adicional
que establece los valores lı́mites superiores e inferiores de 4. CONCLUSIÓN
la zona. El problema de optimización queda dado por:
El artı́culo aborda el problema de la regulación de glicemia
Hp −1
 2 en pacientes diabéticos tipo 1 para un error entre la planta
min ||ŷ(k + i|k) − yref + δ||Q + y el modelo causado por variaciones en los parámetros del
u,δ
i=1 mismo. Para ello, se aplica la estrategia de control predic-
u −1
H
2 2 tivo basado en modelo por zonas (ZMPC) con garantı́a de
||û(k + i|k) − uref ||R + ||ŷ(k + Hp |k) − yref + δ||P eliminación de offset. El principal logro de la aplicación
i=1
de este control es mantener los niveles de glucosa en
s.t x̂(k + i|k) = Ãx̂(k + i − 1|k) + B̃u û(k + i − 1|k) sangre dentro de la zona objetivo, evitando los eventos
+B̃u r(k + i − 1|k) + Ẽ de hipoglicemia e hiperglicemia causados por la variación
ŷ(k + i|k) = C̃ x̂(k + i|k) en los parámetros al haber una perturbación de ingesta
ûmin ≤ û(k + i|k) ≤ ûmax de carbohidratos. Los resultados obtenidos, impulsan a
x̂min ≤ x̂(k + i|k) ≤ x̂max realizar estudios futuros para variaciones mas grandes de
δmin ≤ δ ≤ δmax los parámetros, a la vez que una validación en una mayor
(3) cantidad de pacientes.
A su vez, se incluye una nueva restricción para satisfacer
la referencia en estado estacionario yss = yref y conseguir REFERENCES
eliminar el offset:
Colorado, L., Godoy, J.L., and Rivadeneira, P.S. (2017).
     Parametric identification of a new model for type 1
A d − I B ud xref −Ed diabetic patients. In: IEEE 3rd Colombian conference
= ˆ (4)
C 0 uref yref − Cd d(k) on automatic control, 1–6.
Grosman, B., Dassau, E., Zisser, H.C., Jovanovic, L., and
3. RESULTADOS Doyle, F.J. (2010). Zone model predictive control: A
strategy to minimize hyper- and hypoglycemic events.
Se realiza un análisis de sensibilidad para determinar los Journal of diabetes science and technology, 4, 961–975.
parámetros que tienen mas influencia en la variabilidad de Maeder, U., Borrelli, F., and Morari, M. (2009). Linear
la glucosa en sangre. Los más importantes resultan ser: offset-free model predictive control. Automatica, 45,
la sensibilidad a la insulina, el tiempo pico de insulina, 2214 – 2222.
el coeficiente carbohidratos-insulina y el tiempo pico de Magdelaine, N., Chaillous, L., I.Guilhem, Poirier, J.,
absorción de comidas. Krempf, M., and Moog, C. (2015). A long-term model of
Al simular la respuesta con parámetros de pacientes the glucose–insulin dynamics of type 1 diabetes. IEEE
diabéticos, se logran resultados aceptables. En la figura 1 Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 62, 1546–1552.
se da muestra del efecto que tiene la aplicación del ZMPC
con el modelo aumentado para estimar el error planta-
modelo, evidenciado que se elimina el offset en estado

22
control
de procesos
 18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático

Multi-variable PID Control of a Coupled Tank System:

A comparative study
Stênio de S. Coelho*. Heitor G. Santana**
Otacílio da M. Almeida ***

* Electrical Engineering Department, Federal University of Piauí,

Teresina, Brazil, (e-mail: stenio.coelho@hotmail.com).
** Electrical Engineering Department, Federal University of Piauí,
Teresina, Brazil, (e-mail: heitorgs193@gmail.com)
*** Electrical Engineering Department, Federal University of Piauí,
Teresina, Brazil, (e-mail: otacilio@ufpi.edu.br)

Abstract: In this paper, a comparative study was made between the techniques proposed by Almeida &
Coelho (2002) and Lee et al (2004) to achieve the decentralized proportional-integral-derivative (PID)
control of a two-input two-output (TITO) system. Both techniques were evaluated at a coupled tank
system. A process model has been obtained, the PID controllers have been designed according to the
proposed approaches, the control systems were simulated and applied to the coupled tanks system. The
results were presented for both cases, a comparison was made between the effectiveness of each
technique.
Keywords: PID control, Level control, Multivariable systems, Decoupling, Coupled devices

1. INTRODUCTION
Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controllers are very
popular because of their relative simplicity and satisfactory
performance provided for a large number of processes. For
these reasons they are largely employed for the control of
industrial plants., Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO)
systems are very common in Industry and the interaction
between the control variables makes the controller design
significantly difficult. Almeida & Coelho (2002) propose a
decoupling method, derived from Shiu & Hwang (1998),
based on the evaluation of decoupling matrix, designed to
minimize the effects of crossed transfer functions (G12(s) and
G21(s)), in such way it is possible to design the PID
Fig. 1. Multi-variable coupled tank process.
controllers by SISO approaches. Lee et al. (2004) developed
a method that doesn’t require a decoupling matrix; the The methodology used in this paper for the tuning of the
controller itself is designed to handle the coupling between controller parameters is based on that proposed in Pereira,
the control loops. This paper evaluates the effectiveness of Veronesi, Visoli, Normey-Rico & Torrico (2016).
the controllers design methodologies approached when
applied to a multivariable process with great coupling 3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
between the loops.
Table 1. Parameters of PID controllers.
2. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
Process KPj TIj TDj
The process consists of two cylindrical coupled tanks with a 0.3024 11.6307 2.9104
flow control valve, enabling each tank to be operated Sequential
2.6876 16.2001 4.0509
individually. Each tank has its own pumping system that Lee et al. 0.9625 12.1835 3.0468
collects liquid from a lower reservoir to the upper parts. The method 0.9453 8.4251 2.1066
columns have its own valves on which it is possible to adjust
its liquid flow to the lower reservoir. Therefore it is possible
to adjust process dynamics from a perfectly integrator to a The results of applying the sequential PID controller and the
higher order process. As each pump is an input variable and decoupling matrix in the process are shown in Fig. 2.
the level of liquid in the columns is an output variable, the
process becomes a two-input two-output (TITO) process.

27
 CONTROL DE PROCESOS 18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático

Actuator Fault Tolerant PI-Control Design

(a)
(b)
Fig. 2. Sequential PID Controller with decoupling applied in
the process: (a) Loop 1; (b) Loop 2.
The result of the application of the tuning method of PID
controller proposed in Lee el al. (2004) is shown in Fig. 3.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3. PID Controller tuned by the method proposed in Lee
et al. (2004) applied in the process: (a) Loop 1; (b) Loop 2.
Table 2. PID controllers’ performance indexes.
Controller Process IAE ISE
Coupled Loop 1 16.0853 10.9155
Sequential Loop 2 11.3222 8.5028
Decoupled Loop 1 18.5211 12.0034
Sequential Loop 2 24.5298 14.5318
Lee et al. Loop 1 5.8023 4.2388
method Loop 2 10.9368 7.1118
4. CONCLUSIONS
In this work two design concepts of PID controllers suitable
for a large number of industrial processes with iteration
between the loops were presented. A conventional control
technique was used for the evaluation of a dynamic decoupler
for multivariable system modeled by transfer functions, with
the performances of the two systems (with and without
decoupling) compared. The second applied control
methodology was based on the proposal developed by Lee et
al. (2004), where simple close-loop operational data can be
used for controller retuning and performance enhancement.
The effectiveness of the methods used was demonstrated by
comparing the simulation results and the use of the
controllers in a real application in a coupled tank prototype.
The experiments demonstrated that the method proposed by
Lee et al. performance without the need to add the decoupling
matrix to the system. In future works we intend to apply other
inference methodologies of PID controller parameters and
evaluate the results.
REFERENCES
Almeida, O. M. and Coelho, A. A. R. (2002). Projeto de
desacoplamento em sistemas MIMO: abordagens
convencional e nebulosa. In proceedings of XIV
Congresso Brasileiro de Automática.
Åström, K. J., & Hägglund, T. (2006). Advanced PID
control, Research Triangle Park, USA: ISA Press.
Lee, M., Lee, K., Kim, C., & Lee, J. (2004). Analytical
design of multiloop PID controllers for desired closed-
loop responses. AIChE Journal, 50(7), 1631–1635.
Lee, Y., Park, S., Lee, M., & Brosilow, C. (1998). PID
controller tuning for desired closed- loop responses for
SI/SO systems. AIChE Journal, 44, 106–115.
Pereira, R. D. O., & Torrico, B. C. (2015). New automatic
tuning of multivariable pid controller applied to a
neonatal incubator. In Proceedings of the 8th
international conference on biomedical engineering and
informatics (BMEI), Shenyang.
Pereira, R.D.O., Veronesi, M., Visoli, A., Normey-Rico, J.E.
(2017) Implementation and test of a new autotuning
method for PID controllers of TITO processes. Control
Engineering Practice 58, 171–185.
Skogestad, S. (2003). Simple analytic rules for model
reduction and PID controller tuning. Journal of Process
Control, 13, 291–309.
on TITO Process
J. Córdova-Carlos ∗ J.Sotomayor-Moriano ∗
C.G.Pérez-Zuñiga ∗
∗
Engineering Department, Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, San
Miguel, Lima, Perú, e-mail: {josmell.cordova, jsotom,
gustavo.erez,}@pucp.pe
Abstract: This paper describes the design of the fault tolerant control system in the actuators
of a hydraulic process of four coupled tanks, which is Two-Input Two Output (TITO) and
nonlinear. A fault tolerant PI control consisting of two PI controllers, fault detection and fault
compensation system is proposed. In order to isolate faults in the actuators and estimate their
magnitude, unknown inputs observers (UIO) were built. The fault compensation mechanism
allows for calculating a new control action, based on estimation of the fault, which is then
included in the signal sent by a decoupled PI controller. Simulation tests show that the proposed
control system, operating in the presence of some partial fault in one of the actuators, exhibits
a performance close to that obtained with the fault-free process.
Keywords: fault tolerant control, fault diagnosis, unknown input observer, decoupled PI
controller
1. INTRODUCTION of the pumps, parameters γ1 and γ2 are calculated based
on the configuration of the valves. Using mass balance
Processes in the industry are usually multi variable. In
most cases the control systems for these processes are
designed without considering the presence of faults in
actuators, sensors or other components; therefore, when
faults occur, they cause unwanted performance that can
lead to losses or disasters (Pérez et al., 2017). To face
this problem, one solution is to develop of fault-tolerant
control systems, which have the ability to compensate
for faults, preserving stability and maintaining acceptable
performance even when faults occur (Zhang and Jiang,
2008). The reconfiguration mechanism used in this paper
is the method known as additive compensation of faults.
The fundamental idea of this technique is to calculate a
new control action which is added to the signal sent by Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the four-tank process.
the nominal controller in order to compensate the effect of
for each tank and applying the Bernoulli equation, the
the fault. In particular, this work will consider actuator
process model is obtained (Johansson, 2000), then it is
faults of the partial type, that is, the case when this
linearized around to operating point. The corresponding
becomes less effective and provides the plant with only a
process transfer matrix is:
 
part of the normal performance signal. The calculation of
γ 1 k 1 T1 (1 − γ2 )k2 T1
additional control action is based on estimation of the fault
 A1 (1 + T1 s) A1 (1 + T1 s)(1 + T3 s) 
magnitude. For this purpose, unknown inputs observes G(s) =  
 (1 − γ1 )k1 T2 γ2 k 2 T 2 
(UIO) are used because they are an efficient solution for
state estimation in systems subject to disturbance inputs A2 (1 + T2 s)(1 + T4 s) A2 (1 + T2 s)
that are not known a priori. (1)
where:Ai , cross section of tank i; Ti , time constants, The
2. HYDRAULIC PROCESS OF FOUR COUPLED positions of the three-way valves are γ1 and γ2 . The voltage
TANKS applied to pump i is vi and the corresponding flow rate is
ki vi .
The process of four interconnected tanks was developed by
(Johansson, 2000), and the schematic diagram is shown in 3. DECOUPLED PI CONTROLLERS
Fig. 1. The objective is to control the level of the two lower
tanks y1 and y2 , the inputs being the voltages that are The response with decoupled PI controllers for the four-
applied to the pumps v1 and v2 , which modify water flow tank system with faults in actuators is shown in Fig. 2

28 29
 CONTROL DE PROCESOS
he response when a fault occurs in pump 1 at 400 s. This
is showed,his fault is represented as a loss of actuator’s
effectiveness of 70 %.
Fig. 2. System response when a fault occurs in pump 1.
In Fig. 2 it is observed that a fault in the pump 1 affects
both the level of tank 1 and tank 2. To deal with these
drawbacks, in this paper we propose the inclusion of two
stages, a fault diagnosis system and a fault compensation
system in order to maintain acceptable performance in the
controlled variables. The proposed is shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Scheme of fault tolerant PI control proposed
4. DECOUPLED PI CONTROLLERS
The fault diagnosis consists of carrying out the following
tasks: fault detection, fault isolation and fault identifica-
tion. The above entails in practice to perform the following
steps:
4.1 Generation of residuals
A full-order UIO observer that decouples the fd (distur-
bance) fault from the rest of the system has the following
form:
w(k + 1) = Ew(k) + T Bu(k) + Ky(k)
x̂(k) = w(k) + Hy(k)
(2)
Where wεn is the state vector of this observer obtained
by the linear transformation w = T x and x̂n is an
estimated state vector, while the matrices E, T, K and H
are designed to achieve decoupling of the unknown input
fd . The state error estimation vector (ex = x − x̂)
4.2 Evaluation of residuals and decision making
In this evaluation, the residuals are compared with certain
thresholds using statistical methods or based on the resid-
ual vector standard, thus generating the symptoms S(r),
which is a simple binary variable.
30
4.3 Fault Estimation
The estimation of the magnitude of the fault is made
directly from the UIO ”j” which is constructed to be
insensitive to the fault in actuator ”j”. By substituting
the state vector for its estimation by means of the UIO we
obtain:
fˆd (k) = fd+ (x̂(k + 1) − Ax̂(k) − Bu(k)) (3)
5. FAULT COMPENSATION
The fault tolerant PI (FTPI-control) proposed use the
technique of additive compensation of faults (Picó and
Adam, 2015), where it is proposed to add a new law of ucom
control to the nominal control action. Therefore, starting
with the fault detection, the total control signal is:
uf ct (k) = u(k) + ucomp (k) (4)
According to this new control law, the system described
in the state-space becomes:
x(k + 1) = Ax(k) + Bu(k) + Bucomp (k) + Fd fd
(5)
y(k) = Cx(k)
In Fig. 4 the response of FTPI-control is given for the
level of tanks 1 and is compared with decoupled PI control
without fault tolerance (w/o FTPI-control) for a loss of 70
% effectiveness of pump 1 at 400 s.
Fig. 4. Response of level of tank 1 when a fault occurs in
pump 1.
6. CONCLUSION
An actuator fault tolerant PI control was designed on
hydraulic process of four coupled tanks. The described
design methodology is simply and could be apply on
TITO processes with possible partial faults in actuators.
Simulation results shown that the FTPI control displays
a performance similar to obtained with fault-free process
control
REFERENCES
Johansson, K.H. (2000). The quadruple-tank process:
A multivariable laboratory process with an adjustable
zero. IEEE Transactions on control systems technology,
8(3), 456–465.
Pérez, C.G., Chanthery, E., Travé-Massuyès, L., and So-
tomayor, J. (2017). Fault-driven structural diagnosis ap-
proach in a distributed context. In 20th World Congress
of the International Federation of Automatic Control,
IFAC 2017 World Congress. Elsevier.
Picó, M.F. and Adam, E.J. (2015). Ftc with observers
bank in a cstr. In Information Processing and Control
(RPIC), 2015 XVI Workshop on, 1–6. IEEE.
Zhang, Y. and Jiang, J. (2008). Bibliographical review
on reconfigurable fault-tolerant control systems. Annual
reviews in control, 32(2), 229–252.
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
Optimizing the Biogas production of an anaerobic
reactor throughout Model Predictive Control 
Andres Hernandez ∗ Juan M. Sanchez ∗ Maximiliano Machado ∗∗
∗ Centro Agropecuario La Granja, SENA, Espinal, Colombia, (e-mail:
jahernandezn@sena.edu.co; jusanchez@sena.edu.co)
∗∗ Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemáticas, Universidad de Ibagué,
Carrera 22 Calle 67, Ibagué 730001, Colombia. (e-mail:
maximiliano.machado@unibague.edu.co)
Abstract:
The use of renewable energy sources is a major concern nowadays, among the different possibilities
Biogas production from organic waste represents an interesting technology. In this contribution a
methodology to operate the system close the optimal conditions which maximizes biogas production
via anaerobic digestion is presented. Simulation results of a validated dynamic nonlinear model shows
that there exist an optimal condition which maximizes biogas production, whereas operating slightly
above such condition may cause system instability. The performance of a Model Predictive Control and
a traditional PID strategy are compared during a tracking test, conclusion is that MPC outperforms PID
as it better tracks the optimal reference provided by the optimizer by reducing the overshoot and tracking
error, thus keeping system stable.
Keywords: Model Predictive Control, Biogas, Anaerobic reactor, Optimization.
1. INTRODUCTION equations obtained by mass balance of the continuous process
is:
Biogas production throughout anaerobic digestion of organic
matter is today considered as a valuable solution to mitigate dX2
= X2 (µ2 − D) (1)
the use of natural gas, fossil fuels and to reduce greenhouse dt
gas emissions. Biogas can be used for electricity production; dS1
= D (S1in − S1 ) − k1 µ1 X1 (2)
cooking; space heating; water heating; and process heating dt
(Petersson and Wellinger, 2009). Several dynamic models have dS2
= D (S2in − S2 ) + k2 µ1 X1 − k3 µ2 X2 (3)
been proposed in literature in order to gain insight about system dt
dynamics, cycle optimization and control design. dX1
= X1 (µ1 − D) (4)
Control plays a major role regarding optimal operation of an dt
anaerobic digestor, since it involves robustness against uncer-
tainty in kinetic parameters, handling system nonlinearity and 2.1 Model validation
defining the optimal setpoint which maximizes biogas produc-
tion. In (Antonelli et al., 2003) the implementation of a nonlin- Once the model structure is defined, the stoichiometric coef-
ficients can be determined by solving a fitting optimization
ear output feedback control law is discussed and the experimen-
tal results reported, showing a good tracking and disturbance problem using an algorithm based on Sequential Quadratic
Programming (Aceves et al., 2005).
rejection performance. Model based control is thus encountered
as a reference point to optimize anaerobic reactors as discussed
The model is in good agreement with experimental data (Del-
in (S. Revollar, 2015), where an economic cost objective in gadillo et al., 2018), describing the main system dynamics. In
the predictive control framework is implemented to improve fact, for the lowest error is encountered for methane flowrate as
performance of the anaerobic reactor. In this contribution a observed in Figure. 1, which is in this work the most relevant
methodology to operate the system close the optimal conditions variable, since the objective is to maximize CH4 production.
which maximizes biogas production via anaerobic digestion is
presented. 3. MAXIMIZING BIOGAS PRODUCTION THROUGH
CONTROL DESIGN
2. PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Control design for biogas production using anaerobic digestors
We considered a simplified model proposed in (Delgadillo involve not only the design of a regulator that guarantees system
et al., 2018) which represents a simplification of the anaero- stability but also the design of an optimizer that maximizes the
bic digestion of biogas production. The system of differential biogas yield, thus resulting in the control structure in Fig. 2,
 The results presented in this paper have been obtained within the frame whereas main objective is to maximize methane production by
of an institutional collaboration between Tecnoparque Nodo La Granja and manipulating Qin disregarding possible fluctuations of S1in and
Universidad de Ibagué, Tolima. S2in .
31
 CONTROL DE PROCESOS 18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático

100
Data
CH4 [L/d]

Model
50

0
An Extended version of the Super Twisting
Algorithm 
5 10 15 20 25 30
3
OM [gCOD/L]

1 Gerke H. Jauch ∗ and Jaime A. Moreno ∗∗

0
5 10 15 20 25 30 ∗
40 Instituto de Ingenierı́a, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,
Mexico City, Mexico (e-mail: gerke.schrott@vj-consult.de)
VFA [mmol/L]

30
∗∗
20 Instituto de Ingenierı́a, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,
10 Mexico City, Mexico (e-mail: JMorenoP@ii.unam.mx)
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (days)

Fig. 1. Experimental data and model validation for Organic
Matter (OM), Methane gas (CH4 ) and Volatile Fatty Acid
(V FA)
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the control architecture
4. MODEL PREDICTIVE CONTROL
Model Predictive Control (MPC) refers to a family of methods
which make active use of a model of the system, to obtain
the optimal control action that minimizes an objective function
over a prediction horizon. At each sample instant the entire
optimization problem is solved and only the first computed
action is applied to the system following the ’receding horizon
principle’.
The optimal control action is the solution to the following
constrained optimization problem:
N2
∆U =arg min ∑
∆U∈ RNu k=N
2
[r(t + k|t) − y(t + k|t)]
(5)
1 and simulation, in-press, Vol.10.
sub ject to M.∆U ≤ N
where N1 and N2 are the minimum and maximum prediction
horizons, Nu is the control horizon, r(t + k|t) is a future set-
point or reference sequence.
5. SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It is desired for the controller to track as close as possible to
the ’optimal’ setpoint provided by the optimizer without incur-
ring in overhooting, since it might lead to a system washout
or instability. Therefore, a comparison between PI and MPC
controllers is performed in order to evaluate their behaviour.
Results in Fig. 3 show that MPC outperforms PI due to a lower
overshoot and tracking error.
6. CONCLUSIONS
In the present contribution a pragmatic methodology to operate
an anaerobic reactor close to the optimal conditions which
Fig. 3. Performance comparison between PI and MPC con-
trollers, for variation in concentration inputs when using
optimizer
maximize biogas production is presented. Two different control
strategies PI and MPC based are tested and compared, in order
to achieve fast setpoint tracking without overshoot. Results
suggest that MPC outperforms PI, and that there exists an
optimal condition that guarantees system safety and maximum
methane yield.
REFERENCES
Aceves, C., Aguilar, E., Alcaraz, V., González, O., Steyer, J.,
Dominguez, J., and González, V. (2005). Kinetic parameters
estimation in an anaerobic digestion process using successive
quadratic programming. Water Science and Technology: A
Journal of the International Association on Water Pollution
Research, Vol. 52(No. 1–2), pp.419–426.
Antonelli, R., Harmand, J., Steyer, J., and Astolfi, A. (2003).
Set-point regulation of an anaerobic digestion process with
bounded output feedback. IEEE Transactions on control
systems technology, VOL. 11(NO. 4).
Delgadillo, L., Hernandez, M., and Machado, M. (2018). Math-
ematical modelling and simulation for biogas production
from organic waste. Int. J. Engineering Systems Modelling
Hernandez, A., Desideri, A., Ionescu, C., Quoilin, S., Lemort,
V., and De Keyser., R. (2015). Experimental study of
predictive control strategies for optimal operation of organic
rankine cycle systems. In Proceedings of the European
Control Conference (ECC15). Linz, Austria.
Hongbin Liu, Wenhao Shen y, C.Y. (2012). Performance
assessment of model predictive control in an anaerobic-
anoxic-oxic process. In Preprints of the 8th IFAC Symposium
on Advanced Control of Chemical Processes, p.p. 274 – 279.
Petersson, A. and Wellinger, A. (2009). Biogas upgrading tech-
nologies - developments and innovations. IEA Bioenergy,
Task 37 Archived 29.
S. Revollar, P. Vega, R.V. (2015). Economic optimization of
wastewater treatment plants using non linear model predic-
tive control. In 19th International Conference on System
Theory, Control and Computing (ICSTCC).
Abstract: In this paper the Extended Super Twisting Algorithm is presented. The controller
structure is based on the well-known Super Twisting Algorithm. By introducing flexible
exponents, the stiff characteristics of power 0.5 can be overcome and the algorithm gets
“smoother”, nearing a linear term. First the homogeneity of the algorithm is shown. Further
two suitable Lyapunov functions candidates are presented and asymptotic (finite-time) stability
of the origin x = 0 is proved. Finally, simulations results of the Extended Super Twisting
Algorithm and Super Twisting Algorithm are given. It is shown that the numerical error of the
controller decreases (following the controller accuracy increases) exponentially by increasing the
exponent variable r. The overshoot and settling time, however, rise by increasing r.
Keywords: Sliding-mode control, Discontinuous control, Robust control, Super-Twisting
Algorithm
1. INTRODUCTION r−1
In this form the term x1  r can be made smoother,
nearing a linear term by increasing r. The second term
The motivation of this paper is to investigate the effects
x2 
r−1
will vanish for r → ∞ and |x2 | < 1.
of variable STA exponents in order to reduce the calcu-
Theorem 1. Suppose that ρ(t) such that |ρ(t)| < L ∀t > 0,
lation error and following reducing the chattering error
where L ∈ R is a constant. The origin in zero of (1) is
by making the algorithm “smoother”. Therefore, a new
asymptotically finite-time stable if the gains k1 , k2 are
algorithm is introduced, the Extended Super-Twisting Al-
chosen such that:
gorithm (ESTA). The following notation is used in the
work:
p p 0 1 k2 > L, and k1 sufficiently large. (3)
· = | · | sign(·) =⇒ · = sign(·) and · = · = (·).
Furthermore, two strict (robust) Lyapunov Functions (LF)
for (1) are proposed. LF V1 (x) given as
2. EXTENDED SUPER-TWISTING ALGORITHM
m
δ m−δr m
V1 (x) = α1 |x1 | r − α2 x1  x2  + α3 |x2 | (4)
ESTA is based on the structure of the STA. By introducing
a new parameter r, the exponent can be varied and gives is a smooth generalized homogeneous form.
an additional degree of freedom. LF V2 (x) is an extension of the weak LF V0 (x):

We consider the homogeneous ESTA (1) 1 r ϕ r(ϕ−1)
V2 (x) = γ k2 |x1 | + |x2 | − x1 x2  (5)
r−1
r−1 r
ẋ1 = −k1 x1  r
+ x2  r(ϕ−1)
0
(1) = γV0ϕ (x) − x1 x2  .
ẋ2 = −k2 x1  + ρ(t)
The nominal case only depends of γ ∈ R>0 and is not
with the state x = [x1 x2 ] ∈ R2 , r > 1 ∈ R, and an
restricted by the gains k1,2 . In the nominal case V2,N (x) =
uncertain function (uniformly bounded disturbance) ρ(t), V2 (x)|ρ(t)=0 , γmin has to be chosen such that
i.e. |ρ(t)| < L, where L ∈ R is a constant. The algorithm
 
corresponds to a generalization of the classical STA for
γmin := max γV2,N >0 , γV̇2,N <0 (6)
which r = 2. Note that for r > 1 the exponents in the first
equation can take the values
and following L such that
r−1
0< <1 0<r−1<∞ (2) rβ−1
r L< (7)
 The financial support from PAPIIT-UNAM (Programa de Apoyo γmin β
a Proyectos de Investigación e Innovación Tecnológica) [project
to guarantee finite-time stability in the perturbed case.
IN113617]; Fondo de Colaboración II-FI UNAM [project IISGBAS-
100-2015];
Following, due to homogeneity, the gains can be rendered
CONACYT (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologı́a) [project in relation to the stable nominal case. This approach leads
241171] to stability in the perturbed case. 

32 33
 CONTROL DE PROCESOS
ESTA Time Signal - (r/k1/k2)
0.15
0.1
ESTA (-)
0.05
0 lyapunov function design method for a class of homo-
-0.05
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
time (s)
Fig. 1. ESTA Trajectories: Influence of exponent r and
gains k1,2 on ESTA trajectories.
3. SIMULATION OF ESTA AND STA
To compare the dynamics of both systems and to demon-
strate the “smoother” characteristics of the ESTA, the
STA and ESTA were simulated in Maltab/Simulink with
the ode4 (Runge-Kutta) solver, a fixed step size of 0.0001
seconds, integrator initial condition of 1 and a simulation
time of 12.8 seconds. Different gains k1,2 and exponents r
(ESTA) were selected (values are shown in the Figures ??-
??). Additionally, the perturbation function was once set
to ρ(t) = 10sin(x, t). The trajectories are shown in Figure
1. The ESTA is equal to the STA for r = 2. Increasing r
leads to a higher overshoot and a longer settling time while
decreasing the numerical error (as shown and discussed in
the following).
4. CONCLUSION
In this paper a new Extended Super-Twisting Algorithm
with variable exponents has been introduced. Additionally,
two suitable LF V1 (x) and V2 (x) have been proposed and
the existence of finite-time stability was shown. However,
exact gain values have not been calculated yet. The mo-
tivation of the variable exponents, to realize smoother
control behavior has been achieved in simulations.
REFERENCES
Andrieu, V., Praly, L., and Astolfi, A. (2008). Homo-
geneous approximation, recursive observer design, and
output feedback. SIAM Journal on Control and Opti-
mization, 47(4), 1814–1850.
Bhat, S.P. and Bernstein, D.S. (1997). Finite-time stability
of homogeneous systems. In Proceedings of the 1997
American Control Conference (Cat. No.97CH36041),
volume 4, 2513–2514 vol.4.
Bhat, S.P. and Bernstein, D.S. (2005). Geometric homo-
geneity with applications to finite-time stability. Mathe-
matics of Control, Signals, and Systems (MCSS), 17(2),
101–127.
Levant, A. (2005). Homogeneity approach to high-order
sliding mode design. Automatica, 41(5), 823–830.
Moreno, J.A. and Osorio, M. (2008). A lyapunov approach
to second-order sliding mode controllers and observers.
34
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
In Decision and Control, 2008. CDC 2008. 47th IEEE
Conference on, 2856–2861. IEEE.
ESTA/STA (2/15/11)
ESTA (5/15/11)
Moreno, J.A. and Osorio, M. (2012). Strict lyapunov
ESTA (9/15/11)
ESTA/STA (2/25/21)
functions for the super-twisting algorithm. IEEE Trans- Modelado de base fenomenológica del
ESTA (5/25/21) actions on Automatic Control, 57(4), 1035–1040.
ESTA (9/25/21)
Sánchez, T. and Moreno, J.A. (2012). Construction of secador ATM-52 empleado en el proceso de
lyapunov functions for a class of higher order sliding producción de pasta cerámica
modes algorithms. In Decision and Control (CDC),
2012 IEEE 51st Annual Conference on, 6454–6459.
Andrés López Valencia ∗ Manuela Walteros León ∗
IEEE.
Pablo S. Rivadeneira ∗
Sánchez, T. and Moreno, J.A. (2014). A constructive
∗
geneous systems. In Decision and Control (CDC), 2014 Universidad Nacional de Colombia, sede Medellı́n, Facultad de
IEEE 53rd Annual Conference on, 5500–5505. IEEE. Minas, Carrera 80# 65-223, Medellı́n, Colombia
(e-mail: {andlopezval, mwalterosl, psrivade}@unal.edu.co)
0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
Resumen: este artı́culo contiene una descripción tanto verbal como matemática del proceso
de secado que se lleva a cabo dentro del equipo ATM-52 para la producción de pasta cerámica.
A través de la aplicación de una metodologı́a de modelado, se definió como objetivo poder
describir mediante una base fenomenológica la variación temporal de la humedad en la corriente
de salida del equipo (pasta cerámica), dado que es la variable crı́tica en el proceso. Esta variable
es difı́cil de medir en tiempo real y solo se cuenta con métodos de laboratorio para obtener
mediciones. Para lograr el objetivo se plantearon una serie de suposiciones que permitieron
describir el modelo como ecuaciones diferenciales ordinarias, siendo la más importante que
el fenómeno de transferencia de masa es significativo cuando las corrientes van en el mismo
sentido. Una vez obtenido el conjunto de ecuaciones, a través de relaciones fı́sicoquı́micas del
proceso, se obtuvo el valor de todos los parámetros del mismo, y se realizó su verificación
computacional. El modelo se validó experimentalmente con los valores en el estado estacionario
obtenidos del proceso real.
Palabras clave: Modelo; Balances de Masa y Energı́a; Secado Spray; Proceso; Barbotina;
Cerámica; Transferencia de Masa.
1. INTRODUCCIÓN al proceso cerámico, en el cual únicamente plantean los
balances para los estados estacionarios (Ferrari et al.,
2016).
En el campo de la Ingenierı́a de Control, es de gran utilidad
Los autores, en general, expresan que la humedad es una
usar modelos matemáticos para representar los fenómenos
variable de suma importancia para el proceso de secado,
de la naturaleza, los cuales resaltan un comportamiento
en términos de las propiedades de los productos. Particu-
dinámico. La herramienta matemática empleada en la
larmente, en el proceso industrial de la pasta cerámica, la
representación de dichos fenómenos se realiza a través
granulometrı́a es un parámetro que adquiere gran impor-
de ecuaciones diferenciales obtenidas de diferentes leyes
tancia en la etapa de prensado (seguida de la atomización).
fı́sicas que los gobiernen. Para este caso, las leyes de
Es por esto que el control de humedad de las partı́culas
conservación de masa y energı́a.
al final de la atomización es crucial, pues si esta no es
Este artı́culo se realizó con el objetivo de desarrollar un retirada adecuadamente (manera y cantidad), el grano
Modelo Semifı́sico de Base Fenomenológica a través de final presentarı́a algunos problemas según los estándares
balances en estado dinámico, en el proceso de secado de de calidad. (Lukasiewicz, 1989) (Cao et al., 2000).
pasta cerámica, con la idea de conocer el comportamiento
La motivación principal de este trabajo fue la imposibili-
de la humedad de la pasta en el tiempo. El proceso
dad de medir la humedad de la pasta en tiempo real, por
es llevado a cabo en un secador spray. El desarrollo
lo que tampoco es posible aplicar estrategias de control
del modelo se realizó como un ejercicio académico en
a dicha variable. No se considera la identificación, pues
Colcerámica S.A.S., unidad de negocio de la Organización
se quiere conocer internamente el modelo. Finalmente,
Corona en Colombia.
luego de desarrollar una metodologı́a de modelado, se logró
Existen diversos autores que han enfrentado ejercicios describir adecuadamente la fenomenologı́a del equipo, con-
de modelado para secadores spray. La mayorı́a tratan siguiendo predecir los cambios en la humedad a la salida,
procesos relacionados con alimentos como la producción de basados en condiciones de entrada del mismo y acerándose
leche en polvo, colorantes naturales y frutas deshidratadas. lo suficiente a los estados estacionarios del proceso real.
Entre estos, se encuentran algunos que presentan balances
en estado estacionario (Martı́nez, 2009) (Ceballos, 2008) 2. METODOLOGÍA DE MODELADO
(Yanza, 2003) pero también existen otros con balances en
estado dinámico (Vera, 2012) (Dong, X. and Lin, S. 2005) La metodologı́a de modelado empleada en el artı́culo
(Ferrari et al., 2016). En menor proporción encontramos propone un modelado semifı́sico de base fenomenológica
35
 CONTROL DE PROCESOS
(Álvarez H, 2014). Consiste en un desarrollo sistemático
de 10 pasos. En el paso 1 se da cuenta del objetivo del
modelo, se debe realizar una descripción detallada de lo
que está ocurriendo en el proceso que se modela, acom-
pañada de una imagen. En el paso 2 se debe definir el
nivel de detalle del modelo y postular una hipótesis de
modelado que permite describir el comportamiento del
equipo, considerando aquı́ suposiciones del proceso que
tienen como objetivo simplificar el modelo planteado. En
el paso 3 se definen los sistemas de proceso, que son
abstracciones del proceso que se ven como un sistema.
Las separaciones de los sistemas de proceso se realizan
cuando en el proceso existen barreras fı́sicas o cambios
de fase: diferencias que marquen cambios espaciales re-
conocibles. En el paso 4 se plantean todos los balances
de masa y energı́a para el modelo, permitiendo realizar
un seguimiento de las variables más crı́ticas del modelo.
En el paso 5 se seleccionan aquellas ecuaciones de balance
relevantes para la solución del modelo. El paso 6 permite
obtener de manera ordenada parámetros, constantes y
variables provenientes de la estructura básica del modelo.
El paso 7 permite obtener ecuaciones que no se pueden
derivar directamente de las ecuaciones de balance pero que
conservan la misma relevancia para la solución del modelo
y que junto con los parámetros, variables y constantes del
paso 6, se utilizan para el conteo de grados de libertad del
paso 8.
3. RESULTADOS DEL MODELO
Los pasos 9 y 10 de la metodologı́a de modelado, son
fundamentales para obtener los resultados del modelo, que
se describen en el Tabla 1. Y la Figura 1.
Tabla 1. Resultados del modelo en estado es-
tacionario
Sı́mbolo Valor de Estado Estacionario
Kg
Rw 1 0,1145 m 2s
Entradas E w4 0,0999 mKg
2s
TE4 873,00K
MR 0,500Kg
KgdeA
X w2 0,0934 Kgsolventepuro
Estados ME 0,4537Kg
KgdeA
Y w5 0,3219 Kgsolventepuro
TE5 383,00K
Figura 1. Resultados del Modelo Lineal y no Lineal
36
4. CONCLUSIONES
Los resultados encontrados comprueban que se logró des-
cribir adecuadamente la fenomenologı́a del equipo, con-
siguiendo predecir los cambios en la humedad a la salida,
basados en las condiciones de entrada del mismo y además
acercarse bastante bien a los estados estacionarios del
equipo y su tiempo teórico de estabilización. También dan
cuenta de un buen ejercicio de modelado y linealización,
ambos acordes con los comportamientos del equipo real.
Se destaca la importancia de la inclusión de ecuaciones
constitutivas, las cuales son una pieza fundamental que
facilita la consecución del modelo.
REFERENCIAS
Atomizadores, S. (2017). Spray-driers atomizzatori atomi-
seurs. atomizadores.
Cao, X., Vassen, R., Schwartz, S., Jungen, W., Tietz, F.,
and Stöever, D. (2000). Spray-drying of ceramics for
plasma-spray coating. Journal of the European Ceramic
Society, 2433 – 2439.
Ferrari, A., Gutiérrez, S., and Sin, G. (2016). Modeling
a production scale milk drying process: parameter esti-
mation, uncertainty and sensitivity analysis. Chemical
Engineering Science, 301 – 310.
Çinar, A., Lagergren, E., and Negiz, A. (1995). Mathema-
tical models of cocurrent spray drying.
Lukasiewicz, S.J. (1989). Spray-drying ceramic powders.
Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 72(4), 617–
624.
Álvarez H (2014). Abstracciones macroscópicas de la
fenomenologı́a para el modelado de procesos. grupo de
investigación de procesos dinámicos-kalman. XXVII
Congreso Interamericano y Colombiano de Ingenierı́a
Quı́mica.
Martı́nez, L. (2009). Dimensionamiento y simulación de
un secador por aspersión de nivel piloto. Instituto
Politéctico Nacional.
McCabe, L. and Warren, J. (2007). Operaciones Unitarias
en Ingenierı́a Quı́mica. McGraw Hill, Ciudad de méxico,
7th edition.
Vera, M. (2012). Tesis maestrı́a “metodologı́a de diseño
simultáneo de proceso y control aplicada a un secado por
atomización multiproducto para sustancias quı́micas
naturaleso.
Yanza, G. (2003). Tesis pregrado. diseño de un secador
por atomización a nivel piloto para jugo concentrado de
tomate de árbol.
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
Collaborative Control Strategy Applied to
an Aerobic Reactor
Keidy Morales R. ∗ Hernan Alvarez ∗ Mario Francisco S. ∗∗
Silvana Revollar ∗∗ Pastora Vega ∗∗
∗
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medelln (e-mail: klmoralesr,
hdalvare@unal.edu.co).
∗∗
Universidad de Salamanca (e-mail: mfs, pvega, srevolla@usal.es)
Abstract: This work presents a collaborative control strategy applied to an aerobic reactor,
where the mass transfer global coefficient is separated into liquid phase mass transfer and specific
area for mass transfer. A control strategy that is close to real process and can be implemented
in large scale process is proposed. This control strategy has two layer: supervisory layer and
regulatory layer. The first one is defined for the main dynamic and the second layer is determined
by secondary dynamics or controllable parameters. Simulation results are presented showing a
better performance in comparison with traditional controllers when applied to real process.
Keywords: Collaborative control, mass transfer, aerobic reactor, wastewater treatment.
1. INTRODUCTION separated it is possible to understand the gas - liquid
mass transfer mechanism because these parameters are
The control structure of collaborative control strategy is affected by manipulated variables in a different way. For
centralized and hierarchical. In this multivariable control this reason, it is important to know the link between them.
strategy exists just one coordinator controller. Decisions In this sense, this work proposes a model to represent
about set point changes are taken on the main level. In that relation and apply that knowledge to improve process
this sense, there are several control loops in the system control.
communicated by a coordination mechanism, external to
the controllers (Moscoso – Vásquez, 2013). In collaborative
control strategy there are two levels: supervisory layer and
regulatory layer. The first level, named primary or main
2. METHODOLOGY
controller, calculates the changes in manipulated variables
or set points of individual controllers on second level.
This work follows the typical methodology of scientific
In order to accomplish the control objective, the control
strategies selection is relevant. The way in which the local method. A review of current state of the art allows to
controllers are organized define centralized, decentralized propose a new collaborative control strategy. This is a
hierarchical centralized control structure, because there
or distributed strategies, with collaborative control as a
recently introduced approach. are several control loops in the system communicated
by a coordination mechanism, external to the controllers
(Moscoso – Vásquez, 2013). In collaborative control strat-
On the other hand, aerobic reactors are used extensively in egy there are two levels or layers: supervisory and regula-
chemical and biological industry. Obviously, the aeration tory. The first level, named primary or main controller, cal-
is essential in aerobic reactors. In this sense, oxygenation culates the changes in manipulated variables or set points
is represented by mass transfer, which is determined for of individual controllers on the second level. To implement
a volumetric mass transfer coefficient (kL a). There exist this approach, a classification of process dynamics in main
many correlations for kL a, but it is important to use one dynamic and secondary dynamics has to be done. The
that can be related with the real process. In this sense, optimization of the set points of those controllers driving
some kL a correlations do not represent the real process secondary dynamics is done to reduce the control efforts for
because this parameter is global and it does not take the main dynamic loop. On the other hand, the regulatory
into account other physical phenomena that have great layer comprises the individual controllers for secondary
influence in the mass transfer, for example the bubble size dynamics of the process. In this sense, in a collaborative
and the quantity or gas hold up (Dudle, 1995) (Bouaifi control strategy with n total control loops, n-1 control
et al., 2001). Additionally, in order to implement a control loops are passed from regulation mode to tracking mode
strategy in real processes it is not possible to manipulate leaving only the control loop of main dynamic in regulation
the kL a directly because it is not a physically manipulated mode. This strategy is contrary to the traditional principle
variable. It is necessary to highlight that the volumetric of design in chemical process, which requires to operate in
mass transfer coefficient is the product between the liquid regulatory mode fixing the set point values for all variables
phase mass transfer coefficient (kL ) and the specific area in a continuous process.
or specific interfacial area (a). If these parameters are
37
 CONTROL DE PROCESOS
The collaborative control strategy is applied to an aerobic
reactor. Calculating the state impactability index SIIyk
from a singular value decompositon of Hankel matrix of the
process model, the oxygen concentration have the highest
index. Therefore, this variable is the main dynamic of the
process and the concentration of the rest of compounds
are secondary dynamics. The control objective is the set
point tracking of the oxygen set point. The other states
(secondary ones) have not a strong effect over that con-
centration. On the other hand, the oxygen concentration
state is directly related to the current applied aeration.
Obviously, the intermediate step between the oxygen con-
centration and the aeration is the mass transfer, described
by the volumetric mass transfer coefficient. In this way,
the coordinator controller in the supervisory layer has
the oxygen concentration as the fixed objective and the
regulatory level has two control loops, one for each con-
trollable parameter, collaborating to reach this objective.
In this case, the control loops on regulatory layer are
associated to controllable parameters kL and a, without
secondary dynamic controller into collaborative control.
The first control loop manipulates the air flow to control
kL . The second loop manipulate the air injection pressure
to control a. The Figure 1 shows the collaborative control
strategy proposed for this system.
Fig. 1. Collaborative control strategy application.
3. RESULTS
In order to validate the case study, different simulations
have been performed, including the application of dis-
turbances to the process. Table 1 shows the time, kind
and magnitude of the disturbances and set point changes
applied to the system in order to evaluate the behav-
ior of oxygen concentration. 14 days were simulated for
the aerobic reactor with constant conditions of reactor
influent. Two set point changes were applied to oxygen
concentration at the beginning of the test.
The obtained behaviour of oxygen concentration presents a
good tracking and disturbance rejection capabilities using
the collaborative control structure. Even thought some
38
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
Table 1. Disturbances applied to the system.
Disturbance /
Time [day]
Change
Magnitude Real-time QFT Control for Temperature in
0.5 Set point change From 0.5 to 2.2 g/m3
1.5 Set point change From 2.2 to 2 g/m3
Greenhouses
3
Temperature
From 15 to 10◦ C
change Rafael A. Núñez ∗ Carlos L. Corzo R. ∗∗
Temperature
4.5 From 10 to 15◦ C
change ∗
Faculty of electronic engineering, Unidades Tecnológicas de
Temperature
6 From 15 to 20◦ C Santander Colombia e-mail: (+57 6917700; e-mail:
change
Temperature rrodriguez@correo.uts.edu.co)
8 From 20 to 15◦ C ∗∗
change Faculty of electronic engineering, Unidades Tecnológicas de
Plant input flow From nominal value to 30% of Santander Colombia e-mail: (+57 6917700; e-mail:
9.5
change nominal value ccorzo@correo.uts.edu.co)
11.5
Plant input flow From 30% of nominal value to
change 130% of nominal value
Abstract: Sudden changes in a greenhouse environment negatively impact the development
overshoot exists after applying the changes on oxygen set and production of crops, especially in greenhouses with natural ventilation when temperatures
point and inputs, the oxygen concentration quickly return are low at night and change rapidly due to wet winds. To mitigate these variations, a design of
to the reference value. a robust controller based on Quantitative Feedback Theory (QFT) as from a Smith predictor
structure for dead-time system is proposed. This structure offers a high stability based on the
4. CONCLUSION gain margin, the phase margin, and the rejection of disturbances in the system output. This
design was contrasted with a PID controller based on performance indices, according to the
The collaborative control has been applied, showing a good transient response and error in the presence of changes in the point of operation and charge
performance in studied process. It can be applied in large disturbances. Final results showed that the dynamic response of the QFT controller improved
scale process and to improve the process behaviour. More- 12%, with a decrease of 1% in the overshoot and 3% in the effort of the control signal, compared
over, the controllable parameters have been included in the to PID controller results.
control strategy, where the possibility of control parame-
ters and no states is considered in order to collaborate with Keywords: QFT controller, robust control, temperature control, Smith predictor
the main dynamic, reducing the control efforts with the
manipulated variables into physically acceptable range. 1. INTRODUCTION the duty cycle of PWM signal applied to the AC-AC ON-
The mass transfer model is very important to represent OFF converter, where dead time is L = 120.5s the system
the real process looking for a better control system. In Thus, this development was oriented to the design of a ro- time constant is T = 213.9s, and the static system gain is
this sense, the behaviour of main dynamic is appropriate bust controller based on the Quantitative Feedback Theory K = 75.4.
for the process because the response time is physically pos- (QFT) and a structure as from a Smith predictor structure
sible. Additionally, the control actions are in a range that for deadtime system applied to temperature control of 2.2 QFT Controller Design
permit its manipulation and the controllable parameters the greenhouse to scale with a heating system since this
have a good behaviour because they have soft changes and structure offers a high stability based on the gain margin, For the developed controller, an uncertainty interval was
follow the set points computed in the optimization. The the phase margin, and the rejection of disturbances in the established for the static gain K, time constant T , and
proposed methodology can be used in large scale processes, system output. Thereby, it was started from modelling of dead time L. A robust design of a Smith predictor based
tuning into a plantwide control strategy if the plant is the temperature behavior inside a greenhouse was used on the consideration of the bandwidth and a quantitative
partitioned in macro-processes with clear distinguisable to design a robust QFT controller in which the system approach of the compensator was proposed (Garcia-Sanz
process product objectives. stability and controller s behavior against external distur- and Guillen, 1999), taking on a structure grounded in
bances in contrast with a PID controller were validated. the concept of the modified Smith predictor (Garcia-Sanz,
REFERENCES Likewise, it was inferred the proposed control strategy 2017) , for a system Pr with dead time L. The structure
performance that showed the robust stability and rejection uses an estimated plant without delay Pˆr in an internal
Bouaifi, M., Hebrard, G., Bastoul, D., and Roustan, M.
(2001). A comparative study of gas hold-up , bubble of disturbances with minimum effort of the control signal. loop with an estimated pure delay L̂ which allows to
size , interfacial area and mass transfer coefficients in mitigate the effects of dead time to facilitate the design
stirred gas - liquid reactors and bubble columns. Chem. 2. METHODOLOGY of the controller G using a quantitative approach. In the
Eng. and Processing: Process Intensification, 40, 97–111. Fig. 1, a structure based on Smith predictor concept for
Dudle, J. (1995). Mass transfer in bubble columns. Water 2.1 Model and Identification dead time is proposed.
Research, 29(4), 1129–1138.
Moscoso – Vásquez, H.M. (2013). A design procedure The RBS signal related the input and output of the system
for a supervisory control structure in plantwide control. and was configured with amplitude between [0.25 − 0.75]
Master’s thesis, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. of the duty cycle of PWM signal, applied to the AC-AC
ON-OFF converter, with a bandwidth BW = 0.00468Hz,
which was selected from the response of the temperature
to a step input signal of 50% of the PWM duty cycle
applied to the AC-AC converter. The sampling frequency Fig. 1. Modified Smith predictor equivalent diagram
was F s = 1Hz and the number of samples was 15000. A
first-order transfer functions with dead time was identified, The choice of Pˆr e−sL̂ is a critical factor due to Q(s)
which related the temperature inside the greenhouse, with degrades the system for each value that H(s) takes in the
39
 CONTROL DE PROCESOS
uncertainty space. So this, one first algorithm was pro-
posed for a plant set selection Pˆr e−sL̂ such that |Q(s)| <
md in the frequency range of interest of the controller
0 ≤ ω ≤ ωBW , where md is set to 3dB, additionally from
the second algorithm, a single plant Pˆr e−sL̂ of the set was
selected that satisfied the first algorithm
and allowed to minimize the cost function given by (1),
where nω equals the number of frequencies of inter-
est. A(Teq (jω)) represents the model template area and
Pˆr e−sL̂ y A(T (jω)) represents nominal plant template Pr .
1  A (Teq (jω))
Icost = (1)
nω A (T (jω))
ω∈Ω
The criterion used for robust stability was defined with
δu (ω) = 1.3 (Elso et al., 2017). The transfer function
δω , represents the desired dynamics of the plant before
a disturbance. The pole assignment method was applied
(Houpis et al., 2003). To start with an L(jω) value must
be obtained which fits the inequalities established in the
performance specifications, where L(jω) = G(jω)P (jω)
based on the controller performance specifications, in addi-
tion to the transfer functions that represent the parameters
δu (ω) and δs (ω) . (Gil-Martinez and Garcı́a-Sanz, 2003).
Loop-shaping technique introduces a G(s) controller that
modifies the loop function L0 until it complies with the
constraints imposed by the contours of the performance
specifications, this way the unique controller gejφ that
complies is what manages to take the function of the
loop L0 on the contours of each specification (Gil-Martinez
and Garcı́a-Sanz, 2003). Fig 1. Shows the block diagram
that allows to implement the QFT controller and PID
controller. In this way, to implement the QFT controller,
transfer function was introduced on G(s) block, and to
implement the PID controller, transfer function was intro-
duced on G(s) block.
3. RESULTS
Fig 2. represents a conventional PID and QFT controller
with modified Smith predictor response at 40 C. There-
fore, it is observed that the QFT controller presented an
overshoot of less than 2%, besides that, a lower effort in the
control signal and a fast response was noticed in compari-
son with PID controller that presented an overshoot close
to 3%. The settling time of the QFT controller was close to
1000s in contrast to the PID controller that approached
1200s. Table 1 lists the performance indices for tests at
40 C and at 50 C.
Fig. 2. QFT and PID controller’s response at 40 C
40
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
QFT controller response to an external variation of the
temperature inside the greenhouse was validated, which
it was subjected to a disturbance at 4000s. Tempera-
ture disturbance is based on a turbine activation that is
connected to the greenhouse, which forced the external
wind circulation, causing that the temperature inside the
greenhouse sudden decrease. Fig.2 shows QFT and PID
controller’s behavior. A passive fault-tolerant control strategy for non-linear
Table 1. Performance indices based QFT and system: An application to the two tank conical non-interacting
PID controller’s stability
level control system
Temperature 40 C 50 C
Controller QFT PID QFT PID Himanshukumar R. Patel*, Vipul A. Shah**
ts [s] 1000 1200 1050 1300 
Mp 2% 3% 0% 3% *Dept. of Instrumentation & Control Engineering, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad 387001, Gujarat, India.
Ep [ C] 0 0 0 0.5
(Tel: +91 7698308667; e-mail: himanshupatel.ic@ ddu.ac.in).
** Dept. of Instrumentation & Control Engineering, Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad 387001, Gujarat, India.
Last of all, it is appreciated that QFT controller lasted (e-mail: vashah.ic@ddu.ac.in)
850s to compensate the disturbance, while PID controller
lasted 690s. Table 2 shows indices performance for tests at
40 C of temperature. Abstract: In practical engineering systems, unknown actuator, sensor or system component faults
frequently occur, which results from component and interconnection failures, degrade control
Table 2. QFT and PID controllers’ indices per-
performance, system stability, and profitability, and even arise hazardous situation. To avoid abnormal
formance in presence of external disturbances
activity like faults and maintain system control performance subject to faults occurring into the system,
Temperature 40 C the Fault-tolerant Control (FTC) is a realistic approach to address the unwanted situation. The two-tank
Controller QFT PID conical system is widely used in chemical and food process industries because of its greater advantages.
ts [s] 850 960 The non-interacting configuration of two-tank conical system is highly nonlinear due to its shape and
Ep [ C] 0 0 varying area of the tank thought the height of tank, as a consequence level control of this system is
∆D 10% 13% extremely difficult. The paper attributes to design a Passive Fault-tolerant Control Strategy (PFTCS) for a
Two-tank conical Non-Interacting Level Control System (TTCNILCS) subject to the major system
4. CONCLUSION (leak), actuator faults with external process disturbances. PFTC will increase system control performance
and system stability acceptable level in the presence of system and actuator faults. The simulation results
demonstrate the proposed PFTC strategy has definite fault tolerant ability against the system and actuator
The proposed controller applied to the range of uncer-
faults also it has good disturbance rejection capability. To verify the efficacy of the proposed PFTC
tainty for the temperature system parameters, quickly
strategy Mean Square Error (MSE) and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) Integral Absolute Error (IAE)
mitigated the effects of the dead time, which favored the
indices are used.
system tuning and therefore its stability. Likewise, external
disturbances effects and changes in the point of operation Keywords: Actuator fault, process disturbance, Non-interacting system, nonlinear, Neural Network,
with minimum effort of the control signal were mitigated. Passive Fault-tolerant control, System fault.
It also kept within controller performance specifications
such as settling time and the overshoot. 
distributed fault tolerant scheme is implemented on two-tank
1. INTRODUCTION
REFERENCES benchmark system with faults.
To improve the system reliability and profitability of the
Elso, J., Gil-Martinez, M., and Garcia-Sanz, M. (2017). plant, significant research has been done to developed FTC 2. PFTC DESIGN FOR TTCNILCS
Quantitative feedback control for multivariable model strategy in recent years for interacting and non-interacting
For designing PFTCS, soft computing method is used. Neural
matching and disturbance rejection. International Jour- level control system. In (Patel and Shah, 2018c) author has
Network (NN) and PID controller are used to design robust
nal of Robust and Nonlinear Control, 27(1), 121–134. designed passive fault-tolerant algorithm for a single-tank
controller structure for tolerate the system /actuator fault and
doi:10.1002/rnc.3563. non-interacting level control system using fuzzy logic subject
process disturbances. PFTCS gives remarkable results in the
Garcia-Sanz, M. (2017). Robust Control Engineering. Boca to system fault and process disturbances, also it has been
occurrence of system and actuator faults in the system. The
Raton: CRC Press. verified on experimental setup. In (Parikh et al, 2017) due to
PFTCS scheme is presented in Fig. 1.
Garcia-Sanz, M. and Guillen, J. (1999). Smith predictor the highly nonlinear behavior of the three-tank in series
for uncertain systems in the qft framework. In Tzafestas interconnected system Non-linear Model Predictive Control The main objective of this paper is to design Passive Fault-
S.G., Schmidt G. (eds) Progress in system and robot (NMPC) is implemented to achieve the servo plus tolerant Control (PFTC) using soft computing method
analysis and control design. Lecture Notes in Control disturbance rejection and regulatory control in presence of (Neural Network) for nonlinear system with system and
and Information Sciences, volume 253, 239–250. changing valve position which serves as the disturbance actuator faults also it can tolerate the process disturbance.
Gil-Martinez, M. and Garcı́a-Sanz, M. (2003). Simultane- input. In (Basin et al, 2015) authors has designed fault- The PFTC scheme involved conventional PID control which
ous meeting of robust control specifications in qft. 13, tolerant algorithm for a DTS200 three-tank interacting system contribute batter steady state performance. The overall PFTC
643 – 656. considering fault sources, (process disturbances, input scheme gives almost zero steady state error with perfect
Houpis, C.H., Stuart, N.S., and John, J.D. (2003). Linear conditions, and disturbances through inter-tank connections) reference tracking subject to two faults and process
Control System Analysis and Design: Fifth Edition, are verified experimentally. Authors of (Mendonca, Sousa, disturbances. To check the effectiveness of the proposed
Revised and Expanded. CRC Press. and Sa da Costa, 2008) have used Model Predictive Control PFTC scheme is simulated on Two-tank conical Non-
(MPC) and fuzzy logic to design a fault tolerant control Interacting Level Control System (TTCNILCS) using Mean
(FTC) scheme for a three-tank benchmark system to Square Error (MSE), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and
accommodate two faults. In (Capiluppi and Paoli, 2005)
41
 CONTROL DE PROCESOS
Integral Absolute Error (IAE). The linearized model of the
TTCNILCS system is given by equation (1).
Fig. 1. PFTC design for TTCNILCS system subject to system
and actuator faults (Patel and Shah, 2018d).
(1)
3. SIMULATION RESULTS
To validate the proposed PFTC scheme subject to
system/actuator fault and process disturbance multiple
simulation done with different fault magnitudes and abrupt
nature. The results are tabulated in Table 1 with different
error indices MSE, RMSE and IAE. The simulation carried
out in sequential (i.e. single system, actuator, and process
disturbances), the comparative results presented in fig. 2. The
result figures are clearly shows that proposed PFTC scheme
gives batter control performance and system stability as
compared to without PFTC.
Fig. 2. PFTC performance comparison with actuator, system
(leak) faults and process disturbances.
42
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
Table 1. Error comparison results for passive FTCS.
Control por modos deslizantes de un sistema
Sr. Control
f1 f2 d MSE RMSE IAE de intercambio de calor: validación
No. Structure
PFTC 1.5675 1.2520 446.8 experimental
1. Without 10 - -
1.8800 1.3711 529.5
PFTC
PFTC 0.8218 0.9065 176.7 M.C. Pérez-Pirela ∗ J.P. Garcı́a-Sandoval ∗
2. Without - 20% -
0.8384 0.9156 211.1 ∗
Departamento de Ingenierı́a Quı́mica, Universidad de Guadalajara,
PFTC
PFTC 1.0087 1.0043 79.25 Calz. Gral. Marcelino Garcı́a Barragán 1451, Guadalajara, Jalisco
3. Without - - 1 44430, Mexico, e-mail: {mperezpirela@yahoo.es,
1.0139 1.0069 86.06 paulo.garcia@cucei.udg.mx
PFTC
*f1 denotes system fault, f2 denotes actuator fault and d
denotes process disturbances. Resumen: En el presente trabajo se diseñan, validan y comparan dos técnicas de SMC
convencionales usando superficies deslizantes basadas en el error y en la integral del error,
4. CONCLUSIONS
respectivamente, para a un sistema de intercambio de calor compuesto de un calentador
In this paper, the passive FTC approach design for highly eléctrico de paso, cuyo objetivo de control es regular la temperatura del fluido a la salida
nonlinear TTCNILCS subject to actuator/system fault and del calentador, bajo la influencia de perturbaciones externas. Los dos algoritmos de SMC
process disturbances. The passive FTC scheme with son analizados mediante simulaciones numéricas y su desempeño se compara a través de la
conventional PID control and neural network techniques has integral del valor absoluto del error y la integral del valor absoluto de la entrada de control,
been developed. It has been proved that all signals in the seleccionándose el mejor para ser probado experimentalmente. Los resultados experimentales
resulting closed-loop system are bounded and the closed-loop indican que el SMC es capaz de cumplir el objetivo de control con un desempeño satisfactorio.
system is stable even after fault occurs in the system. Also
PFTC response of TTCNILCS tracks the reference input, and Palabras clave: Control por modos deslizantes convencional, sistema de intercambio de calor,
rejects the faults more efficiently as compared to without control no lineal.
PFTC scheme in case they appear.
1. INTRODUCCIÓN] de seguimiento e(t), que es la diferencia entre la salida
REFERENCES medida y el valor de referencia. En tal sentido (Slotine
Basin M., Li L., Krueger M., and Ding S., (2015). A finite-time- Para controlar sistemas de intercambio de calor, se re- et al., 1991) and (Slotine and Spong, 1985) , definen
convergent fault-tolerant control and its experimental quieren esquemas de control robustos, siendo un enfoque una superficie deslizante diferencial e integro-diferencial
verification for DTS200 three-tank system, IEEE, International concreto la metodologı́a llamada Control por Modo Des- respectivamente .
Workshop on Recent Advances in Sliding Modes (RASM),
lizante (Sliding Mode Control, SMC). Dado que el SMC
Istanbul, Turkey, pp. 1-6. DOI: 10.1109/RASM.2015.7154633.
Capiluppi M. and Paoli A., (2005). Distributed fault tolerant control
tiene un procedimiento de diseño, es una de las más pode-
rosas soluciones para muchos diseños prácticos del control 3. METODOLOGÍA
of the two tank system benchmark, IEEE, Proceedings of the
(Utkin and Chang, 2002). Se ha intentado de varias formas
44th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, Seville, Spain,
pp. 7674 – 7679. DOI: 10.1109/CDC.2005.1583401. establecer una técnica para el diseño de dicha superficie, 3.1 Configuración experimental
Mendonca L., Sousa J. M., and Sa da Costa J.M., (2008). Fault pero los resultados muestran criterios que funcionan a
accommodation of an experimental three tank system using manera de filtro para determinar si la superficie propuesta
fuzzy predictive control, IEEE, International Conference on permite o no la estabilidad del sistema (Sira-Ramı́rez, Para la implementación y prueba de las estrategias de con-
Fuzzy Systems (IEEE World Congress on Computational 2015). En (Pérez-Pirela et al., 2018) se desarrolló y validó trol basadas en el método de control por modos deslizantes
Intelligence), Hong Kong, China, pp. 1619–1625. un modelo dinámico para describir el comportamiento de se utiliza un intercambiador de calor a escala delaborato-
DOI: 10.1109/FUZZY.2008.4630588. rio. El sistema de intercambio de calor está compuesto
un intercambiador de calor. Basados en este modelo, en
Patel, H.R., Shah, V.A., (2018c). Fuzzy logic based passive fault por un calentador eléctrico de acero inoxidable con una
tolerant control strategy for a single-tank system with system
el presente trabajo se diseñan dos algoritmos de control
empleando la metodologı́a de SMC convencional y a través longitud de 0.29 m, que contiene una resistencia eléctrica
fault and process disturbances, IEEE, 5th International de 1000 W, los diámetros internos y externos son d1 = 1/2
Conference on Electrical and Electronic Engineering (ICEEE), de un análisis de comparación de ı́ndices de desempeño se
selecciona el mejor para ser evaluada experimentalmente and d1 = 1 respectivamente, y el fluido entra con una
3-5 May, Istanbul, Turkey, pp. 257-262. DOI:
10.1109/ICEEE2.2018.8391342. en un sistema real, para demostrar la aplicabilidad de esta temperatura T2,i (t) y pasa a través del calentador con un
Patel, H.R., Shah, V.A., (2018d). A Framework for Fault-tolerant técnica a un sistema práctico de intercambio de calor. flujo volumétrico (F ) de 2L/min
Control for an Interacting and Non-interacting Level Control
System using AI, SCITEPRESS, 15th International Conference 2. FUNDAMENTOS DEL CONTROL POR MODOS
on Informatics in Control, Automation and Robotics (ICINCO DESLIZANTES 3.2 Modelo del intercambiador de calor
2018) held in Porto, Portugal from 29–31 July, pp. 180-190.
Parikh N., Rathore S., Misra R., and Markana A., (2017). A
comparison between NMPC and LQG for the level control of
La robustez y el procedimiento sistemático de diseño son Basándose en un modelo de parámetros distribuidos para
three tank interacting system, IEEE, Indian Control ventajas bien conocidas de los controladores por modos el intercambiador de calor descrito en la sección anterior,
Conference, ICC, Guwahati, India, pp. 200-205. deslizantes (Slotine et al., 1991). La idea detrás de SMC (Pérez-Pirela et al., 2018) desarrollaron un modelo ma-
DOI: 10.1109/INDIANCC.2017.7846475. es definir una superficie a lo largo de la cual el proceso temático simplificado para este sistema, el cual describe
puede deslizarse a su valor final deseado. El primer paso el comportamiento dinámico de la temperatura a la sa-
en SMC es la elección de la superficie deslizante o función lida (T2,o ), mediante una ecuación diferencial ordinaria
deslizante que se suele formular como una función lineal de segundo orden con retardo en la entrada (y), y las
de los estados del sistema, expresada en función del error perturbaciones T2,i y F
43
 CONTROL DE PROCESOS 18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático

Tabla 1. Resultados de ı́ndices de desempeño Tabla 2. Resultados de ı́ndices de desempeño

a cambios en la referencia a cambios en la referencia
Técnicas SMC IAE ICI Técnicas SMC IAE ISCI
I 621.0454 4,8954x104 I 7023934 3,6030x104 Detección automática del nivel de daño de
4,8954x104 3,5860x104
II 611.0164 II 694.1584
la cenicilla polvorienta en hojas de
3.3 Algoritmo de control por modos deslizante con los ı́ndices de desempeño y son presentados en la
cucurbitáceas a través de firmas espectrales
Tabla 2. El sistema con los SMC convencional oscila
durante la recuperación de la perturbación, evidenciando C. A. Rivera-Romero ∗ E. R. Palacios-Hernández ∗∗
Para fines de control se propuso el error de regulación
que la técnica II nuevamente tiene mejor desempeño que M. Trejo-Durán ∗∗∗ O. Vite-Chávez ∗∗∗∗
e(t) = T2,o − T2,r , donde T2,r es la temperatura de
la técnica I. J. A. Morales-Saldaña †
referencia a la salida del intercambiador. Para realizar las
simulaciones y experimentos se emplearon dos técnicas de Al tener la técnica II un mejor rendimiento, se elige para ∗
SMC con el propósito de regular el error e(t) = T2,o − T2,r . Centro de Investigación de Estudios de Posgrado (CIEP), Facultad
validar los resultados teóricos en la aplicación real. Se de Ingenierı́a, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosı́, San Luis
observa que en la respuesta dinámica del sistema en lazo Potosı́, México (e-mail: c.a.riveraromero@alumnos.uaslp.edu.mx).
4. RESULTADOS cerrado, el sistema real y los resultados de simulación ∗∗
Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosı́,
muestran un comportamiento muy similar. Este resultado San Luis Potosı́, México (e-mail: epalacios@fciencias.uaslp.mx).
Los resultados de las simulaciones realizadas se presentan demuestra que el controlador diseñado lograr la tarea ∗∗∗
Departamento de Estudios Multidisciplinarios, División de
para demostrar el funcionamiento de las técnicas seleccio- deseada con éxito. Ingenierı́as Campus Irapuato-Salamanca, Universidad de Guanajuato,
nadas de SMC convencional. Estas simulaciones se imple- Guanajuato, México (e-mail: mtrejo@ugto.mx).
mentaron en el entorno Matlab. 5. CONCLUSIONES ∗∗∗∗
Unidad Académica de Ingenierı́a Eléctrica, Universidad Autónoma
De la técnica I se obtiene la superficie deslizante: de Zacatecas, Jalpa, Zacatecas, México (e-mail: osvichz@uaz.edu.mx).
En este estudio los resultados obtenidos de las simula- †
Facultad de Ingenierı́a, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosı́,
ciones se compararon con los de la aplicación real para San Luis Potosı́, México (e-mail: jmorales@uaslp.mx).
s(t) = λ1 e(t) − ė(t) (1) las respuestas dinámicas del sistema de control en lazo
cerrado. El comportamiento sistema real y los resultados
y la entrada de control: de simulación mostraron un comportamiento muy similar. Resumen: La cenicilla polvorienta es un problema común en los cultivos de cucurbitáceas. Se
Los resultados experimentales sugieren que el controlador identificaron 4 niveles de daño (T1-hoja sana, T2-hoja en tiempo de germinación, T3-hoja con
  t   por modos deslizantes diseñado para el sistema de inter- primeros sı́ntomas y T4-hoja enferma) en hojas de Cucurbita pepo L. Se propone un algoritmo
T2,o (t) s(t) compuesto por 5 etapas para la detección automática. A través de una base de datos de firmas
u = λ1 ė(t) − k1 e(t)dτ + KD cambio de calor podrı́a ser aplicado a nivel industrial, ya
0 β |s(t)| + δ que presenta propiedades de robustez y a la vez es fácil de espectrales e imágenes RGB, se obtuvieron datos para extraer caracterı́sticas. Se planteó un
(2) implementar problema de multiclasificación y su evaluación. Se obtuvo la detección automática de los datos
de entrada en un vector resultante clasificados en cada nivel de daño de la cenicilla polvorienta.
Los parámetros empleados fueron λ1 = 1, k1 = 1,9x10− 11, KD =
5, δ = 0,9 y β = 1,7683x10− 7, los cuales fueron sinto- REFERENCIAS
Palabras clave: Firma espectral, ı́ndices de vegetación, Cucurbita pepo L., análisis de varianza,
nizados manualmente. Pérez-Pirela, M., Garcı́a-Sandoval, J., and Camacho, O. multiclasificación.
Del mismo modo, para la técnica II se consigue la superficie (2018). Development of a simplified model for a
deslizante: distributed-parameter heat exchange system for ther- 1. INTRODUCCIÓN Hojas sanas
modynamic principles-based control purposes. IFAC- 2
Hojas en germinación
Hojas con primeros síntomas
 PapersOnLine, 51(13), 396–401.

Reflectancia normalizada
t Hojas enfermas
La cenicilla polvorienta es una enfermedad común que
u = λ1 e(t) + λ0 ˙
e(τ )dτ − e(t) (3) Sira-Ramı́rez, H. (2015). Sliding mode control: the delta- 1.5
se presenta en la mayorı́a de los cultivos de las cucur-
0 sigma modulation approach. Birkhäuser. bitáceas. En el caso particular, las plantas de Cucur- 1
Slotine, J.J.E., Li, W., et al. (1991). Applied nonlinear bita pepo L. (C. pepo L.) son muy susceptibles a los
y la entrada de control: a) b)
control, volume 199. Prentice hall Englewood Cliffs, NJ. hongos Podosphaera xanthii y Erysiphe cichoracearum. 0.5
c) d)
Slotine, J.J.E. and Spong, M.W. (1985). Robust robot A través de la inspección visual se identificaron algunas
  t   control with bounded input torques. Journal of robotic
T2,o (t) 0
u= λ1 ė(t) + λ0 e(t) − k1 e(t)dτ caracterı́sticas de las imágenes y las firmas espectrales 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
systems, 2(4), 329–352. (Figura 1 de las hojas de C. pepo L.: hojas sanas, hojas Longitud de onda (nm)
0 β (4)
s(t) Utkin, V.I. and Chang, H.C. (2002). Sliding mode control en tiempo de germinación, hojas con primeros sı́ntomas
+KD on electro-mechanical systems. Mathematical problems Fig. 1. Firmas espectrales promedio y las caracterı́sticas visibles en
|s(t)| + δ y hojas enfermas por el hongo. Se propone un algoritmo hojas de C. pepo L. con cenicilla polvorienta.
in Engineering, 8(4-5), 451–473. para la detección automática de los niveles de daño de la
cuyos parámetros son λ1 = 9x10− 8, λ0 = 4x10− 13, k1 = cenicilla polvorienta a través de las firmas espectrales. 2.2 Definición de problema
1,8x10− 11, KD = 1,9, δ = 0,5 y β = 1,7683x10− 7, los
cuales fueron sintonizados manualmente. 2. METODOLOGÍA Se considera que la planta muestra diferentes carac-
Para probar las propiedades de regulación del sistema para terı́sticas en las hojas cuando un agente fúngico se pre-
2.1 Protocolo senta. El problema a resolver, parte de diseñar un algo-
ambas técnicas, se compararon los ı́ndices de desempeño
que son presentados en la Tabla 1. Estas resultados mues- ritmo para detectar automáticamente en que nivel de daño
Se realizó un análisis de los niveles de daño que puede se encuentra la planta y poder establecer un tratamiento.
tran que el sistema con el controlador de modo deslizante presentar la cenicilla polvorienta a través de la inspección
de la técnica II (ecuación 4) tiene un mejor rendimiento visual, de los estadios fenológicos de crecimiento de la
que el sistema con el SMC de la técnica I (ecuación 2). planta y de la ocurrencia de los sı́ntomas en las regiones 2.3 Algoritmo propuesto
Para probar la robustez del sistema ante la variación de de las hojas. Se identificaron 4 niveles de daño: T1-hojas
parámetros, se disminuyó el flujo volumétrico a 1L/min sanas, T2-hojas en tiempo de germinación, T3-hojas con El algoritmo propuesto se compone de 5 etapas de desar-
y el rendimiento de las técnicas también se comparó primeros sı́ntomas y T4-hojas enfermas por el hongo. rollo (Figura 2).

44 45
 CONTROL DE PROCESOS 18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático

Inicio 2.8 Etapa de la detección automática

Base de datos de
Generación de Se utilizó el método uno contra uno (OVO, one vs one,
firmas espectrales e
datos
imágenes T1 vs T2, T1 vs T3, T1 vs T4, T2 vs T3, T2 vs T4, y Criterion for model order reduction of a
T3 vs T4 ) que es un esquema de votación para identificar
Firmas espectrales e
imágenes sobre un conjunto de datos de prueba a que nivel de daño gasification reactor
Base de datos de pertenece cada dato. Se evaluó el desempeño del sistema
Pre-tratamiento
espectrales utilizando matrices de confusión, coeficientes kappa de Luis Santamaria-Padilla ∗ Luis Alvarez-Icaza ∗ Jesus Alvarez ∗∗
Datos
Cohen, exactitud, sensibilidad, y especificidad.
∗
espectrales Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Ingenierı́a,
Extracción de Base de datos de 3. RESULTADOS Cuidad de México, C.P.04510, México
características características (e-mail: lsantamariap@iingen.unam.mx,
La mayorı́a de las caracterı́sticas de dos o mas conjuntos de alvar@pumas.iingen.unam.mx)
Índices de ∗∗
vegetación datos tuvieron medias significativamente diferentes entre sı́ Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa,
y se pueden comparar entre cada posible par de niveles de Departamento de Ingenierı́a de Procesos e Hidráulica,
Clasificación Detección daño (T 1−T 2, T 1−T 3, T 1−T 4, T 2−T 3, T 2−T 4, T 3−T 4). Ciudad de México, C.P.09340, México
binaria automática
Los resultados de la etapa de detección automática, se (e-mail: jac@xanum.uam.mx)
Datos pueden visualizar en la Figura 3.
clasificados
4 Abstract:
T1

Niveles de daño
Fin 3 T2 The problem of reducing the order of the mathematical model representing the steady-state
T3
2 T4 behavior of ignition of a biomass gasification reactor, using a staged representation of the reactor,
Fig. 2. Diagrama general para la detección automática del 1
is addressed. A criterion to set the order is proposed, based on the comparison of the spatial
nivel de daño de la cenicilla polvorienta. profiles of low order models against experimentally obtained data. The model is reduced from
0
0 50 100 150 200 36 to 24 uniformly distributed stages, the spatial profiles obtained by simulations are presented
Vector de datos de entrada
2.4 Etapa de la generación de la base de datos and compared with experimental results to demonstrate that the criterion is adequate.
4
T1
Niveles de daño

Se obtuvieron de las firmas espectrales e imágenes de hojas
de un cultivo de 12 plantas de C. pepo L.
2.5 Etapa de pre-tratamiento y análisis exploratorio
Se procedió a aplicar un filtro de suavizado Savitzky-Golay
y se realizó un análisis exploratorio de los datos para
encontrar caracterı́sticas por rangos de longitudes de onda.
2.6 Etapa de la extracción de caracterı́sticas
Se planteó la extracción de caracterı́sticas. Se calcularon de
64 ı́ndices de vegetación (VI) relacionados con diferentes
variables como la biomasa, el área foliar, contenido de
clorofila, antocianinas y otros compuestos. En la Tabla 1
se presentan algunas ecuaciones.
Tabla 1. Ecuaciones de ı́ndices de vegetación
(Herrmann et al. (2017), Rumpf et al. (2010).
Índices de vegetación Ecuación
GNDVI ρN IR −ρG
ρN IR +ρG
NRENDVI ρN IR −ρRE
ρN IR +ρRE
ARI ( R1 ) − ( R1 )
550 700
2.7 Etapa de clasificación binaria
Se obtuvo un problema con múltiples clases: T1, T2, T3, y
T4. En estos casos, la descomposición de los datos consiste
en dividir el problema en múltiples problemas binarios.
Se implementaron el algoritmo del k-vecino más cercano
(KNN, k-nearest neighbors) y el algoritmo de las máquinas
de soporte vectorial (SVM, support vector machine).
3 T2
2
1
0
0 50 100
Vector de datos de salida
Fig. 3. Resultado de la detección automática con SVM y vectores
de caracterı́sticas NLS.
Se obtuvieron la exactitud de la matriz de confusión con
valores entre 0.9776 y 0.9866, la sensibilidad con valores
entre 0.9404 y 0.9761, la especificidad con valores entre
0.9801 y 0.992, y el coeficiente kappa con valores entre
0.9360 y 0.9601, los cuales indicaron un número de datos
clasificados correctamente.
4. CONCLUSIÓN
La detección automática es útil para el manejo integrado
de enfermedades en cultivos. Este sistema es solución a
los problemas de detección temprana de enfermedades
de hongos y se considera útil para cucurbitáceas con
caracterı́sticas similares a las de la Cucurbita pepo L.,
como lo son la Citrullus lanatus, el Cucumis melo, entre
otras.
REFERENCIAS
Herrmann, I., Berenstein, M., Paz-Kagan, T., Sade, A., y
Karnieli, A. (2017). Spectral assessment of two-spotted
spider mite damage levels in the leaves of greenhouse-
grown pepper and bean. Biosystems Engineering, 157,
72 – 85.
Rumpf, T., Mahlein, A.K., Steiner, U., Oerke, E.C.,
Dehne, H.W., y Plümer, L. (2010). Early detection
and classification of plant diseases with support vector
machines based on hyperspectral reflectance. Computers
and Electronics in Agriculture, 74(1), 91 – 99.
T3
T4
Keywords: Gasification reactor, low order model, order reduction, approximation error
1. INTRODUCTION approximation error that exists between the models of
150 200 reduced order and nominal, by an average of the mean
Gasification is a form of thermo-chemical biomass decom- errors of each state. The approximation error is defined as
position, carried out in the presence of a small quantity of
m
oxygen (or air) at high temperatures in order to optimize 1 
the gas production (Balat, 2009). The resulting gas, known ea = ep,j (1)
m j=1
as syngas, is a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen,
methane, carbon dioxide, steam and nitrogen.The con-
tribution of this paper is to extend the results obtained where m is the number of fast and slow states (m = 11),
by Santamaria-Padilla et al. (2016b), by introducing a ep,j is the mean error of the corresponding j state profile,
criterion to determine the minimum number of uniform defined as
stages to model a gasification reactor, so that the steady
N
state profiles obtained are within experimental uncertainty 1 
ep,j = |xj,i − x̄j,i |
registered. N i=1
2. IMBERT GASIFIER where:
N is the number of stages of the model; j = T , XH2 , XCO ,
The system of study for this work is an Imbert gasifier, XCO2 , XH2 O , XCH4 , XT , qs , qg , ρB , ρC are the dynamic
which is part of a gasification pilot plant of 10 kW at In- and algebraic states; xj,i are the states of the reduced order
stituto de Ingenierı́a, UNAM. In Santamaria-Padilla et al. model at stage i; x̄j,i are the nominal values at stage i.
(2016a), the problem to obtain the staged model for an
Since experimental data is available to compare the math-
Imbert gasifier in steady state, validated by experimental
ematical models, the comparison of the reduced order
data is presented. Making an analogy with N CSTR in models against experimental data is explored. To perform
series with backmixing, following the assumptions of ther- this task it is necessary to redefine the approximation
mal equilibrium between phases, that the gas is in quasi- error since there are only 10 temperature measurements
steady state regime and the discretization is made by finite and 4 gas concentration measurements at the exit of the
differences (Badillo-Hernandez et al., 2013). reactor. The approximation error when comparing against
experimental data is given by
3. CRITERION FOR MODEL ORDER REDUCTION
1
The methodology to be followed consists of taking N = 36 ea,exp = (ep,T + ep,C ) (2)
2
uniform stages as a nominal model, then reducing the
number of stages uniformly and comparing it with the where eT is the temperature profile error and eC is the gas
spatial profiles in the steady state and determining the concentration error at the exit of the reactor, defined as

46 47
 CONTROL DE PROCESOS
× 10-3
3.5
Model
3
Experimental data
2.5
2
∇ea
1.5
1 0
0.5
0 (a) Temperature
12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33
N Nacional Autónoma de México, Blvd. Juriquilla 3001, 76230
Fig. 1. Gradient of the approximation error
1    concentration, Fig. 2(b), it can be seen that again in the
eT = Tq − T q  first 0.5m there is not a big difference in the profiles, while
10 q
1    discretizations are noticed, observing the largest difference
eC = Xr − X r  for the case of N = 21, that affects its spatial description
4 r
where q = z1 , . . . , z10 are the location of the thermocouples
along the reactor and r = H2 , CO, CO2 , CH4 are the
measured gases at the exit of the reactor.
If the models of reduced order are compared against
experimental data or the nominal model, the magnitude
of the approximation error is a little more than double,
however the trends of increase in errors are very similar.
To determine this trend, the gradient of the approximation
error is calculated for the discretizations chosen, by means
of
∂ea
∇ea = (3)
∂N
In Fig. 1 the gradients are presented for the case in
which the reduced order models are compared with the
nominal profile and with the experimental data. It is
possible to observe that in both cases the gradients are
of a comparable magnitude and that the greatest increase
occurs with N = 24 stages, since it is affected by the
value of the approximation error for N = 21, whereas once
N = 18 to 12 stages, the gradient returns to a low values.
With the results obtained from analyzing Fig. 1 the
following criteria can be defined: it is enough to reduce
the order of the model until the first gradient greater than
0.002 is found by reducing the order of the gasifier model
in 3 stages, ∇ea ≥ 0.002.
4. SIMULATIONS CONSIDERING THE CRITERION
Since with the criterion it was determined that with
24 stages a reasonable representation of the gasification
reactor could be obtained in the steady state. The number
of stages chosen for the analysis are N = 36 for the
nominal profile, and to see the effect of decreasing or
increasing the number of stages from the criterion result,
N = 27, N = 24 and N = 21 are selected. Fig. 2(a)
shows the temperature profile for N = 36, 27, 24 and 21
stages, in red the experimental data are presented with
their respective uncertainty due to the fluctuations in the
measurements. It is possible to observe that the profiles
for all the discretizations are practically equal in the first
0.5 m, whereas from that distance they begin to differ,
however, in spite of this for N = 36, 27 and 24 there is not
a big difference. However, for N = 21, a big difference is
observed, exhibiting a trend of temperature increase very
48
1200 N = 36
N = 27
N = 24
1000 N = 21
T [K]
XCO
800
600
400
0.1 0.22 0.34 0.46 0.58 0.7 0.82
z[m]
36
Fig. 2. Profiles for nominal case and reduced order models
different from that of the other cases. For the case of CO
after this distance differences in the profiles of the different
and as a consequence the concentration at the exit of the
reactor, which is the measurement we can compare with.
It is possible to observe that for N = 36, 27 and 24 the
concentration values of CO are kept within the uncertainty
band defined by the red bars of the graph, while for the
case of N = 21, it lies outside of the band.
5. CONCLUSION
It was shown that with the criterion of reducing the order
of the model that has ∇ea ≥ 0.002, it is enough to obtain
a model that describes the behavior of the gasification
reactor in steady state, since it was compared against
experimental data where the temperature profile and gas
concentration are within the uncertainty bands. Likewise,
it was shown that reducing the order of the model beyond
what this criterion indicates, brings as a consequence that
the obtained model moves away from reality and ceases
to be reliable. The model order reduction from N = 36
to 24 stages represents a 33.33% decrease in the order of
the nominal model, and with this reduction the analysis of
the reactor in steady state can be performed with a similar
accuracy than with higher order models.
REFERENCES
Badillo-Hernandez, U., Alvarez-Icaza, L., and Alvarez, J.
(2013). Model design of a class of moving-bed tubular
gasification reactors. Chemical Engineering Science,
101, 674–685.
Balat, M. (2009). Gasification of biomass to produce
gaseous products. Energy Sources, Part A, 31(6), 516–
526.
Santamaria-Padilla, L., Alvarez-Icaza, L., and Alvarez,
J. (2016a). Modelado con validación experimental de
un gasificador de biomasa. In Memorias del Congreso
Nacional de Control Automático, Querétaro, Querétaro,
México, 19–23.
Santamaria-Padilla, L., Alvarez-Icaza, L., and Alvarez, J.
(2016b). Reducción de orden del modelo de un gasifi-
cador ante incertidumbre paramétrica. In Proceedings of
XVII Latin American Conference in Automatic Control,
Medellin, Colombia, 516–521.
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
20 N = 36
N = 27
N = 24
15 N = 21
10 Análisis de un Sistema Anaerobio de
Producción de Biogás en Dos Fases 
5
0.1 0.22 0.34 0.46 0.58 0.7 0.82
z[m]
Alejandro Vargas ∗ Alfonso M. Sepúlveda-Gálvez ∗
(b) CO concentration ∗
Unidad Académica Juriquilla, Instituto de Ingenierı́a, Universidad
Querétaro, Qro., Mexico
Resumen Para el modelo matemático de un sistema anaerobio de dos fases (hidrolı́tica-
acidogénica y metanogénica) se realiza el análisis en estado estacionario, mostrando que el
mismo modelo, con diferentes concentraciones de entrada, puede representar cualquiera de las
dos fases. Se presentan resultados de simulación.
Keywords: Digestión anaerobia, puntos de operación, sistema de dos fases, modelo matemático.
1. INTRODUCTION 2. METODOLOGÍA
La digestión anaerobia es un proceso biológico, donde un El modelo contempla 7 ecuaciones diferenciales para los
consorcio complejo de microorganismos degrada la materia siguientes componentes: X1 es la biomasa hidrolı́tica-
orgánica presente en el agua a través de una serie de acidogénica, X2 es la biomasa metanogénica, XT es el sus-
reacciones bioquı́micas interconectadas. En las fases finales trato particulado (el que debe ser hidrolizado antes de ser
del proceso se produce biogás, compuesto principalmente aprovechado), S1 es el sustrato soluble, S2 son los ácidos
por metano (CH4 ) y dióxido de carbono (CO2 ), pero grasos volátiles (AGV) (principalmente acetato), C es el
también otros gases en concentraciones traza como sulfuro
carbono inorgánico susceptible de ser transferido a fase
de hidrógeno (H2 S) o hidrógeno (H2 ), por lo que puede gaseosa como CO2 y Z es la alcalinidad. Además deben
usarse como biocombustible (Batstone, 2006). resolverse algunas ecuaciones algebraicas para estimar el
valor del pH y la composición del biogás generado.
Se ha propuesto separar el proceso en dos fases, espe-
cialmente cuando el agua residual a tratar contiene un La tasa de dilución, D = Qin /Vliq es la principal variable
alto contenido de materia orgánica y mucha de ella de de entrada en el modelo, pues es ésta la que usualmente
forma particulada. Ası́, en la primera fase un biorreactor se manipula para establecer las condiciones de operación,
anaerobio realiza la hidrólisis del sustrato particulado a con Qin el caudal de entrada y Vliq el volumen (constante)
soluble, que ahı́ mismo es acidificado a ácidos grasos voláti- de lı́quido en el rector. Otras variables de entrada son
les (AGV) por microorganismos acidogénicos. El efluente las concentraciones de entrada para cada compuesto: S1in ,
de este biorreactor es alimentado a un segundo reactor S2in , XTin , C in y Z in . Las cinéticas de la reacción están
metanogénico, donde principalmente se produce el biogás dadas por modelos de Contois para la hidrólisis, de Monod
(Passio et al., 2012). para la acidogénesis y de Haldane para la metanogénesis
Existen diversos modelos matemáticos para explicar la (Donoso-Bravo et al., 2015).
dinámica del procesos, desde modelos complejos como el
El análisis en estado estacionario se realiza dividiendo al
ADM1 (Batstone, 2006) hasta otros muy simplificados, reactor en dos subsistemas: uno hidrolı́tico-acidogénico y
como al AM2 Bernard et al. (2001), que ha servido como
otro metanogénico. Con ello se hace el análisis de bifur-
base para varios estudios y propuestas de controladores caciones para encontrar que, dependiendo de la tasa de
automáticos (Volcke et al., 2010; Sbarciog et al., 2012;
dilución, pueden aparecer distintos puntos de equilibrio, y
Antonelli et al., 2003; Méndez-Acosta et al., 2005). Re-
la estabilidad local de éstos depende también de las con-
cientemente, Hassam et al. (2015) han propuesto el modelo
centraciones de entrada (suponiéndolas como parámetros).
AM2HN para incluir la hidrólisis y el efecto del nitrógeno
Ası́, es posible determinar valores crı́ticos para la tasa
en los cambios de alcalinidad con el fin de predecir mejor
de dilución en función de los parámetros, que cambian
el comportamiento del pH en el sistema.
el número y naturaleza de los puntos de equilibrio. El
Se propone modificar el modelo AM2HN al considerar biorreactor entonces puede ser mono-estable, bi-estable,
una cinética de tipo Contois para la hidrólisis, tal como tri-estable y hasta tetra-estable en algunos casos. Esto
lo propone (Donoso-Bravo et al., 2015) para sistemas es importante desde el punto de vista operativo, pues
anaerobios de dos fases. Se hace entonces un análisis de los concuerda con lo observado experimentalmente en bio-
puntos de equilibrio y se muestra que este modelo es capaz rreactores anaerobios de laboratorio, además de permitir
de representar cualquiera de las dos fases, dependiendo de establecer criterios de operación segura, donde lo que se
la composición del influente con el que sea alimentado. busca es que el lavado de algún tipo de biomasa no sea
un punto de equilibrio estable, o bien que el punto de
 Proyecto financiado por DGAPA-UNAM IN104016. operación sea estable naturalmente.
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 CONTROL DE PROCESOS
3. RESULTADOS
Para corroborar el análisis matemático, se realizaron si-
mulaciones de varios escenarios de operación del modelo
del biorreactor con parámetros que corresponden a la
digestión de lodos de purga de una planta de tratamiento
de agua residual. Los escenarios consisten en variar las
concentraciones de los sustratos que entran en el influente.
Ası́, es posible mostrar, por ejemplo que si el reactor es
alimentado con una alta proporción de sustrato particula-
do, el reactor tenderá, para tasas de dilución relativamente
altas, a comportarse como un reactor hidrolı́tico-acidogéni-
co, y existe un punto de operación óptimo con el cual se
produce un máximo de AGVs (ver figura 1). En cambio,
si el reactor es alimentado con una alta concentración de
AGV y baja concentración de sustrato soluble, existe una
tasa de dilución óptima con la que la tasa de producción
de metano es máxima, pero existe el riesgo de lavado de
la biomasa metanogénica si se incremente más allá de un
valor crı́tico (ver figura 2). De la misma manera se analizan
otros dos escenarios.
Figura 1. Estados estacionarios estables para un reactor
hidrolı́tico-acidogénico.
Figura 2. Estados estacionarios estables para un reactor
metanogénico.
4. CONCLUSIONES
Se ha presentado el modelo matemático simplificado de
un digestor anaerobio que contempla la hidrólisis, la aci-
dogénesis y la metanogénesis. El análisis en estado esta-
cionario muestra que pueden coexistir hasta cuatro puntos
50
de operación localmente estables, pero solo uno de ellos
representa la coexistencia de los dos tipos de microor-
ganismos: hidrolı́ticos-acidogénicos y metanogénicos. De-
pendiendo de las concentraciones de entrada de sustrato
particulado, sustrato soluble y AGV, y de la tasa de
dilución empleada, el mismo modelo puede ser empleado
para representar cualquiera de las dos fases de un siste-
ma de digestión anaerobia de este tipo. Este resultado
es importante, porque entonces se puede tener confianza
en el uso de este modelo para el diseño de controladores
retroalimentados encaminados a mejorar la productividad
de biogás. Si bien hasta ahora las simulaciones numéricas
parecen corresponder con lo observado en biorreactores de
laboratorio y a mayor escala, falta comprobarlo con nuevos
datos provenientes de experimentos dedicados.
REFERENCIAS
Antonelli, R., Harmand, J., Steyer, J.P., and Astolfi, A.
(2003). Set-point regulation of an anaerobic digestion
process with bounded output feedback. IEEE Transac-
tions on Control Systems Technology, 11(4), 495–504.
Batstone, D. (2006). Mathematical modelling of anaerobic
reactors treating domestic wastewater: Rational criteria
for model use. Reviews in Environmental Science and
Biotechnology, 5(1), 57–71. doi:10.1007/s11157-005-
7191-z.
Bernard, O., Hadj-Sadok, Z., Genovesi, A., and Steyer,
J.P. (2001). Dynamical model development and parame-
ter identification for an anaerobic wastewater treatment
process. Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 75(4), 424–
438.
Donoso-Bravo, A., Pérez-Elvira, S., and Fdz-Polanco,
F. (2015). Simplified mechanistic model for the
two-stage anaerobic degradation of sewage sludge.
Environmental Technology, 36(10), 1334–1346. doi:
10.1080/09593330.2014.988186.
Hassam, S., Ficara, E., Leva, A., and Harmand, J. (2015).
A generic and systematic procedure to derive a sim-
plified model from the anaerobic digestion model no.
1 (ADM1). Biochemical Engineering Journal, 99, 193–
203. doi:10.1016/j.bej.2015.03.007.
Méndez-Acosta, H., Campos-Delgado, D., Femat, R.,
and González-Alvarez, V. (2005). A robust feedfor-
ward/feedback control for an anaerobic digester. Com-
puters and Chemical Engineering, 29(7), 1613–1623.
Passio, L., Rizzo, L., and Fuchs, S. (2012). Two-phase
anaerobic digestion of partially acidified sewage sludge:
a pilot plant study for safe sludge disposal in developing
countries. Environmental Technology, 33, 2089–2095.
Rosén, C. and Jeppsson, U. (2006). Technical Report No.
5 of the IWA BSM Task Group: Aspects on ADM1
implementation within the BSM2 framework. URL
www.benchmarkwwtp.org.
Sbarciog, M., Loccufier, M., and Vande Wouwer, A.
(2012). An optimizing start-up strategy for a bio-
methanator. Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering,
35, 565–578.
Volcke, E., Sbarciog, M., Noldus, E., De Baets, B., and
Loccufier, M. (2010). Steady state multiplicity of two-
step biological conversion systems with general kine-
tics. Mathematical Biosciences, 228(2), 160–170. doi:
10.1016/j.mbs.2010.09.004.
mecatrónica
y robótica
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Pd (t ) e(t )
uc (t) ud (t)

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Robotic Exoskeleton for Therapy of Rehabilitation Through Passive Mobilization of

the Tibioastragal Joint

Julio Eduardo Mejía *. Didier Alexander Sánchez**.

Elizabeth Roldán González ***. Carlos Alberto Muñoz***
* Grupo de Investigación en Sistemas Inteligentes-GISI
Corporación Universitaria Comfacauca (Tel: 57+28386000 Ext. 130; e-mail: jmejia@unicomfacauca.edu.co)
** Semillero de Investigación en Mecatrónica-SIM
Corporación Universitaria Comfacauca (Tel: 57+28386000 Ext. 130; e-mail:
didiersanchez@unicomfacauca.edu.co)
*** Grupo de Investigación Importancia del Movimiento en el Desarrollo Humano-FISIOTER
Fundación Universitaria María Cano (Tel: 57+28373085 Ext.403;
elizabeth.roldan@fumc.edu.co, carlosalbertomunozardila@fumc.edu.co)
Abstract: The objective of this research proposal is to build a prototype of an adaptive robotic
exoskeleton for the realization of preventive or rehabilitative therapy through the passive mobilization of
the tibioastragal joint. The prototype is evaluated in patients attending the physical conditioning center of
the Physiotherapy program of the María Cano University Foundation (Popayán-Colombia extension).
The development of the project has been planned in four phases, the first was related to the ergonomic
and adaptive design of the exoskeleton which was enhanced by using the quality matrix (QFD) which
allowed to know the most important characteristics to take into account for the development of the
prototype, for this purpose, different questions were asked for specialists in the area of children, the final
users of the prototype allow the development of the exoskeleton in a more precise way. The second phase
focuses on the implementation of an electromechanical system that allows performing the movements of
the system for this stage were evaluated as actuators the servomotors in order to control their speed and
range of motion obtaining acceptable results in the control of the two variables. The third phase, focused
on the development of software for the programming and control of the robotic system as a tool was
LabVIEW that allowed the interconnection between the Arduino and the motors allowing controlling the
variables of speed and angle, as well as the number of cycles that they are executed by the exoskeleton,
finally, the evaluation in patients, carrying out a case study to know the impact of the exoskeleton. The
exoskeleton design was carried out in CAD software, taking into account the anthropometric parameters
of a specific patient, with these results and using the 3D printing technique, the first model of the
exoskeleton was obtained.
Keywords: Ankle, Computer-aided design, Exoskeleton, Passive Mobilization, Rehabilitation,
Tibioastragial Joint, Therapy.

1. INTRODUCTION It is important to mention that 44% of those

Various alterations of the structures of the lower
limbs may require immobilization (short or long
duration), among these is the sprained ankle
(Garrido, 2004), which is one of the most
frequent musculoskeletal pathologies for both the
athlete and the population in general (Pijnenburg,
2000), (Karlsson, 1999), (Santoja, 1996),
(Olivera, 2001). This type of injury manifests
itself more frequently in young people, in
relation to greater sports practice. It affects more
the female sex, mainly due to certain
constitutional aspects that predispose to greater
laxity of the ligament in varus or valgus of the
ankle than in the male, and of obesity. It also
occurs in adulthood and in relation to the foot
curves or to use in women with high heels. An
overall incidence of 2.15 per 1,000 people in a
year has been estimated (Pijnenburg,2003).
injured in a primary care consultation present
some type of scale one year after the ankle sprain
(in the form of pain, mechanical instability or
functional instability) (Judith, 2002),
(Zarur,2001), (Guirao, 2004), (Juárez, 2016).
Once the correct diagnosis of the lesion is made,
physiotherapy treatmentis started with ways to
reduce all the aforementioned symptoms, in
addition to preventing recurrent injuries and
chronic instability of the ankle, the latter present
in 10 to 30% of cases of the ankle sprain. The
classification systems of ankle sprain grades vary
greatly on the description and the clinical basis of
the different authors, which makes it very
common to find different types of classifications
in the scientific literature (Kawamoto, 2002),
(Legarda, 2013),(Martinez, 2014), (Cataño,2014).
The use of exoskeletons in medicine aims to help

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patients who have suffered neuro-motor, sports
injuries or simply loss of strength due to the
natural aging of the body, to recover the
movement and strength of the injured joint
(Ferris, 2005), (Ekkelenkamp,2005).
2. METHODOLOGY
For the design of the adaptable robotic
exoskeleton prototype for therapy of prevention
and rehabilitation by passive mobilization of the
tibioastragal joint, 4 phases are proposed which
are described below:
Phase 1: Ergonomically and adaptively design
the structure of the robotic exoskeleton for the
tibioastragal joint
In the case of design, the general characteristics
of its construction, such as ergonomics and
resistance, are taken into account and will be
developed in four stages:
Conceptual design: it is the initial phase of the
design process and is carried to the point of
creating a series of possible solutions, leading to
the selection of the best- proposed solutions.
Realization of the design: in this phase, a
preliminary design is made, structuring the
concept acquired in the first phase. Decisions are
made about sizes, materials, shapes, among
others.
Detailed design: In this stage, the design is
taken to the complete description stage, where
characteristics such as mechanical strength and
weight are added to the product, making a model
of finite elements.
Phase 2: Development of the application
for the control of the robotic exoskeleton.
For the development of the application in the
control system will be the acquisition of
information, a complete survey of requirements
required by physiotherapists for the
development of therapy (angles of movement,
speeds, torques, among others). In the second
process, the delivery planning and the type of
tool most suitable for the development of the
application will be carried out and in the
development process, the codification and
testing of each one of the requirements will be
carriedout.
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Phase 3: Evaluation of the exoskeleton
During this phase, the effectiveness of the
exoskeleton for the prevention and rehabilitation
of patients suffering from pathologies with the
compromised tibial-talar joint will be evaluated.
In a first instance, it will be verified that the
exoskeleton complies with the normal values of
the operation, for which the following variables
will be measured:
Range of movement indegrees
Time of a movement cycle (dorsiflexion -
plantar flexion)
Force applied by the device that generates
the movement
3. CONCLUSIONS
At the end of the first three phases of the project,
the following conclusions wereobtained:
The exoskeletons applied in the medical field,
specifically those used in the
rehabilitation of patients,allow taking advantage
of the precision that a robot has in order to
gradually increase the speed in the repetitions of a
sequence, the extension of the joint position or the
resistance or strength of opposition of an exercise
of strengthincrease.
CAD design combined with 3D printing allows
the development of designs
that adjust to the anthropometric
characteristics of patients, which helps users have
better perceptions of the use of theexoskeleton.
The development of the application in Lab-
View allows the communication between the
Arduino and servomotors that perform the
movement of the exoskeleton to be carried out
properly. The back-flexion and flat-flexion
movement angle and movement speed were
controlled, making them much more precise
compared to the therapies performedmanually.
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Access Control System Based on the Side Profile

of a person using Machine Vision
Juan P. Rodríguez∗. Robín Álvarez∗


∗
Facultad de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Electrónica, Escuela
Politécnica Nacional, Quito, Ecuador (e-mail:
jpabloro68@yahoo.com, e-mail: robin.alvarez@epn.edu.ec)

Abstract: Biometric systems for people recognition are mainly based on the analysis of physical or
behavioural traits. The study of these features allows the design of security systems with very low
vulnerability, besides being easy to use by the user. Nowadays, the most used characteristics for recognition
systems are facial and fingerprint; however, these are not enough and that vulnerability is increasing. That
is why it is important to consider other new characteristics. In this work a new form of biometric
identification is proposed, the recognition of lateral profile of face. This characteristic is a unique physical
feature in each individual and allows to implement a biometric system using digital image processing tools
and radial base function neural networks. These tools will be used to generate algorithms that identify an
individual in real time.
Keywords: Image processing, matching, segmentation, model approximation, Radial base function networks

Digital Image Processing. The authentication of a per- son is
1. INTRODUCTION
done through image processing algorithms. This process
Nowadays, biometric systems are widely used in security generally has 3 stages (Russell and Norvig (2004)):
systems such as access to restricted areas or to limit access to
The image was taken with a webcam and a light that light up
personal information, for banking procedures, to identify a
on the was profile, ”the brightness of a pixel in the image is
certain criminal or potential criminals. These types of security
proportional to the amount of light that reaches the camera
systems have sensors and electronic readers, high resolution
from the surface portion of the scene that is projected in that
cameras, algorithms that allow processing or authentication of
pixel ” (Russell and Norvig (2004)), thanks to this the image
all the information obtained by cameras and sensors, all these
profile is better defined and excessive pre-processing is
characteristics make the biometric systems reliable.
avoided, therefore the features profile are more relevant and
The security implemented with biometric systems take and with better definition.
advantage of the features of the human body that are unique
The pre-processing helps to improve the image to be more
(fingerprint, face, hand, iris, etc.). This way they are less
suitable for processing and obtaining the profile of the image.
vulnerable to intrusions of any kind.
This stage what is to change the image in gray scale and
The disadvantage of traditional security systems is that they immediately transform to binary to facilitate the detection of
use keys, cards, passwords. These elements can easily be edges of the image, elimination of noise, morphological
copied or be damaged or lost, being a disadvantage that makes operations of filling, separation of the object to analyse
these systems more vulnerable. (profile), etc. The propose of segmentation stage is extract the
face profile of the image and to compare with a imagae
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
previously stored a previously stored (authentication):
2.1 Materials Radial Base Function Networks (RBF). Artificial neural
network assimilates the knowledge of the environment that
This work for the authentication of a person a webcam was surrounds it. It obtains the stimulus though the examples of
used, a light falls on profile and the software developed. Starts the training given to neuronal network, the knowledge was
with obtaining the image through the camera, the light that acquired through an adaptation process and knowl- edge is
falls on the profile is a white light that allows obtaining the stored in the connections between the neurons of the network
image of the profile, since with the incidence of light the (synapse) (Isasi Vin˜uela and Galv´an Le´on (2004)).
profile stands out among the other objects that appear in the The authentication through neural networks first was the
image. architecture that is going to be used for this project the neural
networks with radial base function are chosen which are
2.2 Methods networks with functions located in the center of the receptive
fields, which are areas in the space of inputs that activate the

72 73
 mecatrónica y robótica
neuron (Isasi Vinuela and Galvan León (2004), Orr et al.
(1996))
RBF network consists of three layers of forward connec- tion:
the input layer, the hidden or intermediate layer and the output
layer. Neurons in the input layer send the information to the
intermediate layer. Neurons of the hidden layer are activated
depending on the distance that separates each input pattern
from the center that each hidden neuron stores, to which a
radial base function is applied, it can be with the Gaussian
form. Neurons of the output layer are linear and simply
calculate the weighted sum of the outputs provided by the
hidden layer (Eq. 1) Longoni et al. (2010) Rossomando et al.
(2010))
3. RESULTS
Once the points for each profile have been obtained, a
comparison is made between the two images obtaining the
following results, for the image processing algorithms and
RBF neural networks, presented in the following graphs, both
algorithms tested with 5 test subjects Figure 1 and Figure 2.
We use 12 training profiles for each subject (60 profiles to
training) . As a test set we used 5 additional profiles for each
subject (25 profiles of test).
Figure 1. Results of authentication by image processing.
Figure 2. Results of authentication using RBF.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The project is a type of biometric system, which under certain
parameters, with respect to the taking of the image, is a very
novel and useful system in security systems and access
74
systems. By this characteristic, this system can have a lot of
opening in the security market.
Comparison with other biometric systems, it is very easy to
implement since the system consists of a webcam, a light that
affects the profile and the software developed, in this way its
cost is reduced compared to other security systems.
This type of system, the advantage it has is that the analysis
is done of the image of a person’s profile. The same one that
through image processing can be transformed into a
continuous and two-dimensional linear function. Therefore,
the analysis of image is simpler.
REFERENCES
Adámek, M., Maty`sek, M., and Neumann, P. (2015).
Security of biometric systems. Procedia Engineering, 100,
169–176.
Cruz, L.F., Athó, F.C., and GRA´FICO, T.E.E.P. (2006).
Reconocimiento del iris. Universidad Nacional de
Trujillo Perú´.
Duró, V.E. (2001). Evaluación de sistemas de re-
conocimiento biométrico. Departamento de Electrónica y
Automática. Escuela Universitaria Politécnica de Mataró.
Isasi Vin˜uela, P. and Galván León, I. (2004). Redes de
neuronas artificiales. Un Enfoque Práctico, Editorial
Pearson Educación SA Madrid España.
Jagadiswary, D. and Saraswady, D. (2016). Biometric au-
thentication using fused multimodal biometric. Procedia
Computer Science, 85, 109–116.
Li, J., Jian, Z., Ferrer Ballester, M.A., Hernández, A.,
Bernardino, J., Travieso González, C.M., and Román
Arbelo, F. (2006). Autenticación de personas a partir de
la biometría de la región dígito palmar. Vector Plus. Las
Palmas de Gran Canaria: Fundación Universitaria.
sistemas
de potencia
 sistemas de potencia 18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático

Decentralized Passivity-Based Control for

Microgrids ⋆
Sofı́a Avila-Becerril ∗ Oscar Danilo Montoya ∗∗
Gerardo Espinosa-Pérez ∗ Alejandro Garcés ∗∗∗
∗
Facultad de Ingenierı́a, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,
MEXICO (soavbec@comunidad.unam.mx; gerardoe@unam.mx).
∗∗
Programa de Ingenierı́a Eléctrica e Ingenierı́a Electrónica,
Universidad Tecnológica de Bolı́var, COLOMBIA
(omontoya@utb.edu.co).
∗∗∗
Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira. AA: 97 - Post Code: 660003 -
Pereira, COLOMBIA (alejandro.garces@utp.edu.co).

Abstract: In this paper, we consider microgrids (MGs), which explicitly include the structure
of the network and the dynamics of power converters, within a model based on Hamiltonian
systems. We recover a previously reported passivity-based controller but different to Avila-
Becerril et al. (2018), we show, under a cascade system analysis that the trajectories reach
asymptotically their desired value only with the knowledge of the information provided by the
converter: parameters and variables. The performance of the controller is verified by numerical
simulations.

Keywords: Microgrid control, Passivity Based Control, Hamiltonian systems.

1. INTRODUCTION The Hamiltonian MG model consists of the power con-

Microgrids establish a special type of electrical systems
formed by loads, distributed energy resources (DERs) in-
cluding solar photovoltaics (PVs), batteries, etc. and local
controllers with power converters that make compatible
the generated electrical energy (see Maitra et al. (2017)).
There are two control problems: guarantee a stable op-
eration, in the sense that voltages, currents, and powers
(active and reactive) exhibit a bounded behavior, and the
achievement of a prescribed power balance.
In this paper, we recover the model reported by Avila-
Becerril et al. (2017), which explicitly include the structure
of the network and the dynamics of two kinds of power con-
verters: voltage-fed and current-fed. We take the passivity-
based controller reported in Avila-Becerril et al. (2018),
but under two main differences namely: we demonstrate
that the trajectories reach asymptotically their desired
value only with the knowledge of the information provided
by the converter: parameters and variables, and we don’t
need to solve the power flow equations. The stability anal-
ysis is based on cascade theory.
2. METHODOLOGY
The methodology followed is usual in the design of control
schemes, that is, we start from a mathematical analysis
of the dynamic of the sub-systems that compose the MG
separately, as well as the complete MG model. Primary
control schemes are designed in this theoretical context to
next verify the control proposed properties at a numerical
level.
⋆ Part of this work was supported by DGAPA-UNAM under grant
IN116516.
verters model, the interconnection lines and the loads. In
this sense, it is considered that the MG has two kinds
of buses voltage-fed or current-fed converters and loads,
interconnected by transmission lines. In particular, we
assume that there are n1 voltage-fed converters, n2 loads,
n3 lines, and n4 current-fed converters.
After present the individual models, in order to get the
complete model, it is necessary to replace adequately, in
the port variables of the network, the voltage sources and
current sources with the output of the voltage-fed and
current-fed power converters, respectively.
3. RESULTS
We recover a control strategy (see Cisneros et al. (2015),
Avila-Becerril et al. (2018)), that for each of the power con-
verters solves a tracking problem for the output variables
in the MG under the following assumption: The current IL
and the voltage E, both port variables of the converters,
are measured.
Tracking Controllers
Proposition 1. Consider the complete MG model in closed
loop with the controllers
u1 = −V −1 Kp1 x̃1 + u⋆1 (1a)
u2 = −Kp2 y2 + u⋆2 (1b)
with y2 := GT2 (x⋆56 )x̃56 , positive gain matrices Kp1 , Kp2 ,
and some u⋆1 , u⋆2 satisfying the admissible trajectories.
Assume:
A.4 The variables of the power converters: currents x1 ,
x5 , and voltages x6 are available for measurement.

78 79
 sistemas de potencia
A.5 The converters parameters P12 and P56 are known.
A.6 The prescribed voltage x⋆2 and current x⋆5 are known
continuous functions, bounded with bounded second
derivative.
A.7 The load port–variables are passive, such that:
xT3z ψc−1 (x3z ) > 0
Under these conditions, the closed loop equilibrium point
x̃12 = x̃56 = 0 is asymptotically stable guaranteeing
internal stability.
The proof is based on cascade arguments.
Selection of the Steady-State Values
We address the problem of choosing the reference x⋆2 and
x⋆5 . The purpose is to satisfy the load power demand
assuming that some micro-sources have limited energy
capacity, although it is also assumed that at least one
source is capable to supply enough energy to satisfy the
load demand. In this sense, it is assumed that the n1
voltage-fed converters are fed by ideal voltage sources, i.e.,
they can supply any amount of current without modifying
their voltages Vi , while all the current-fed converters are
fed by limited current sources imposing the constraint that
each source can deliver only a fixed amount of power,
denoted by Pdi .
Simulation results
To validate the system performance considering load varia-
tions as well as changes in the power provided by the PV,
we contemplate a simulation time of 0.3 s. Additionally,
we consider a switching frequency in the power electronic
converters of fs = 20 kHz. A power and voltage base of
SB = 10 kVA and VB = 127 V were selected.
In the simulation, we can observe that all RMS voltages
remain around ±10% of the nominal grid value, the
electrical frequency is around the nominal value of 60 Hz,
exhibiting minimal oscillations of ±0.04%, which validates
the proposed controller with power variations. We also
present stability properties of the closed loop power AC
single-phase microgrid under load-varying scenarios.
4. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, we proposed a passivity-based controller
that only uses local measurements to control a microgrid
under an isolated-operating mode, we showed that under
cascade arguments asymptotic stability of the tracking
error is achieved without the necessity of solving the
power flow equations. As future work, the stability analysis
proposed could be extended for three-phase power grids as
well as direct-current microgrids operating under isolated-
operating mode.
REFERENCES
Avila-Becerril, S., Montoya, O., Espinosa-Pérez, G., and
Garcés, A. (2018). Control of a detailed model
of microgrids from a hamiltonian approach. IFAC-
PapersOnLine, to appear.
80
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
Avila-Becerril, S., Espinosa-Pérez, G., and Canseco-Rodal,
R. (2017). On the control of power flows in microgrids.
In Decision and Control (CDC), 2017 IEEE 56th An-
nual Conference on, 3252–3257. IEEE. The Extended Kalman Filter in the
Cisneros, R., Pirro, M., Bergna, G., Ortega, R., Ippoliti, Dynamic State Estimation of Electrical
G., and Molinas, M. (2015). Global tracking passivity-
based pi control of bilinear systems: Application to the Power Systems
interleaved boost and modular multilevel converters.
Control Engineering Practice, 43, 109–119. Holger Cevallos Ulloa ∗ Gabriel Intriago Velásquez ∗∗
Maitra, A., Pratt, A., Hubert, T., Wang, D., Prabakar, K., Douglas Plaza Guingla ∗∗∗
Handa, R., Baggu, M., and McGranaghan, M. (2017).
Microgrid controllers: Expanding their role and eval- ∗
Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, Guayaquil, Ecuador,
uating their performance. IEEE Power and Energy (hcevallo@espol.edu.ec)
Magazine, 15(4), 41–49. ∗∗
Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, Guayaquil, Ecuador,
(gintriag@espol.edu.ec)
∗∗∗
Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, Guayaquil, Ecuador,
(douplaza@espol.edu.ec)
Abstract: This article describes the state estimation in Electrical Power Systems (EPS) using
the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) and the method of Holt to linearize the process model and
then calculates a performance error index as indicators of its accuracy, this error index can be
used as a reference for further comparison between methodologies for state estimation in EPS.
IEEE 14 and 30 buses test cases are employed to evaluate the accuracy of the filter.
Keywords: Extended Kalman filters, IEEE 14 bus test case, IEEE 30 bus test case, Linear
exponential smoothing of Holt, Performance indices, Recursive Bayesian Estimation, State
estimation.
1. INTRODUCTION Table 1. Values
√ of standard deviation Measure-
ment Rk . Sharma et al. (2017)
The state estimation is an essential topic in the Energy
Management Systems for modeling, optimizing power flow, Power Injection in pu. 0.001
Power Flow in pu. 0.001
bad data detection, contingencies analysis and determine
Voltage in pu. 0.0006
necessary corrective actions against possible failures in the Angle in rad 0.018
power systems. The role of the state estimation in the
Energy Management Systems is to track the dynamics for the 30-bus system) following a linear trend of 1% over
of the power system through smart measurement devices the entire time interval with a random fluctuation of 3%.
from which are obtained the states of electrical variables Additionally, measurements of voltage, power injections,
such as voltage, phase, and power flow magnitudes. This and power transfer were corrupted with a random additive
article implements the state estimation in electrical power Gaussian distributed noise with a mean equal to zero
systems with the Extended Kalman Filter using the re- and a low level of variability, this is, with a standard
cursive Bayesian approach on an IEEE 14 and 30 bus test deviation (σ) according to table 1 for voltage and powers
cases to report its performance error indices as indicators respectively, to consider the uncertainty of measurement.
of its accuracy. These reported error indices can be used The accuracy of the Extended Kalman filter are carried
as an additional reference for comparisons between used out using indices as seen in Alhalali and Elshatshat (2015)
methodologies in the state estimation of electrical power and Valverde and Terzija (2011).
systems.
3. RESULTS
2. METHODOLOGY
The proposed calculation of the error (ε), performance
In this manuscript, the Extended Kalman filter is devel- (J) indices and their respective standard deviation are
oped in the probabilistic framework using the Bayesian presented in table 2 for 14 and 30 buses. The figures 2
perspective, which recursively solves the state inference to 4 show the evolution of error indices (ε) and perfor-
problem regarding conditional probability density func- mance indices (J). The figure 5 show the behavior of the
tions. The flow chart for the Extended Kalman filter is estimation values concerning the true values of voltage on
shown in Fig.1. To simulate the slow dynamics of the bar 17 (30 buses), it can be seen that there is a tracking
test systems under normal conditions,Valverde and Terzija of the estimation signal towards the real signal.
(2011), the smooth load changes were obtained by running
load flow calculations under different loading conditions 4. CONCLUSION
at each step. The dynamics of the system was obtained
by varying the loads at certain predefined buses (4, 5, 7, It can be concluded that the methodology used in this work
9-14 for the 14-bus system and 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 14-30 to estimate states of an EPS is showing good results and
81
 sistemas de potencia 18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático

Control of a Switched-Capacitor Quadratic

Boost Converter for Fuel-Cell Systems
L. H. Diaz-Saldierna ∗ J. Leyva-Ramos ∗
D. Langarica-Cordoba ∗∗ J. A. Morales-Saldaña ∗∗∗
∗
Instituto Potosino de Investigación Cientı́fica y Tecnológica, San
Fig. 2. Estimation error for step k - 14 bus test case Luis Potosı́, S.L.P. 78216 México (e-mail: ldiaz@ipicyt.edu.mx,
jleyva@ipicyt.edu.mx).
∗∗
CONACYT-Instituto Potosino de Investigación Cientı́fica y
Tecnológica, San Luis Potosı́, S.L.P. 78216 México (e-mail:
diego.langarica@ipicyt.edu.mx).
∗∗∗
Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosı́, San Luis Potosı́,
S.L.P., 78290, México. (e-mail: jmorales@uaslp.mx).

Fig. 3. Estimation error for step k - 30 bus test case
Abstract: Fuel cells are a suitable alternative for power generation; however, this technology
shows some drawbacks as slow dynamic response and low unregulated DC output voltage. Due
to above, a DC-DC converter is required to step up and regulate the output voltage. In this
work, a switched-capacitor quadratic boost converter is proposed to obtain a high conversion
ratio. The controller of the switching regulator is designed using average current-mode control.
Experimental results of a 330 V output voltage @ 500 W laboratory prototype are given to verify
the performance of the designed regulator. A power module with polymer electrolyte membrane
(PEM) fuel cell is used as an input source. This module delivers an output voltage form 24 V
to 42 V, depending on the demanded output current. Load step changes are applied to exhibit
the robustness of the switching regulator. The system stability of the prototype is verified using
experimental frequency response.

Keywords: High-step up converters, PEM fuel-cell modules, current-mode control, quadratic

boost converter, switched-capacitor.
Fig. 4. J performance index - 14 bus test case
1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHODOLOGY

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is an

The methodology for the development of this work is
attractive alternative power generator because it has a
relative small size and low operating temperature, which described in this section. As a first step, analysis in steady-
are appropriate features for mobile and stationary appli- state operation is developed for obtaining the steady-
Fig. 1. Flow Chart of EKF Algorithm state conditions of the proposed converter. The analysis
cations. On the other hand, it has some drawbacks as
low DC voltage level generation, the output voltage drops is focused on the two operation modes (when the active
when a fast electric load demand occurs (fuel-starvation), switch is turned On and turned OFF). According to the
two equivalent circuits for the operation modes, average
Table 2. Index error for EKF and standard and large time constant (slow dynamics) of the fuel-cell
delivery system devices, see Diaz-Saldierna et al. (2017). In non-linear model is obtained. Linearizing around an equi-
deviations(σ) for 14 and 30 buses librium point, an average linear time-invariant model is
Fig. 5. Voltage magnitude in bar 17 - 30 bus test case the open literature, several topologies that allow to obtain
Buses Index achieved. This model describes the behavior of the con-
EKF σEKF
REFERENCES high step-up conversion have been proposed, see Tseng
14 εv (n) ∗ 10−3 , pu 0.26995 0.13941 et al. (2017). verter to frequencies up to half of the switching frequency,
εθ (n) ∗ 10−3 , pu 0.40309 0.17706 Alhalali, S.M.O. and Elshatshat, R.A. (2015). State and it is not suitable for predicting subharmonic oscilla-
ε(k) ∗ 10−3 , pu 0.34899 0.44329
Estimator for Electrical Distribution Systems In this work, a combination of a quadratic boost (see tions due to the ripple instabilities. The controller of the
J(k), pu 0.72139 0.07470
Based on a Particle Filter. 2015 IEEE Power Leyva-Ramos et al. (2009) and Leyva-Ramos et al. (2013)) switching regulator is designed using average current-mode
30 εv (n) ∗ 10−3 , pu 1.4533 0.48266 converter and a switched-capacitor is proposed to obtain a control, which consists of two loops (inner and outer). This
εθ (n) ∗ 10−3 , pu 1.9930 0.75792 & Energy Society General Meeting, 1–5. doi:
10.1109/PESGM.2015.7286398. high voltage gain. Modeling and analysis of the proposed control scheme is a useful technique for voltage regulation
ε(k) ∗ 10−3 , pu 1.7524 0.75503
Sharma, A., Srivastava, S.C., and Chakrabarti, S. (2017). configuration are shown, as well as a control strategy is de- and for improving the dynamic performance of the switch-
J(k), pu 0.84601 0.06132
A Cubature Kalman Filter Based Power System Dy- veloped using linear techniques, specifically, current-mode ing regulators. Since the average inductor current is used
control. By using this topology non pulsating input-output for output voltage regulation, a faster response is obtained
namic State Estimator. IEEE Transactions on Instru-
currents are obtained, a reduced voltage stress on the when step changes are applied to the load. A prototype of
mentation and Measurement, 66(8), 2036–2045. doi:
the error indices reported can be accepted as referential 10.1109/TIM.2017.2677698. switching devices is achieved; the switched-capacitor con- a switching regulator with an output voltage of 330 V @
values, e.g., to compare accuracies between different meth- figuration consists of only two diodes and two capacitors 500 W is built at the laboratory for proving the developed
Valverde, G. and Terzija, V. (2011). Unscented kalman
ods employed to state estimation of EPS. Future work will (with low capacitance value), see Forouzesh et al. (2017). analysis. A Nexa Power Module from Heliocentrics is used
filter for power system dynamic state estimation. Gen-
address the study of the Monte Carlo methods deeply in The control scheme of the regulator is implemented using as an input source of the switching regulator, which de-
eration, Transmission & Distribution, IET, 5(1), 29–37.
the state estimation of EPS such as the Ensemble Kalman only two operational amplifiers. Regulation and system livers a maximum output power of 1.2 kW at an output
doi:10.1049/iet-gtd.2010.0210.
Filter and sequential Monte Carlo methods. stability are obtained with the proposed control law. voltage of 24 V.

82 83
 sistemas de potencia
3. RESULTS
The experimental setup built at the laboratory is shown
in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Experimental setup. Switching regulator with av-
erage current-mode control.
The regulator response when load step changes are applied
is shown in Fig. 2, as can it be seen, the output voltage
remains at 330 V under large load variations. The above
is because the designed controller is robust, obtaining fast
transient response and system stability.
Fig. 2. Converter response when load step changes are
applied. (From top to bottom) Output voltge vC0
(100 V/div), and gate voltage vGM 1 (10 V/div) (Time:
40 ms/div).
The experimental frequency response of the voltage loop
gain at nominal load is shown in Fig. 3. The magnitude
plot exhibits a high gain at low frequencies, a phase margin
of 130 ◦, and a 1 kHz crossover frequency. The voltage loop
gain has sufficient gain and phase margins; therefore, the
switching regulator is robust to parameter variations.
4. CONCLUSIONS
This work focuses on output voltage regulation of a switch-
ing regulator based on switched-capacitor and a quadratic
84
Bode diagram
50
Magnitude (dB)
0
−50 1
10
2
10 10
3 4
10
Frequency (Hz)
200
Phase (deg)
0 Guilherme Giglio de Andrade ∗ Paulo César Pellanda ∗
−200
−400
−600 1
10
2
10 10
3 4
10
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 3. Experimental frequency response of the voltage
loop gain for a nominal load. (top) Magnitude (50
dB/div) and (bottom) phase (200 ◦ /div), x-axis in
Hz.
boost converter, which processes the energy generated by
a PEM fuel-cell stack. Some advantages of the proposed
configuration are: (i) non pulsating input-output currents
are obtained; ii) a reduced voltage stress on the switching
devices; and (iii) the implementation of the switched-
capacitor is easy carried out, which consists of only two
diodes and two capacitors with low capacitance value. The
control law of the regulator is focused on average current-
mode control. The inductor current is fed back using a
high-gain compensator and a low-pass filter. The output
voltage is fed back through a PI controller. A methodology
for adjusting the control parameters is developed. This
scheme guarantees system stability, fast transient response
and output voltage regulation. Additionally, due to the
high-gain compensator of the inner loop, the converter
performance is less sensitive to parameter uncertainties
and variations of the fuel-cell stack. On the other hand,
the experimental results show good regulator robustness
to large variations on the load.
REFERENCES
Diaz-Saldierna, L.H., Leyva-Ramos, J., Langarica-
Cordoba, D., and Morales-Saldaña, J.A. (2017).
Control strategy of switching regulators for fuel-cell
power applications. IET Renewable Power Generation,
11(6), 799–805.
Forouzesh, M., Siwakoti, Y.P., Gorji, S.A., Blaabjerg, F.,
and Lehman, B. (2017). Step-up dc-dc converters: A
comprehensive review of voltage-boosting techniques,
topologies, and applications. IEEE Transactions on
Power Electronics, 32(12), 9143–9178.
Leyva-Ramos, J., Lopez-cruz, J.M., Ortiz-lopez, M.G., and
Diaz-saldierna, L.H. (2013). Switching regulator using
a high step-up voltage converter for fuel-cell modules.
IET Power Electronics, 6(8), 1626–1633.
Leyva-Ramos, J., Ortiz-Lopez, M.G., Diaz-Saldierna,
L.H., and Morales-Saldana, J.A. (2009). Switching reg-
ulator using a quadratic boost converter for wide dc
conversion ratios. IET Power Electronics, 2(5), 605–
613.
Tseng, K.C., Cheng, C.A., and Chen, C.T. (2017). High
step-up interleaved boost converter for distributed gen-
eration using renewable and alternative power sources.
IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power
Electronics, 5(2), 713–722.
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
Robust Regional Pole Placement Synthesis
Applied to Structured PSS Design
Alberto Mota Simões ∗ Bruno de Pinho Silveira ∗∗
∗
Military Institute of Engineering, Electrical Eng. Dept., Rio, Brazil
(e-mails: g giglio@live.com, pcpellanda@ieee.org, simoes@ime.eb.br)
∗∗
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolquı́, Ecuador
(e-mail: bdpinho@espe.edu.ec)
Abstract: A recent controller synthesis technique which allows the design of output feedback
control systems achieving robust regional pole clustering in the presence of parametric un-
certainties as well as satisfying prescribed structural constraints is applied to Power System
Stabilizer (PSS) synthesis. Such features are rarely jointly present in other currently available
controller synthesis methods. This realistic robust stabilization problem involves synthesizing
decentralized lead-lag (hence highly structured) controllers to face uncertainties in operating
system conditions. Two numerical applications corroborating the applicability of the proposed
synthesis technique to design structured PSS are presented.
Keywords: power system stabilizer, pole placement, structured controller, robust control,
nonsmooth optimization
1. INTRODUCTION depicted in Fig. 1, constructed as the intersection of a disk,
a half plane and a wedge.
In this paper, we show the applicability of a recently in-
Im
troduced controller synthesis technique [dos Santos et al.,
2018] to that power system control problem. The method
allows the design of output feedback control systems
achieving robust regional pole clustering in the presence
D
of parametric uncertainties as well as satisfying prescribed r
structural constraints. Such features are rarely jointly θ
γ Re
present in other currently available controller synthesis α |q|
methods [dos Santos et al., 2018]. Two benchmark system
examples from the literature [Martins and Lima, 1989] are
used to demonstrate the effectiveness of this technique: a
Single Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB) system as well as a
multivariable example consisting of the Brazilian South-
Southeast 7-bus 5-machine system. Fig. 1. Region D(q, r, α, θ, γ) for pole placement
Notation: For a given real matrix A ∈ R n×n
, λi [A]
stands for the set of n eigenvalues of A. A matrix ∆ ∈ Uncertain system (1) is said to be robustly stable if it is
Cq1 ×p1 , notation ∆⋆P stands for the classical upper linear
stable for all admissible uncertainty, or equivalently, if the
fractional transformation (LFT) [Zhou et al., 1996].
eigenvalues of the state matrix (∆ ⋆ M ) lie in the open-left
half plane for all ∆ ∈ B∆. Moreover, if the poles of (1)
2. ROBUST D-STABILITY METHOD lie in D for all allowable uncertainty, i.e., λi [∆ ⋆ M ] ∈ D
for all ∆ ∈ B∆, then the uncertain system is said to be
robustly D-stable. A necessary and sufficient condition for
Consider the uncertain linear time-invariant (LTI) system
the robust D-stability analysis of uncertain system (1) is
ẋ(t) = (∆ ⋆ M )x(t), (1) presented by dos Santos et al. [2018].
where M ∈ R(r+n)×(r+n) is the nominal state matrix and
One of the critical problems that power system control
∆ ∈ ∆ ⊂ Rr×r is a block diagonal uncertainty matrix
engineers face is the synthesis of highly structured con-
whose structure is given by
  trollers, such as multivariable, decentralized, low-order and
r
∆  ∆ = diag(δ1r Ik1 , . . . , δm I : δir ∈ R . (2) lead-lag PSS, with guarantee of a minimum damping for
r kmr
electromechanical oscillations against uncertain operating
Unit ball in ∆ is denoted by B∆  {∆ ∈ ∆ : σ(∆) ≤ 1}.
conditions. In this paper, we show the applicability of the
Let D(q, r, τ, θ, γ), with γ, q ∈ R, τ, r ∈ R>0 , θ ∈ (0, π/2), recent synthesis technique in [dos Santos et al., 2018] to
denote the non-empty region of the complex left-half plane this power system control problem.
85
 sistemas de potencia 18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático

3. NUMERICAL RESULTS For all synthesis plant model we have inserted a washout
filter in series with each output:
In this section, two power systems examples are used s3
to test the applicability of the method introduced in Gw (s) = . (3) BLDC Motor Controller Response to
1 + s3
[dos Santos et al., 2018]. LFT models are structured for A practical lead-lag structure was adopted for PSS designs.
control synthesis, i.e. uncertainty models which captures
PWM Compensation
Only the left half plane and a wedge were considered for
the variation of the operating conditions are obtained. robust regional pole placement, i.e. region D was set as
While for a Single-Machine-Infinite Bus System (SMIB) D(q, r, α, θ, γ) = D(0, ∞, 0, cos−1 ζ, 0) (Fig. 1). Different Gutierrez S. Carlos ∗
system (System I), the generated active power represents damping factors, ζ = 0.12 and ζ = 0.18, were established
the uncertainty, for the Brazilian 7-bus 5-generator system for PSS designs of System I and II, respectively.
∗
Universidad Católica Boliviana “San Pablo”, La Paz, Bolivia
(System II), parametric uncertainties are taken as two line (e-mail: cj.gutierrez@acad.ucb.edu.bo)
reactances. Model data for both systems can be found in 3.1 System I
[Martins and Lima, 1989, Boukarim et al., 2000]. Sahonero-Alvarez Guillermo ∗∗
Controller P SS0 obtained by applying method in Section
2 to System I is given by: ∗∗
Universidad Católica Boliviana “San Pablo”, La Paz, Bolivia
  
10
P = 250 MW
P = 200 MW 29.21s + 25.18 8.948s + 31.07 (e-mail: g.sahonero@acad.ucb.edu.bo)
P = 300 MW = 0.12 P SS0 = . (4)
s + 28.76 s + 0.5923
5
Abstract: Brushless DC Motors (BLDCM) have many benefits for their high efficiency, small
Fig. 2 shows that P SS0 is robustly D-stable. In contrast,
Imaginary Axis

size, and low maintenance requirements. On the other hand, high efficiency electronics are
it can be shown that classical designs in [Martins and
0 usually related to the usage of ARM based microcontrollers. In this work, the behavior over
Lima, 1989] do not guarantee the prescribed performance
multiple PWM frequencies and after applying PWM compensation is studied using an ARM
in terms of damping factor for all admissible uncertainties
-5 based board. In general, performance of sensorless and hall-effect based controller show expected
P ∈ [200, 300] MW.
differences. However, by using the proposed control schema on a real plant, impactful advantages
-10 3.2 System II are obtained showing 67% performance improvement and an average of 20% torque ripple
reduction.
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
Real Axis Fig. 3 and 4 depict the closed-loop pole sensitivity for
a grid of uncertain values (line reactances) belonging to Keywords: Brushless motors, Torque motors, Control accuracy, Zero crossings, Hall effect,
Fig. 2. Closed-loop poles sensitivity for P SS0 the R2 parameter domain for both centralized and de- Pulse-width modulation, Torque ripple, Sensorless.
centralized designs, respectively. Results show that robust
15
D-stability is reached in both cases. Squares in Fig. 3 and 1. INTRODUCTION performed for sensored and sensorless controllers using
circles in Fig. 4 refers to nominal pole location. different speeds and PWM frequencies. Also, commuta-
10
= 0.18
Brushless DC Motors (BLDCM) have many benefits for tion torque ripple reduction for sensorless controller was
4. CONCLUSION their high efficiency, small size, and low maintenance applied. Later, speed and current measures were analyzed
5 requirements. Also, BLDCM are becoming popular due to and compared between experiments.
This paper focused on the applicability of the robust their superior controllability, performance and small size
Imag

0
controller synthesis technique introduced in [dos Santos compared to single phase induction motors (Gamazo-Real 3. RESULTS
et al., 2018] to design structured PSS. The method was et al., 2010). A major factor that prevents achieving ideal
-5
shown to be effective in designing output feedback con- performance is called torque ripple and it is generated by Sensor based controller steady state error proves the prob-
-10
trollers having highly structured constraints and achieving imperfections in the design of the motor and inadequate lems related to this position detection method: sensor
robust regional pole clustering in the presence of paramet- control schemes (Carlson et al., 1992) (Jahns and Soong, physical misalignment delays or anticipates commutation
-15 ric uncertainties. Such features are rarely jointly present 1996). moment disturbing the speed performance. Speed result
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
Real in other currently available controller synthesis methods. On the other hand, high efficiency electronics are usually were compared between experiments where high PWM
More sophisticated methods for obtaining standard syn- related to the usage of ARM based microcontrollers. frequency controller showed minor settling time and steady
Fig. 3. Closed-loop poles sensitivity of a centralized robust thesis models are under investigation. The PSoC4 is based on a 32-bit ARM-Cortex family state error than a slower PWM frequency controller.
PSS for system II micro-controller, this device enables concurrent hardware By using the proposed control schema on a real plant,
REFERENCES and firmware editing. CY8CKIT-037 is a Motor Control impactful advantages are obtained showing 67% perfor-
G. E. Boukarim, Shaopeng Wang, J. H. Chow, G. N. Evaluation board that present a MOSFET dual H-Bridge mance improvement and an average of 20% torque ripple
15
Taranto, and N. Martins. A comparison of classical, and a dual H-Bridge PWM drivers, capable for drive reduction. In general, it can be noticed that sensorless
10
= 0.18 robust, and decentralized control designs for multiple sensored and sensorless BLDC motors. experiments have better results than the sensored ones.
power system stabilizers. IEEE Transactions on Power In this work, the behavior over multiple PWM frequencies For example, experiment with 2700 RPM as reference
5 Systems, 15(4):1287–1292, November 2000. and after applying PWM compensation is studied using point results in an steady state error above 6 RPM with
J. F. S. dos Santos, P. C. Pellanda, and A. M. Simões. an ARM based board while current and speed response sensored controller. In contrast, sensorless based controller
Imag

0
Robust pole placement under structural constraints. To are measured and compared between experiments. presented an error below 2 RPM. Steady state error is
Appear in Systems & Control Letters, 2018. presented in Fig. 1
-5
N. Martins and L. T. G. Lima. Eigenvalue and frequency 2. METHODOLOGY
-10
domain analysis of small-signal electromechanical sta- 4. CONCLUSION
bility problems. In IEEE Symposium on Application of Two different controllers: hall-effect sensors feedback po-
-15
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
Eigenanalysis and Frequency Domain Method for Sys- sition information and sensorless based on zero crossing A speed proportional duty cycle compensation improved
Real tem Dynamic Performance, pages 17–33, 1989. point detection for commutation point were studied. In steady state speed performance, also sensorless technique
K. Zhou, J. C. Doyle, and K. Glover. Robust and Optimal general, performance of sensorless and hall-effect based improved steady state performance compared to sensored
Fig. 4. Closed-loop pole sensitivity of a decentralized Control. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey controller show expected differences. control experiment.
robust PSS for system II 07632, 1996. Step input zero-load experiments with a real plant were Finally, as studies about torque ripples, speed behavior

86 87
 sistemas de potencia

Root-Mean-Square Deviation with 2700 RPM

5
RPM

Ripple Reduction 143KHz PWM Freq. 20KHz PWM Freq. Sensored Control
Experiment

Fig. 1. Steady State error at 2700 RPM for each experi-

ment. Boxplot show median error of RPM with 25th
and 75th percentiles.

and reduction of losses were explored, it was possible

to us conclude on the improved performance of BLDCM
by using sensorless techniques. The speed response and
current phase behavior are clearly influenced by PWM
frequencies as results show that high PWM frequency
improves steady state response, accelerating settling time
and reducing high frequency torque ripples.

REFERENCES
Carlson, R., Lajoie-Mazenc, M., Fagundes, J., 1992. Anal-
ysis of torque ripple due to phase commutation in
brushless DC machines. IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications 28 (3), 632–638.
Gamazo-Real, J. C., Vázquez-Sánchez, E., Gómez-Gil, J.,
jul 2010. Position and Speed Control of Brushless DC
Motors Using Sensorless Techniques and Application
Trends. Sensors 10 (7), 6901–6947.
Jahns, T. M., Soong, W. L., 1996. Pulsating torque min-
imization techniques for permanent magnet AC motor
drives - A review. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Elec-
tronics 43 (2), 321–330.

88
educación
en ingeniería
 educación en ingeniería 18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático

Active Disturbance Rejection Control

Applied to a Low-Cost Educational
Prototype
∗
J. Luis Luna Jessica Maldonado Rubén Garrido
∗
Departamento de Control Automático, CINVESTAV-IPN, Av. IPN
2508 San Pedro Zacatenco, Mexico City, MEXICO (e-mail: garrido,
jluna, jmaldonado @ctrl.cinvestav.mx ).

Abstract: The goal of this work is to implement Active Disturbance Rejection Control
(ADRC) algorithms in a low-cost educational prototype based on a Radio Control (RC) servo,
and to show the viability of this device for testing advanced control laws.

Keywords: ADRC, GPI, DOB, control education, servodrive.

1. INTRODUCTION

Evaluation of control algorithms is an important

issue when teaching Automatic Control, Robotics and
Mechatronics. It is usually carried out by means of
numerical simulations or through real-time experiments
using laboratory prototypes. Nevertheless, limiting
the students to using software like MatLab-Simulink
or web page-based numerical simulations [R. Pastor
and Dormido (2003)] may overlook some issues
like measurement noise, unmodeled dynamics, and
disturbances, which appear in real-life applications.
The goal of this work is to implement Active Disturbance
Rejection Control (ADRC) algorithms in a low-cost
educational prototype based on a modify Radio Control
(RC) servo. Experiments in a laboratory prototype show
the performance of the servo when applying two widely
known ADRC algorithms, the Disturbance Observer
(DOB) and the Generalized Proportional Integral (GPI)
observer.
2. EDUCATIONAL PROTOTYPE
2.1 Description
The low-cost educational prototype is built around
a HITEC RC servo model HS-485HB. Its electronics
including the control card are taken out and replaced
by a low-cost external linear amplifier. A power supply
consisting of standard voltage regulators LM7805 and
LM7905, a diode-based rectifier, capacitors, and an
AC transformer supplying 12 V and 0.5 A, feeds the
amplifier, whose input voltage is ±4.8V . Fig. 1 shows the
educational prototype. The cost of the latter including
the power supply is less than $50 US. This price may
be dropped by buying the electronics parts in large
quantities and by using cheaper RC servos.
2.2 Mathematical model
A mathematical model of this system is
J q̈(t) + F (q̇) = ku + d¯m (1)
Fig. 1. The educational prototype.
Variables q, q̇ and q̈ are respectively the angular position,
velocity and acceleration of the servo, u is the control
input voltage, J the servomotor and load lumped inertia,
f (q̇) is a nonlinear friction torque, k is a gain depending
on the power amplifier gain and on the DC motor torque
constant, and the term d¯m is an external disturbance.
Model (1) has the next alternative writing
q̈(t) = −f (q̇) + bu + d¯ (2)
where b = k/J, f (q̇) = F (q̇)/J and d¯ = d¯m /J. If the
friction torques are assumed unknown, then it is grouped
with the unknown term d in (2)
q̈(t) = bu + d (3)
with d = d¯ − f (q̇).
3. DOB APPLIED TO AN RC SERVO
Disturbance observers (DOB) perform robust control
based on the estimation and on-line cancellation
of a disturbance d. They relies on input and
output measurements, and on a nominal model of a
perturbed plant. Subsequently, disturbance rejection is
accomplished by using the disturbances estimate to
construct an inner feedback controller [Ohnishi et al.
(1996)]. The proposed PD+DOB controller relies on
angular velocity measurements and assumes knowledge of
the servo input gain b. This control law has the following
mathematical expression
1 
uDOB = Kp (r − q) − Kd q̇ − dˆ (4)
b

92 93
 educación en ingeniería 18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático

PD CONTROLLER SERVODRIVE Reference

d 80 PD+DOB

Position (Degrees °)
PD+GPI

 e   1 u 1 q 1 q
r Kp

b 60
  d̂ b s s
40

Kd
b
s
  s
s 20
Data analysis and tools applied to modeling and simulation of a
DISTURBANCE OBSERVER 0
PV system in Ecuador
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Time (s) D. J. Benavides*, F. Jurado* and L. G. González **

Fig. 2. PD+DOB controller block diagram. Fig. 4. Responses for PD+GPI and PD+DOB controllers. *
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Jaén, EPS Linares, 23009 Jaén, Spain
Table 1. Experimental results for the (E-mail: djbp0001@red.ujaen.es), (E-mail: fjurado@ujaen.es)
SERVODRIVE
PD CONTROLLER
d PD+DOB and PD+GPI controllers using **
Department of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Telecommunications, University of Cuenca, 010107 Cuenca,
r
 e
Kp   1 u
b

1 q 1 q Kp = 124.1312 and Kd = 31.2101. Ecuador (E-mail: luis.gonzalez@ucuenca.edu.ec)
   d̂ b s s

Kd
Fig. 3. PD+GPI controller block diagram.
where dˆ is the estimate of the real disturbance d. Fig. 2
depicts the block diagram of a Proportional Derivative
controller plus a Disturbance Observer (PD+DOB)
applied to the servo.
4. GPI OBSERVER APPLIED TO AN RC SERVO
When the GPI observer is applied to Active Disturbance
Rejection Control (ADRC), the state of the plant model
is extended by defining the disturbance term as new state
variable x3e = d. The on-line estimation of this new state
is performed using the GPI observer, which is also called
an extended State Observer (ESO) [Sira-Ramı́rez et al.
(2010)]. A Proportional Derivative controller plus a GPI
observer-based disturbance rejection control (PD+GPI)
is described by
1 estimate the production of energy under the available solar
uGP I = [Kp (r − x1 ) − Kd x2e − x̂3e ] (5)
b resource. To obtain its validation through measurement tests
where x̂3e is the estimate of x3e . Fig. 3 depicts
the block diagram of a Proportional with Derivative
action controller plus a Generalized Proportional Integral
observer (PD+GPI) applied to a servo.
5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
5.1 Experimental setup
The experimental platform used to implement
aforementioned control laws is composed of a personal
computer endowed with a Sensoray model 626 data
acquisition card. The programming and real-time
execution are performed using MatLab/Simulink from
MathWorks and QUARC from Quanser Consulting.
The sampling period is set to 1 ms and the numerical
integration algorithm is the Euler01 method. The gain
in model (3) is b = 253.329. In the case of the PD+DOB
controller the servo angular velocity q̇ is estimated from
position measurements through the next filter
160s 160
Gv (s) = (6)
s + 160 s + 160
GPI
Controller +ess −ess Gain
OBSERVER PD+DOB 0.07 0.06 β =15
x3e x2e x1e PD+GPI 0.07 0.06 θ =100
5.2 Comparison between PD+GPI
controllers
Fig. 4 shows the response of both controllers using β =
15, which is the cut-off frequency used to implement the
DOB and θ = 100, is the gain of the GPI observer.
Note that the close-loop response of both controllers is
essentially the same. Table 1 displays the performance
measures for both controllers. Note that there is almost
no difference between the performance in terms of the
Integral Squared Error (ISE) and the Integral of the
Absolute value of the Control (IAC) indexes, and the
steady state error at 90◦ (+ess ) and at 0◦ (−ess ) is
the same for this experiment. When using the PD+GPI
controller exhibits a higher Integral of the Absolute
value of the Control Variation (IAV C) index value
compared with the corresponding value for the PD+DOB
controller.
6. CONCLUSIONS
By its very nature, the use of DOB and GPI observers
for controlling an RC servo is very attractive because the
friction effects, which may be difficult to model, may be
considered as disturbances. The experimental outcomes
show that both controllers produce smooth responses
without overshoot and display similar performance.
Moreover, these outcomes display the versatility and
potential of the experimental platform when it is used
for testing advanced control laws, with an easy-to-make
reasonable priced prototype.
REFERENCES
R. Pastor, J.S. and Dormido, S. (2003). Xml-based
framework for the development of web-based
laboratories focused on control systems education. Int.
J. Engng, 19, 445–454.
Ohnishi, K., Shibata, M., and Murakami, T.
(1996). Motion control for advanced mechatronics.
IEEE/ASME Transactions On Mechatronics.
Sira-Ramı́rez, H., Ramı́rez-Neria, M., and
Rodrı́guez-Angeles, A. (2010). On the linear control of
nonlinear mechanical systems. In Decision and Control
(CDC), 2010 49th IEEE Conference on. IEEE.
ISE IACV IAC
7546 5.063 0.1609 Abstract: This paper presents a research was carried out for the management of a photovoltaic system in
7555 8.433 0.1725 a Microgrid, with applications and the use of tools applied to modeling and computational simulation in
the Microgrid laboratory implanted in the facilities of the University of Cuenca (Ecuador). Additionally,
and PD+DOB through the use of automatic learning techniques, the behavior of the photovoltaic system has been modeled
in the study area based on radiation and temperature with very good results. In addition, several applications
can be made in real engineering studies such as feasibility, performance analysis, energy estimation,
educational models, etc.
Keywords: Data analysis, Modeling, Simulation, Tracking on an axis, Photovoltaic, Matlab/Simulink.

1. INTRODUCTION 2.1 First Stage - Data Acquisition
This study carries out the implementation of a photovoltaic
energy estimator of a Microgrid, consisting of a set of 160 The data acquisition was developed in two sections:
Meteorological Data Radiation and temperature obtained
panels with a nominal capacity of 35kWp, distributed as
directly from the Weather Stations and Microgrid Data, in DC
follows: 15kW array of monocrystalline panels,
Direct Current as Alternating AC, through the HIOKI PW3337
polycrystalline 15kW and polycrystalline 4kW with solar
electrical variable measurement equipment. The sample size
tracking East-West, Espinoza et al. (2017), the study is carried
of the measurements was executed for each minute during each
out with the Simulink tool of MATLAB®. Therefore, the
day of operation 6am - 6pm, for the two sections
behavior of the system can be modeled through the use of
simultaneously, during a monitoring period of 4 months.
computational tools Prasanth et al. (2018); Razman and Chee,
(2017); Rameen, (2017); Ahmad et al. (2017). This allows to 2.2 Second stage - Modeling and simulation
have a referential system with respect to the installed one, to
The model corresponding to the photovoltaic system about
study, is represented in Figure 2, where the model made in
in each stage, a database obtained from the meteorological Simulink of MATLAB can be observed, which includes a
station and a comparison of the actual measurements with the database of radiation and temperature of the weather station in
results of the model have been entered. "xlsx" format, the PV Array block with the specifications of
the Atersa A250P and A250M models, in the respective
2. METHODOLOGY parallel series configuration and the implementation of the
MPPT with the Perturb and Observe algorithm of MATLAB.
The procedure and the methodology used for energy
A three-phase DC / AC inverter "Average-model based VSC",
estimation was carried out through modeling and simulation
in representation of the laboratory facilities of the University
mainly in 4 stages, as shown in Figure 1:
of Cuenca.
Fig. 1. Scheme for the estimation of energy of the photovoltaic
system
Fig. 2. Modeling of the Photovoltaic System

94 95
 educación en ingeniería
2.3 Third stage - Validation of results
In the validation process of the model, the database of the
Microgrid obtained in the first stage was used, together with
the results of the simulation. For the process of validation of
the results, the similarities of the model and the real data were
analyzed, obtaining an approximation of 95% in each
parameter.
2.4 Automatic data analysis
Advanced data analysis applications with functionality and
versatility, allow managing the information of the electrical
grid to analyze and extract information, for example:
improving energy quality, more efficient distribution,
optimization, machine learning, etc. Therefore, under this
same criterion, the slogans are corrected as new information is
known, see examples in: Chunming et al. (2017) and Mellit et
al. (2009).
Linear Regression Model Monocrystalline System
When applying the linear regression algorithm with a database
in 70% training percentage and 30% in validation in the
computer program Waikato Environment for Knowledge
Analysis (WEKA), a correlation coefficient was obtained in
94.79% of the regression model and an absolute relative error
of 19.21%. Equation (1) represents the power [W] according
to the most significant variables of the analysis in the area:
radiation [W/m2] and temperature [°C].
𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 12.425 ∗ 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 78.038 ∗ 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑇
840.298
In Figure 3a, the relationship between temperature, radiation
and power variables is shown through a linear smoothing
regression model. You can see its linear relationship of power
with radiation in Figure 13a. The results of the model applying
equation 1 are shown in Figure 3b.
Fig. 3. Linear regression model PVS1 supervised learning
(70/30)
2.5 Fourth stage - Application of the model
In order to use the referential model for the Microgrid using
the modeling tools used, it is possible to carry out applications
where the feasibility of photovoltaic installations is studied in
places where radiation and temperature meteorological data
are known, as well as the type of solar panel photovoltaic
selected. When obtaining a model you can also make changes
and study the possibilities of improving the current system,
such as changing and testing different models of the panel
96
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
manufacturers intuitively, replacing the panels with greater
power generation, studying the possibility of changing a fixed
system in tracking on an axis, etc.
3. CONCLUTIONS
Using tools for modeling and simulation, we have been able to Entorno virtual de Simulación de un Sistema de 4
observe the behavior of the different elements of the Tanques Acoplados
photovoltaic generation that participate in the Microgrid, with
results similar to their original behavior. The measurement
error with respect to the model is less than 4%, which Soto Angles Mario *. Sotomayor Moriano Javier*. Pérez-Zúñiga Gustavo*. Cruz
guarantees an excellent reference for the modeled system. Olano Christian
Some basic equipment specifications have been directly
related to the model, although other factors that alter their * Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Av. Universitaria 1801,
Lima, Perú Email: {mario.soto, gustavo.perez, a20057013} @pucp.pe; jsotom@pucp.edu.pe
normal behavior must also be considered. The use of values
and real data can be approximated to a large extent to a real
model, observing its most influential parameters and values Resumen: En este artículo se desarrolla un entorno de simulación de un proceso de 4 tanques
implies a better knowledge in the study area. Therefore, the acoplados, para uso en pruebas de simulación de controladores. Se explica el modelamiento
implementation of ICTs in electrical systems allow us to matemático de un sistema de 4 tanques acoplados con las configuraciones más utilizadas en la
improve the management of the electrical grid, as well as some literatura. Se describen los requerimientos para desarrollar un Entorno Virtual de Simulación (EVS)
techniques in the automatic learning of data in the prediction utilizando un software libre, en este caso EJS-Java. Finalmente se presentan pruebas de uso del
of some variables of interest. As a result of the modeling, some entorno para evaluar el desempeño del sistema con control PID.
advantages can be highlighted, such as the dimensioning of the Keywords: Tanques acoplados, Entorno Virtual, Controladores, Sistema Multivariable.
equipment, observing and controlling the abnormal effects,
controlling the connection of the systems in their stationary
state, analyzing the potential and performance of the 1. INTRODUCCIÓN
equipment’s, etc.
En el presente artículo se opta por utilizar simulaciones simples
REFERENCES en java (EJS-Java), las cuales permiten desarrollar simulaciones
Ahmad, A., Mehdi, F., Pourya, S. and Cihan, H. (2017), interactivas de forma completa en tres pasos, utilizando una
Modeling and Simulation of Microgrid, Procedia simplificación del paradigma arquitectónico, Modelo – Vista –
Computer Science, 114, 392-400. Controlador (MVC), es decir una arquitectura que implementa
(1) de manera independiente el aspecto visual, la lógica del sistema
Chunming, T., Xi, H., Zhikang, S. and Fei, J., (2017), Big data
issues in smart grid – A review, Renewable and o proceso a implementar, y las relaciones e interacciones entre
Sustainable Energy Reviews, 79, 1099-1107. componentes y acciones de usuario, además proporciona una
Espinoza, J. L., González, L. G., and Sempértegui, R., (2017), estructura simplificada para el desarrollo de las ecuaciones que
Micro grid laboratory as a tool for research on non- representan el comportamiento dinámico del sistema (Heradio
conventional energy sources in Ecuador, IEEE et al, 2016).
International Autumn Meeting on Power, Electronics and
2. MODELO MATEMÁTICO DEL SISTEMA DE 4
Computing (ROPEC), 1-7.
TANQUES ACOPLADOS
Mellit, A., Kalogirou, S.A., Hontoria, L. and Shaari, S.,
Fig. 1. Configuración básica del proceso de 4 tanques
(2009), Artificial intelligence techniques for sizing
La primera configuración conocida como configuración básica, (Alvarado, 2006)
photovoltaic systems: A review, Renewable and
fue presentada inicialmente en (Johansson, 2000) y la segunda,
Sustainable Energy Reviews, 13, 406-419. conocida como configuración modificada fue presentada Se realiza el balance de flujos para cada tanque de la
Prasanth, J., Himanshu, M., Dhanup, S., Sudhakar, T., originalmente en (Numsomram, 2008) configuración básica mostrada en la Fig. 1 y se obtiene el
Masafumi, M. and Rajasekar, N., (2018), Analysis on solar modelo no lineal del sistema (Alvarado, 2006):
PV emulators: A review, Renewable and Sustainable 2.1. Modelado de la Configuración básica
Energy Reviews, 81, 149-160. En la Fig. 1 se aprecia la configuración básica del sistema de 4 𝑑𝑑ℎ1 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎3 𝛾𝛾1 (1)
Rameen, A., (2017), Modeling and simulation of a micro grid- tanques acoplados presentada por Johansson (Johansson, 2000, =− √2𝑔𝑔ℎ1 + √2𝑔𝑔ℎ3 + 𝑞𝑞𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴1
connected solar PV system, Water Science, 31, 1-10. Alvarado, 2006)
Razman, A. and Chee, W. T., (2017), A comprehensive review 𝑑𝑑ℎ2 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎4 𝛾𝛾2 (2)
Esta configuración está compuesta por un reservorio amplio en =− √2𝑔𝑔ℎ2 + √2𝑔𝑔ℎ4 + 𝑞𝑞𝑏𝑏
on photovoltaic emulator, Renewable and Sustainable 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴2
su base y otros cuatros tanques de menores dimensiones
Energy Reviews, 80, 430-452.
distribuidos en pares en dos niveles, con cada tanque del nivel 𝑑𝑑ℎ3 𝑎𝑎3 (1 − 𝛾𝛾2 ) (3)
superior (tanques 3 y 4) encima de su correspondiente tanque =− √2𝑔𝑔ℎ3 + 𝑞𝑞𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴3 𝐴𝐴3
en el nivel inferior (tanques 1 y 2). Una bomba 1, que alimenta
del reservorio a los tanques 1 y 4, con su respectiva válvula de 𝑑𝑑ℎ4 𝑎𝑎4 (1 − 𝛾𝛾1 ) (4)
3 vías para regular el caudal distribuido a cada tanque; de modo =− √2𝑔𝑔ℎ4 + 𝑞𝑞𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴4 𝐴𝐴4
similar una bomba 2 que alimenta los tanques 2 y 3, también Donde:
con su respectiva válvula de 3 vías. 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 : Sección transversal del tanque 𝑖𝑖 (𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚2 ).
97
 educación en ingeniería
𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 : Sección transversal del orificio de salida del tanque 𝑖𝑖 (𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚2 ).
ℎ𝑖𝑖 : Nivel del agua en el tanque 𝑖𝑖 (𝑚𝑚).
𝑞𝑞𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 𝑞𝑞𝑏𝑏 : Flujo de salida de las bombas (𝑚𝑚3 /ℎ)
𝑔𝑔: Aceleración de la gravedad (𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2 )
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 : Flujo de entrada al tanque (𝑚𝑚3 /ℎ)
𝛾𝛾𝑖𝑖 : Parámetro de apertura de la válvula de 3 vías.
3. DESARROLLO DEL ENTORNO DE SIMULACIÓN
El EVS se desarrolla en Java con ayuda del API (Application
programming interface) EJS, que proporciona un conjunto de
librerías e interfaces predefinidas para simulaciones de control.
Adicionalmente, se provee al entorno, la capacidad de trabajo
de manera integrada con Matlab/Simulink, haciendo uso del
API SoftwareLinks (Sánchez, 2005). En el EVS propuesto, se
emplearán los datos de diseño de una planta piloto de 4 tanques
acoplados (ver Fig. 2), implementada en el Laboratorio de
Control Avanzado de la PUCP.
Fig. 2. Planta piloto de 4 tanques acoplados. Lab. de Control
Avanzado de la PUCP
3.1. Entorno de Simulación
Se obtiene el entorno de simulación mostrado en la Fig. 3.
Donde se aprecia las distintas opciones de utilización.
Fig. 3. Vista del entorno de simulación funcionando bajo el
modo de control automático. H1→Rojo, H2→Azul, H3→Negro,
H4→Verde, Bomba1→Amarillo, Bomba2→Magenta.
98
4. RESULTADOS DE SIMULACIÓN
4.1. Configuración básica para 𝛾𝛾1 = 0.6 y 𝛾𝛾2 = 0.7.
Se observa en la Fig. 4 que efectivamente el sistema alcanza los
valores deseados de nivel de líquido en los tanques 1 y 2 para
una de las configuraciones elegidas.
Fig. 4. Simulación para 𝛾𝛾1 = 0.6 y 𝛾𝛾2 = 0.7
5. CONCLUSIONES
Se desarrolló un Entorno Virtual de Simulación para un sistema
de 4 tanques acoplados y se validó su funcionamiento con
resultados reales obtenidos en una planta piloto.
Se presentaron pruebas de simulación de control del sistema de
4 tanques utilizando un controlador convencional en dos
configuraciones del sistema con variaciones en las aperturas de
válvulas y ante la presencia de perturbaciones.
REFERENCIAS
Alvarado I.; Limon D.; García W.; Alamo T.; Camacho E.
(2006) An Educational Plant Based on the Quadruple-Tank
Process. 7th IFAC Symposium on Advances in Control
Education.
Heradio R., De la Torre L., Dormido S. (2016) Virtual and
remote labs in control education: A survey. UNED Madrid
Spain.
Johansson K.; (2000) The Quadruple-Tank Process; A
Multivariable Laboratory Process with an Adjustable Zero.
IEEE Trans. Control System Tecn, vol. 8, no. 3.
Numsomran A., Tipsuwanporn V and Tirasesth K (2008),
Modeling of the modified quadruple-tank process. Proceedings
of Sice Annual Conference, Vols 1-7, pp, 783-788.
Sánchez. J., Esquembre, F., Martin C., Dormido S., Pastor R.,
Urquía A. (2005) Easy Java Simulations: an Open-Source Tool
to Develop Interactive Virtual Laboratories Using
MATLAB/Simulink. UNED, Madrid, España.
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
Root-Locus Analysis of Delayed First and
Second Order Systems
M. Rı́os-Flores ∗ J.F. Marquez-Rubio ∗ B. del Muro-Cuéllar ∗
E. Aranda-Bricaire ∗∗
∗
Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), SEPI- ESIME Culhuacan,
México. (e-mail: moy30spl@gmail.com, jfcomr23@yahoo.com.mx,
bdelmuro@yahoo.com )
∗∗
CINVESTAV IPN, Sección de Mecatrónica, Departamento de
Ingenierı́a Eléctrica, México (e-mail: earanda@cinvestav.mx)
Abstract: For finite dimensional linear system the root-locus method is well established however
for the case of delayed systems the method has some problems due to the transcendental term
involved. This work intends to illustrate the problems that arises when a root-locus diagram
is performed as well as to develop a Matlab function that provides the root-locus diagram for
delayed low order systems. In this way, some comments about the problems that should be
tackled to obtain a generalization of the computational method for delayed systems with real
m poles and n zeros
Keywords: time-delay, root locus diagram, feedback control, poles, zeros.
1. INTRODUCTION systems, the stability can be determined by the rightmost
characteristic root Wang and Hu (2008). In this way, in
Wang and Hu (2008), the computation of the rightmost
Time delays appearing in the modelling of different classes
characteristic root of time-delay systems is addressed, on
of systems (chemical processes, manufacturing chains,
the basis of the Lambert W function. It can be seen that
economy, etc.), become a challenging situation from a
using this approach is not possible to obtain information
control viewpoint that should be affronted to yield ac-
ceptable closed-loop stability and performance. Several of the complete number of poles, however the method
control strategies as well as stability analysis have been presents some advantages from analytical viewpoint.
developed to deal with time delays. When the continuous
case is considered, the delay operator can be approxi- 2. METHODOLOGY
mated by means of a Taylor or Padé series expansions
which could leads to a non-minimum-phase process with The main idea behind to building the root-locus diagram
rational transfer function representation Gouaisbaut and for delayed systems is based on the fact that the phase
Peaucelle (2006). With the same stability purpose analysis, condition of the system G(s)e−τ s , given by.
some works have applied the Rekasius substitution; see N (s) −τ s
for instance Munz et al. (2009). It should be noticed that � G(s)e−τ s = � e = ±180◦(2q + 1) (1)
using the mentioned strategies and if a closed-loop stability D(s)
analysis is desirable, the stability results obtained are lim-
for q = 0, 1, 2, ..., is always satisfied for the roots of
ited due to the corresponding approximations. The root-
the closed-loop system. Therefore, the phase is tested for
locus method has been used as invaluable design tool for
a known region of the plane s. The iterative proposed
linear systems Suh and Bien (1982). This is because closed-
algorithm consists in selecting a point in the plane s = σ̄ +
loop stability can be assured from the obtained root-locus
j ω̄ where σ̄ and ω̄ are given. Then, left side of the equation
diagram. Root-locus graphical method is a method that
(1) is evaluated and it is verified if the equation (1) is
allows to analyse how the roots change when the variation
satisfied. If equation (1) is satisfied, then it is concluded
of a parameter is regarded. This method has been used
that the root s = σ̄ + j ω̄ associated to the given σ̄ and
in order to establish closed-loop stability conditions and
therefore the design of some controllers can be addressed
ω̄ is a root of the characteristic equation, and this values
are kept to use it later, if the condition (1) is not satisfied
by analysing the obtained graphic. Generally, it is not easy
then the values σ̄ and ω̄ are not kept. After this, a second
to analyse the stability of time-delay systems, especially
point in plane s, is selected and the method is applied
when the systems are of high order or they have multiple
again. Since a computational program is used to evaluate
delays. Generally, it is not easy to analyse the stability
the condition (1) it is important to establish a tolerance
of time-delay systems, especially when the systems are of
in the right side of condition (1), in such case the program
high order or they have multiple delays. In Wang and Hu
should evaluate strictly,
(2008), the concept of rightmost characteristic root is used
as the root with the maximal real part of the characteris- N (s) −τ s
� e = ±180◦ (2q + 1) ± ǫ (2)
tic roots of a time-delay system. For retarded time-delay D(s)
99
 educación en ingeniería
Root-Locus FOPTD
150
100
50
Imaginary axis (ω)
0 0
-50
-100
-150
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
Real axis (σ)
Fig. 1. Root-Locus of a FOPTD system.
Another issue, is the number of points evaluated in the
algorithm. In our experience this is a parameter that
should be selected by the user due to the velocity of
the complete computation depends directly from this
parameter. Thus, if a quick idea of the root-locus is
required, the user can select a small number of points.
Once that a desirable region of the plane s is swept
by testing the phase condition (1) and the roots of the
characteristic equation has been detected, the next step is
to obtain the gain k associated to each root. In order to
compute the gain k the magnitude condition is used,
 
 kN (s)  the other hand, the authors propose as a future work the
 
 D(s)  = 1 (3)
In the case of the FOPTD system previously analysed,
 
s + a Although Learning Styles Models have been broadly studied,
 
k= (4)
b  s=σ+jω
3. RESULTS
Example 1. Consider an unstable FOPTD system given
by,
Y (s) 1 −0.1s
= e . (5)
U (s) s−1
Thus, the developed computational method should find
the values satisfying the phase condition (1). Figure 1
shows the plot of the points satisfying that condition and
therefore it is concluded that these points are root-locus.
Now, the value of the proportional gains is required in
order to interpret the closed-loop stability.
In this way, by applying the magnitude condition (3), the
values of proportional gains k associated to each point
found were obtained. In Figure 2, the root locus diagram
with intervals of values k is shown. This intervals allows to
have an idea of the performance of pole in close-loop for
variation of the parameter k, and also allows to obtain the
stabilizing gains of proportional controller, k. Note that
roots with red color belong to the interval 0 < k < 10, and
the roots color yellow belong to the interval 10 < k < 20.
With a careful analysis of the root-locus diagram shown
in Figure 2, the stabilizing interval is 1 < k < 15
100
Proportional gain to FOPTD
150
100
50
Imaginary axis (ω)
-50
-100
-150
10 15 20 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
Real axis (σ)
Fig. 2. Root-locus diagram with explicit values of propor-
tional gain, k.
4. CONCLUSION
In this work it is illustrated the computational issues that
should be taken into account in order to perform a root-
locus diagram for delayed systems. The simplest cases
FOPTD and SOPTD systems are considered. This com-
putational method plots a root-locus diagram of FOPTD
and SOPTD systems to can analyze them. In the compu-
tational program, the values a, b and τ could be changed to
obtain the root-locus diagram of FOPTD and SOPTD. On
generalization of the computational method for delayed
systems with any number of poles and zeros. The main
objective of this developments is to design an interface
to obtain root-locus of delayed systems as a future work.
In the present manuscript the essential ideas has been
stated as well as the possible future problems when the
generalization is considered.
REFERENCES
Gouaisbaut, F. and Peaucelle, D. (2006). Stability of time
delay systems with non-small delay. In Proccedings of
the 45th IEEE Conf. on Decision and control, 840–845.
San Diego, CA, USA.
Munz, U., Ebenbauer, C., Haag, T., and Allgwer, F.
(2009). Stability analysis of time-delay systems with in-
commensurate delays using positive polynomials. IEEE
Transactions on Automatic Control, 54(5), 1019–1024.
Suh, I.H. and Bien, Z. (1982). A root-locus technique
for linear systems with delay. IEEE Transactions on
Automatic Control, 27-1, 205–208.
Wang, Z. and Hu, H. (2008). Calculation if the rightmost
characteristic root od retarded time-delay systems via
lambert w function. Journal of Sound and Vibration,
318, 757–767.
18vo | congreso latinoamericano de control automático
0<k<10
10<k<20
20<k<30
30<k<40
40<k<50
50<k<60 Modelling of Learning Styles in Relation to University- level Lectures: Extended
Abstract
60<k<70
70<k<80
80<k<90
90<k<100
Ruth Cueva*. Diego Salazar.*
Gabriel Grijalva*

*Escuela Politécnica Nacional (e-mail: ruth.cueva, diego.salazar, gabriel.grijalva@epn.edu.ec).
10 15
Abstract: Throughout this paper we seek to demonstrate a methodology of approximation of a model
related to the relationship between different learning styles and the results obtained in a specific University-
level lecture. The process consisted of the voluntary participation of over six hundred students from Escuela
Politécnica Nacional of Ecuador (EPN). The Index of Learning Styles model was used to establish the
various learning styles of the students studied. The analysis of this study´s results pursues the measurement
between the linear correlation and the correlation distribution.
Keywords: modelling, correlation matrix, engineering, ILS, learning styles, university class. 


The content of this document includes: the description of the
1. INTRODUCTION
methodology, results, and conclusions.
In order to understand how to improve our ability to learn it is
necessary to understand how the very process of learning
works. Learning Styles Models are tools designed to measure 2. METHODOLOGY
and better understand preferences and the mechanism of
The methodology describes the data acquisition and results
learning itself and how to take advantage of the variables.
analysis tools employed in this study. This section contains a
brief explanation of both.
there is unfortunately little to none information about a clear
method to classify and even create them. As a result of this a
2.1. Data acquisition
lot of different models exist without a clear differentiation
from one another. The ILS was selected as the Learning Styles model for this
The Index of Learning Styles (ILS) is a Learning Styles Model investigation. Therefore once the authorization to use it from
one of the creators was given, it was uploaded to the university
designed by Richard Felder and Linda Silverman in 1988
(Felder & Spurlin, 2005b). This model consists of four groups student administration system. The students were asked for
their option collaboration in the investigation through e-mail
of learning styles where students are assigned a score based on
exchanges. Students from all the different faculties and levels
the answers given on a questionnaire. Notwithstanding the fact
took part in the survey. Only the students that took the course
that this particular model takes into account certain personality
on Geometry at EPN were taken into account for this analysis.
traits, it is mostly considered a part of the “flexibly stable
learning preference” family (Cueva, Calderón, Salazar &
Grijalva, 2018). Another model from the same family is 2.2. Database preparation and analysis.
Allinson and Hayes’s model (Hayes & Allinson, 1997).
This study was formulated by comparing the results obtained
The information used for this investigation is based upon the with the ILS questionnaire and the grades obtained in the
results obtained by the students at levelling courses from geometry course taught at the university.
“Escuela Politécnica Nacional” (EPN) in Ecuador, which The results of the ILS measures eight learning styles separately
focused on the results obtained in Geometry tests and the ILS and compares the scores of the learning styles from the same
questionnaire. This paper sets to identify the correlation, if group. This analysis will consider the individual score in each
any, between the Learning Styles of the students and their learning style instead of the general score obtained in each
scores. Taking into account that each teacher uses different group. Every learning style score and the Geometry class score
methodologies and teaching styles, it is expected to find that are over forty points.
the results have a low correlation or no correlation at all. A model to determine the probability of approval using the
Nonetheless, if we were to find any significant correlation, first grade was used to increase the amount of data used for the
some students would have a clear advantage studying for a analysis. However, the real results and the predictions were
given subject based on their own Learning Styles. analysed separately to avoid mixing the results.
101
 educación en ingeniería
Fig. 1 Linear correlations matrix
3. RESULTS
This section presents some of the results obtained by
summarizing them in a correlation matrix, some charts and
graphs.
3.1. Model: Pearson Correlation
The first method was the Pearson correlation. Which gives two
values as result of the analysis: the strength of the correlation
and the significance (p-Value) of the correlation. If the
correlation has no significance, then the strength of the
correlation is meaningless. This results shows that the p-Value
is too high in every correlation, therefore it is not possible to
establish that the correlation is significant.
3.2. Model: Correlation matrix
The next step to analyse if there is any correlation was the
comparison between two different methods. The matrix from
Fig. 1 shows the results obtained. The matrix is the result of
the comparison of the Pearson and Spearman linear
correlations, using a statistical confidence of 95%.
The matrix uses the first three letters of each learning style, for
example ACT, which stands for active. The field that contain
GEO1 and GEO2 refer to the geometry grades, where GEO1
considers the actual grades from the previous semesters and
GEO2 the approximation for the current semester. The
“correlation value” establishes the correlation strength and its
direction. On the other hand “Sig. (bilateral)” is used to obtain
the correlation significance.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The analysis of correlations between the scores obtained by the
students and their learning styles normally reflect the
independence between this two. However, since this analysis
focused on a specific subject there was the possibility that the
results might reveal some hidden relationship between
Geometry and one or more of the learning styles.
The results that were obtained only with the Pearson
Correlation established that none of the correlations where
significant. Nevertheless, even if they were significant their
strength is considerably low. Either way there is no correlation
102
between any of the learning preferences and their performance
in Geometry.
The correlation matrix considered more information,
producing interesting results. Unfortunately the results are still
not considerable as relevant. The correlations with the
Sensorial and Intuitive styles obtained the highest strength,
therefore it would be interesting to extend this investigation by
focusing between this types of learning styles. If they were
found to be significant that would lead to some interesting
research regarding the causation of this phenomena.
In agreement with the previous research about this topic, the
results obtained were not enough to determine if there is a
direct relation between the learning styles and the performance
of the students. Even if any of the correlation was
significant/strong enough would not imply that the subject
itself is easier some students with certain characteristics in
their learning process. This kind of result could also be
explained by the generalization of certain teaching style. We
consider it necessary that this kind of investigation is carried
out on different institutions, in order to compare the results and
maybe even discover if a certain subject does benefit from a
specific set of learning styles.
REFERENCES
Cueva, R., Calderón, J., Salazar , D., & Grijalva , G. (2018).
Learning Style Analysis of Engineering and
Technology Freshmen. Integrated STEM Education
Conference (ISEC), 2018 IEEE, 181-188.
Felder, R., & Linda, S. (1988). Learning and Teaching Styles.
Engr. Education, 78(7), 674-681.
Felder, R., & Rebecca, B. (2005a). Understanding Student
Differences. Journal of Engineering Education,
94(1), 57-72.
Felder, R., & Spurlin, J. (2005b). Applications, Reliability
and Validity of the Index of Learning Styles.
International journal of engineering education,
21(1), 103-112.
Hayes, J., & Allinson, C. (1997). Learning styles and training
and development in work settings: Lessons from
educational research. Educational Psychology, 17(1-
2), 185-193.
Litzinger, T., Ha, S., Wise, J. C., & Felder, R. (2007). A
psychometric Study of the Index of Learning Styles.
Jornal of Engineering Education, 96(4), 309-319.
Sánchez, T., Sandoval , I., Salazar, D., & Sánchez , X.
(2018). Mathematical model to estimate the
probability to approve given the first grade at the
Escuela Politécnica Nacional. 16th LACCEI
International Multi-Conference for Engineering,
Education and Technology: "Innovation in
Education and Inclusion", 19-21.