ENGINEERING

SYSTEM
OYNAMICS
 CONTROL ENGINEERING
.4 Series of Reference Booksand Textbooks

Editor
NEIL MUNRO,PH.D., D.Sc.
Professor
AppliedControl Engineering
University of ManchesterInstitute of Scienceand Technology
Manchester, United Kingdom

1. NonlinearControl of Electric Machinery,Darren M. Dawson,Jun Hu, and

Timothy C. Burg
2. ComputationalIntelligence in Control Engineering,RobertE. King
3. Quantitative FeedbackTheory: Fundamentalsand Applications, Con-
stantine H. Houpisand StevenJ. Rasmussen
4. Self-LearningControl of Finite MarkovChains,A. S. Poznyak,K. Najim,
and E. G6mez-Ramirez
5. RobustControl and Filtering for Time-DelaySystems,MagdiS. Mahmoud
6. Classical FeedbackControl: With MATLAB, Boris J. Lurie and Paul J.
Enright
7. OptimalControl of Singularly PerturbedLinear Systemsand Applications:
High-AccuracyTechniques,Zoran Gajid and Myo-TaegLim
8. Engineering SystemDynamics: A Unified Graph-CenteredApproach,
Forbes T. Brown

Additional Volumesin Preparation

AdvancedProcessIdentification and Control, Ensolkonen and Kaddour

Najim

Modem
Control Engineering, P. N. Paraskevopoulos

Sliding ModeControl in Engineering,Wilfrid Perruquetti and JeanPierre

Barbot
 ENGINEERING
SYSTEM
OYNAMICS
A Unified Graph-CenteredApproach

Forbes T. Brown
Lehigh University
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania

MARCELDEKKER, INC. NEWYORK¯ BASEL

DECKER
ISBN: 0-8247-0616-1

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This book is dedicated to
Henry M. Paynter
Marjorie H. Brown
who in their distinct ways
madeit possible.
Series Introduction
Manytextbooks have been written on control engineering, describing new
techniques for controlling systems, or new and better ways of mathemati-
cally formulating existing methods to solve the ever-increasing complex
problems faced by practicing engineers. However, few of these books fully
address the applications aspects of control engineering. It is the intention of
this newseries to redress this situation.
The series will stress applications issues, and not just the mathematics
of control engineering. It will provide texts that present not only both new
and well-established techniques, but also detailed examplesof the applica-
tion of these methods to the solution of real-world problems. The authors
will be drawn from both the academic world and the relevant applications
sectors.
There are already manyexciting examples of the application of control
techniques in the established fields of electrical, mechanical(including aero-
space), and chemical engineering. Wehave only to look around in today’s
highly automated society to see the use of advanced robotics techniques in
the manufacturing industries; the use of automated control and navigation
systems in air and surface transport systems; the increasing use of intelh-
gent control systems in the manyartifacts available to the domestic con-
sumer market; and the reliable supply of water, gas, and electrical power to
the domestic consumer and to industry. However, there are currently many
challenging problems that could benefit from wider exposure to the applica-
bility of control methodologies, and the systematic systems-oriented basis
inherent in the application of control techniques.
This series presents books that draw on expertise from both the aca-
demic world and the applications domains, and will be useful not only as
academically recommendedcourse texts but also as handbooks for practitio-
ners in many apphcations domains. Engineering System Dynamics is an-
other outstanding entry to Dekker’s Control Engineering series.

Nell Munro
Preface
Chapters 1 - 6 of this textbook/reference constitute a basic course in system
dynamicsprimarily for juniors in mechanicalengineering and allied fields. It
can be read at more than one level, and includes problemsof varying sophisti-
cation, so it also workswell for graduate students whohave not been exposedto
its unifying methodology.By avoiding someof the topics relating to nonlinear
systems, material from Chapter 7 or 8 or AppendixB maybe added to empha-
size comprehensivelinear methods, automatic control, or classical vibrations.
A senior-level course emphasizinglinear methodscan be centered on Chapters
7, 8 and 11, and a senior-level course emphasizing modelingcan be contered
on Chapters 9, 10 and 12, where nonlinear systems predominate. These lat-
ter chapters work even better with graduate students. Details are given in the
section entitled To The Instructor that follows thi~ Preface. Aninstructor’s
manualgives further suggestions, as well as solutions to the problems.
Modelingis the inherently pivotal and difficult element in the process of
analyzing real physical systems. Therefore, the text is organized around the
behavior of physical systems rather than around linear mathematics. It starts
with graphical descriptions of the steady-state characteristics of engineeringde-
vices and the concepts of stable and unstable equilibrium. Nonlinearity is not
avoided in modelingor simulation, since it impedes only hand analysis. The
modelingof mechanical,electrical, and fluid systems is treated simultaneously,
in order to develop a sense of analogy. Emphasisis placed on real engineer-
ing componentsand hybrid systems. This is made possible through the use of
the bond graph language. The traditional modelinglanguages of linear math-
ematics, linear block diagrams, and medium-specificdiagrams such as circuit
diagrams, free-body diagrams and fluid-power diagrams also are used, when
appropriate. Linear methodsare developedfully despite their subservient role.
The powerof bond graphs is widely appreciated, but they have been taught
more to graduate students than undergraduates, missing the majority of poten-
tial users. The author set out explicitly to develop a textbook appropriate for
undergraduates. Throughthe crucible of several years of trial and error, includ-
ing manypreliminary editions, he gradually discovered the special impediments
encountered by undergraduates, and howto address these di~culties. Students
learn the bond graph language easily enough, but the modeling concepts that
the language so concisely express are new to most undergraduates, and need
to be developed gradually and carefully. These concepts exist independent of
language, and are essential to an ability to modela range of physical systems
without over-particularization. Textbooksthat do not employbond graphs tend
to address modelingin a relatively superficial or ad hoc manner. Viewedthis
way, the use of bond graphs is the simplest wayto achieve competencein the
modelingof systems based on power, energy and forces.
Most topics are introduced through case studies. Exampleproblemshelp get
the student started, and the "guided problem" is designed to encourage vital
active learning. A problemis posed, and its relevance to the student’s learning

vii
viii PREFACE

noted. A list of suggested steps or hints are then given. A solution is given a
fewpages later.
MATLAB is employedextensively. Nonlinear models are treated with stan-
dard numerical integrators. Linear modelsare treated with standard operator-
based routines. It is important that students understand what these routines
mean, but it is no longer critical that they becomehighly proficient in hand
analysis and calculations.
The advent of the information age has impacted the cognitive processes of
young people in both positive and negative ways. Certain social and commu-
nicative skills have been enhanced.On the other hand, critical thinking likely
has declined, including its logical, visual and kinesthetic components.A de-
crease in the time children are given for self-directed creative play contributes
to this phenomenon.Faced with a problem, students today are apt to ask where
they can find a solution, not howthey can solve it themselves. Theyoften view
the sample problem, rather than fundamental concepts, as the repository of
knowledge. The change is partly justified by moderncommunicationnetworks,
but it hinders the learning of basic modelingand analysis skills.
The remedyincludes better integration of the engineering curriculum. In-
dustry had taken a back seat to governmentin shaping engineeering depart-
ments, particularly because of Cold Warfunding. An increasing specialization
resulted, including teaching assignments and the developmentof a new tradi-
tional style that could be called "prescription learning." A. rebellion emerged
in the 1980s, in the form of an insistence on the primacy of "design." More
recently, most remainingcourses at major universities in the relatively special-
ized area of mechanical vibrations have been replaced by more general courses
in system dynamics,often with an introduction of control. It is ironic that the
resulting plethora of textbooks in systemdynamics,while nominallyintegrative,
itself tends to employthe prescription learning that is antithetical to integrative
learning. This text is intended to be moreintegrative, both in its subject and
in its cognitivestyle.
This booknever wouldhave been written had I not had the privilege of con-
tact with HenryPaynter, the creator of bondgraphs, largely from the late 1950s
and through 1970. It also benefited from contributions by myson, Gordon,Pro-
fessor KennethSawyers, Professor RamChandranat Kettering University, espe-
cially Professor Timothy Cameronwho is presently at Virginia Commonwealth
University, and most especially myLehigh colleague and co-teacher Professor
No DukePerreira.
Forbes T. Brown
¯ .. well-connected representations let you turn ideas aroundin your mind,
envision things ~rommanyperspectives ¯ .. that is what we meanby thinking.
Marvin Minsky
¯ .. there is somethingessential in humanunderstandingthat is not possible
to simulate by any computational means.
Roger Penrose
To the Instructor

The structure of the first part of the book favors a basic course in modeling
and simulation, with more emphasison nonlinear systems than is conventional.
By reducing this emphasis, you can fashion an alternative course that empha-
sizes comprehensivelinear methods, an introduction to automatic control, or
linear classical vibrations. Suggeste
d sequencesof sections are given in the dia-
grambelow; the detailed comments that follow identify certain further possible
variations.

Suggestedsequencesof chapters and sections for first

undergraduatecourses, four different emphases

3.6-3.7’

4’ 4.1-4.3
5 5.1(skip5.1.4),5.2.1-5.2.3,5.3,5.4.1-5.4.6
6.1-6.2.5 6.1-6.2.5
6.2.6-6.2.8~ optional )6.2.6-6.2.8
topics
6.3 6.3

optional
8 ~ topics
modelingand linear automatic classical
simulation methods control vibrations

Modelingultimately is a nondeterministic process, and consequently this

text is not written in the minimalistic style of elementary textbooks in engi:
neering science. Rather, someengineering color or practical asides are.inserted

ix
x TO THE INSTRUCTOR

from time-to-time. The objective is two-fold: to conveyinteresting practical

information, and to developthe students’ critical ability to distinguish core es-
sentials from peripheral details. The students need to understand at least in
general terms what is expected of them, however, so you maywish to discuss
this issue with them at an appropriate time. The learning objectives should
depend on the maturity and level of the students, and you have considerable
latitude in the sophistication of the problemsyou choose to assign as homework
or discuss in class.
The first six chapters represent about three credit hours of workfor a typical
undergraduate. The remaining six chapters represent about five semester hours
more, assumingfew topics are skipped. The later chapters have less redundancy
than the earlier chapters. Graduate students typically not only can skip some
of the more routine mathematical sections, but.can proceed at a faster pace,
covering the entire unfamiliar material in about five semester hours. There are
manyoptional topics that can be deleted to form coherent courses with fewer
credits, depending on the objectives and the mathematical preparation of the
students. The author believes it is important to have all the topics under one
cover, however,to provide flexibility in course design and continuity between
successive courses, to allow the workingengineer to extend his/her capabilities,
and to demonstrate that the basic approach extends to sophisticated modeling
and analysis, unlike someother methodologies.
Chapter 1 introduces beginning students to system modelingand analysis,
discusses contrasting learning styles and addresses the treatment of dimensions
and units. Advancedstudents could skip someor all of this chapter.
Chapters 2-3 represent a first pass at modelingand analysis, with about 1
credit hour of content for the beginning undergraduate. Chapters 4-6 continue
with a second pass, significantly extending the domainof the modelsby allow-
ing greater structural complexity for the same energy types. Chapter 2 starts
by developing the seminal idea of steady-state source-load synthesis, which is
strangely missing from manyengineering curriculums. This focuses attention
on the constitutive characteristic, which is represented graphically more than
analytically in order to develop the student’s basic grasp of its meaning.The
chapter proceeds to develop the special cases of static couplers known(in bond-
graph language) as transformers and gyrators, and applies these, particularly,
to maximizethe power transmitted from a source to its load. Although there
is little dynamicsin the development, the student begins to address dynamics
qualitatively, including the determinationof stability for certain cases..
The first three sections of Chapter 3 completethe introduction of the fun-
damental modelingelements: the compliance, the inertance and the junction.
Examplesare limited to models with a single junction, because this element
requires the student to identify variables and the constraints between them,
whichlies at the heart of the modelingprocess and most challenges the student.
The .chapter proceeds to deduceand solve the linear differential equations for
these models. Sections 3.6 and 3.7 introduce nonlinear elements and the use of
numerical simulation particularly for nonlinear models. These sections maybe
skipped if other matters are assigned a higher priority.
TO THE INSTRUCTOR xi

The heart of the basic modelinginstruction lies in Sections 4.1 and 4.2. Here,
as elsewhere, you can adjust the level of sophistication through your selection
of classroom examples and homeworkproblems. Someof Section 4.3 on model
equivalences and all of Section 4.4 on equilibrium can be skipped if little em-
phasis is intended on nonlinear models. Sections markedwith an asterisk in the
table of contents and the text in this and other chapters are optional, even if
nonlinear modelsare a priority.
Modelsare converted to differential equations in Sections 5.1 and 5.2. The
treatment of under-causal modelsthrough the use of virtual compliancesor in-
ertances is unique to this book, and seems to be readily applied by students.
Youmayskip Sections 5.2.4-5.2.6 if difficult nonlinear modelshave lowpriority.
The introduction of operator methodsin Section 5.3 assumes no prior knowl-
edge. The discussion of linearization in Sections 5.4.1-5.4.6 probably should be
included in any course, but the subsequent subsections are optional.
The classical solution of linear differential equations in Section 6.1 assumes
no formal training. The use of the phasor methodfor frequency response in
Section 6.2 is similar to that given in almost any course in automatic con-
trol, including the use of Bode plots. If you emphasize the use of MATLAB
rather than hand calculations, and place a low priority on the inverse problem
of systemidentification through frequencyresponse, you could skip subsections
6.2.6-6.2.8, saving considerable time.
There is considerable latitude in whether, or when, to introduce Laplace
transforms formally. As ordered in the text, the formal study of Laplace trans-
forms is deferred until after their mathematicalbases in Fourier transforms and
in convolution are established. The earlier use of the operator (Heaviside) no-
tation allows transfer function expansion to be given in Section 6.3, so that
problemswith zero initial conditions can be treated, including full use of the
Laplace transform tables. Chapter 8 on automatic control is accessible on this
basis. Should you nevertheless wish to introduce Laplace transforms early and
explicitly, particularly so that initial-value problemscan be treated, you may
insert Section 7.2 (less subsections 7.1.1 and 7.1.2) right after Section 6.1; the
details of the partial fraction expansioncan be introduced as needed.
A full presentation of linear methodsshould include Section 6.4 on convo-
lution, but the topic is otherwise optional. The Fourier story in Section.7.1 is
important should you wish to focus on vibration, but otherwise is also optional.
Section 7.3 is a rather classic exposition of matrix methodsin the study of lin-
ear models. Section 7.4 is a modernexposition on the use of the loop rule to
expedite the determination of transfer functions for linear modelsrepresented
by bond graphs. The material also is part of the basis of somemodernbond-
graph software. As indicated by the asterisks, however,Sections 7.3 and 7.4 are
optional for most courses of study.
At least one-half of a first coursedevotedexclusivelyto control, not including
modeling, is accommodated by the text. This includes material in Chapters 5
and 6 as well as Chapter8. A briefer treatment can end after the first or second
of the three sections in Chapter8, and still represent a balancedcoverageof the
subject.
xii TO THE INSTRUCTOR

Chapters 9 and 10 return to the subject of modeling, greatly extending the

domainof applicability. These chapters can be studied independently of Chap-
ters 7 and 8. Chapter 9 focuses on modelswith variable couplers, such as modu-
lated transformers and gyrators, activated bonds, nonconservativecouplers and
irreversible couplers. The irreversible coupler introduces thermal systems with
heat conduction, and connections to other energy media. Section 10.1 elabo-
rates on the meaning and methodology of lumping. The balance of Chapter
10 focuses on coupled complianceand inertance fields, treating a variety of en-
ergy transducers and providing a unique insight into the distinction between
holonomic and nonholonomicconstraints.
Chapter 11 introduces the seminal idea of distributed-parameter modelsand
analysis, with restriction to one-dimensionalmodelsand linear media. Sections
7.1 and 7.2 are appropriate prerequisites. Emphasisis placed on wave-like be-
havior and on boundary-value problems. Someof the boundary conditions are
nonlinear. Models are categorized according to the numberof distinct pow-
ers propagated, and organized in such a fashion as to minimizecomputational
effort.
Chapter 12 addresses the modeling and analysis of thermodynamicsystems,
particularly with a flowing compressiblepure substance. The material in Chap-
ters 7, 8 and 11 is not prerequisite. It is natural to adapt bQndgraphs to
thermodynamicsystems, since the graphs deal inherently with energy flux and
can be extended to deal with the distinctions described by entropy. Muchof
the material has not been published elsewhere, and maybe of special interest
to those whoare already expert at traditional bond-graph methods. Practical
codes are developed for the simulation of unsteady or nonequilibrium models,
including multiphase flows, without any need for iteration in most cases. Accu-
rate analytical modelsare used for the properties of selected gasses and liquids.
Codesfor evaluating the properties are given in AppendixD and, together with
the simulation codes given in the chapter, can be downloadedfrpm the Lehigh
University website. Chemicalkinetics is introduced in the last section of the
chapter, employinga further extension of bond graphs.
Appendix A is a primer on MATLAB, which together with the "help" win-
dowshould suffice for the tasks given in the book. Youcan assign this material
early in the first course, or as needed.
AppendixB places special emphasison the particular advantages of the clas-
sical vibrations approach, whichis based on second-orderdifferential equations
rather than the first-order or state-space e}tuations used in the rest of the text.
The second-order approachis particularly useful in the treatment of high-order
models without damping, or in’ which dampingis small enough to treat in an
approximatemanner.~ A course that emphsizes mechanical vibrations also ought
to makespecial use of manyof the vibrations examplesand problems scattered
throughout Chapters 2-6. The material in Chapter 11 on distributed-parameter
modelsalso is highly relevant to mechanicalvibrations.
Forbes T. Brown
Contents

Table of Bond Graph Elements .............................. inside front cover

Series Introduction by Neil Munro........................................... v

Preface .................................................................... vii

To the Instructor .......................................................... ix

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................... 1

Example; Modeling and Engineering Science; Modeling Languages;
Modeling for Control; A Word to the Wise About Learning; Treat-
ment of Dimensions; Treatment of Units; References

Chapter 2 SOURCE-LOADSYNTHESIS ............................ 17

2.1 System Reticulation .............................................. 18
2.1.1 Case Study: Induction Motor as a Source; 2.1.2 Case Study:
Water Sprinkler System as a Load; 2.1.3 The Source-Load Synthe-
sis; Case Study; 2.1.4 Summary
2.2 Generalized Forces and Velocities ............................... 30
2.2.1 Efforts and Flows; 2.2.2 Electric Conductors; 2.2.3 Longitu-
dinal Mechanical Motion; 2.2.4 Incompressible Fluid Flow; 2.2.5
Rotational Motion; 2.2.6 Lateral Mechanical Motion; 2.2.7 Mi-
crobonds; 2.2.8 Analogies; 2.2.9 Summary
2.3 Generalized Sources~ Sinks and Resistances. : ................. 40
2.3.1 Independent-Effort and Independent-Flow Sources and Sinks;
2.3.2 General Sources and Sinks; 2.3.3 Linear Resistances; 2.3.4
Nonlinear Resistances; 2.3.5 Source-Load Synthesis; 2.3.6 Power
Considerations; 2.3.7 Summary
2.4 Ideal Machines: Transformers and Gyrators .................. 57
2.4.1 Ideal Machines; 2.4.2 Transformers; 2.4.3 Gyrators; 2.4.4 Me-
chanical Devices Modeled as Transformers; 2.4.5 Electric Trans-
formers; 2.4.6 Transducers Modeled as Transformers; 2.4.7 Me-
chanical Devices Modeled as Gyrators; 2.4.8 Transducers Modeled
as Gyrators; 2.4.9 Summary

xiii
xiv CONTENTS

2.5 Systems with Transformers and Gyrators ...................... 72

2.5.1 CascadedTransformers; 2.5.2 CascadedGyrators; 2.5.3 Case
Study of a TransformerConnectinga Source to a Load; 2.5.4 Sec-
ond Case Study of a Transformer Connecting a Source to a Load;
2.5.5 Case Study of a Gyrator Connectinga Sourceto a Load; 2.5.6
Transmission Matrices*; 2.5.7 Summary

Chapter 3 SIMPLEDYNAMIC MODELS ........................... 91

3.1 Compliance Energy Storage ..................................... 92
3.1.1 Linear Springs and Energy; 3.1.2 The Generalized Linear
Compliance;3.1.3 Electric Circuit Compliance;3.1.4 Linear Fluid
Compliance Due to Gravity; 3.1.5 Fluid Compliance Due to Com-
pressibility; 3.1.6 Summary
3.2 Inertance Energy Storage ....................................... 102
3.2.1 Mass, Momentum and Kinetic Energy; 3.2.2 The Generalized
Linear Inertance; 3.2.3 Common Engineering Elements Modeledby
Constant Inertances; 3.2.4 Tetrahedron of State; 3.2.5 Summary
3.3 Junctions ......................................................... 110
3.3.1 Junction Types; 3.3.2 Mechanical Constraints Modeled by
1-Junctions; 3.3.3 Electrical Circuit Constraints Modeledby 1-
Junctions; 3.3.4 Fluid Circuit Constraints Modeledby 1-junctions;
3.3.5 MechanicalConstraints Modeledby 0-Junctions; 3.3.6 Elec-
tric and Fluid Circuit Constraints Modeledby 0-Junctions; 3.3.7
Simple IRC Models; 3.3.8 Summary
3.4 Causality and Differential Equations .......................... 134
3.4.1 Causalities of Effort and Flow Sources; 3.4.2 Junctions With
Elements Having UncoupledBehavior; 3.4.3 Junctions with Ele-
ments Having CoupledBehavior; 3.4.4 Writing Diffferential Equa-
tions; 3.4.5 Summary
3.5 Solutions of Linear Differential Equations ..................... 145
3.5.1 The First-Order Differential Equation; 3.5.2 Responsesto
MoreComplexExcitations Using Superposition; 3.5.3 The Second=
Order Differential Equations; 3.5.4 Solution of the Second-Order
Differential Equations; 3.5.5 Summary
3.6 Nonlinear Compliances and Inertances ........................ 162
3.6.1 Nonlinear Compliances; 3.6.2 Nonlinear Fluid Compliance
Dueto Gravity; 3.6.3 Nonlinear Compressibility Compliance;3.6.4
Junctions with Multiple BondedCompliances; 3.6.5 Nonlinear In-
ertances; 3.6.6 Kinetic and Potential Energies; 3.6.7 Summary
3.7 Numerical Simulation ........................................... 174
3.7.1 State-Variable Differential Equations; 3.7.2 Simulation with
MATLAB; 3.7.3 Integration Algorithms; 3.7.4 Second-Order
Runge-Kutta; 3.7.5 Fourth-Order Runge-Kutta; 3.7.6 Summary

*- optional topic (see ToTheInstructor)

CONTENTS xv

Chapter 4 INTERMEDIATE
MODELING
......................... 191
4.1 Simple Circuits .................................................. 191
4.1.1 SimpleElectric Circuits; 4.1.2 Fluid Circuits; 4.1.3 Mechani-
cal Circuits; 4.1.4 Summary
4.2 System Models with Ideal Machines ........................... 205
4.2.1 Electric Circuits; 4.2.2 Fluid/MechanicalCircuits with Posi-
tive DisplacementMachines;4.2.3 Losses in Positive Displacement
Machines*; 4.2.4 Losses with DCMotor/Generators*; 4.2.5 Case
Study with Source and Load*; 4.2.6 Twoand Three-Dimensional
Geometric Constraints; 4.2.7 Case Study: Pulley System; 4.2.8
Modeling Guidelines; 4.2.9 Tutorial Case Study; 4.2.10 Common
Misconceptions; 4.2.11 Summary
4.3 ModelEquivalences ............................................. 242
4.3.1 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Sources and Loads; 4.3.2
Passivity with Respect to a Point on a Characteristic*; 4.3.3 Trun-
cation of Transformers and Gyrators Bondedto R, C, or I Ele-
ments; 4.3.4 Reduction of Two-Pair Meshes; 4.3.5 Transmission
Matrix Reduction of Steady-State Models; 4.3.6 Summary
4.4 Equilibrium ....... ............................................... 258
4.4.1 Reductionof Steady-State Modelswith a Single Source; Case
Study; 4.4.2 Alternative Approaches to Reducing Steady-State
Models; 4.4.3 Removalof Elements for Equilibrium; 4.4.4 Case
Study with a Steady-Velocity Equilibrium; 4.4.5 Case Study with
Stable and Unstable Static Equilibria; 4.4.6 Case Study with Limit-
CycleBehavior; 4.4.7 NecessaryConditionfor Instability or Limit-
Cycle Oscillation*; 4.4.8 Summary

Chapter 5 MATHEMATICAL
FORMULATION
.................. 281
5.1 Causality and Differential Equations .......................... 281
5.1.1 ApplyingCausal Strokes; 5.1.2 Differential Equations for
Causal Models; 5.1.3 Case Study: A Linear Circuit; 5.1.4 Case
Study: Nonlinear Stick-Slip; 5.1.5 Case Study with Transformers
and Gyrators; 5.1.6 ModelsReducible to Causal Form; Order of a
Model; 5.1.7 Summary
5.2 Over-Causal and Under-Causal Models ....................... 309
5.2.1 Treatment of Over-Causal Models; Case Study; 5.2.2 Equa-
tions for Under-CausalModels; 5.2.3 Algebraic Reduction Method;
Case Study; 5.2.4 Differentiation Method; Case Study*; 5.2.5
Method of Non:Zero Virtual Energy-Storages; Case Study Con-
tinued*; 5.2.6 CommercialSoftware for DAE’s;5.2.7 Case Study
With Meshes*; 5.2.8 Summary
xvi CONTENTS

5.3 Linear Modelsand Simulation .................................. 341

5.3.1 Superposition and Linearity; 5.3.2 Linearity and Differen-
tial EqUations;5.3.3 Operator Notation; 5.3.4 Transformationfrom
State-Space to Scalar Form; 5.3.5 Transformation FromScalar to
State-Space Form*; 5.3.6 Transformations Using MATLAB; 5.3.7
Simulation of Linear Models Using MATLAB*; 5.3.8 Summary
5.4 Linearization ..................................................... 358
5.4.1 Case Study with Linearization of a Resistance; 5.4.2 Lin-
earization of a Function of OneVariable; 5.4.3 Essential Nonlinear-
ities; 5.4.4 Linearization of a Functionof TwoVariables; 5.4.5 Lin-
earization of a First-Order Differential Equation; 5.4.6 Lineariza-
tion of State-Variable Differential Equations;5.4.7 Case Study with
Three Different Types of Equilibria; 5.4.8 Case Study: Stick-Slip
System with Inertia*; 5.4.9 Summary

Chapter 6 ANALYSIS OF LINEARMODELS,PART 1 ......... 389

6.1 Direct Solutions ’of Linear Differential Equations ............ 389
6.1.1 The Homogeneous Solution; 6.1.2 Singularity SystemInputs;
6.1.3 Exponential and S~nusoidal Inputs; 6.1.4 Power-LawInputs;
6.1.5 The Methodof UndeterminedCoefficients; 6.1.6 Application
of Initial Conditions; 6.1.7 Solutions to ImpulseInputs; 6.1.8 Dif-
ferentiation and Integration Properties; 6.1.9 Step and ImpulseRe-
sponses Using MATLAB; 6.1.10 Summary
6.2 Sinusoidal FrequencyResponse................................. 408
6.2.1 The Phasor Method;6.2.2 Bodeplots; 6.2.3 ModelsWithout
Damping;6.2.4 Models Comprising a Single Pole or Zero; 6.2.5
ModelsComprisinga Pair of ComplexPoles or Zeros; 6.2.6 Factor-
ization of Higher-OrderModels;6.2.7 ,Bode Plots for Highei-Order
Models; 6.2.8 The Pure Delay Operator*; 6.2.9 Summary.
6.3 Transfer Function Expansion................................... 459
6.3.1 Impulse Responses; 6.3.2 Step and Other Transient Re-
sponses; 6.3.3 Determinationof Partial Fraction Expansions;6.3.4
Summary
6.4 Convolution*..................................................... 470
6.4.1 Decomposing Signals into a Sumof Steps; 6.4.2 Discrete Con-
volution; 6.4.3 Discrete Convolution by MATLAB; 6.4.4 Convolu-
tion Integrals; 6.4.5 Summary

Chapter 7 ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS,PART 2 ......... 485

7.1 FourierAnalysis .................................................. 485
7.1.1 Fourier Series; 7.1.2 Responseof a LinearSystemto a Periodic
Excitation; 7.1.3 Fourier Transform;7.1.4 Digital Spectral Analy-
sis*; 7.1.5 Fourier Analysis Using MATLAB*; 7.1.6 Summary
CONTENTS xvii

7.2 The Laplace Transform .......... ’ ............................... 507

7.2.1 Development from the Fourier Transform*; 7.2.2 Development
from the Convolution Integral*; 7.2.3 Definition and Inverse; 7.2.4
The Derivative Relations; 7.2.5 Singularity Functions and Discon-
tinuities; 7.2.6 Other Key Relations; 7.2.7 Finding Laplace Trans-
forms of Output Variables; 7.2.8 Partial Fraction Expansions; 7.2.9
Initial and Final Value Theorems; 7.2.10 Summary
7.3 Matrix Representation of Dynamic Behavior* ...... : ......... 526
7.3.1 The Matrix Exponential; 7.3.2 Response to a Linearly Vary-
ing Excitation; 7.3.3 Eigenvalues, Eigenvectors and Modes; 7.3.4
Case Study: Three Fluid Tanks; 7.3.5 Case Study with Complex
Roots; 7.3.6 Modified Method for Complex Eigenvalues*; 7.3.7
Case Study: Vehicle Dynamics; 7.3.8 Application of MATLAB;
7.3.9 Response to Exponential and Frequency Excitations; 7.3.10
Representation in the s-Plane; 7.3.11 Summary
7.4 The Loop Rule* ................................................. 561
7.4.1 Signal Flow Graphs; 7.4.2 The Loop Rule for Signal Flow
Graphs; 7.4.3 Converting Bond Graphs to Signal Flow Graphs;
7.4.4 Direct Application of the Loop Rule to Bond Graphs Without
Meshes; 7.4.5 Bond Graphs with Meshes; 7.4.6 Determination of
State Differential Equations; 7.4.7 Summary

Chapter 8 INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL .... 583

8.1 Open and Closed-Loop Control ................................ 583
8.1.1 Example Plant; 8.1.2 0pen-Loop and Optimal Control; 8.113
Feedback Control; 8.1.4 Response to Disturbances; 8.1.5 Root Lo-
cus Basics; 8.1.6 Use of MATLAB;
8.1.7 Criteria for Stability; 8.1.8
Summary
8.2 Dynamic Compensation ......................................... 605
8.2.1 Proportional-Plus-Integral Control; 8.2.2 Proportional-Plus-
Derivative Control; 8.2.3 Proportional-Plus-Integral-Plus-Derivative
Control; 8.2.4 Phase Lead Controllers; 8.2.5 Phase Lag Controllers;
8.2.6 Phase Lead-Lag Controllers; 8.2.7 Digital Control Systems;
8.2.8 Summary
8.3 Frequency Response Methods .................................. 629
8.3.1 Polar or Nyquist Frequency Response Plots; 8.3.2 The
Nyquist Stability Criterion; 8.3.3 Measures of Relative Stability;
8.3.4 Nichols Charts; 8.3.5 Dynamic Compensation Using Nichols
Charts; 8.3.6 Approximate Correction for Digital Sampling; 8.3.7
Summary
xviii CONTENTS

Chapter. 9 MODELSWITH STATIC COUPLERS ................ 657

9.1 Modulated Transformers ........................................ 657
9.1.1 Remotely Modulated Transformers; 9.1.2 Locally Modulated
Transformers; 9.1.3 Increase in the Order of a Model Due to Modu-
lation; 9.1.4 Dependent Inertance with a Locally Modulated Trans-
former; 9.1.5 Inertance Dependent on Local Displacement; Case
Study; 9.1.6 Summary
9.2 Activated Bonds ................................................. 682
9.2.1 Definition and Application; 9.2.2 Causality; 9.2.3 Summary
9.3 Nonconservative Couplers ...................................... 697
9.3.1 Causal Relations; 9.3.2 Equilibrium; 9.3.3 Dimensional Anal-
ysis; 9.3.4 DynamicSimulation; 9.3.5 Linear Couplers; 9.3.6 Sum-
mary
9.4 Irreversible Couplers and Thermal Systems .................. 718
9.4.1 Effort and Flow Variables; 9.4.2 Heat Conduction; 9.4.3 The
Irreversibility Coupler; 9.4.4 Application to Diction; 9.4.5 Use of
0- and 1-Junctions; 9.4.6 Thermal Compliance; 9.4.7 Pseudo Bond
Graphs for Heat Conduction; 9.4.8 Summary

Chapter 10 ENERGYSTORAGEFIELDS ......................... 735

10.1 Field Lumping ....... i .......................................... 735
10.1.1 Scalar Fields; 10.1.2 Rigid-Body Vector Fields; 10.1.3 The
Role of Approximations; 10.1.4 Nodic Fields; 10.1.5 Planar Vector
Nodic Fields; 10.1.6 Estimating Upper and Lower Bounds for Field
Transmittances*; 10.1.7 Three-Dimensional Vector Nodic Fields;
10.1.8 End Corrections for the Inertance of Channels; 10.1.9 Mul-
tiport Vector Nodic Fields; 10.1.10 Summary
10.2 Discrete Compliance Fields ................................... 752
10.2.1 Generic Relationships; 10.2.2 Examples with Geometrically
Varied Capacitance; 10.2.3 Thermodynamic Coupling Between Me-
chanical and Thermal Energies; 10.2.4 Summary
10.3 Displacement Modulated Inertances ......................... 760
10.3.1 Inertances Dependent on Holonomic Constraints; 10.3.2 In-
ertances Dependent on Nonholonomic Constraints; 10.3.3 Sum-
mary
10.4 Linear Multiport Fields ........................................ 771
10.4.1 Mutual Inertances and Resistances: the Real Electrical
Transformer; 10.4.2 The Rigid Inertive Floating Link; 10.4.3 Multi-
Coil Transformer with Perfect Flux Linkage; 10.4.4 The Piezoelec-
tric Transducer; 10.4.5 The Thermoelastic Rod; 10.4.6 The Piezo-
magnetic (Magnetostrictive) Transducer; 10.4.7 Generalized Linear
Media; 10.4.8 Reticulation of General Multiport Fields; 10.4.9 Fur-
ther Equivalences; 10.4.10 Summary
CONTENTS ~x

Chapter 11 INTRODUCTION TO DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER

MODELS ............................................................... 795
11.1 Wave Models with Simple Boundary Conditions ................. 796
11.1.1 Comparison of Lumped and Distributed Models; 11.1.2 The
Pure Bilateral-Wave-Delay Model; 11.1.3 Analysis of the Pure
Bilateral-Wave-Delay Model; 11.1.4 Fixed and F~ee Boundary Con-
ditions; 11.1.5 Fourier Analysis with Fixed or F~ee Boundary Con-
ditions; 11.1.6 The Hodograph Plane; 11.6.7 Summary
11.2 One-Dimensional Models ...................................... 817

11.2.1 General Formulation; 11.2.2 One-Power Models; 11.2.3 Sym-

metric One-Power Models; 11.2.4 Multiple-Power Models; 11.2.5
Summary
11.3 WavePropagation .............................................. 825
11.3.1 Simplest Model: Pure Transport; 11.3.2 First Modification:
Thermal Leakage to a Constant-Temperature Environment; 11.3.3
Second Modification; Thermal Compliance in the Walls; 11.3.4 Dis-
persion and Absorption; 11.3.5 Group Velocity*; 11.3.6 Summary
11.4 One-Power Symmetric Models ................................ 837
11.4.1 WaveBehavior; 11.4.2 Energy Velocity in Conservative Me-
dia*; 11.4.3 Boundary-Value Problems; Transmission Matrices;
11.4.4 Exponentially Tapered Systems*; 11.4.5 Summary
11.5 Multiple-Power Models ......................................... 858
11.5.1 Symmetric and Anti-Symmetric Variables and Models;
11.5.2 Case Study of a Degenerate System: A Counter-flow
Heat Exchanger; 11.5.3 Case Study of a Symmetric Model: The
Bernoulli-Euler Beam; 11.5.4 Summary

Chapter 12 THERMODYNAMIC
SYSTEMS ....................... 867
12.1 The Convection Bond and Compressible Flow ............. 867
12.1.1 Flow Through a Port; 12.1.2 The Convection Bond; 12.1.3
The RS Element for Fluid Flow; 12.1.4 Summary
12.2 Heat Interaction and Junctions ............................... 876
12.2.1 The Reversible Heat Interaction Element; 12.2.2 The Gen-
eral Heat Interaction Element; 12.2.3 The HRS Macro Element;
12.2.4 The 0-Junction for Convection Bonds; 12.2.5 Merging
Streams: the 0S Junction; 12.2.6 The 1-junction and IS-Junction
with Convection; 12.2.7 Summary
12.3 Case Study with Quasi-Steady Flow ......................... 891
12.3.1 Bond Graph Model; 12.3.2 Irreversibilities; 12.3.3 Compu-
tation of Results
xx CONTENTS

12.4 ThermodynamicCompliance .................................. 897

12.4.1 Application of Simple ThermalCompliance;12.4.2 Causal-
ity; 12.4.3 General ThermodynamicCompliance; 12.4.4 The CS
Macro Element; 12.4.5 Computations for the Ideal Gas; 12.4.6
Case Study: A Piston-Cylinder Compressor; 12.4.7 Treatment of
a Quasi-Steady-State Fluid Machine; 12.4.8 Fluid Inertance with
Compressible Fluid Flow; 12.4.9 Pseudo Bond Graphs for Com-
pressible Thermofluid Systems; 12.4.10 Summary
12.5 Evaluation of ThermodynamicProperties ................... 919
12.5.1 The Most Commonly Available Analytical Form for State
Properties; 12.5.2 HelmholtzAnalytical Formfor State Properties;
12.5.3 Application to Gases; 12.5.4 Application to Refrigerants;
12.5.5 Application to Water; 12.5.6 Case Study: a Refrigeration
Cycle; 12.5.7 Application to the Liquid Region; 12.5.8 Considera-
tions of Reversing Flows; 12.5.9. Summary
12.6 Systems with Chemical Reaction* ............................ 943
12.6.1 Energy of a Pure Substance; 12.6.2 Energy of Multiple
Species; 12.6.3 Stoichoimetric Coefficients and Reaction Forces;
12.6.4 ChemicalEquilibrium; 12.6.5 Reaction Rates; 12.6.6 Mod-
els of Reactions Without Mass Flows; 12.6.7 Modelsof Reactions
With Mass Flows; 12.6.8 Summary

APPENDIX A INTRODUCTIONTO MATLAB.................. 953

Scalar Calculations; Variables; ComplexNumbers;Arrays and Ma-
trices; Evaluating and Plotting Functions; Fitting Curves to Data;
Control Flow Commands; Script Files; Data Files; Function Files;
CommunicationBetween Files
APPENDIXB CLASSICALVIBRATIONS........................ 965
B.1 Models With Two Degrees of Freedom ....................... 965
B.I.1 Normal ModeVibration; B.1.2.Forced HarmonicMotion
B.2 Higher-Order Models ........................................... 968
B.2.1 Modal Motions; B.2.2 The Initial Value Problem; B.2.3
Forced Response; B.2.4 Modal Damping; B.2.5 Example Using
MATLAB; B.2.6 Mode Reduction
APPENDIX C LAPLACETRANSFORM
PAIRS ................. 979
APPENDIX D THERMODYNAMIC DATA AND COMPUTER
CODE
........ . ......................................................... 983
D.1 Programs and Data for Air and Components; D.2 Programs
and Data for Refriferant R-12; D.3 Data for Refrigerant R-134A;
D.4 Data for Refrigerant R-22; D.5 Programs and Data for Water

Index .................................................................... 997

ENGINEERING
SYSTEM
DYNAMICS
Chapter 1

Introduction

This Chapter is directed primarily at undergraduates taking a first course in

system dynamics and related areas. It addresses three questions: Whyare you
taking this course? What style of study works best? Howcan you reliably treat
dimensions and units? Advanced students may proceed directly to Chapter 2.
Your job title is Project Engineeer, the quintessential assignment for a me-
chanical engineer or an engineer in an allied field such as aeronautics or agricul-
ture. Your responsibility is to shepherd a new product idea from the conception
stage to the production stage. It may be a component such as a pump or an
automotive strut, it may be a machine tool, or it may be an entire production
machine. You might have a small team under your direction, or you might work
alone, but in any case you have access to technicians, machinists and produc-
tion specialists. You are directed in turn by a managementthat has a limited
understanding of the technical possibilities, so you also play a role in choosing
the product ideas to pursue and the marketing strategy. Part of the success of
the company rests on your shoulders. Howdo you do your job?
You discover a need, or one is presented to you. Next, you interpret this
need in terms of specifications, that is a list of the specific functions the product
should exhibit, including quantitative performance objectives. Then, as a good
designer, you conceive possible solutions, preferably several of them. The design
process you are engaged in is summarized, albeit in a very cryptic fashion, in
Fig. 1.1. At this point it is unclear which of the solutions are feasible, if any,
and what values of their various parameters would be necessary or desirable.
If you follow the experimental option shown in the diagram, you construct
and test physical models of the proposed solutions. If instead you follow the
analytical option, you model the designs abstractly, and likely use a computer
to help determine the behavior. In either case, you display the results of the
experiment or the analysis in an intelligible manner, so that you can compare
them with the desired result, namely the original specifications. As designer,
you must then decide what to do next; surely the discrepancies between the
desired and the actual behavior require further iterative passes around the loop.
At some point you decide either that .the design has succeeded or failed, and
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

need ~1 problem I specification ~

-1 lbrmulation
] ~ conceptualization solution
]

experimental
option
t~s~ data reduction
collection, L I physical
l- I modeling

analytical
option
analysis and I~ I conceptual
L._
computation1- I modeling["-

Figure 1.1: The engineering design process

you go on to another design concept or another project.

A successful conclusion is rewarding to you and your company, even if it
is the abandonment of a poor idea that has been intriguing your boss. To
be successful it must not take too long to accomplish, however, even if it is
a revolutionary advance in its field; time costs money, and your competitors
are not standing still. You will spend more time constructing and executing
analytical or computer models of your designs than you will conceiving them.
Efficient design implies quick analysis. Howcan you carry out the analysis
process rapidly as well as effectively?
The answer is that you learn how to construct an abstract model of nearly
any system you may design, and how to predict performance with this ~nodel
far quicker and cheaper than you could get a working physical model built and
tested. Further, you should learn how to make the abstract model appropriately
simple. An unnecessarily complex model, even if constructed readily, produces
unnessesarily complex results, and can be expensive to execute computation-
ally. You should keep in mind the decision toward which the model is created.
Whenyou first go around the design loop, the intended decision likely is simple:
whether or not to pursue the particular concept further. A crude model would
be appropriate. Later, as a final design is approached, details of the system
becomeof interest, perhaps requiring a rather fancy model.
The purpose of this text is to empoweryou to analyze real engineering sys-
tems, whether they exist already or are in the conceptual stage. Emphasis
is placed on the process of modeling, that is, the construction of conceptual
abstractions with well-defined meanings that behave in an appropriately ap-
proximate way to the real thing. Considerable attention also is needed on the
analytical methods available to reveal this behavior. It is the modeling that
is inherently difficult, however, for it is not a "deterministic process. It involves
intent, recognition and judgement. It is an art based on science, physical insight
and experience. Together with the genius required to conceive new products,
it is the "existential pleasure," the spice, that makes engineering an intensely
human activity.
This text deals largely with systems that can be characterized by how they
1.1. EXAMPLE 3

employenergy or power, either in large or small quantities. A wide variety of

mechanical, fluid, electrical, thermodynamicand hybrid systems are included.
Someof the systems are in a time-invariant state, particularly in Chapter 2.
Most of them are time-varying, justifying the title system dynamics. Systems
that do not operate because of energy balances, such as the informational con-
siderations of computersystems, economicor political systems, traffic systems,
etc. are not addressed.

1.1 Example
As an exampleof the process, imaginethat you are a project engineer developing
the basic concept of a vehicle poweredby batteries and a DCelectric motor.
Youquickly discover that a motor with a maximum powerof 30kWcan drive the
vehicle fast enough, at a steady 45 m/s (about 100 mph). It cannot accelerate
the vehicle from rest to 27 m/s (about 60 mph)in under 18 seconds, however,
even with a perfectly variable transmission. To reduce this time, you consider
the electrical-hydraulic drive represented diagramatically as:

e RI t fixed field ~ accumulat°r/""x

flow, Qp flow, Qm[ motor 1 velocity, v ~

"i~¢, shaft

The motor has a fixed field and a 12 volt armature voltage, e. Its shaft
rotates at a variable angular velocity $, driving a hydraulic pump,which has
inertia and resistance. Fluid is stored in a hydraulic accumulator(a tank con-
taining a compressedgas and hydraulic oil separated by a bladder or piston) at
a high pressure, P. The fluid drives the vehicle at a variable speed v through
the use of a hydraulic motor with a volumetric displacement (volume of fluid
passed per revolution of the shaft) that is varied by the driver. The driver
then can release the energy stored in the accumulatorto achieve rapid accelera-
tion. Further, he can also makethe displacementnegative, braking the vehicle
by having the hydraulic motor pumpfluid back into the accumulator. This
feature, called regenerative braking, recovers the energy of motionrather than
dissipating it, unlike conventionalbrakes. The vehicle has mass, frictional drag
and an additional hill-climbing load.
Youwouldlike to have answers to such questions as: Howlarge (and heavy)
a hydraulic accumulatoris necessary to accelerate the vehicle to 27 m/s in less
than 6.5 seconds, without requiring a larger motor? Whatpressures should be
used?- What maximum volumetric displacements (sizes) should the pumpand
motor have to accomplish this? Howshould the volumetric displacement of the
pumpbe automatically controlled? Whatwouldthe energy efficiency of various
schedules of speed be? Ultimately, is this concept worth pursuing?
As a first step in answeringthese questions, you makea simplified modelof
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

the system in the form of a bond graph:

R, R. RL
A bondgraph is a minimalist representation of the implied model. Its structure
also directs in routine fashion the assemblyof the corresponding differential
equations. Someof the componentscan be described by parameters (constants):
Ri, G, Ip, Rp, and IL. Others require more complexconstitutive relations: C
and RL. The values of TM and Tp are varied to control the flow of energy to or
from the accumulator.
The modelleads directly to a computersimulation for the dynamicperfor-
manceof the systemfor whateversituation is of interest. Since each run takes
only a couple seconds, you can simulate hundredsof different situations, if you
like, adjusting the various parametersuntil you are satisfied with the result.
Here are typical results after someof these changes have been made:

5O
[ f motor speed ~/10, rad/s

40~ /SP~P-’~’~o=7MPa
30
speedv, m/s
2O

10

0
0 50 100 150
time, seconds
A speed of 27 m/s is indeed achieved in 6.5 seconds, by setting the volumet-
ric displacement of the motor at a particular value. The displacement is then
changedto a certain larger value, resulting in the samefinal steady speed. The
pressure and energy in the accumulatorfalls during the acceleration, but recov-
ers afterward, due partly to the automatic control of the pumpdisplacement
that can be designed partly through analysis of the bond graph. Thus a sub-
sequent burst of acceleration also wouldbe robust. This control also affects
1.2. MODELING AND ENGINEERING SCIENCE 5

the speed of the electric motor. The motor is 507o efficient when its power is
maximized (at 250 rad/s) and 100%efficient when its power approaches zero
(at 500 rad/s). The control successfully prevents inefficient speeds (below
tad/s) and achieves the maximumpossible 947o efficiency at the steady speed.
In another simulation, the displacement of the motor after 6.5 seconds is
set to the value which is found to produce the maximumpossible steady speed,
which is the desired 45 m/s:

5O

speed v, m~
40

30
speed ~/10, rad/s

20 t~~~pressur e P/IOPo

Po =7 MPa

oo 150
time, seconds
The motor speed becomes the 250 rad/s for which it produces the necessary
maximumpower, at 507o efficiency. The pressure drops to its minimum, which
is the charging pressure of the accumulator (the pressure when it is virtually
empty of hydraulic oil).
As project engineer, you are now in a position to render some judgments,
which of course also involve factors not discussed here, such as cost, weight and
reliability. As a student, you should be able to address some simpler problems
in this manner after studying Chapters two and three, and address some compa-
rable problem as a project after completing Chapters four and five. Most of the
problems you will address in the course will be considerably shorter, however.

1.2 Modeling and Engineering Science

Real engineering systems, like the example above, do not closely resemble the
pristine systems presented in introductory textbooks in mechanics, thermody-
namics, fluid mechanics, etc. These textbook systems are in fact highly ab-
stracted mode~s, presented in the form of some language, usuMly largely pictoral,
that convey a unique meaning. You hopefully absorbed some of the modeling
idea, but what you really practiced was the application of physical principles to
translate the given model as expressed in one language into another language,
6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

which usually was mathematical. The new expression was intended to reveal
certain features or behaviors of the model which at first were hidden. This ap-.
proach helped you develop a working understanding of physical principles that
must be acquired before you can advance to considering real systems. But the
gap between real engineering systems and approximate abstract models must
be bridged.
Most non-structural engineering in the nineteenth century evaluated design
concepts largely through experiment. Slowly it became apparent that the an-
alytical option can substitute, saving time and money and sometimes reducing
danger. The science of thermodynamics, for example, was born of the need
to understand steam engines better. Structural science, so critical to safety,
became particularly well developed. The analysis of dynamic systems lagged,
because of the difficulty in solving the describing differential equations. Nev-
ertheless, the goad of increasingly complex military hardware in World War II
spawned a formal systern science, based on differential equation models. Linear
equations were emphasized, because only they could be solved routinely, albeit
often with considerable tedium. Alternatively, components and systems were
designed explicitly to act nearly linearly, sometimes just so that their behavior
could be predicted.
The advent of the computer removed the computational roadblock. Today
an engineer can construct a computer model of nearly any proposed system,
and predict its performance far quicker and cheaper than a prototype could
be built and tested. The engineer then can adjust its parameters until the
result is satisfactory, or until it appears that some different approach to the
problem should be sought. Not all engineers today are competent to do this
with muchgenerality, but those who can are in a different league from those who
can’t. Experiment need be employed only sparingly, largely either to understand
phenomenawhich defy analysis (often using relatively simple apparatus) or
verify a final design. The Boeing company, for example, now designs and builds
its most complex aircraft without a single prototype being constructed and
tested (although key component~are tested separately).

1.3 Modeling Languages

A limited number of generic building blocks will be identified from which you
will construct models. The language chosen to represent these elements should
be general enough to encompass virtually all systems which centrally involve
the management of pow.er and energy, and narrow enough to impose the conser-
vation of energy as the default option. Such a language allows you to take full
advantage of the analogies that exist between seemingly different engineering
systems. The language also should be chosen for the ease with which its objects
can be reduced to mathematical form.
Perhaps the .most serious hazard in modeling is the threat of making an out-
right mistake. Everyone is an occasional victim; the expert keeps a common-
sense vigil, routinely comparing the structure of the model or its consequences
1.4. MODELING FOR CONTROL 7

with expectations. The modeling language or languages you use to represent

models also greatly affects your propensity to make and discover mistakes.
Mathematics and derivative computercode are the final language for most mod-
els, but these languages tend to obscure mistakes. Mathematics jokingly has
been called "the universal solvent," since everything dissolves in it, becoming
invisible.
This book employs a graph-based approach to modeling. Graphical lan-
guages comunicate better to your senses than mathematics. Considerable use is
made of sketches, diagrams and plots. Where practicable, the system behavior
implicit in a graphically expressed model is also determined graphically. The
models for most dynamic systems are converted to differential equations, which
are then solved. This conversion is made as automatic as. possible.
Since the subject is systems that control power and energy, a principal model-
ing language is desired that automatically conserves energy, unless it is directed
explicitly to do otherwise. It is helpful also if the language identifies the critical
geometrical and analagous constraints of such systems. Finally, it is desired that
the language be both graphical and precise in its meaning, and allow routine
conversion to equations or equivalent computer code. Such a language should
be optimally efficient, and minimize mistakes.
Several languages apply to specific types of systems. The circuit diagram
is prototypical. Similar languages apply to classes of mechanical systems and
to hydraulic systems. They fail to address interdisciplinary systems, however,
which today means most systems. Actually, the electric circuit diagram often is
applied by analogy to represent non-electrical phenomena,such as heat transfer
or acoustics. It lacks adequate generality to represent all systems, however, and
is awkwardeven when it is usable. A more generic language is sought.
Such a language exists, fortunately. Bond graphs were devised in their
basic form in 1959 by Henry M. Paynter at MIT. Bond graphs are used by a
significant fraction of mechanical and electrical engineers, and even by some life
scientists. The language has been extended to model systems with heat fluxes,
compressible fluid flow and chemical reaction. It has been promulgated by
thousands of professional papers and, since 1991, by the biennial International
Conference on Bond Graph Modeling (ICBGM).
Although the advantages of a knowledge of the bond graph language are well
known, it has not been taught widely in undergraduate core courses, and is not
to be dabbled in lightly. By making its mastery a manageable and natural task,
this book aims to increase its popularity for the benefit of engineering.

1.4 Modeling for Control

A model or its direct consequence is itself built into a control system, in the
form of the controller with its control algorithms or alternatively its hardware
configuration. Regardless of whether you study the introduction to control in
Chapter 8, you should knowthat the control engineer typically succeeds or fails
according to the workability of the model or models that he devises to represent
8 C H A P T E R 1. INTRODUCTION

the behavior of the system to be controlled.

Control systems combine a muscle part, or “plant,” with a brain part. The
brain part is directed to act by some command signal, which often is a measure
of the desired performance of some plant variable such as a speed, an angle or a
temperature. The brain usually measures this “output” variable, and compares
it t o the command signal. The difference between these signals is an “error”
which is used as the input to the controller part of the brain. The output of
the controller then is sent to the plant for action. This feedback scheme also
potentially helps correct for unwanted effects due to external disturbances on
the system.
The controller must be tailored to the system it controls. Its design depends
on a model of the system created by the engineer. Its performance hinges on the
accuracy of the model. Its cost depends on the complexity of the model. Typi-
cally, the most practicable design results from a compromise between accuracy
and complexity.

1.5 A Word to the Wise About Learning

Your primary challenge as a student is to learn how t o approach problems
that you, and maybe everyone else also, have never seen before. The detailed
minimalistic procedures that are the focus of many elementary courses address
only specially conditioned and presented problems that could be solved by a
clerk with a fancy computer program. They represent only a first step. The
celebrated mathematician Roger Penrose’ claims that human understanding
and even consciousness itself are non-computational, that is, cannot be
simulated by a Turing machine (digital computer).
This book complements its direct presentation of topics with four different
types of problems: case studies, numbered and highlighted examples, guided
problems and assigned problems. Case studies typically introduce and illustrate
new ideas, and should be viewed as integral parts of the text. The numbered
examples, on the other hand, are sample problems that merely demonstrate
application of the basic concepts and procedures. They logically may be skipped.
A person engaged in the problem-specific or training mode of learning, sug-
gested in part (a) of Fig. 1.2, develops problem-solving prescriptions by exam-
ining the solutions t o sample problems. He or she views these detailed and
often voluminous patterns, rather than the relative simple underlying concepts,
as the information needed for success. Real-world engineering, however, covers
a thousand times more situations than possibly could be addressed by sample
problems. The breadth of the problems in this text may help convince you of
the futility of reliance on superficial procedures, despite your earlier experience.
Excessively detailed focus on solved problems would distract from your de-
veloping the essential “physical thinking,” the picturing in your mind’s eye of
what really is going on. This insight, together with a firm grasp of the grand
conservation principles, comprise the essential skills. Without them, recall of
Roger Penrose, Shadows of the Mind, Oxford University Press, 1994.
1.5. A W O R D T O T H E WISE ABOUT LEARNING 9

sample sample
problem problem

sample sample
problem problem

(b) problem-general or education mode

(a) problem-specific or training mode

Figure 1.2: Contrasting modes of learning

all existing engineering formulas is useless. The problem-general learning mode,

suggested in part (b) of the figure, stores the information needed for success in
an integrated network of basic concepts and procedures. Case studies, solved
problems, guided problems and assigned problems are not definitive patterns
t o be imitated, but are suggestive illustrations that help you develop your inte-
grated network. Enriching physical demonstrations also can help greatly.
There is no substitute for direct observation and contemplation of basic
concepts. A small set of concepts casts myriad shadows in printed solutions t o
relevant problems. It is inefficient to infer reality solely from its shadows. You
must, rather, recognize what basic concepts apply t o your real-life problems. In
this information age there are many ways you can find the details. The variety
of situations addressable through the learning mode, on the other hand, grows
exponentially with the number of the core concepts and procedures understood.
Fbrther, the structure becomes an increasingly redundant network of ideas. If
some element is forgotten, a detour around the flaw usually can be found, and
the flaw itself often can be repaired without recourse t o outside information. It
may seem that the amount of specific information you need t o recall actually
decreases with experience. Engineering becomes heady stuff. Is your pleasure
growing with each successive course?
To learn the true meaning of the core concepts and procedures you must
actively solve relevant problems without reliance on highly specific patterns. The
“guided problems” in this text start with a problem statement, and proceed with
a list of “suggested steps” that is less than a unique prescription for a solution
but is intended t o relate the solution t o the core concepts and procedures. You
may then compare your solution with one given at the end of the section. Each
guided problem exists for a purpose, which is briefly suggested at the outset.
10 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.3: Journal bearing for case study

(Some guided problems are indicated as advanced, or optional.) You defeat their
primary purpose by looking at the given solution before attempting to create
your own. Even when you fail to produce a solution, you will usually benefit
from the attempt.

1.6 Treatment of Dimensions

Engineers and mathematicians write algebraic equation~, in which numbers are
represented by symbols, usually letters of the Romanor Greek alphabets. These
equations are solved for unknowns, or dependent variables, which are written
on the left sides of the equations, as functions of the knowns, or independent
variables, which are grouped on the right sides of the equations. Substitution
of the numbers for the symbols then produce a second type of equation which
gives numerical answers. For only the engineers, however, do the symbols carry
added meaning: physical dimensions. These dimensions, which themselves can
be represented by words or symbols, comprise the terms of a third type of
equation. The experienced engineer always keeps the dimensional equations in
mind, for they give him or her a tremendous advantage over the mathematician
in the use of equations.
A case study illustrates this advantage. Consider that you are asked to
find the torque required to rotate a lightly-loaded shaft in a well-lubricated
journal bearing at the angular velocity u~. The shaft has diameter d, rotates
concentrically in a sleeve or cylinder of length L and diameter d + 2e, so that
e << d is the radial clearance between the shaft and the sleeve, as pictured in
Fig. 1.3.. This space is filled with oil of absolute viscosity #. (This is a classical
problem, which you may address in a first course in fluid mechanics, if you have
not done so already.) Perhaps you deduce the following relation to approximate
the torque or moment, M0:

Mo - ~r#d2 Lu~ (1.1)

2e
No simple model can be exact, but is this one correct, within the several
assumptions upon which it is based? You know that most potential mistakes
violate dimensional consistency, so you proceed, before substituting numbers to
get a specific value for the torque, to substitute the dimensions of each of the
terms. You know the following dimensions:
1.6. TREATMENT OF DIMENSIONS 11

~r has no dimensions
L, d, e have dimensionof length
a~ has dimensionsof l/time (giving units such as rad/second)
# has dimensionsof forcex time/length squared
Therefore, you substitute to get
force x time length ~- x length 1
[M0] - ~
length (1.2)
length time’
where the square brackets around Mdesignate "dimension of." Cancellations
give
[M0] = forcelength
x time length 3 = force.
3 xx time (1.3)

You know, however, that the torque or momentM0has the dimensions of

force x length, not force. Somethingis wrong! The equation for Mo~nust be
changedto increase its dimensionby one length.
Youtherefore re-visit your derivation. Or, perhaps, you reason as follows:
the shear stress on the surface of the shaft is proportional to the velocity of its
surface, whichin turn is proportional to the diameterd. The shear force also is
proportional to the wetted surface area of the shaft, whichalso is proportional
to d. Finally, the torque equals the shear force times the radius, which again
is proportional to d. Therefore, the term d2 in the numeratorof equation (1.1)
should be d3. Withthis correction, equation (1.3) gives force x length, which
you knowis the correct dimensionsfor torque. Youthen return to your deriva-
tion, and find that you forgot to multiply the shear force by the radius, which
is d/2. The proper torque therefore is

Mo- 7r pd3 Lw (1.4)

4e
Youare finally ready to substitute the numericalvalues of the parameters.
This scenario is typical of a goodengineer. Goodengineers are humanand
make mistakes, but have gotten into the habit of catching them by checking
dimensions.
In order to deal with dimensionseffectively, it is necessary to work with a
minimal consistent or primary set thereof. The most commonand recommended
primary set of dimensions in use by engineers today for treating mechanical,
electric circuit and thermal systems is force (F), length (L),time (t), electric
charge(Q) and temperature(0). Other dimensionsare called derived, since they
can be expressed in terms of the consistent set. The namesof someof these are
listed in the first columnof Table 1.1, and symbolstherefore are listed in the
second column. (The other columnsare discussed later.)
A second primary set of dimensions replaces the role of force with mass,
M. Specifically, wheneverforce F appears in Table 1.1, this set of dimensions
substitues M.L/t"-, which follows from Newton’s second law: F = rna. This
so-called "absolute" consistent set of dimensionssometimesis featured in ele-
12 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Table 1.1 Dimensions and Units

name I symbol I SI units I Am. Std. units
primary set of consistent dimensions and units:
force F newton, N pound force, lb
length L meter, m foot, ft
time t second, s second, s
temperature 0 degrees Kelvin, K deg. Rankine, R
electric charge Q coulombs, C
derived dimension and units:
mass (m) F.t2/L N.s2/m = kg lb.se/ft= slugs
angle (radian) (radian)
velocity Lit m/s ft/s
angular velocity 1/t 1/s (rad/s) 1/s (rad/s)
acceleration ~
ft/s
angular accel. ~
lit ~
1/s 21/t
energy F.L Nm= J (joules) ft.lb
power F.L/t N-m/s= W (watts) ft.lb/s
pressure ")-
F/L N/m’-> -- Pa (pascals) "~
lb/ft
entropy F.L/O N.m/K- = J/K ft.lb/R
electric current Q/t C/s= A (amperes)
electric potential F.L/Q N-m/C= V (volts)
mentary books on dynamics. Nevertheless, it is relatively awkward for most
engineering systems, and in practice is rarely used. For example, engineers do
not often think of pressure as having the dimensions M/t2L, or energy as having
the dimensions ~-.
M. L2 /t
Beginners often try to use a mixed system of diinensions, with both mass
and force. This attempt prevents critical cancellations from being made. It
abandons much of the benefit derived from using dimensions.

1.7 Treatment of Units

Most implementation of dimensions is carried out through the use of a specific
system of units. Three systems are most common, and are addressed here:
SI units, American Standard or British Gravitational units, and the old En-
glish Engineering units. The first two can be treated as either force-based or
mass-based. Old English Engineering units are by tradition mixed force- and-
mass-based, and as a result are not listed in Table 1 but are treated separately
below. Fluid mechanics texts tend to use slugs, which if not converted represent
a mass-based American Standard system; dynamics texts tend to use the rec-
ommendedforce-based American Standard system; thermodynamics texts tend
to use pounds mass as part of a mixed old English Engineering system. These
texts often fail to adequately delineate force-based and mass-based use of the SI
system, also. A generation of engineers have been confused, particularly when
interdisciplinary systems are involved.
1.7. TREATMENT OF UNITS 13

The confusion regards the treatment of mass. As advocated above, the

role of mass should be replaced by force through the use of Newton’s second
law. Force units do not necessarily equal mass units times acceleration units,
however, unlike the fundamental dimensions. Rather, force units are, in general,
merely proportional to the units of mass times acceleration. In general,
m
F = --gc a, (1.5)
where gc is a constant of proportionality that may or may not have the numerical
value 1.0000. The standard weight W is therefore related to the mass m by
m m W
W = -- g, or -- = --. (1.6)
gc gc g
Whenever you face a mass m in an equation, you may substitute either m/gc
or Wig (and p/g¢ or 7/g for p, where 7 is the weight density), except in the
cases of the more careful thermodynamics texts in which g~ appears already.
The result is twofold: first, the units of m~s will be converted automatically to
equivalent units using force, as desired and as listed in Table 1.1; second, the
numerical values will be properly represented, regardless of the system of units
being employed. Values and units ~re given in the Table 1.2.
The old English Engineering system of units by tradition is a mixed system,
containing both units of mass and force, which can complicate their treatment.
Use of the method above automatically replaces its pounds mass (lbm) with
equivalent untis using pounds force (lbf, or just lb). The result is virtual con-
version to the force-based American Standard system. Note that the value of g¢
in the old English Engineering system is 32.174, not 1.0000, so use of the recom-
mended method produces a symbol for every number (other than true conversion
factors, which are dimensionless though not unitless), which is a good general
policy in analysis. The system also uses British Thermal Units (Btu) for energy,

Table 1.2 Units and Values for Conversion of Mass to Force

Equivalent
units of values and units of units of
m W
m L F gc
gc g
m kg.m
kg m N 9.81 ~5 1.0000 2
N.s
ft 2lb.s
slug ft lb 32.174 ~ 1.0000 slug- ft
2lb.s ft
in. 2
lb.s
"sluglet" in. lb 386.09 -~. 1.0000 sluglet.in.
lb-s" in
ft 2lb.s
lbm ft lb 32.174 ~ 32.174 lbm-ft
2
lb.s ft
14 CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION

rather than ft-lb, but this poses no real problem since the ratio of ft.lb to Btu
is a dimensionless conversion factor (with value 778.16).
Engineers probably use inches more often than feet, such as in "psi" for
pressure. The units of mass then are lb.s"/in. The rather whimsical name
"sluglet" is given in the table for this unit; it equals the weight Win pounds
force divided by g in inches per second squared, or one-twelfth of a slug. This
unit of mass has no official or recognized name. This namelessness underscores
the preference of engineers for force rather than mass units. Manymore physical
phenomena directly involve force than involve mass.
The SI system of units has d particular advantage for electromechanical
systems: a volt-coulomb equals a Newton-meter (equals a Joule). This book
employsSI units for all such systems, as well as all electrical circuits. Therefore,
Table 1.1 gives electrical units only in $I.

EXAMPLE 1.1
Evaluate the classical formula for the natural frequency, w, = v/~-/m, for
the following particular values of the mass m that is attached to ground by
alinear, spring with rate k: (a) ra = 2 kg, k = 8 N/m; (b) m = 2 slugs,
k = 8 lb/ft; (c) m = 2 lbm, k = 12 lb/ft; (d) W= 2 lb, k = 1.0 lb/in.
Solution:

(a) symbol equation : w~ = ~/-~-~

units equation : [w~] = ~/N 1 kg.m

~ kg N-s"
1
s

number equation : a~n = - ~ ¯ 1 = 2 rad/s

(b) symbol equation : Wn =

units equation : [w~] = ~/lb 1 slug.ft

2~- ’ slug lb.s
1

number equation : w~ = ¯ ~ - 1 = 2 rad/s

(c) symbol equation :

units equation : ~
[Wn] =~/lb
~-’lbm
1 lbm.ft
lb.s _ 1s

number equation : ~z. = 12- ~ - 32.2 = 13.9 rad/s

1.7. TREATMENT OF UNITS 15

(d) symbol equation

units equation [~n] =~/lb 1 ft ~-in = 1~

~n’l-~’sZ’

1i
number equation : a~ = 1.0. ~ ¯ a2.2.12 = la.9 rad/s
The las~ case aboveillustrates the most common style of Americanengineers,
except they likely woulddirectly substitute the value and units a86 in/s ~ for 9.
In all the c~es the result h~ the units s-~. This ~ is a circular frequency;
a dimensionless angle is implied, whichis the radian. To’convert from radians
per secondto cycles per second(Hz), division by 2n is necessary.

Guided Problem 1.1

This first guided problem illustrates the role of gc even whenthe mass does
not appear explicitly in a formula being evaluated. It aiso showsthe role of
true conversion factors. Unless you already are quite competent with treating
dimensionsand units, you are strongly advised to at least attempt the problem
before looking at the solution on the next page.
Find the velocity v of a perfect gas in the throat of a nozzle, given the
formula v = x/~-~--~, and (a) Ah = 10 kJ/kg and (b)Ah = 5 Btu/lbm.
Suggested Steps:
1. Note that the Ah given is the enthalpy per unit mass, or the specific
enthalpy. Therefore, replace this implied mass by m/gc to modify the
formula.
2. Write the units equation for the SI example. The k3 should be expressed
in terms of the primary consistent units. Are the dimensionscorrect? Is
there a need for a conversionfactor? (If so, write the units for this factor
in your equation.)
3. Write the numbersequation for the SI example, evaluate the velocity and
note the units.
4. Write the units equation for the Btu example. The conversion factor
between Btu and foot-pounds should be included. Are the dimensions
and units of the answer correct?
5. Write the numbersequation for the Btu example, evaluate the velocity
and note the units. There are 778.16 ft.lb per Btu.

References
Textbooks that can serve as references for this text have been authored by
D.C. Karnopp, D. L. Margolis and R.C. Rosenberg, 2 P. Gawthrop and L.
2SystemDynamics:
a unified approach,2nded., Wiley,NewYork,1990.
16 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Smith, 3 J.U. Thoma,4 F.E. Cellier, 5 and A. Mukherjee and R. Karmaka~ No-
table collections and reviews of papers are given in a special issue of the Journal
of the Franklin Institute 7 and a book edited by P.C. Breedveld and G. Dauphin-
Tanguy. s For conference proceedings and more see www.BondGraph.com.

PROBLEMS

1.1 State the standard weight of a mass of I lbm.

1.2 The energy of a compressed spring accelerates a mass. Find the maximum
velocity of the mass assuming a spring rate of 20 lbs/in:, an initial spring com-
pression of 5 inches from its free length and a mass weighing 10 lb. Neglect the
mass of the spring.

1.3 A DCmotor operates at 70% efficiency with a power supply of 24 volts and
2 amps. Find the velocity at which it can raise a 10 kg object.

1.4 Find the velocity of the flow of water (weight density 62.4 lb/ft 3) in the
throat of a nozzle, given the pressure drop from the rest upstream state, Ap =
10 lb/in. 2, and the formula v = ~.

1.5 A hydraulic fluid suffers a pressure drop of 2000 psi in flowing through a
valve. Neglecting any effect of compressibility or heat transfer, the dissipated
energy simply raises the temperature of the fluid. Find the temperature rise
3.
assuming a specific heat of 0.5 Btu/lbm.°F and a density of 1.6 slugs/ft

Solution to Guided Problem 1.1

2. [vl--v /kN-m
~gg " kg.m N
Ns2 ’k--~= m
~-

3. v = x/2.10.1. 1000 = 141.4

~/Btu lbm.ft ft.lb ft

4. Iv] = Vl--~-~m. lb.s 2 " Btu - s

5. v = ~/2.5.32.174 ¯ 778.16 = 500 ft/s

a MetaModelling:Bondgraphs and dynamicsystems, Prentice-Hall, 1996

4Simulationby Bondgraphs:introduction to a graphical method,Springer Verlag, Berlin,
NewYork, 1990.
5 ContinuousSystemModeling,Springer-Verlag, NewYork,1991.
6Modelingand Simulation of Engineering Systems ThroughBondgraphs,CRCPress, Boca
Raton, 1999.
7j. of th~ FranklinInstitute, guest editor P.C. Breedveld,v 328 n5/6, 1991.
S BondGraphs.for Engineers, North-Holland,Amsterdam,1992.
Chapter 2

Source-Load Synthesis

An engineer usually starts to model an engineering system by subdividing it,

conceptually, into components with explicit boundaries. In the simplest case
only two components are defined: a source and a load. In somewhat more
complex instances the source and the load may be interconnected by a third
component. This chapter considers sources and loads which either are joined
directly, or have one or more components in between to form a chain. Each com-
ponent is characterized in isolation, and these characterizations are combinedto
reveal the behavior of the assembled system. The engineer also wants to know
how to configure a particular system to achieve the best possible behavior.

Variables, such as force, velocity, voltage and current, generally change over
time, justifying the name. This chapter, however, deals with components and
systems that can be characterized in terms of variables that remain constant
over time. These components or systems are said to reside in steady state,
or in equilibrium. Sometimes more than one equilibrium exists for a given
synthesis of components. Sometimes, further, a small disturbance on the system
produces a radical change in the state of a system; such an equilibrium is said
to be unstable.

The challenge of modeling a system in equilibrium might seem vastly simpler

than the modeling of a dynamic system, in which the variables change over
time. This is usually not the case, however. Most of the mistakes that modelers
of dynamic systems make can be traced to the geometric and quasi-geometric
constraints of the system, which apply to the equilibrium states as well. Thus
you are urged to pay serious attention, even if your primary interest is dynamics.

17
18 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

surroundings~

syste~ ~ )

contro~

Figure 2.1: Partitioning of the universe into a system and its surroundings

2.1 System Reticulation

In the study of thermodynamics, the universe is divided customarily into a
system and its surroundings, as pictured in Fig. 2.1. The system might be
closed, represe.nting a fixed quantity of matter or a control mass. On the other
hand it might be open, representing a region in space or control volume into
which and/or from Which matter can flow. In either case, the boundaries of the
system, often called the control surface, might be fixed or moveable, giving a
total of four different possible combinations.
Conceptual partitions of space or bodies of matter also are basic to the
study of mechanics. In the study of statics and dynamics one draws a free
body diagram of the system in question. In fluid mechanics one chooses a
control volume. It should be no surprise, therefore, that in the general modeling
of physical systems one starts by carefully defining a system, or perhaps five or
twenty different sub-systems.
The process of endowing a system with structure often is called reticula-
tion. The Latin stem reti means (fish) net; to reticulate ineans to make into
or like a net. This image helps you focus not only on the sub-systems, but also
on the meshpoints or bonds of the net. Reticulation is not as straightforward
as sometimes it may seem in practice. It is easy to overlook the simplifying
assumptions that are implicit in this act, with resultant trouble. The discussion
here starts simply, as you did in the study of statics and thermodynamics, by
identifying a single system and its surroundings.

2.1.1 Case Study: Induction Motor as a Source

Consider an induction motor as pictured in Fig. 2.2. This is a complicated

device. The g0al is merely to characterize its behavior as it applies to users, not
to understand the details of its construction or operation. The entire machine
and its source of power is defined as the system, letting only the shaft penetrate
the system boundary or control surface. The system is characterized in terms
2.1. SYSTEM RETICULATION 19

control surface surroundings

F ~
I r---"’--~ ~ ~ I shaft

I
,’ oC,
oi: ’
~ ~ ¢ M,,, I energy port (intersection
I motor system I of shaft and control
L I surface)

Figure 2.2: Representatioh of an induction motor as a one-port system

Figure 2.3: Shaft and crank

of appropriate variables that can be observed at the point of interconnection

between it and the environment, namely the shaft. The shaft, or more precisely
its intersection with the control surface, is said to be the energy port or
just the port of the system. The description "one-port model" distinguishes
this representation from potentially more complex models having two or more
defined ports.
The first of two variables that most engineers would identify is angular
velocity, ~ (¢ is the rotational angle of the shaft), usually measured in radians
per second. The second variable is the t.orque or moment, M~, in the shaft.
The product of the two variables, Mine, is the power, P, generated .by the
motor and propagated through the port (shaft) to the environment, assuming
~ and M,~ are both defined as positive in the same sense a~ seen by an observer
stationed near the motor:
T~ = -~¢m~. (2.1)
To establish this result, consider that the torque and the power arise from
a normal force F acting on an imaginary attached crank of radius arm r, as
pictured in Fig. 2.3. If the crank is displaced by an infinitesimal distance
the work done is F58. But (is equals r 5¢, where 5~ is the corresponding angular
20 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

200

2.5
150

f.o
1.5
Nm 100
1.0
rad/s
0.5
5O
0
0 50 I00 150 200
~, rad/s I
00 1.0 2.0

Figure 2.4: Torque-speed characteristic of the induction motor system

rotation of the crank and shaft, so the work becomes Fr 5¢. The power is the
work per unit time, or 7 ~ = Fr de/dr = Fr~. Finally, the product Fr is the
applied moment, Mm, establishing equation (2.1).
Imagine an experiment in which the environment is adjusted until ~ reaches
some desired value, and then Mmis measured. This experiment is then repeated
for many other values of ~ until a complete characteristic

Mm = Mm(~) " (2.2)

can be plotted. A typical characteristic for an induction motor is shown in part

(a) of Fig. 2.4. Alternatively, the environment is adjusted until J¥/m reaches some
desired value, at which point ~ is measured. The consequence of repeating this
experiment for many different values of Mmcan be written

~ = ~(M,~). (2.3)

The corresponding characteristic for the induction motor is shown in part (b)
of the figure. Care must be taken because there are two values of ~ for some
values of Mm.
These two plots foll(~w the convention that the horizontal axis (abscissas)
represents the independent variable on the right side of the equation, and the
vertical axis (ordinate) represents the dependent variable on the left side
the equation. This convention actually is quite arbitrary, however; the two
plots represent the same characteristic, with the axes merely reversed. The
general idea of a characteristic overlooks any considerations of independence
and dependence, that is of cause and effect. This perspective could be called
existential, as opposed to causal. Thus, the two plots are completely equivalent.
(L/~ter, ~ you will employ a causal perspective of a characteristic plot, however,
for specific computational purposes.)
2.1. SYSTEM RETICULATION 21

control surface

h~ sprinkler

__~

surroundings

load system
-~Q

shaft pump [
Me

~ ]_water supply ~

Figure 2.5: Representation of the load as a one-port system

Either plot completely describes the motor as long as the motion is steady
(no acceleration or inertial moments), the machine does not run backwards, you
do not care about heat and noise, etc., and you are not worried about failure of
the power or the motor. This model of the motor is described as having only
one port, with the conjugate variables ~ and M,~. It is represented by the word
bond graph
INDUCTION Mm
MOTOR ~
The port is penetrated by a power bond or, for short, bond, indicated by the
horizontal line. The outward-directed half-arrow defines the direction of power
flow when P = Mm~is positive.

2.1.2 Case Study: Water Sprinkler System as a Load

Consider now that the motor drives a pump which pumps water from a basement
tank through a pipe to some upper floor of building where it passes through
sprinkler heads and extinguishes a fire. This new equipment, collectively, now
can be considered as the system; the motor becomes the new environment. The
role of the system and the environment thus are inverted. The new system can
be represented summarily by a second word bond graph:
Mp LOAD
~ SYSTEM
Like the motor, this model of the system has only one port, which is a shaft
with an angular velocity ~ and moment Mp. Note one difference: the power
22 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

2.5 thirtieth floor

~
2.0 twentieth floor
tenth floor
1.5
N.m
1.0

0.5
I I I I
50 100 150 200
~, rad/s

Figure 2.6: Torque-speed characteristics for the load system

product ~Mpis positive when power flows into the load, not out. This is the
only difference, in fact, between a "source" and a "load."
It is now possible to run an experiment in which the environment of this
load (i.e. the motor) is adjusted to set any desired speed, at which the torque
Mp is measured. Repeating this experiment for the whole range ~ > 0 of
interest produces a load characteristic. Three such characteristics are plotted
in Fig. 2.6, for the sprinklers being on the tenth, twentieth or thirtieth floors,
respectively. These characteristics also could be found by inverted experiments
in which Mpis set and ~ is measured, as with the motor.
This description alone does not tell you how much water flow is associated
with any particular combination ~, Mp; it doesn’t even recognize the existence
of water. For now, just recognize that the faster the shaft turns, the greater the
volume flow rate of water will be.

2.1.3 The Source-Load Synthesis; Case Study

Finally, the particular motor is joined to the particular load, as suggested by

the following word bond graph:
]l~l
INDUCTION LOAD
. MOTOR ~ SYSTEM

These two sub-systems now share a commonspeed (~) and a common moment,
so that M,~equals .hip." Therefore, if their respective characteristics are plot-
ted on commoncoordinates, as in Fig. 2.7, the resulting equilibrium must be
represented by their intersection. For the tenth-floor case, there is only one
intersection of the characteristics, and therefore only one possible steady oper-
ating speed, flow and moment. Such an equilibrium is called a steady state,
ilnplying that the state variables are unchanging over time. For the thirtieth
floor case, there are no intersections at all. Moreover, the load torque exceeds
the motor torque for all speeds ~ > 0. The motor simply will not run. It might
even burn itself out trying.
2.1. SYSTEMRETICULATION 23

load characteristics, Mp."

2.5 thirtieth floor

~ twentiethfloor
tenth floor

1.0
0.5
0 I I I II
0 50 100 150 200
~, rad/s

Figure 2.7: Synthesis of the source (motor) and load characteristics

M (h~ (a)
,K>K ,Mp>Mm

(d)’

I, change~ i

Figure 2.8: Stable and unstable equilibria for the twentieth floor sprinkler

The case of the twentieth floor sprinkler is moreinteresting. There are two
intersections of the source and load characteristics at the speeds labeled ~ and
~2 in Fig. 2.8. Both of these intersections represent equilibrium states, which
meansthat the source speed equals the load speed and the source torque equals
the load torque. Equilibrium, however,is not a sufficient condition to insure
actual operation. This is because someequilibria are unstable, that is fail to
persist.
Prediction of whetheror not a particular equilibrium or steady state is sta-
ble requires consideration of a nearby non-equilibrium or unsteady state. For
the motor-pump-sprinkler system this means a departure from the equilibrium
angular velocity, so that the torques of the source and the load are different.
Onesuch pair of source and load states near the equilibrium state ~2 is indi-
cated in the figure as points (a). Since the shaft is assumedto be rigid, the
source (motor) and the load have the same angular velocity, (~. A straight lin6
drawnbetween the two points therefore must be vertical. The source and the
load do not have the same torque, M. The electromagnetically induced torque
of the motor can be different from the fluid-induced torque of the pump. A
24 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

difference between the two torques causes the shaft, with its attached rotors in
the motor and the pump, to accelerate or decelerate. Acceleration would drive
the speed further above the equilibrium, indicating instability. On the other
hand, deceleration would cause the speed to approach the equilibrium.
You need to know, therefore, whether the shaft accelerates or decelerates.
For states (a), you can see that the motor torque, ~im, is less than the pump
torque, ~.lp, producing a net negative torque and a decrease in the angular
velocity ¢. As the speed decreases, the torque slowing it downalso de.creases, so
the deceleration decreases. Whenthe speed reaches the equilibrium, ¢2, the net
torque and the deceleration vanishes. The equilibrium appears to be stable, but
to make sure you ought to check what happens if the starting speed is somewhat
below ¢2.
This check can be done by considering the non-equilibrium states (b). Here,
the source (motor) torque exceeds the load torque, so the speed of the common
shaft accelerates, as indicated by the arrow. Again, the acceleration vanishes as
the speed aproaches ~)2. This observation confirms the stability of t.he equilibium
speed ¢2. At the same time it indicates that the equilibrium speed ¢1 is unstable;
no matter how close states (b) are to this equilibrium, an acceleration will drive
the speed away from it. This conclusion is reinforced by consideration of states
(c), which produce a deceleration, as indicated by the associated arrow.
Finally, consider the rest case (d). As with case (c), Mm< Mp. This means
that the motor will not start, and therefore the system is unacceptable, despite
the stability of the speed ~2. (It could be made practicable, however, in the
event that some auxiliary means were available to start the shaft rotating faster
than ~. One such means is suggested in Guided Problem 2.2.)
As a more familiar example of an unstable equilibrium, consider a per-
fectly symmetrical sharpened pencil placed perfectly vertically on its tip in a
perfectly still room. It is in equilibrium because there is no force to make it
fall over. The slightest deviation from the vertical orientation, however, or the
slightest puff of air, produces a small force in a direction awayfrom the vertical
equilibrium. As the departure from equilibrium grows, the destabilizing force
grows also, and the pencil soon falls over. In practice, tiny errors in the initial
state and tiny disturbances are impossible to avoid. Real pencils in real rooms
never stand on sharpened tips for more than a brief moment.

2.1.4 Summary
A system is identified by its control surface. A shaft penetrating this surface
defines an energy or power port of the system. The behavior of this power
port can be described by the conjugate variables torque and angular velocity,
the product of which is the power passing into or out from it. If the system
is not influenced by any other external variables, it is said to have a single
port, or be a one-port system. Its environment, similarly, could be described as
another one-port system. Which is the system and which is the environment is
quite arbitrary; you could simply call them system A and system B. Further,
the steady-state behaviors of each such system, for any and all environments,
2.1. SYSTEM RETICULATION 25

can be represented by the relation it imposes between its conjugate variables,

as determinable by experiment and as representable by an equation or a plot.
Such a relation is called the system characteristic.
Two one-port systems connected at a commonport experience an equilib-
rium state or states where they have commonvalues of both of the conjugate
variables. If the two characteristics are superimposed on a commonplot, these
equilibria are represented by their intersections.
An equilibrium can be stable or unstable, depending on whether an imposed
departure from equilibrium spontaneously grows or shrinks. This determina-
tion requires information not contained in the characteristics themselves. For
the case of the motor-pump-sprinkler this information is two-fold: the shaft is
rigid, so both source and load have a commonangular velocity, but the torques
can be different. If the source torque exceeds the load torque, the combined
system accelerates. This situation can be represented by a vertical line segment
connecting the two characteristics at the particular speed, and an arrow point-
ing to higher speeds. The pattern of such arrows for different speeds shows
which equilibria are stable and which are not.
The purpose of presenting this case study far transcends systems with shafts.
Similar considerations apply to systems with interconnecting rods, fluid pipes
and electrical conductors, as you shall see.

Guided Problem 2.1

This first guided problem involves a basic source-load synthesis. You are strongly
advised to carry it out, as least roughly, before examining the solution at the
end of the section.
An internal combustion (IC) engine drives a propeller that powers a boat
which weighs effectively 4000 lbs. The thrust produced by the propeller depends
on the throttle position and the speed of the boat, as plotted in Fig. 2.9. The
drag force on the hull also depends on the speed of the boat, as shown.
(a) Plot the steady-state speed of the boat as a function of the throttle
position.
(b) Assume that the throttle has been at 30% long enough for the boat
to reach equilibrium speed. The throttle then is suddenly advanced to
100%. Find the instantaneous acceleration. Also, determine the accel-
eration when the speed of the boat has increased half way to its final
equilibrium.

Suggested Steps:

1. The thrust and drag are forces that are analogous (similar) to torque,
and the linear speed is analogous to angular velocity. To answer part
(a), determine the intersections of the thrust curves with the drag curves,
cross-plot the speeds of these points against the throttle positions, and
connect the resulting points with a smooth curve.
26 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

¯ 100
800 % throttle 90- ~thrust
80 ~_~..~ drag

600 60-- ~ ~">< ~ ~

force, F
400
lbf

200

0
0 10 20 30 40
speed, ~, ff/s

Figure 2.9: Thrust and drag for boat of Guided Problem 2.1

2. Get the net force which accelerates the craft by subtracting the drag of
the hull at the equilibrium speed for 30% throttle from the thrust at the
same speed corresponding to 100%throttle.

3. Use F = ma to determine the acceleration.

4. To answer the final question, find the average of the initial and final speeds,
and repeat steps 2 and 3.

Guided Problem 2.2

This problem illustrates stable and unstable equilibria as well as basic source-
load synthesis. Its value depends on your effort.
Clearly the water-sprinkler system you have examined is unsatisfactory for
the twentieth floor and above. One solution is to replace the motor, which is
of the standard shaded-pole design commonfor small induction motors. The
proposed motor, characterized in Fig. 2.10, is of the capacitor-start induction
type. It has two windings; the one with a series capacitance is switched out of
the circuit by a centrifugal switch at 75%of synchronous speed. Ignore potential
problexns with overheating.

(a) Estimate the maximumpossible powers below and above the switching
speed for the proposed motor, and compare to the original motor.

(b) Find the equilibrium speeds for the sprinklers on the tenth, twentieth
and thirtieth floors, respectively, using the proposed motor.

(c) Discuss the stability and any peculiar operation of these equilibria.
2.1. SYSTEM RETICULATION 27

mainand auxiliary winding

~~’--~,,switching
2.0

/’//~

.~.~/~ -’~ main windi~ oNy~

0 -~1 I I I I I I
0 50 150 200
100~,rad/s
Figure 2.10: The motor of Guided Problem 2.2

(d) As project engineer for the system, recommend

a course of action.

Suggested Steps:

1. Power is the product M6. The maximumpowers can be estimated by

trial-and-error guesses of points on the characteristics. Later, youwill see
soIne graphical meansthat will help you zoomin on the maximaquickly.
2. All you really need to find the equilibrium points is the motorcharacter-
istic, represented by the solid line in Fig. 2.10, and the three load char-
acteristics given in Fig. 2.7. Superimposethe load characteristics on the
motorcharacteristics, and find the intersections.
3. Carry out a stability analysis as in Fig. 2.8. Notethat the vertical segment
of the load charateristic merely connects its two end points; operation
cannot occur at an intermediate point. Instead, switching (rapid?) may
Occur.

4. Consider whether the nominalsolutions seem practical; use your common

sense to make a suggestion beyond the formal scope of the analysis as
presented.

PROBLEMS

2.1 Whenthe boat of GuidedProblem2.1 and Fig. 2.9 is traveling at a steady

20 ft/s the throttle is abruptly re-set at 80%.

(a) Find the thrust and drag forces before the velocity has time to change.

(b) Find the instantaneous acceleration of the boat.

28 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

2.2 Estimate the ma~ximumpower 7)maz the induction motor characterized in

Fig. 2.4 can deliver, and the associated torque Mand angular velocity ~. Also,
find the ratio of this power to the power 7)ma~ M.delivered when the torque is
maximized.

2.3 Consider the motor of Guided Problem 2.2 and Fig. 2.10 driving the twentieth-
’~.
floor sprinkler system. The load has an effective inertia of 0.015 kg.m

(a) Estimate the. average net torque available for acceleration over the
speed range 0 < ¢ < 100 rad/s.

(b) Repeat (a) for the speed ranges 100 < ~ < 130 rad/s and 130 <
150 rad/s.

(c) Estimate the time required for the system to accelerate from rest
the switching speed of 150 rad/s.

2.4 An induction motor and load have the characteristics shown below. The
shah and the load are rigidly connected, but have some inertia. Determine the
stabilities of the three equilibrium points.

M~ ~::~ ~ m -- load

otor

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

~ 30
ft/s20

10

0 0 60 0 1 O0
throttle, %
2.1. SYSTEM RETICULATION 29

The 100% thrust curve must be extrapolated to estimate the thrust at 13 ft/s:
about 870 lb. Subtracting 270 lb for the drag force at the same speed gives a net
force of 600 lbs.

Fg 600 x 32.2 ~.
3. a .... 4.83ft/s
mg 4000

13 + 35
The average of the initial and final speeds is 2 - 24 ft/s. At this speed,
the difference between the maximumthrust and the drag is 770 - 490 = 280 lbs,
which gives an acceleration of 280 × 32.__2 ~.
_ 2.25 ft/s
4000

Guided Problem 2.2

main and auxiliary winding

The three maximum powers are at the

2.0 ! 327 points indicated by dots, and have the
powers, Me, in watts, indicated by the
M, original motor ~. numbers. They can be found by trial-
N-m and-error. Note that the points must lie
on the descendingportions of the
1.0 respective characteristics.
.--
~. main winding only ~

0 50 100 150 200

~, rad/s
2~ 3.

Points a and d are seen to be stable

2.0 equilibria. The intersection of the 20th-
floor characteristic with the dotted
M, switching line wouldbe a stable
N.m equilibrium if the dotted line represented
1.0 " a real characteristic. In reality, only
10 e d states b and c exist, so the motor
switches back and forth rapidly between
these twostates.

50 100 150 200

~, rad/s

Something must be done to eliminate the rapid switching for the 20th-floor case,
which would burn out the switch quickly. The simplest solution employs a more
powerful motor, and likely would not be any more expensive than fancier solutions
~vhich retain one of the existing motors. Better matching between one of these
motors and the existing pumpnevertheless presents an alternative class of solution,
as discussed in Section 2.4.
30 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

2.2 Generalized Forces and Velocities

The power that is transferred through the bond between the two sub-systems
in the case study of Section 2.1. equals the product of the torque Mon the
shaft and the angular velocity ¢ of the shaft. This idea of factoring power
into a product of two conjugatevariables also applies to mechanicaltranslation,
mechanicalshear, electrical power, fluid power, heat transfer and other energy
domains. Observation of the scalar or vector nature of the resulting conju-
gate variables establishes analogies(special similarities) betweenvariable types
across these different domains.As a result, analogiescan be drawnalso between
the various types of componentsthat the bonds interconnect. The variables and
componentsin an electric circuit, for example, behavefunctionally in the same
wayas the correspondingvariables in an analogous mechanical"circuit." These
analogies enable you to transfer your knowledgeof one type of physical or engi-
neering systemto another. Theyalso reduce the variety of functionally different
componentsin a modelof an interdisciplinary system.

2.2.1 Efi‘orts and Flows

The powerfactor variables for a generic (or general abstract) bond are called
its effort or generalized force, labeled as "e," and the flow or generalized
velocity, labeled as "0".~ Thus the power becomes

~ (2.4)
Equation(2.4) represents the first of the two. parts of the definition of efforts
and flows. Thus, for example, since P = Me, Mand ~ qualify as effort and
flow. Whichis the effort and which is the flow are determined by the second
part of the definition.
Powerflows along a bond in one direction or the other. Flows are normally
defined as directed, also, while efforts are normallyeither true scalars or are
treated as scalars. (There are infrequent instances in which someadvancedbond
graphers mayconsciously invert the roles of effort and flow, but you should
overlook this possibility at this time.) Scalars such as voltage, pressure and
temperatureare efforts. Directed quantities such as electric current and volume
fluid flow are flows.
Conventionally, the symbolchosento represent an effort variable is written
abovea horizontal bondor to the left of a vertical bond, and the symbolchosen
to represent the powerconjugate flow variable is written below the horizontal
bondor to the right of the vertical bond:

1The traditional bond graph symbol for flow is f. This book substitutes 0 to emphasize
its relation to the displacement, q, and to reflect the practice in analytical dynamics.
2.2. GENERALIZED FORCES AND VELOCITIES 31

(a) (b)

Figure 2.11: Convention distinguishing generalized force (effort) from general-

ized velocity (flow)

e
et i:

Figure 2.12: Power propagated by a pair of electric conductors

The half-arrows on the bonds indicate the direction that power flows when
T’ > 0. If e is a true scalar, this is also the direction of positive flow, 0- One
detail: according to a standard set by a committee during the llth IMACS
World Congress (1985), the half-arrows should be placed on the flow side of the
bond. Consider the examples of Fig. 2.11. In case (a) the positioning of u above
and to the left of the bond, and v below and to the right, signals that u is the
effort (generalized force) while v is the flow (generalized velocity). In case
however, only the location of the half-arrow resolves an ambiguity to show the
same association.

2.2.2 Electric Conductors

Each power flow in an electric circuit is represented by the product of voltage,

e, and current, i:

(2.5)
Voltage is a symmetric or scalar variable with respect to the conductor; it is
identified therefore as a generalized force or effort, represented in this book also
by the symbol e (the sy~nbol v also could be used). Current, on the other hand,
is anti-symmetric with respect to the conductor; it flows one way or the other.
It is identified therefore as a generalized velocity or flow, represented by either
the symbol 0 or the symbol i.
A pair of electric conductors, one grounded, is shown in Fig. 2.12. Note that
the voltage e is the difference in electric potentials of the two conductors, while
the current 0 = i is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. In practice one
usually does not bother to draw the grounded conductor in a circuit diagram,
but nevertheless tacitly assumes its existence. The corresponding bond graph
symbol also is shown, including the power convention half-arrow.
32 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

control surface

subsystem A I subsystem B

velocity~

push-rod: F
veloci

SUBSYSTEM A SUBSYSTEM B

Figure 2.13: Subsystemsinterconnected by a cable or push-rod

The time integral of the electric current,

~ "~dt= q.~ - ql, (2.6)

equals the net electric charge or electric displacement, which happily is

traditionally represented by the samesymbol, q, as mechanicaldisplacement.

2.2.3 Longitudinal Mechanical Motion

Consider an inextensible cable or a push-rod that connects two sub-systems, as
illustrated in Fig. 2.13. The cable has a tension, Ft, with dimensionsof force.
The push-rod can sustain either tension or compression;the choice of variable
shownis compression,Ft. If the velocity of the cable or rod, 5, is defined as
positive in the rightwarddirection, the powerconveyedfrom the left to the right
becomes
17)= -Ftgc or 7)= Fc~:. [ (2.7)
Note that if the cable or the rod is in tension (Ft > 0 or F~ < 0) and k > 0, the
poweris negative, that is being propagatedto the left. The "powerconvention"
(7) > 0 for powerpropagatedto the right) is indicated by the half-arrow on
word bond graph.
The variable 2 is a real velocity aligned with the bond. The generalized
velocity or flow is directed similarly. Therefore, Ft or F~ mustbe the generalized
force, or effort. Forceis defined classically as an action on a system describable
by a vector. The tension F~ or compressionFc, on the other hand, refers to both
the action on the systemand the reaction on its environment.In this symmetric
view the tension or the compressionacts between two systems like a scalar. A
2.2. GENERALIZED FORCES AND VELOCITIES 33

observer A control

tension

axis of bond

observer B

Figure 2.14: The perspectives of two observers at opposite sides of a bond

"generalized force" or effort is a generalized concept of such a variable; voltage

is another example.
A powerful way to determine whether a variable has the directedness of a
flow or generalized velocity or the symmetry of an effort or generalized force
is to consider two observers facing each other head-to-head and toe-to-toe on
either side of the control surface or either end of the bond, as suggested in Fig.
2.14. They both perceive the variable in question at the control surface through
which the bond penetrates. If their perceptions are identical, the variable can be
said to be symmetric with respect to the observers, and the variable is an effort
or generalized force. In our immediate example, if one observer senses tension,
so does the other; if instead he senses compression, so does the other. If the
variable is i, however, one sees a motion directed away from himself, while at
the same time the other sees motion directed toward himself. Anti-symmetry
implies a flow or generalized velocity.

2.2.4 Incompressible Fluid Flow

The flow of a fluid through a pipe or tube can be represented at any cross-section
or control surface as the sumof the flows through a bundle of infinitesiInal stream
tubes, each with cross-sectional, area dA, as suggested in Fig. 2.15. Each stream
tube acts much like a push-rod with compression force dFc = P dA, where P is
the static pressure, and velocity ~ = v. Thus its energy flow rate or power is

d7) = ~ dFc = Pv dA. (2.8)

Assuming P is uniform over the section, integration of this power over the
-~
section gives the total power
2Theapproximationof equations (2.8) and (2.9) omits the transport of both internal
kinetic energies, whichcan be important particularly whenP is small. Nevertheless, they
34 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

, S~treamlines
. t" . ~’"" stream tube

P
~~ ~’ micro-bond:
vdA
P
control surface integrated:
Q

Figure 2.15: Channel with elemental stream tubes of area dA

7 ) = PQ; Q=. f vdA, (2.9)

The symlJol Q stands for volume flow rate. This representation is particularly
useful when the density of the fluid can be assumed to be constant, for then Q
is uniform along the tube or pipe and across any throttling restrictions. (The
analysis of compressible flow in Chapter 12 employs mass flow rate instead.)
The pressure P is the same whether the observer is facing upstream or
downstream; this implies symmetry and identifies P as an effort or generalized
force. It is representable by the generic symbol e, like simple force, momentor
voltage. Conversely, Q has a direction, and thus is a flow or generalized velocity,
representable by the generic symbol 0, l~ke simple velocity, angular velocity and
electric current. Note that the time integral of Q (representable by the generic
symbol q) is the net volume of fluid which has penetrated the control surface.
Sometimes, as a result, the symbol V is preferred for this volume or generalized
displacement, and the symbol ~’z is preferred fbr the volume flow rate.

2.2.5 Rotational Motion

The power transmitted along a rotating shaft was seen in Section 2.1 to be the
product of the moment, M, and angular velocity, ~:

T’ =/~. (2.10)

Whichof the two power factor variables, _~,I or ~, is the effort and which is the
flow? To answer this question, imagine the two observers facing each other at
the two ends of the shaft, as shown in Fig. 2.16. If one sees clockwise rotation,
the other sees counterclockwise rotation. (Check this out by rotating your pencil
apply with considerable accuracy to most hydraulic "fluid power" systems. More complete
representations for compressible flow systems are presented in Chapter 12, where it is shown
that it is more accurate to substitute the stagnation pressure for the static pressure.
2.2. GENERALIZEDFORCESAND VELOCITIES 35

observer A control as seen by both

observers

shaft

Mas seen by
observer A Mas seen by
observer B
observer B

Figure 2.16: Observersviewing rotating shaft

I

or

I
I
controlsurface

Figure 2.17: Power propagated by lateral motion

in one direction and observing it from both ends.) Thus, ~ is a flow variable.
Now,let the two observers sense the torque or moment.Both will feel the
same direction, either clockwise or counterclockwise.(Checkthis out, also, by
placing a clockwise momenton one end of your pencil with your left hand, as
seen by your left wrist, and balancing that momentwith your right hand. Your
right hand then also exerts a clockwise moment,as seen from its wrist.) Thus,
momentMis an effort or generalized force.

2.2.6 Lateral Mechanical Motion

Transverse or lateral motion of a membertransmits power through a control
surface if a corresponding shear force is present. As suggested in Fig. 2.17,
whichrepresents a top view, the poweris the product of the shear force, Fs, and
the lateral velocity, vs:
(2.11)
Observers facing each other at the two ends of the bondsee the shear force
in the samesense, to their respective right sides or respective left sides. If one
observer sees the motion as rightward, on the other hand, the other observer
sees it as leftward, and vice-versa..Thus, the force is the effort and the velocity
is the flow.
36 CHAPTER2. SOURCE-LOAD SIWTHESIS

control vector examples:

observer A
symmetric:(a) and (b)
asymmetric:(c) and (d)

axis of bond

observer B

Figure 2.18: Transversevectors as seen by two observers at opposites sides of a

bond

Should the shear motion be vertical rather than horizontal, however, the
roles of the two variables becomereversed: the velocity is seen as the s~ne by
both observers, while the shear force has opposite sense. Howthe observers
see transverse vectors is pictured in Fig. 2.18. But do you want the distinction
betweeneffort and flow to hinge on whetherthe motionis lined up with the axes
of the observers? In exceptional cases like this, whenneither variable is a true
scalar, you are permitted to choose whichis the effort and which is the flow.
(Most~nodelerschoosethe force as the effort, and the velocity as the flow.) The
convention of the powerhalf-arrow is inviolate, on the other hand: the arrow
points in the direction that the powerflows whenthe product of the effort and
flow variables happensto be positive.

2.2.7 Microbonds

The bonds addressed so far can be called macrobonds, in contrast to mi-

crobonds which describe the power propagated through a microport of in-
finitesimal cross:sectional area, dA. A bond or macrobondis thus the sum or
integral of an infinite numberof microbonds;its existence implies one or more
simplifying assumptions. For the incompressible fluid flow above (Fig. 2.15),
the powerof a microbondis given directly by equation (2.8). Thus, P is the
effort and v dA is the flow. This equation can be integrated to form the mac-
robond only if either P or v is uniformover the channel. If P is uniformor is
assumedto be uniform (the more commonassumption), the equation integrates
to give the product PQ, where Q = f v dA, as noted above. To the extent that
neither P nor v is uniform, however, the macrobonddoes not properly, model
the situation.
2.2. GENERALIZED FORCES AND VELOCITIES 37

flywheel
f
~ ,, -~flywheel

I
control surface control surface

Figure 2.19: The effect of power factoring on accuracy, due to the choice of
control surface or port location

Microbonds for longitudinal motion share the flow variable a? with the mi-
crobond. Therefore, the effort on the microbond is the compressive force -a dA,
where -or is the normal compressive stress. If ~ is uniform throughout the cross
section, the effort of the macrobondbecomes the integral of the stress, namely
the force. If 2 is not uniform, the macrobond cannot model the situation pre-
cisely.
The rotating shaft also can be considered to be the sum or integration of
an infinite set of microports. At the microport level, the rotation is a lateral
motion, with the power density being the product of the shear stress ~- and the
shear velocity vs. Neither of these quantities is commonto all area elements
dA. The moment M is r times the moment arm integrated over the area,

3I = vr[27rr dr], (2.12)

where r is the radius variable and a is the radius of the shaft. Mdoesn’t exist
at a point. The power propagated is the integral of the shear stress times the
shear velocity, vs, over the area, or

7) = 7vs[27rrdr]; vs = r~. (2.13)

A comparison of equ.ations (2.12) and (2.13) shows that ) =M~ is correct onl y
if you assume that ¢ is uniform, and thus can be taken forward of the integral.
This happens when the cross-section of the shaft rotates as a rigid uuit. To the
extent that ~ is not uniform, the very concept of the macroport is in error.
Only in extremely rare cases would the assumption of uniform (~ not be en-
tirely appropriate. The point is, however, that whenever you employ a macro-
scopic variable (such as Mor ~) you are inevitably introducing some measure
of approximation, of inexactness. Sometimest-he error is not small.
As an example, consider a "shaft" that is a thin but large-diameter flywheel,
as shown in Fig. 2.19 part (a). The boundary between the system and the
environment is assumed to lie right in the middle of the flywheel. The center
and the periphery of this flywheel are muchmore likely to experience different
38 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

Table 2.1 Effort and Flow Analogies

generalized force generalized velocity
or effort, e or flow,
Fluid, incompressible:
approximate
t
micro-bond P v dA
Mechanical, longitudinal:
tapproxi~nate v =
Fc
micro-bond
Mechanical, transverse:
rotation M
translation (shear) Fs vs
micro-bond ~-dA vs
Electric conductor: e i
t The powersassociated with the transport of kinetic and potential energies
are added in the Chapter 12. For most mechanicaland incompressible fluid
cases they are small.

angles of rotation than would the center and the periphery of a small shaft. If the
periphery were suddenly braked, for example, the core might continue to rotate
through an additional small angle. Or, if the core is oscillated rotationally at a
high frequency, the periphery might not follow in lock-step; in fact, a "natural
frequency" might well exist at which resonance occurs. Should this phenomenon
possibly exist, you would be well advised to place the system boundary to the
left or to the right of the entire flywheel, as shownin Fig. 2.19 part (b).
It is a good idea, then, to partition a system from its environment at a
location where the interaction can be described simply (in the present case by
the variables q~ and M). There are no inviolate rules for doing this; consequently,
modeling ultimately becomes an art. (You should not be discouraged by this
fact, for any subject that can be reduced to rules can becomevery dull, and its
practitioner is subject to being replaced by software.) Cutting a motor through
its middle, for example, likely would cause you grief, even though it would not
be incorrect.

2.2.8 Analogies

The effort and flow symbols for the various media that have been examined are
summarized in Table 2.1. The various effort variables are said to be analogous
to one another, as are the various flow variables, due to their commondefinitions
with respect to power and directivity. The implications will gradually become
clearer, as you identify commontypes of elements that represent various classes
of interactions between the efforts and flows or their time integrals or time
derivatives.
2.2. GENERALIZED FORCES AND VELOCITIES 39

The direct analogy between mechanical and electric circuit variables as-
sociates mechanical force and torque with electric voltage, and linear or rotary
mechanical velocity with electric current. 3 This analogy can help the student
well grounded in mechanical systems transfer his knowledge to electric circuits.
Similarly, it can help the student well grounded in electric circuits to extend
his understanding into mechanical "circuits." Similar conceptual and computa-
tional advantages in the transference of knowledge accrue from the other analo-
gies.
A few physical interactions are not best ~epresented by simple bonds or
product conjugate variables. The example of compressible fluid flow is treated
in Chapter 12.

2.2.9 Summary

The power flowing through a simple port or simple bond customarily is fac-
tored into a product of two variables, e0. The "effort" or "generalized force" e
normally is symmetric, and the "flow" or "generalized velocity" 0 normally is
anti-symmetrlc with respect to two observers facing each other from opposite
ends of the bond. This simple factoring applies to longitudinal, lateral and rota-
tional motions of a rod, cable or shaft, to electric conductors and to the flow of
an incompressible fluid, establishing important analogies l?etween variables used
in these different domains. The direction of positive power flow is indicated on
a bond by a half-arrow.
A standard port or macro-port and its bond can be considered to be the sum
or integration of a bundle of micro-ports and their micro-bonds, each represent-
ing an infinitesimal cross-sectional area. This summingor integration inevitably
introduces some degree of approximation. All use of (macro) bonds, and indeed
the very use of the word "modeling," implies approximation. Only pure math-
ematics is exact. The practical question is not the presence of error, but rather
its extent and significance.

PROBLEMS

2.5 A cable attached to the top of the machine shown on the left at the top
of the next page is pulled upward, thereby producing some energetic effect.
Represent the interaction with a bond, annotated with a power half-arrow and
effort and flow variables, which should be defined.

3Electrical engineers sometimesdrawthe "Firestone analogy"betweenforce and current

on one hand and velocity and voltage on the other. This gives a greater apparent similarity
betweencircuit diagramsand somecorresponding mechanical"circuits." For basic physi-
cal reasonsincludingits extensibility to non-circuit situations, however,the author strongly
prefers the direct analogy.
4O CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

[cable
~ machine I
!machine[

2.6 A lever attached to the machine shown above right is rotated upward.
Represent the interaction by an energy bond, annotated by symbols for effort
and flow which you should define and by a power convention half-arrow.

2.7 Heat conduction is a special kind of power that can be treated as the prod-
uct of an effort and a flow, like the other power types above. The effort variable
is absolute temperature, which you can label as T. The power itself is the rate
of heat transfer, which you can label as Q, where Q is a quantity of thermal
energy called heat. Determine the flow variable, 0, in terms of these variables,
and express its integral as the displacement variable, q. Relate this displacement
variable to a commonvariable used in thermodynamics. (This question presup-
poses that you have been introduced to thermodynamics. Further consideration
of heat transfer and more general thermodynamics is postponed until Chapters
9 and 12.)

2.3 Generalized Sources, Sinks and Resistances

The case study of Section 2.1 was represented by the word bond graph

INDUCTION M LOAD
MOTOR ~9 SYSTEM

Both the induction motor and the load system were modeled by particular static
relations between the commonshaft moment, M(or Mmor Mp), and the shaft
angular velocity, ~. In Section 2.2 such static relationships were generalized, so
that the form of this system becomes

in which S stands for "source" and R stands for "resistance." Sources normally
emanate power, whereas resistances normally absorb or dissipate power.
The effort e and flow ~ in this graph could represent any of the energy types
discussed in the last section. The graph could represent an electrical system,
a system with incompressible fluid flow, or a mechanical system with either
longitudinal, lateral or rotational motion. The source and resistance elements
in each case might be characterized in one of several special ways, which will
now be discussed.
2.3. GENERALIZED SOURCES, SINKS AND RESISTANCES 41

eo
Se--.-~- or .~...-~-
e S

s° --g2-
or

.
qo

Figure 2.20: Characteristics of effort and flow sources and sinks

2.3.1 Independent-Effort and Independent-Flow

Sources and Sinks

An independent-effort source, usually called simply an effort source, and

a independent-effort sink, usually called simply an effort sink, are defined
to haveefforts whichare independentof their flows. This meanseither that e is
a constant, or in general a function of time, e = e(t). The elements provide or
absorb any flow that the attached system mayrequire in response to the imposed
effort. This behavior is represented in the plot of Fig. 2.20 by a horizontal
line in the e-0 plane. Both elements are designated by the symbol Se. The
only difference betweenthem is that the source is designated with an outward-
directed powerarrow, and the sink with an inward-directed powerarrow:

effort source: Se ~
effort sink : ~ Se

They are really the same element, since there is no absolute requirement that
the powerflows in the direction of the powerarrow, that is e0 > 0; it is just
nice to have different wordsto express the different functions normallyserved
by the element.
Physical examples approximated by the Se element include a force source
as from a weight in a gravity field, a torque source, a voltage source as from
an ideal battery, and a pressure source or sink from a large body of water at
some elevation. These examplesare suggested in Fig. 2.21. Coulombor "dry"
friction also can be modeledas a force source, as long as the motion never
reverses direction, as discussed below.
The independent-flow source and the independent-flow sink, more
simply called the flow source and the flow sink, are similar to the effort source
and the effort sink except that the flow is independentof the effort rather than
the effort being independentof the flow. As this reversal or roles suggests, the
flow maybe either constant or an independent function of time. The elements
provide whatever effort that the systemrequires in response to the independent
42 CHAPTER2. SOURCE-LOADS-YNTHESIS

mechanicaltranslational:

mechanicalrotational:

fluid (gravity):

electrical (ideal battery):

Figure 2.21: Exampleeffort sources and sinks

2.3. GENERALIZED SOURCES, SINKS AND RESISTANCES 43

flow. Flow sources and sinks are designated by the symbol S~:

flow source: S,t

flow sink: ~ Sf

The generalized characteristic is plotted in Fig. 2.20 as a vertical line.

A synchronous motor turns with a constant speed, determined by the
fl’equency of the driving ACvoltage (usually 50 or 60 Hz), as long as the load
torque does not exceed some limit. A source SI element models this behavior,
but does not recognize the torque limits. Any other constant velocity source,
constant current source or constant fluid flow source also can be represented by
the element.
Notice again that a current sink of 5 amps is the same as a current source
of -5 amps, as a pressure source of 5 psi is the same as a pressure sink of -5
psi. Thus, you are permitted to avoid effort and flow sinks in favor of effort and
flow sources, or vice-versa, although most modelers prefer to use both types.

2.3.2 General Sources and Sinks

A general source (S ~) can represent any prescribed static (or algebraic)
relationship between its effort and its flow. Thus, as noted above, the induction
motor of Section 2.1 can be represented as a general source. Other examples
include a model of a battery for which the voltage depends on the current, a
model of a velocity-dependent force applied to a mechanical system and a model
of a pressure source that depends on the fluid flow. In the most general case,
the relationship itself could be an explicit function of time.
The general sink element (~S) is not employed per se in this book, in
favor of the equivalent term resistance and its symbol R, as discussed below.
You will see in Chapter 4 that any general source can be represented well by
an effort source or a flow source in combination with a simple resistance. Ulti-
mately, the general source is employed, if at all, only as a convenient shorthand.

2.3.3 Linear Resistances

The generalized resistance, indicated as
e

can have any functional dependencybetween its effort and its flow. It is helpful
to distinguish different classes of these elements.
The simplest class is the linear resistance which, in a plot of effort vs. flow
as illustrated in part (a) of Fig. 2.22, is represented by a straight line drawn
through the origin. The slope of this characteristic is defined as the modulus
of the resistance, or for short its "resistance," which in this book is given the
same symbol, R. Thus, a symbol Ri in a bond graph indicates that a resistance
relation applies between the associated effort ei and flow ~i. The algebraic
44 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

ei
// -R

(a) linear (b) nonlinear

qi

(c) power as area (d) linear biased (e) multiple valued

Figure 2.22: Types of resistance characteristics

expression ei = Ri~)i, where R~ is a constant, details this relationship. This

or any other algebraic expression is written separately from the bond graph,
however; algebra is never included within a bond graph. The two meanings of
the resistance are distinct.
The electrical resistor may be the most familiar approximation to a linear
resistance. The effort is the voltage drop e across the resistor, the flow is the
current i which passes through it, and e = Ri. This and other linear resistances
are pictured in Fig. 2.23.
A commonlinear fluid resistance results from the assumption of viscous lam-
inar fully-developed steady flow through a circular tube. In your fluid mechanics
course you will derive the relation that the pressure drop P across the tube is
related to the volume flow rate Q through it by

P = RQ; R =- 8p_~_L (2.14)

where a is the inner radius of the tube, L is its length, and # is the absolute
viscosity of the assumed incompressible fluid. More generally, whenever the
viscous forces overwhelm the inertial forces in an incompressible flow through
a passage, that is when the Reynold’s number is low, the resistance can be
approximated as linear, and its modulus as a constant. Examples include flow
through a thin slit such as a leakage path in a machine, flow through a porous
plug and "creeping" flow through an orifice.
Mechanical devices that can be approximated by a linear resistance are hard
to make, but are very co~nmonly assumed in analysis. They are called dash-
pots, and are given the special symbol shown in part (c) of Fig. 2.23. The ratio
2.3. GENERALIZED SOURCES, SINKS AND RESISTANCES 45

(a) electrical resistance

---~i R
te---’~R e =Ri
e~--~~ -~~~
(b) fluid resistance
P
"~ P=RQ
L Q ~’R

(c) translational dashpot linear fluid resistance

x F=tUc, R=b
X
(d) rotational dashpot thin film of fluid

M=R~, R=b

classical symbol physical example bond graph relationship

Figure 2.23: Devices approximated by linear resistances

46 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

of the force to the velocity traditionally is designated by the symbol b, so the

modulus of the bond graph element is R = b. One way to construct a linear
translational dashpot is to convert the relative velocity of the two translating
membersto the flow of ~: liquid, which can be done by employing a piston and
cylinder. Then, as shown in the example, this liquid is forced through a passage
that behaves as a linear fluid resistance according to equation (2.14).
A rotational dashpot is designated by a similar symbol, as shown in part
(d) of the figure. Translational and rotational dashpots often are described
as "viscous dampers" because it is hard to approximate linearity mechanically
without using a viscous fluid. The shear flow of a viscous liquid in a very thin
annulus between a rotating cylinder and a cylindrical shell, for example, can
produce a torque proportional to angular velocity, that is a rotational linear
resistance. As a practical matter, however, the small amount of fluid trapped in
the annulus is apt to overheat, causing its viscosity to drop, or worse, causing
the fluid to oxidize and turn black, like the motor oil in your car.

2.3.4 Nonlinear Resistances

Any component with a single effort or generalized force that is a function of
an associated flow or generalized velocity, but is not proportional to it, can be
described as a nonlinear resistance. The general resistance is the same as the
general sink, and is used in its stead. Flow through an orifice at anything higher
than creeping Reynold’s numbers is an example. If Bernoulli’s equation is used
to model the flow between an upstream state with zero velocity and the point
in the throat where it achieves maximumvelocity, and complete dissipation of
the kinetic energy is assumed to occur downstream, the result is

P=-~pv ~=~p ~ = ~ . (2.15)

Here, p is the fluid density and c4 is a flow coefficient which represents the
fact that the flow separates from the walls of the orifice to form a narrower vena
contracta or effective orifice area CdAo. (For a sharp-edged orifice, Cd = 0.611;
in most other cases it is larger but less than 1.0.) The equation often is used
even when the assumptions above are recogniZed as inaccurate; in this case, Cd
is adjusted to accomodate the error, and likely is determined experimentally.
The characteristic given by equation (2.15) is plotted in Fig. 2.24.
Replacing the linear fluid resistance in the translational viscous damper in
Fig. 2.23 with an orifice flow produces a nonlinear mechanical damper, as sug-
gested in Fig. 2.24. The shock absorbers in your car are essentially of this
construction. Not only is the nonlinear behavior easier to obtain, it is desirable;
for small bumps you want the shock absorber to act gently, whereas for large
bumps you prefer that it act more vigorously so as not to bottom out (reach its
mechanical limit).
A mechanical brake is another kind of nonlinear resistance. As shown in Fig.
2.25, the classical model for such a resistance comprises a constant or coulomb
2.3. GENERALIZED SOURCES, SINKS AND RESISTANCES 47

nozzle: --~--- -----

valve or p .~ ~ P or F
porous plug: "--~~

large hole with small orifice

shock
absorber: F
0o

Figure 2.24: Nonlinear fluid resistance and application in a mechanical damper

isk
MI

~o e

Figure 2.25: A mechanical brake and its ideal resistance characteristic

friction torque for forward motion, associated with the kinetic coefficent of
friction, and an equal but opposite torque for reverse motion. This assumes
application of a fixed force to the brake calipers. Whenthere is no motion, the
resistance torque balances whatever torque is applied, as long as it does not
exceed the "breaknway"torque which is associated with the static coefficient of
friction. If the disk never rotates backwards, however, this model gives nothing
but a constant torque, and can be modeled better as an effort sink. You also
will see more exotic friction models in Chapter 4, such as the one that makes a
violin sing or a dry door hinge squeel.
The resistance characteristic shown in part (b) of Fig. 2.22 is nonlinear
two ways: it is curved, and it does not pass through the origin, or is biased.
The modulus of the resistance, R, is defined as the slope of the chord from
the origin to the state point of interest, as shown. This chordal resistance
therefore is not constant, but rather is a function of t) or e:

e = R~); R = R(c)) or R = R(e). (2.16)

These equations also apply to the linear case, except that R becomes constant.
The power dissipated in the resistance, for either the linear or the nonlinear
case, equals the area. of the rectangle defined by the origin and the operating
point, as indicated in part (c) of the figure. Algebraically,

P = eO= R(~)O". (2.17)

A linear biased characteristic is shown in part (d) of Fig. 2.22. In Chapter
48 CHAPTER2. SOURCE-LOADSYNTHESIS

4, biased characteristics are represented as combinationsof an effort or flow

source and an unbiased linear or nonlinear (curved) characteristic. Finally,
multiplezvaluedcharacteristics are shownin part (e). The characteristics illus-
trated, nevertheless, are globally passive, unlike the biased curves (b) and (d),
since they reside only in the first and third quadrants where the powerprod-
uct e4 is positive everywhere.Anexampleof a multiple-valued characteristic is
given in GuidedProblem2.3. Note that any bias destroys passivity, but a lack
of bias does not assure passivity.

2.3.5 Source-Load Synthesis

The interconnectionof a rotary source to a rotary load, by a shaft, was treated in

Section 2.1.3 by finding the intersection of the two torque-speedcharacteristics.
The same type of synthesis applies to any simple interconnection in which the
poweris represented by the product of a pair of conjugate generalized forces
and velocities.

EXAMPLE 2.1
The output pressure of an impeller pumpreduces the net flow below that
of the geometrically slip-free flow. The result is a nonlinear source charac-
teristic, as plotted below. The particular load characteristic plotted in the
figure also is nonlinear, typical of the flows through sharp restrictions as
discussed above and as employedin the water-sprinkler nozzles of Section
2.1. Determinethe equilibrium state for the combinationof these elements,
andits stability.

8O load

P,
60 ~
psi
40 ~ ~ ~750 rpm
20 IMPELLERPUMP~ LOAD ~

I I I I I I
0 I I I
0 100 200 300 Q, in3/s400
2.3. GENERALIZED SOURCES, SINKS AND RESISTANCES 49

Solution: The equilibrium state is given by the intersection of the char-

acterisitics. This equilibrium is stable, since {f operation is attempted at a
larger flow, the pressure of the load would exceed the pressure of the pump,
ibrcing the flow back toward equilibrium. If operation is attemped at a
smaller flow, the pressure of the pumpwould exceed that of the load, again
forcing the flow toward equilibrium.

2.3.6 Power Considerations

The power th’at is transmitted from a source to a load often is of interest. Loci
of constant power can be constructed on an e - ~ plot. One such locus is
shown in part (a) of Fig. 2.26. The power equals the cross-hatched area of the
rectangle of height e and width ~. All points on the locus must have the same
area, as suggested by the two other rectangles shown. The curve is a rectilinear
hyperbola.
The slope of a chord drawn from the origin to any point on a locus of constant
power equals the magnitude of the slope of the tangent to the locus drawn at
the same point. This fact, illustrated in part (b) of the figure, aids the sketching
of constant power loci. Note also that the chord and the tangent form isosceles
triangles with the ~ axis.

3 P=e~=4 3
e e
2 2

0 0
0 1 2 0 3 4 0 i 2 0 3 4
(a) rectangles (b) chords and tangents

Figure 2.26: Loci of constant power as rectilinear hyperbolas.

50 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

EXAMPLE 2.2
Locate the point of maximum power on the torque-speed characteristic of
the induction motoras plotted below.

2.5

1.0
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200
~, rad/s
Solution: A family of loci for various constant powers is superimposed
on the plot below. The locus representing the maximum power, shownby a
dashedrectilinear hyperbola, is tangent to the cha[acteristic at the operating
point for that power. All other points on the characteristic have less power,
including the point of maximulnmoment.A simpler way to estimate the
location of the maximum power equates the magnitUdeof the slope of the
chord from the origin to the point, and the slope of the tangent to the
characteristic at that point. Thesestraight lines are drawndashed.

loci for constant powers,W

50 100 200 300 400
2.5

1.0
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200
~, rad/s

The source-load synthesis of a linear electrical source and linear electrical

load is given in Fig. 2.27. The magnitudeof the slope of the source characteristic
is knownas the source impedance.The slope of the load characteristic, which
is also the resistance of the load, is similarly knownas the load impedance.
Maximum poweris transferred from source to load at the midpoint of the source
characteristic. Not only does this point maximizethe area of the rectangle
betweenit and the origin, but the chord from the origin to this point has the
same magnitudeof slope as the tangent to the load characteristic, which is
2.3. GENERALIZED SOURCES, SINKS AND RESISTANCES 51

~
~ ~,~rce impedance
d impedance

Figure 2.27: Synthesis of linear source and load to maximize power transfer

the load impedance itself. Thus, maximumpower is transmitted when the

load impedance equals the source impedance. Such "impedance matching" is
standard between audio amplifiers and audio speakers, for example.

2.3.7 Summary

One-port elements with constant effort independent of flow, but possibly de-
pendent explicitly on time, are designated by the bond-graph symbol Se. They
are called constant-effort sources if their power arrow is drawn outward, and ¯
constant-effort sinks if it is drawn inward. One-port elements with constant
flow independent of effort, but possibly dependent explicitly on time, are des-
ignated by the bond-graph symbol Sy. They are called constant-flow sources
if their power arrow is drawn outward, and constant-flow sinks if it is drawn
inward. General sources have other relationships between the effort and flow,
and are designated by the bond-graph symbol S.
General sinks normally are called resistances, and are designated by the bond
graph symbol R. Resistances occur whenever electrical, mechanical or fluid
energy is dissipated into heat. The slope of a chord drawn from the origin to a
point on the characteristic curve of a resistance is called the chordal resistance
or just the resistance, and is designated by the same symbol, R. Resistance
characteristics that pass through the origin of the effort-flow coordinates are
called unbiased; others are called biased. An unbiased resistance is called passive
if its characteristic remains in the first and third quadrants of the coordinates,
since then the power 7) =e~ is always positive into the element, regardless of
the operating point. It will be shown in Chapter 4 that both general sources and
resistances can be represented by a combination of an effort or flow source or
sink and an unbiased resistance. The simplest resistance is linear and unbiased;
its value of R is constant.
Linear fluid resistances depend of the viscosity of the fluid. Nonlinear fluid
resistances depend rather on the density of the fluid. Linear mechanical resis-
tances or dashpots often are called "viscous dampers," and often depend on the
viscosity of a fluid. Mechanical friction, as in a brake, is an unbiased nonlinear
resistance, but maybe approximated as~ an effort source or sink if its motion is
always in one direction.
52 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

, ~ .......

f
800

6o
90..~O....~hrustfor indicated percentthrottle"
80

force, F ~ ~/dral
lbf 50 ~
400

2OO
~ I

0 I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
speed,k, ft/s

Figure 2.28: Thrust and drag characteristics for the boat in Guided Problem
2.3

The source-load synthesis illustrated in Section 2.1 and again in Example

2.1 can be generalized for any of the powertypes considered. The synthesis
maximizesthe powertransmitted if the chordal resistance of the load equals the
slope of the source characteristic at the equilibrium point:

Guided Problem 2.3

This problemoffers you needed experience in source-load synthesis, and reveals
an important phenomenoncalled hysteresis, or history-dependent behavior
including sudden jumpsin state.
The IC engine and propeller drive from Guided Problem 2.1 is placed in
a small boat with a planing-type hull. Unlike the displacement-type hull con-
sidered before, the drag characteristic of this hull, plotted in Fig. 2.28, has a
pronouncedlocal maximum (at about 24 feet per second). This peak is due
the wavegenerated by the motion. At the speed of its maximum,the bow is
considerablyelevated over the stern, so. in effect the boat is continually trying
to climb a hill of water. At higher speeds the boat "planes," riding high and
nearly level, with the generated wavecrest being amidships.
Find and plot the steady-state relationship betweenthe throttle position and
the speed of the boat. Clearly indicate any hysteretic behavior.

Suggested Steps:

1. Draw a word bond graph for the system, naming a source, a load, a
ggneralized velocity and a generalized force.
2.3. GENERALIZED SOURCES, SINKS AND RESISTANCES 53

10
~5.5V [ ]
io, mA
/ ~..------~ e~=5.0 V

6
~/ 4..._,_.5
V

4 /
4.0 V

3.5V
¯ 3.ov
"~’~IDo 0,_, 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
eD, V
1.5k ~f~ ~-~

12 VT ~
@)e~

Figure 2.29: Characteristics of a MOSFET

for Guided Problem 2.4

Were it not already done, you would superimpose plots of the source char-
acteristics and the load characteristic, making sure the dimensions, units
and scales are compatible.

Cross-plot all intersections of the source and load characteristics onto co-
ordinates with speed on the ordinate and throttle position on the abcissas.

If and where it is not clear how to connect the points on your cross-
plot with a continuous curve, generate more points by interpolating more
source characteristics.

Identify any jumps in behavior with arrows on the cross-plot. Note explic-
itly the range of throttle positions for which there are multiple speeds. In
this range the actual speed depends on the history of the throttle position
as well as its current state.

Guided Problem 2.4

This type of problem is familiar to electrical engineers. It requires determination
of a source characteristic. Your instructor may advise you on its relevance to
your situation.
An n-channel enhancement MOSFETis driven by a 12 v battery and has
a load resistance of 1.5 kfL Given the characteristics plotted in Fig. 2.29, plot
the drain current iD and voltage eD as a function of the gate voltage
54 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

Suggested Steps:

1. Consider the battery and resistor as the power "source," and the given
characteristics as the "load." Superimposethe source characteristic on the
given plot. Hint: It is a straight line with negative slope; its intersections
with the axes are readily found.

2. Cross-plot the intersections of the source line and the given load charac-
teristics onto plots of iD vs. eG’ and eD vs. eG.

PROBLEMS

2.8 A shaft drives a load that resists with a constant torque regardless of speed,
assuming that the shaft never reverses direction. Indicate what type of bond-
graph element most simply represents this frictional behavior. Label the effort
and flow of its bond with symbols that indicate their meanings, and show the
power-convention half-arrow.

2..9 As noted in the text and pictured in Fig. 2.23, a viscous fluid damper can
be made by placing a cylindrical hole through the piston of a fixed double-rod-
end cylinder. Fluid leakage around the piston and friction between the piston
and the cylinder walls may be neglected. (These seemingly contradictory as-
sumptions could be reasonable if low-friction polymer seals are used between the
piston and the cylinder.) You will need to define relevant physical parameters
(constants) in order to carry out the following:

(a) Find the relationships between the force and the pressure difference
across the piston, and between the velocity and the flow.

(b) Sketch-plot the force vs. the velocity, and express the resistance
relative to the velocity as a function of fixed parameters to the extent
possible. Is this approximate resistance a constant?

2.10 Answer the above problem when the cylindrical hole is replaced by a short
orifice of area Ao, to create a standard type of shock absorber.

2.11 A shaft of radius a, shown below, rotates concentrically in a fluid-filled

journal with radial clearance e < < a and length L.
2.3. GENERALIZED SOURCES, SINKS AND RESISTANCES 55

(a) Find the steady-state resistance relative to the angular velocity of the
shaft.

(b) Discuss any major pract’ical deviation from the assumed behavior.

2.12 Write the chordal resistance of the flow through an orifice, as modeled by
equation (2.15), in the form R -- R(Q).

2.13 The impeller pump of Example 2.1 (p. 48) drives a load for which P
20 + 0.10 Q psi, where Q has units of in 3/s, in place of the plotted load. Estimate
the equilibriura pressure and flow.

2.14 Estimate the maxitnum power that the impeller pump of Example 2.1 (p.
48) could deliver if the load could be changed arbitrarily. Give the corresponding
pressure and flow rate, also.

2.15 The hydraulic load plotted in Example2.1 (p. 48) is driven by a hydraulic
source described by P = 80 - 0.2Q psi, where Q has units of in3/s, in place of
the impeller pump. Estimate the equilibrium pressure and flow.

2.16 Estimate the maximumpower that the internal combustion engine char-
acterized in Fig. 2.39 (p. 75) can produce. (This figure appears in Section 2.5,
but you should disregard everything in the figure except for the engine charac-
teristic.)

2.17 An npn transistor in the commonemitter configuration has the charac-

teristics plotted below for various values of the base current, ib.

transistor ~ load
ec 8

R-- 1500
4 ~ ~ 10

50’
~[ ~"
~ ~"
ic’mA ~’~~

-- ’ " --e°=12V- 00 4 8 12
e,., V

(a) Superimposeon the plot the characteristic for the load which comprises
the voltage source eo and the resistor R.

(b) Plot the load (emitter) current, ic, as a function of the base current,
and approximate this relation algebraically.
56 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

2.18 The boat of Guided Problem 2.3 and Fig. 2.28 pulls one or more water
skiers. The force in the tow line for one skier is shown plotted below as a
function of speed; note that a planing phenomenonexists which is similar to
that of the boat hull, but more pronounced.

200[- .......... -~

0 ~//,
0
,~ , , , ,-"------~~,,, ~
10 20 30 40 50
speed, ft/s

(a) Carefully estimate the maximum

steady speed for towing a single skier.

(b) Estimate the maximumnumber of identical skiers that can be accel-

erated from rest simultaneously, and estimate their maximumspeed.

(c) In a fancy maneuver, skiers are transferred to the boat from another
boat, at full speed. Estimate the maximumnumber of skiers that can be
towed successfully after the transfer, and estimate their maximumspeed.

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 2.3

velocity,.f
40
f~/s
3O
¯ jump~ ~~
I~/I PROPELLER F
2O DRIVE
A~
~ hysteresis
l0 band

20 40 60 80 100
throttle, %
2.4 IDEAL MACHINES: TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 57

Guided Problem 2.4

l0
i~,
mA
8 e:

¢o 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
eo, V

2. 12

~
"1 I I I
I
4 6
e~, V

2.4 Ideal Machines: Transformers and

Gyrators
An ideal machine transmits work at one of its two "ports" to work at the other
"port." Although the effort and the flow usually are changed, energy is not
stored, generated or dissipated. Entropy also is not generated. Levers, gears,
electric motors and piston pumps are examples of engineering components that
may be approximated as ideal machines.
In modeling physical or engineering systems one often neglects the dissipa-
tion of energy, or more properly the conversion of energy to heat. This simplifi-
cation is done despite the fact that leakage or slippage in the presence of friction
or analogous generalized forces inevitably has at least a small effect. For ex-
ample, a gear train might be assumed to be frictionless, an electric transformer
might be assumed to have perfect coupling and zero resistance, an electric mo-
tor might be assumed to be 100%efficient in converting electrical energy to
58 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

mechanical form, and a fluid pump might similarly be approximated as convert-

ing mechanical energy to fluid energy completely. Even if energy dissipation is
not neglected, often it is represented separately. For example, a real electric
motor can be represented as a frictionless or ideal motor plus an external resis-
tance to represent electrical losses and another external resistance to represent
mechanical friction.

2.4.1 Ideal Machines

All of these devices can be described as "machines," in a generalized sense, and

models of them that neglect energy loss are called ideal machines. There are
two particular generic (or generalized) types of ideal machine that command
special attention. One is called a transformer, and the other a gyrator. (The
fatniliar electrical transformer is an electrical approximation of the transformer,
but only if it is idealized so as to work perfectly at all frequencies, including
DC, unlike a real electrical transformer.)
An ideal machine can be represented by the word bond graph

IDEAL
MA CHINE

It is defined to conserve energy, that is to consume or produce zero net power

at all times. Thus the input power equals the output power. With the power
convention of this graph,
e101 = e_~02. (2.19)
The ideal machine can be run in either direction. Although a positive power
flows from left to right according to the power convention arrows chosen ar-
bitrarily above, the power could be negative, and therefore flow from right to
left. As well as being able to run forwards or backwards, the ideal machine is
thermodynamically reversible, which means that it generates no entropy. As a
result, neither power can represent the flow of heat.

2.4.2 Transformers

Equation (2.19) allows for many different types of ideal machines. The most
commontype, called the transformer, satisfies the additional relation

=r0,.] (2.20)
Thus T is defined as the ratio o/the generalized velocity or flow on the bond
with the outward power arrow to the generalized velocity or flow on the bond
with the inward power convention arrow. This ratio, called the modulus of the
transformer, may be constant, or.in general may be a function of the displace-
ment q~ or some other displacement. Until Chapter 9, attention is restricted
to tranformers with constant moduli. Constant modulus or not, .the symbol T
within a bond graph designates this type of relationship. Other authorg usually
 2.4 IDEAL MACHINES: TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 59

elaborate with the designation TF, or, if the modulus is not a constant, with
MTF(for modulated transformer):

el._~_T el MTF e2
~.1 T ~.2 ¯ F~ ~o ~
ql q’2 ql q~ ~ O~

Subscripts can be added to the symbol T to distinguish different transformers

that might appear in the same model. (Most other authors do not-designate
¯ commonsymbol for the modulus of transformers.) ~bu must not confuse the
bond-graph symbol T with the modulus T; only the modulus can participate in
an equation, such as T = 5.
Substitution of equation (2.20) into the conservation-of-energy equation (2.19)
gives a simple but profound result:

[G1 = T~2 . ] (2.21)

In words, the ratio of the 9e~evalized forces of an ideal transformer equals the
inverse of the ratio of the respective ~eneralized velocities.

2.4.3 Gyrators
The second major possibility for the ideal machine is the gyrator, which by
definition satisfies

Thus, the modulus of the gyrator, G, is defined as the ratio of the effort on one
of the bonds -- either one -- to the flow on the other bond. Substitution of
equation (2.22) into (2.19) gives

el = G02, (2.23)

The gyrator in a bond graph is designated by the symbol G; other authors more
commonly employ GYor, if the modulus is not a constant, MGY:
el G e2 e_._L__~MG
e.1 GY e.2 Y

Like T, the modulus G need not be a constant, although consideration of non-

constant moduli is deferred until Chapter 9.

2.4.4 Mechanical Devices Modeled as Transformers

Most mechanical drives can be represented as transformers with constant mod-
uli, as long as frictional losses are neglected. Such drives can be based either
on non-sliding friction (shear forces) or positive action (normal forces). Fric-
tion drives include belt drives, as suggested in Fig. 2.30, and rolling drives, as
suggested in Fig. 2.31. Friction drives are inexpensive, and can damp vibra-
tions. On the other hand, the transmitted forces are limited by the frictional
properties of the materials.
60 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

Figure 2.30: Examples of pulley drives

cylindrical conical

Figure 2.31: Examples of roiling contact drives

2.4 IDEAL MACHINES: TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 61

(CourtesySeitz Corporation)

(a) timing belt (b) chain and sprocket

, Bostb-nGearWorks) (Courte~.GleasonWorks)
(C) spur gear (d) bevel gear

Figure 2.32: Examples of toothed drives

Teeth added to a belt gives a timing-belt drive, and a chain of links and
pins substituted for the belt gives a chain-and-sprocket drive. Similarly,
teeth added to the wheels of a rolling drive produce a gear drive. These
positive-action drives can carry heavy loads and high power efficiently. Ex-
amples are shown in Fig. 2.32. All of them can be designed to operate very
s~noothly, for example by using gear teeth with involute shape. Neverthe-
less, slight manufacturing errors or deflections due to heavy loads occasionally
produce significant vibrations not included in a constant-modulus transformer
model.
The nominal kinematics of most toothed drives can be analyzed as though
the teeth or sprockets weren’t there. The virtual surface of contact for a rotating
member is known as the pitch surface. A cylindrical pitch surface possesses
a pitch radius, r, and a pitch diameter. For a pulley, wheel or gear, the
commonvelocity of the two couple.d me~nbers 1 and 2 at the point of contact
is v = r~l = ro.q~_9, where ~ and ¢.., are the respective angular velocities. The
62 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

(ideal) transformer electrical transformer

(ideal) gyrator

Figure 2.33: Standard electric circuit symbols for transformers and gyrators

ratio of the angular velocities of the two pulleys or two gears etc. therefore is
the inverse of the ratio of their pitch radii or diameters, i.e. T = ~/~ = rl/r.,..

2.4.5 Electrical Transformers

An electrical transformer acts like an ideal transformer only for frequencies

of ex~citation that are neither too small nor too large, and only if resistance
losses are neglected. Whenunqualified, the term transformer refers to the ideal
element asdiscussed above, and therfore does not include the real electrical
transformer., Circuit diagrams, however, sometimes refer to idealized behavior
that is equivalent to the (ideal) transformer. Electric circuit symbols for both
the real electric transformer and the (ideal) transformer are given in Fig. 2.33.
The non-ideal behavior of an electrical transformer is modeled in Chapter 10 by
combining the (ideal) transformer with other elements.
Purely fluid devices (fluid-in and fluid-out) that act like transformers without
any moving mechanical parts are almost nonexistent. Nevertheless, devices with
internal moving parts that behave like fluid transformers can be synthesized from
two component devices that act like transducing transfomers or gyrators. An
example is given in Section 2.5, after the idea of transducing transformers and
gyrators is introduced.

2.4.6 Transducers Modeled as Transformers

A two-port device that converts (or transduces) energy directly from one energy
domain to another, without employing a thermal engine, is called a trans-
ducer. Electrical and fluid motors, actuators, generators, pumps, compressors
and turbines are power transducers that convert substantial power from one
domain to another. Some people reserve the word "transducer" for instrument
transducers, such as microphones, tachometers, strain gages and instruments
that measure temperature, pressure, acceleration, etc. These convert relatively
little power into electrical form, since their function is to provide information.
Sometransducers are transformational, while others are gyrational.
2.4 IDEAL MACHINES: TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 63

EXAMPLE 2.3
Show that the positive-displacement inechanical-to-fluid power transducer
in the ibrm of a piston-and-cylinder or rain, as shown below, can be
modeled as a transformer if leakage and friction are neglected. Find the
modulus of the transformer in terms of physical constant(s).

\\\\\\

Solution: The volume flow rate of ~h~ ~uid, Q, ~quals ~h~ velocity of i~
shaft, ~, times the area of the piston, A:

Q= ~A.
Further, the input power on one side equals the output power on the other
side,
F~ = PQ.
Substitution gives
F~ = (Q/~)P = AP.
If the device is modeled as a transformer, its bond graph must be

Fc T~

The transformer modulus T is defined as the ratio Q]~, and therefore equals
the area A. The transformer modulus also must equal the ratio F~/P, which
has been verified. Therefore, the transformer model is proper.

In the example above, the relation Fc = AP is derived from a velocity

constraint combined with the conservation of energy. A simple force balance
on the piston would ~lso give this result. Students who have t~ken a course
in statics often tend to recognize this result more readily, in fact, than they
recognize the velocity constraint. It is important to get in the habit of identifying
such geometric constraints directly, however, for in more difficult situations,
particularly when dynamics is involved, the force balances can be relatively
awkward. In any case, use of the principle of the conservation of energy such
as in this example precludes the need to perform both a force balance and a
geometric constraint analysis. You can choose, or do both as a check.
The power in a trausformer can flow in either direction, regardless of the
orientation of the power convention half-arrow. The piston-cylinder device can
be operated either as a pump or as an actuator (its most commonrole)~ Rotary
limited-angle actuators, such as drawn in Fig. 2.34, also are co~nmon.They, for
example, articulate the revolute joints of hydraulic robots.
The term pump usually refers to machines that permit continuous rotation,
64 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

AP = PI - P2
PI ~

iOnaryabutment

~u and vanes
M

Figure 2.34: Rotary actuator

such as the gear pumpof Fig. 2.35 part (a), the vane pumpof part (b), or
piston pumpof part (c). This type of machineis characterized geometrically
by the volumeof fluid which passes through it per radian of shaft rotation,
knownas the radian displacement of the machine, D. Its definition assumes
no leakage flow between the inlet and outlet chambers. (The effects of modest
leakage and friction on nominal positive displacement machines is
considered in Chapter 4.) It also ignores the unsteadiness of the flow that
exists in most pumps. With these idealizations,

Q = D~ (2.24)

A pumpapproximatedas an ideal machinealso has no friction, so powerout

equals the powerin. Thus, if Apis the pressure rise from the fluid inlet to the
fluid outlet, and Mis the torque on the shaft, then

M~ = Q AP. (2.25)
2.4 IDEAL MACHINES: TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 65

internal ~eal
formed
here

Unbalancedforces causedby
pressureat the outlet

(a) gear pump or motor ~

CourtesySauer-Danfoss
Inc.
LOwpressure igh pressure
inlet .......................

~ internal seal
formed
here

Rotations
Shaf

(b) vane pump or motor

-- - 0.0u.~tlutlet
,n~_~.t ~

Casing.
Vanes

Above
armbelow:Reprintedwi¢h permissionand cou~esyof E~onCorporalion

Spring force transmitting pin Shoeretainer plate

(3 spaced evenly) (retracts pistons)
Cylinder
block
(c) axial pis[on spring
pump or motor ~’::::::~::::~:~
~ P
Ports are .~
rotated 900/

flow

Valve~
plate
/ ~ \ \ ~ Spherical
Cylinder Piston Sho~ washer
hlnnk

Figure 2.35: Common

types of positive-displacement pumpsand motors
66 ~ CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

EXAMPLE 2.4
Show that the idealized positive-displacement pump is a transformer. De-
termine the modulus of this transformer, and find the relation between the
momenton the shaft and the pressure rise.
Solution: Substituting equation (2.24) into equation (2.25) gives the
sired relation between the momenton the shaft and the pressure rise:

M = D AP.

This result together with equation (2.24) defines the transformer

5I ~ T AP

The modulus of the transformer is the ratio Q/~, which equals the ratio
M/AP, so that T = D, the volumetric displacement per radian.

What happens to the purap if AP is negative, corresponding to a pressure

drop instead of a rise? The equations above and the bond graph still apply,
so a negative value of the torque Mresults. This implies that the fluid power
is flowing into the machine, whereas the mechanical power is flowing out. A
device operating this way is not usually called a pump; rather, it is called a
hydraulic motor. Thus, barring any practical problems such as rubber seals
being over-stressed and failing, a positive displacement pump run in reverse
becomes a motor, and vice-versa, including the machines shown in Fig. 2.35.
The transformer representation nicely represents this fact, for it is neutral on
the question of which way the power flows. In practice, however, one might
prefer to reverse the power arrows when use as a motor is intended, so that
both AP and M become positive and T = lID.
The pump/motors being considered are called positive displacement ma-
chines, since packets of fluid with fixed volume are conveyed mechanically from
one port to the other. In the gear machine the packets are the fluid trapped
between adjacent teeth. In the vane pump they are the fluid trapped between
succesive vanes; the van~s slide in and out of slots to prevent leakage. In the
piston pump the packets are the fluid volumes that enter and subsequently are
expelled from each cylinder. The axial design pictured has several cylinders
bored around a common barrel, shown cross-hatched, which rotate with the
drive shaft like the barrel of a six-shooter. Pivotable piston shoes rotate with
the pistons, and are also given a sinusoidal axial motion by sliding on a sta-
tionary angled cam pla~e. Whenthe volume of a cylinder is expanding, it is
connected through a kidney-shaped slot in a fixed val~ving plate to the inlet
port. Whenthe volume is contracting, it is connected through another kidney-
shaped slot to the outlet port. (These inlet and output ports or lines actually
are centered at angles rotated 90° about the machine axis from those pictured.)
Positive-displacement hydraulic machines are widely used in industry and
transportation because they handle vastly larger forces and powers than their
2.4 IDEAL MACHINES: TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 67

F2 x~ x
2

axes for xI andx,. are normal

Figure 2.36: Gyroscope with idealized model

electromechanical counterparts (e.g. motors and solenoids) for a given size and
weight. Their use comprises the major part of the area of engineering known as
fluid power. The remainder of fluid power encompases pneumatics, which
uses compressed air or other gases in similar linear and rotary machines.
Dynamic hydraulic machines do not have fixed displacements, and are not
represented as two-port elements until Chapter 9, since their behavior is more
complex. Dynamic machines typically are used in relatively low pressure ap-
plications, varying from tiny impeller pumps and fans to enormous hydraulic
turbines. In manycases, however, it suffices to represent a dynamic machine as
a one-port fluid device, presuming a fixed speed or some other fixed condition
for the rotor. Thus, an impeller pump was modeled in the last section as a
one-port general source.

2.4.7 Mechanical Devices Modeled as Gyrators

The word "gyrator" may conjure up in your mind the word "gyroscope." This
association is appropriate, for when stripped of its complexities, which are be-
yond our present interest, a gyroscope indeed exhibits gyrational coupling be-
tween two axes of rotation that are both normal to each other and normal to
the principal axis of rotation. As Fig. 2.36 attempts to indicate, a torque FIL
on one of these axes, where L is the length of the shaft, produces a proportional
angular velocity ~.2/L on the other axis, and vice versa. As an example, a gy-
roscope with a horizontal shaft supported only at one end will not fall downif
it is allowed to precess, that is rotate slowly about a vertical axis through the
support point (see Problem 2.25, p 71).
The strength of the gyrational coupling, that is the magnitude of the tnodulus
G, equals the angular momentumof the rotation about the principal axis. As
a result, any mechanical system with a significant angular ~nomentum has a
potential for gyrational coupling. Such coupling can be enormous if the angular
momentumis large. Nevertheless, most mechanical systems do not combine
68 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

field circuit
e...G M

Figure 2.37: Idealized DC motor and gyrator model

large angular momentumwith a rotation of its axis, justifying the neglect of

gyrational coupling.
The electric circuit symbol for a gyrator is included in Fig. 2.33 (p. 62).
No simple passive electrical element for low-frequency circuit use acts like a
gyrator, however; the symbol is used mostly to represent idealized electric circuit
analogies for mechanical systems.

2.4.8 Transducers Modeled as Gyrators

The force on an electrically charged particle moving in a magnetic field is pro-
portional to the charge, to the field and to the particle velocity. The force on
an electrical conductor therefore is proportional to the electrical current and
the field. In a simple DC electric motor, the armature wi)e is wound and
the commutation so arranged that the force produces a torque on a shaft. This
torque therefore is proportional both to the current in the armature circuit and
to the magnetic field. If, further, the magnetic field is constant, as in a perma-
nent magnet motor or a motor with a field circuit driven by a fixed voltage or
current, the torque is simply proportional to the armature current. Thus, as
suggested in Fig. 2.37,

M = Gi, (2.26a)
e = G~, (2.26b)

where G is a constant dependent on the geometry of the motor. Equation

(2.02b) follows from the assumed conservation of energy. It directly suggests
the idea of the tachometer or speedometer, an instrument in which the angular
velocity of a shaft produces a proportional voltage which can be displayed, with
an appropriate conversion factor, by a voltmeter. A large tachmeter qualifies
as an electric generator. Thus, the electric motor and the electric generator are
the same machine simply operated backwards, much like the hydraulic motor
and the hydraulic pump.
A translating coil device, such as that examined in Guided Problem 2.6,
is a motor with translational rather than rotational motion..It also can be mod-
eled as a gyrator. There are many similar electromechanical devices based on
magnetic fields, such as solenoids, although most are complicated by varying
energy storage and so are addressed later (in Chapter 10). On the other hand,
2.4 IDEAL MACHINES: TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 69

the class of electromechanical devices based on electric fields rather than mag-
netic fields can be shown to give transformational coupling. Examples include
capacitor microphones and piezoelectric transducers; detailed consideration is
again deferred to Chapter 10 because of complications due to energy storage.
Transducing gyrators also are useful in modeling dynamic fluid machines.
Their modeling in this manner goes beyond the scope of this text. Simpler
representations are given in Chapter 9.

2.4.9 Summary

Ideal two-port machines are by definition conservative, reversible and without

stored energy. The two simplest forms are the transformer and the gyrator.
Many actual machines can be approximately represented by these forms, and
rnore complicated models of these and other devices often have transformers or
gyrators imbedded within them. You will examine how these elements can be
combined with one another and with other elements, such as the sources and
loads already introduced, beginning in the following section.
The output flow of a transformer equals the product of a modulus, T, and
the input flow. The input effort equals the product of the same T and the output
effort. The effort on each of the two ports of a gyrator equals the product of a
commonmodulus G and the flow of the opposite port. Engineering approxima-
tions to the transformer include pulley and gear pairs, electrical transformers,
hydraulic rams and hydraulic pump/motors. Engineering approximations to the
gyrator include gyroscopes, DC motors and other moving coil devices.

Guided Problem 2.5

This problem and the next should enhance your understanding of the nature
and application of transformers and gyrators by having you evaluate the moduli
of particular devices modeled as ideal machines, and examine their bilateral
behavior.
Evaluate the transformer modulus for the rotary actuator shown in Fig. 2.34.
The depth of the working chamber may be taken as w, and other parameters
may be defined as appropriate.

Suggested Steps:

1. Define with symbols the radius of the shaft and the radius of the vanes/
inner housing, and the depth of the vanes and chamber.

2. Choose whether to relate ¢~ to Q (easier) or 7~/ to Ap, and evaluate T as

their ratio in terms of (fixed) parameters.

3. Check to see that the relation not chosen agrees with the modulus of step
2.
70 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

Figure 2.38: The translating coil device of Guided Problem 2.6

Guided Problem 2.6

A translating coil device comprises a coil wrapped on a tube and positioned in a
radial magnetic field. The example illustrated in Fig. 2.38 employs X permanent
magnet, as in a loudspeaker. The axial force on the coil is

F = 27rrNBi

where 2~rr is the circumference of the coil, N is the number of turns, B is the
magnetic field strength and i is the electric current.
Model this device as a form of an ideal transducer, neglecting losses. Give
its modulus and the relation between the voltage e and the velocity

Suggested Steps:

1. Identify the power conjugate variables on the mechanical and electrical

bonds which are related by this device.

2. Identify the type of ideal machine and its modulus from the given equation;
connect the two bonds with the associated standard bond-graph symbol.

3. Find the relation between e and 2 from this bond graph. Note that it
follows from the conservation of energy.

PROBLEMS

2.19 Identify a set of variables for a transformer model of the pulley drive
systems of Fig. 2.30 (p. 60), define the transformer modulus, and express this
modulus in terms of physical constants that also should be defined.

2.20 Answer the question of the preceding problem for the cylindrical roller
drive shownon the left side of Fig. 2.31 (p. 60).
2.4 IDEAL MACHINES: TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 71

2.21 Answerthe question of the preceding two problems for the bevel or conical
roller drive system shownon the right side of Fig. 2.31 (p. 60).

2.22 You are given a hydraulic rotary actuator such as pictured in Fig. 2.34 (p.
64), but are not given its specifications. Propose and describe an experiment
that could determine the modulus of the transformer that models the actuator.

2.23 Find the transformer ~nodulus for a steady-flow model of the piston pump/
motor shown in Fig. 2.35 part (c) (p. 65). You Inay define the radius of
piston as r~, the distance between the machine centerline and a piston centerline
as vb, the number of pistons as n a~d the angle of the cam plate from the normal
to the axis as 8.

2.24 A tachometer produces 1 volt for each 10 revolutions per second. If the
machine is used instead as a motor, find the current needed to produce a torque
of 0.02 N.m. Assumethe behavior is consistent with that of an ideal machine,
and note whether it is a transformer or a gyrator.

2.25 The shaft of a rapidly spinning rotor (or gyroscope) is horizontal and
supported at a distance L from its center of mass. The axis of the shaft is
observed to precess about a vertical axis at a steady rate ~. The axis remains
horizontal. The rotor has mass m and spins at w rad/s. Knowing that this
device can be represented by a gyrator with modulus Iw, where I = mr~ is the
mass momentof inertia and r~ is the radius of gyration, determine the rate of
precession.

2.26 A bicyclist negotiates a turn with a 20-foot radius at 24 feet per second.
Each of the wheels weighs five pounds, has a radius of 1.1 feet and has a radius
of gyration of 1.0 feet.

(a) The gyrator modulus.connecting the vertical axis of the turn with the
axis of tilt equals the angular momentumof the two wheels. Determine
this modulus. Neglect the angle of tilt.

(b) Determine the moment produced by the rotation of the wheels that
partly counteracts the centrifugally-induced tilting moment.
72 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 2.5

1. Radius of shaft: r~; radius of vanes or inner housing: r~,; depth of the vanes and
chamber: w.
2. The volumeof one chamberis ~r(r~ -r~)(¢/2~r)w. Therefore, the rate of change
of the voluine of one chamberis w(r~ -r~)@2. The flow Q enters two of the four
chambers (and leaves the other two), so Q = (1/T)~ with lIT = w(r~ - r’2s)
w(r~, - r~)(r,, + r~).
3. The relation M = (1/T)AP can be checked most easily in the limit when
r,, - r~ = Ar is muchsmaller than either r,, or r~. The result is M = 2rF
where r = (r~ + r,)/2 and F = ApAr, which can be seen to be correct.

Guided Problem 2.6

1. Mechanicalforce and velocity: F and ~?, respectively. Electrical generalized

force and velocity: e and i, respectively.
e F
2. ~ G ~ From the given equation, G -= 2~rrNB. Therefore,
e = 2rrrNB k.

2.5 Systems with Transformers and

Gyrators
Sections 2.1 and 2.3 describe how to predict the equilibria of sources attached to
loads. Section 2.4 introduces the transformer and the gyrator. Howtransform-
ers and gyrators act when cascaded head-to-tail, and how they can be placed
between a source and load to improve the behavior, is now investigated.

2.5.1 Cascaded Transformers

A pair of transformers can be cascaded:
e2 T e~
e 1 ~ T1 .----2-’-~- 2

The definition of a transformer requires

03 = T2g12 = ~T~o~, (2.27a)

el = T~e: = T~e3, (2.27b)

which says simply that the cascade reduces to a single effective transformer with
modulus equal to the product of the component moduli:
e~ T ~ T = TIT~
O~ q3
2.5. SYSTEMS WITH TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 73

Thus, if n transformers are cascaded, the result is a single effective transformer

with modulus equal to the product of M1 the component moduli:

0n+I = T(~I, (2.28a)

el = Te~+l, (2.28b)

T=T1T,.,
... T,. (2.28c)

EXAMPLE 2.5
Showthat gear trains, such as those pictured in below, can be represented
as a cascade of transformers if friction is neglected, and that they act as if
there were only a single gear pair.

Solution: The transformer modulus for each pair of meshing gears equals
the ratio of their numbersof teeth or of their diameters, as noted in Section
2.4.4. The overall train acts like a single gear pair, or single transformer,
with a transformer modulus or gear ratio equal to the product of all the
individual transformer moduli, that is all the component gear ratios. The
inverse torque ratio has the same value only if friction is neglected; the model
is invalid otherwise.

2.5.2 Cascaded Gyrators

Cascading two gyrators produces a transformer with a modulus that equals the
ratio of the two gyrator moduli. This result can be deduced step-by-step as
follows:
e2 ~3
~1 q2
74 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

Cascading a gyrator with a transformer, however, gives a gyrator. (You should

take a few momentsto demonstrate this fact for yourself.) As a result, the
cascading of any even number of gyrators produces a transformer, while the
cascading of any odd numberof gyrators produces a gyrator.
EXAMPLE 2.6
Showthat if the two shafts of ideal DCelectric motorswith constant fields
are connectedtogether (belowleft), the voltages and currents of the twopairs
of electrical terminalsare related like those of an ideal electrical transformer.
In addition, showthat if the twopairs of electrical leads are interconnected
instead (below right), the two shafts have torques and speeds related like
those of a transformer.

Solution: Anideal DCelectric motorwith constant magnetic field has been

represented as a gyrator. Equation (2.29) showsthat connecting together
the shafts of two such motors produces a transformer:

M e~ e~ T--.---~- T=~G~
el e2
.-~--’~ ~" --~:---~.
i~ ~G~ ~ ~G2 :2 II 12 G2

This device has an important advantage over the usual electrical trans-
former: it works at DC. For the second case, the result is a mechanical
transmission knownas a Ward-Leonardsystem:

M1 e M1 G~
~ ~ r=
¢,~ G,-7-~ a2 ~ -~ r~
Energylosses are addressedin Section 4.2.4.

2.5.3 Case Study of a Transformer Connecting a Source

to a Load
Transformersroutinely interconnect sources and loads. Transducingtransform-
ers do this intrinsincally. Non-transducingtransformers often are chosenexplic-
itly to improve the matching of the source to the load. The key ideas perhaps
are best learned by a familiar example.
Consider an automobileIC engine with a fixed throttle position whichdrives
a vehicle through a fixed transmission along a level road. The engine can be
modeledas a source; the torque-speedcharacteristics are plotted on the left side
of Fig. 2.39. The force-speed characteristics of the load are plotted on the right
2.5. SYSTEMS WITH TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 75

150 // 300 ~, F
engine vehicle ~/~ \
~
torque, ~ drag, equilibriumS{
M
100 R,’N 200 /\
¢ \ /.~
° /
ft-lbs equilibriumfl~ lbs. ~/
50 ..--" /
\ lOO .------.--z
.... -" ..........
"1 i I I
0
0 100 200 300 400 0 50 100 150
speedof drive shaft, &, rad/s vehiclespeed,k, ft/s

Figure 2.39: Automobilesource and load characteristics with synthesis

side of the figure. (This force is the sumof the air drag and the rolling drag.)
The drive train between the engine and drive axle comprises a transmission,
drive shaft and gear differential. This drive train converts engine torque and
speed to vehicle thrust force and speed. Losses in this system are neglected
here, so these componentscan be modeled,collectively, as a transformer, shown
as Td below:
M F
ENGINE~ DRIVETRAIN ~ WHEELS -~-=7--.--.--.--.-~-. VEHICLE
X

M F

S~M T F~. R
The drive axles in turn rotate the wheels. This action is modeledby the trans-
former Tw.The modulusof this transformer represents the ratio of the linear
motionof the vehicle to the rotary motionof the wheels, whichis the radius of
the wheels.
The two cascaded transformers can be telescoped into one, labeled as T.
The modulusof this combinedtransformer equals the ratio of the velocity of
the vehicle to the angular velocity of the engine shaft, or the distance moved
per radian of rotation of the shaft. Assumethe vehicle is knownto movetwo
feet for every rotation of the shaft; therefore, T = 2/2rr = 1/~r ft/rad.
To determine the equilibirum speeds of the vehicle and the engine, you need
either to transformthe load curve into the torque-speedcoordinates of the engine
plot, or to transform the engine characteristics into the force-velocity charac-
teristics of the vehicle. Both of these transformations are shownin the figure,
76 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

load for /

~ 3500 lbs
0.1
500
vehicle
drag,
10%grad~

equilib~F2~ "\locus.of
F 400
lbs.
\\\locus
150 -. \maximum / 300
engine
torque,
M 100 341 lbs equiliy~f/
ft-lbs J load for
5O
/ q P
(but opposite sign)
~ /level road

0
0 100 200 300 400 0 50 100 150
speed of drive shaft, ~b, rad/s vehicle speed, ~, ft/s

Figure 2.40: Calculation of the transformer modulus for maximumpower trans-

mission

using dashed lines. In the first case, the transformer and the load are effectively
combined into an equivalent load, labeled as R’. In the second case, the engine
and the transformer are effectively combined into an equivalent source, labeled
as S’. The transformations are carried out by choosi.ng individual points along
the characteristic to be transformed. The relations ¢ = (1/T)Sc and M =
(first case) or :b = Tq~ and F (1/T)M (s econd case) ar e us ed.
The equilibrium state is given by the intersections of the characteristics. The
two approaches give the same answer, as they should: & = 123 if/s, F = 226
lbs, ~ = 386 tad/s, M= 72 ft-lb.
The transmission ratio of a real car changes when you shift gears to address
a changed loading condition. Presume you wish to find the drive train ratio Td
which maximizes the steady-state speed of the vehicle for a given load charac-
teristic and a given radius of the wheels. You can reason as follows: maximum
load speed means maximumload power. Since the transmission is assumed to
be lossless, this means maximumengine power. Thus, you start by finding the
point on the engine characteristic which gives the greatest power. The power
is the product of the torque and the speed; you can simply use trial-and-error.
Better yet, you can use one of the methods described in Section 2.3.6, which are
implemented on the left-hand side of Fig. 2.40 by dashed lines. Note specifically
that the rectangular hyperbola representing maximumpower is tangent to the
2.5. SYSTEMS WITH TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 77

characteristic at the maximum powerpoint, and that the slope of the chord from
the origin to this point has the sameslope as the tangent to the characteristic
at this point. The maximum power is approximately T) = M,n~m= 111.5 ft.lb
x304rad/s = 33,900 ft.lb/s.
The locus for maximum power can be transformed over into the right-hand
plot, whereits intersection with the load characteristic gives the corresponding
maximumspeed and force: approximately ~ = 132.4 ft/s and F1 = 256 lbs.
The transformer ratio which permits this to occur is therefore T = k~/~l =
Mm/FI= 0.4355 ft/rad. (Clearly, you’ve madea mistake if both calculations
don’t give you the sameanswer.) Finally, the required transmission ratio Td is
the ratio of T/T,., where Twis the radius of the wheel. For example, if this
radius is 1.1 feet, there follows Td = 0.396. (This drive train ratio in turn is
factored into the ratio for the transmissionand the ratio for the gear differential)
Achieving maximum speed on an incline requires a lower transmission ratio
(down-shifting). Assumethat the vehicle and its payload weighs 3500lbs., and
is climbing a long 10%grade, as shownin the figure. The weight times the sine
of the angle gives an additional force of 348 lb of drag. This is added to the
air drag and wheel drag to give a newload characteristic and a new solution4:
T = :~2/~,,,~ = 73.5/a04 = 0.242 ft/rad or T = lt.lm/F~ = 111.5/46~ = 0.242
ft/rad.

2.5.4 Second Case Study of a Transformer Connecting a

Source to a Load
The matching of a source and a load often is improvedthrough the purposeful
introduction of a coupling that acts like a transformer, as the gears in the
transmission of the case-study vehicle aboveillustrate. As a secondcase study,
consider inserting an ideal pulley or gear drive betweenthe induction motorand
the pumpof the water sprinkler system discussed earlier in Section 2.1. The
newsystem, shownin Fig. 2.41, can be represented by the bond graph

M_~_~_~T A/d R
S

Theobjective is acceptableoperation for the twentieth and thirtieth-floor sprin-

klers, for whichthe direct drive failed, without using a larger motor.
The angular velocity and the torque of the ideal pulley drive are

q~ = T~,,, (2.303)
1
-Aid = ~Mra, (2.305)

4The solution as presented overlooks a small correction for the case of the 10%slope that
results frown the fact that the normal load on the pavement is reduced by about one-half
percent below the weight. Since about 40 pounds of the load force is rolling friction which
would be approximately proportional to this force, the drag should be reduced by about 0.2
lbs.
78 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

Figure 2.41: Addition of pulley drive to the induction motor system

~ locus for maximum power

3.0 ~ S’
M~,
N’mF t
\~,,~ ~ locus for one-half
f’\ ~ maximum power

o
2.0I
0 50
, 100
,io.8200
150 250
~e, rad/s

Figure 2.42: Characteristics of the source combining the induction motor and
the pulley drive

where T is the ratio of the diameter of the motor pulley to the diameter of the
pump pulley. The motor and the pulley system can be considered as a single
equivalent source,
S’~Md R

/An acceptable alternative combines the pulley system and the pump system
into an equivalent one-port load.) The torque-speed characteristic of this new
source depends on the value of T. Characteristics for four different values are
plotted in Fig. 2.42. This is muchlike the choice you have in shifting gears of
an automobile with a ~nanual transmission. A large value of T (as ~vith "fourth
gear") gives a high speed at low torque, whereas a small value of T (as with
"first gear") gives low speed at high torque, all for the same motor speed and
torque.
The characteristic for T = 1 is identical to that of the motor itself; the ideal
pulley acts like a direct drive. The other characteristics are transformations of
this basic characteristic. Each point on the basic characteristic is mappedonto
2.5. SYSTEMS WITH TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 79

_x locus for maximumpower

t ~~//circles (.) show practical operating points

3.0~ / ~\ for systems permitting reliable start-up
Md’ |
/ I xx jthirtieth floor ~
N.m Ma

1.3
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
rad/s

Figure 2.43: Matching of motor/pulley system to pump/sprinkler load

a correspond!ng point on the transformed characteristic according to equation

(2.34)..The power.associated with the point is unchanged by the transformation;
i.e. MdCa= M,,¢,~. The transformed point lies on a locus of constant power
that passes through the original point. This locus is a hyperbola with vertical
and horizontal asymptotes, the same rectilinear hyperbola discussed in the prior
example. Twosuch loci are drawn in Fig. 2.42 as dashed lines. Rapid sketching
is aided by the fact, as noted above, that the rnagnitude of the negative slope
at each point on the hyperbola equals the positive slope of the chord from the
origin to that point.
The locus for maximumpower just graces each characteristic. All of these
points of tangency represent the same maximumpower the motor can deliver.
The various speed ratios and torque ratios equal the transformer moduli or their
reciprocals. The other locus drawn in the figure represents one-half the maxi-
mumpower. This locus intersects each source characteristic twice. The respec-
tive lower-speed intersections have the same speed and torque ratios as both
the upper-speed intersections and the maximumpower points, It is strongly
suggested that you choose some arbitrary point or points on one of the char-
acteristics and, using only knowledge of the values of T, find and validate the
corresponding point or points on another characteristic.
The largest possible load flow corresponds to the largest possible load power,
which in turn equals the largest possible source power. The maximumpower
that can be delivered by the source is indicated in Fig. 2.42 by the locus of max-
imumpower. In Fig. 2.43 this locus is seen to intersect the load characteristic
for the thirtieth floor whenT = 0.81 For the twentieth floor, the intersection is
close to T = 1, and for the tenth floor it is about T = 1.1 (interpolating). Are
these solutions acceptable?
The candidate design solution with T = 1 for the twentieth floor already
80 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

has been eliminated, since unfortunately the pump won’t start. The solutions
T = 0.8 and 0.5 for the thirtieth floor suffer the same problem. For T = 1.1,
the starting torques for the motor and pump are about equal; starting is too
problematical to justify the choice. Thus, unless you were to replace the motor,
for example using the "capacitor-start". feature highlighted in Guided Problem
2.2, you must settle for a lower output flow and power in all these cases. Allowing
about a 10%margin to cover errors inherent in the modeling, including friction
which is being neglected, the solution for T = 0.5 is seen to be acceptable for
the twentieth floor. For the tenth floor, both T -- 0.8 and 1.0 are acceptable;
the latter gives virtually maximumpossible flow. The acceptable solutions are
marked by heavy dots in the figure.

EXAMPLE 2.7
A DCmotor drives a frictionless and leak-free positive displacement pump
which forces a liquid through a flow restriction to a load:

fluid line
restriction

The motor has the torque-speed characteristics plotted below left, and the
pressure drop across the restriction is plotted below right as a function of
the flow through it.

pressure I’ ~ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ~l~ ’
moment, ~mr 1 drop, lb/in2~ ~
8
4
f /’...
1°°°
~ ~.~ restriction-
0 500 I000 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
speed,
rad/s flow,
in3/s
Assuming
thepressure of theloadis zero,findthedisplacementof thepump
that(approximately)
maxilnizestheflowto theload,~d theassociatedfl0w.
Then,repeatthe solutionwhentheloadpressure is knownto be 1000psi.
Solution:Maximizing the flow to the load impliesm~imizingthe power
transfer.Sincethe pumpis 100%efficient, thismeansmaximizingthe power
from the motor.M~imumpowerfrom the motor occursat the mid-point
of thestraight-linecharacteristic,
as discussedin Section
2.3.6andshown
specificallyin Fig.2.27.Thusthemotorshouldbe run at 500rad/switha
torqueof 7 in..ib,producing
thepower500x 7 = 3500in..Ib/s.A locuswith
thispoweris superimposed on the pressuredropplotbelowleft,revealing
an intersection
~t a pressureof 1000psiandflowof 3.5 in3/s.Thisis the
solutionwhentheloadpressure is zero,so thatthe pressureseenby the
pumpequalsthepressure dropacrossthefluidrestriction.
2.5. SYSTEMS WITH TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 81

~ocus of maximumpower
pressure ~, ,, ,\. , . ,~..~
drop, lb/in 2 ~ ~ /" ~

~ .~ restriction~
0 1 234 56
flow,in3/s
The pumpacts as a transformer, as shownabove right. Its volumetric
displacement is the modulusof the transformer, which can be deduced from
the ratio 3.5/500 = 0.007 in3/rad or the ratio 7/1000 = 0.007 in3/rad.
The pressure generally seen by the load is the sumof the pressure drop
across the restriction and the load pressure. This sumis plotted belowfor
the secondcase of a 1000psi load pressure.

\ / solution
pressure, ~’t~t~l’~’~ ’4
lb/in21000 lO0~O~psi~., t

~ ..~restriction~
0123456
flow,ina/s

The intersection with the same power locus as before is nowat 1400 psi
and 2.5 in3/s. The modulusof the transformer that produces this result
is the volumetric displacement 2.5/500 -- 0.005 in3/rad or 7/1400 = 0.005
in3/rad.

2.5.5 Case Study of a Gyrator Connecting a Source to a

Load
Consider a DCmotor with constant field and momentM = ai, a = 0.15 N
m/amp,which drives a load. The electric power source for the motor has the
voltage-current characteristic shownon the left side of Fig. 2.44, and the me-
chanical load has the torque-speed characterisitic shownon the right side. You
wish to find the equilibrium torque and speed, neglecting losses.
The system can be modeled by the bond graph

S e~G
~ M
----U
The given information M= ai establishes the gyrator modulusas a, so you also
knowthat e = a~.
Youcould combinethe source and the gyrator into an equivalent source, so
82 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

S ~ G ~R 0.~kS’ dfor G =0.15 N.m/am

, .~M N.m [ \x~\

2O
k,,,,,, s 0.4
volts " S "~quilibrium
~
10

0
0 1 2 3 4 0 40 80 120 160
i, ~ps ~, rad/s

Figure 2.44: Source and load characteristics for DCmotor system

that the source characteristic is mappedinto the load plot:

S’ M R
¢
Alternatively, you could combinethe gyrator and the load into an equivalent
load, so that the load characteristic is mappedinto the source plot:
e
S ~ R’
i
The source characteristic is a straight line in the present case, so the first ap-
proach is easier. The mappingis shownin the figure by the dashedline labeled
S~. Note that the left end of the source characteristic becomesthe right end of
its transformation, and vice-versa. Younowsimply identify the intersection of
the two characteristics as the equilibrium point.

2.5.6 Transmission Matrices*

The use of matrix notation expedites the telescoping of a chain of linear two-
port elements into a single equivalent two-port element. This idea is introduced
here for the special cases involving only transformers and gyrators. Further use
of the methodis given in Chapter 4 and beyond.
The state of a bondis treated as a two-elementvector, with its effort first
and its flow second. The equations describing a transformer of modulusT and
a gyrator of modulus G become
2.5. SYSTEMS WITH TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 83

The cascading of two transformers, as in Section

-- 2.5.1,
el ~T1 ..~__~ 2 ~-
.’--’-7
-
__ e2 T ez
01 q2 q3
gives

01 = T1T2 03 l/TIT2 (t3

Denotingthe transmission matrix of the ith element in the cascade of n trans-
formers as Ti, there results

01 =T~T~ ...T,
Jell 0, =[~ 0 ]lIT[en+l]
[en] [O~+~J’
. T:TIT9 """ rn, (2.33)
whichagrees with equation (2.28).
The cascade of two gyrators,

01 qe q3

gives

°
oll l/G2
G2

which agrees with equation (2.29).

2.5.7 Summary
Transformerscascaded head-to-tail can be represented by a single transformer
with modulusequal to the product of the individual moduli. A pair of gyrators
in series, on the other hand, is equivalent to a transformer with a modulusequal
to the ratio of the individual moduli. A gyrator connected to a transformer
gives a gyrator. This meansthat an even numberof gyrators in cascade gives
an equivalent transformer, while an odd numberof gyrators in cascade gives an
equivalent gyrator.
Modelsoften interconnect a source to a load by a transformer or a gyrator.
The source then can be combinedwith the transformer or gyrator to give an
equivalent source, which can be directly synthesized with the load. Alterna-
tively, the transformer or gyrator can be combinedwith the load to give an
equivalent load, which can be directly synthesized with the source. Graphical
representations of the characteristics enables you to visualize the solutions of a
84 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

variety of problems, such as determination of the moduli which give maximum

powertransfer from the source to the load.
Matrix relations can be used to represent the characteristics of linear two-
port elements such as transformers and gyrators. This approach is helpful but
not necessary.

Guided Problem 2.7

Solving this problem and the next should .help you understand howto choose
the modulusof a coupler so as to maximizethe performanceof an electrical,
mechanicalor fluid system.
Choosethe modulusof an electric transformer which connects an amplifier
with a 24-ohmresistive output impedanceto a speaker with a 6-ohmresistive
impedanceso as to maximizethe powertransfer.

Suggested Steps:
1. Represent the source, transformer and load with a bond graph. Find a
relation to characterize the source.
2. Combinethe transfor~ner and the load and draw a new bond graph. Eval-
uate the modulusof the new load.
3. Express the powerdelivered in terms of the bond Current and the param-
eters.
4. Find the current that maximizesthis power.
5. Find the transformer modulusthat gives this maximizedpower.

Guided Problem 2.8

A hydraulic power supply drives a hydraulic ram (piston/cylinder) against
mechanical load. The characteristics of the power supply and the load are
plotted in Fig. 2.45. Find the area of the piston which maximizesthe power
delivered to the load. Neglectfriction.

Suggested Steps:
1. Drawa bond graph of the system.
2. Find the maximum
powerpoint on the source characteristic.
3. Find the correspondingpoint on the load characteristic.
4. The transformer modulus sought is the ratio ~/Q of these two points.
Relate this ratio to the area of the piston.
5. Checkthat the transformer modulusis also the ratio P/F for these two
points.
2.5. SYSTEMS WITH TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 85

[ nower
"- I tube

40013
¯ 80,000
P, psi F, lbs
30013 50,000

2000 40,000

1000 20,000

I I I I I I I I I
0 0
0 20 30 40 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Q, in3/s .i:, in./s

Figure 2.45: The system of Guided Problem 2.8

PROBLEMS

2.27 Modelthe gear train below as a cascade of transformers. Find the moduli
of the componenttransformers and the overall equivalent single transformer.

out

201 i 28
numbersof gear teeth 15i ]] ! 2,4
! I I .1 I
12 i q~in

2.28 Find the relationships betweenthe boundaryvariables for the following

cascade. Canthis systembe represented by an equivalent single transformer or
gyrator, and, if so, what wouldits modulusbe?
el~T ~2 G ~3
q2 q3

2.29 Carry out the previous problem using the methodof transmission matri-
ces.
86 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

2.30 The vehicle considered in Section 2.5.3 (which has T = 1/~r ft/rad and
mg = 3500 lbs) is traveling at 100 ft/s on a level road. Using only the data
given by the solid lines in Fig. 2.39 (p. 75),

(a) find the drag force.

(b) find the engine speed, moment and power.

(c) find the thrust force (from the engine power and vehicle speed).

(d) find the acceleration of the vehicle.

2.31 The capacitor-start motor described in Guided Problem 2.2 (p. 26)
substituted for the basic induction motor used in the system with the motor,
pulley drive and pump load analyzed in Section 2.5.4. Determine which of
the candidate solutions T = 0.5, 0.8, 1.0 and 1.3 are acceptable for the tenth,
twentieth and thirtieth floor sprinklers.

2.32 The analysis of the system with the motor, pulley drive and pump load
given in Section 2.5.4 employs an equivalent source bonded to the actual load:

St Md

Draw an annotated sketch of the replacement for Fig. 2.43 (p. 79) that corre-
sponds to the bonding of the actual motor to an equivalent load:

S M,. ~ R’

2.33 An ideal hydraulic power supply (comprising a motor, pump and relief
valve) has the pressure-flow characteristic as plotted below left. It drives
piston-cylinder with the characteristic shown below right. Find the maximum
possible speed of the piston, and the area of the piston that results in this speed.
Neglect friction.

2500 6000
force, lbs
pressure, 40O0
psi
2000
0 0
0 30 in3/s 0 6 12 18
flow velocity, in./s
2.5. SYSTEMS WITH TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 87

2.34 A motor drives a fan through a belt drive. The torque-speed characteris-
tics of the motorand the fan are plotted below.The pulley ratio is not specified,
but the motorshould not be run with a torque higher than its continuousrating
of 4.0 in.-lb (to prevent overheating).

12
torque, in..
1

0 400 800 1200 1600

speed, rpm

(a) Drawa bond graph model of the system, neglecting energy storage
elements.
(b) Determinethe speed of the motor that maximizesits Mlowablepower,
and find this power.
(c) Determine the corresponding speed and torque of the fan, and the
pulley ratio that achieves them. Neglectbelt losses, so poweris conserved.

2.35 An electrical power supply drives a DCmotor that in turn drives a ro-
tational load. The powersupply is regulated to give constant voltage up to a
limiting current, as plotted below. The motor has a constant magnetic field.
The load has the torque-speed characteristic, also plotted below.

3.01 i , , i i
e, 24~~--~~~

o 0 100 200 300

i, amps ~, rad/s

(a) Drawa bond graph modelfor the system. Neglect losses in the motor.
(b) Determinethe maxirnumspeed that the load can achieve.
88 CHAPTER 2. SOURCE-LOAD SYNTHESIS

(c) Evaluate the modulus that describes the basic property of the motor.

2.36 A pumpwith the characteristics given in Fig. 2.45 (p. 85) drives a rotary
hydraulic motor with volumetric displacement D per radian, in place of the
piston load shown in the figure. The load torque on the shaft of the motor is
M = a~ where a = 100 in..lb s. Draw a bond graph model, and find the value
of D that maximizes the speed of the load.

2.37 Consider the system studied in Section 2.5.5 which comprises an electrical
source, an ideal DC motor with a constant magnetic field and a particular
mechanical load with characteristics given in Fig. 2.44 (p. 82). In the present
case, the modulus a is not specified.

(a) Determine the maximumpower that can be transmitted to the load.

(b) Determine the value of a that accomplishes this transmission.

2.38 The armature circuit of an ideal DC machine with constant magnetic field
is completed with an electrical resistance Re, as shown below. The machine
is characterized by the relation M= ai, and is otherwise ideal. Show that
the system acts like like a linear rotary mechanical dashpot, and determine its
mechanical resistance, Rm.

2.39 Repeat Problein 2.9 (p. 54) using the reticulated model

F ~T
P~R
~ Q

2.40 Repeat Problem 2.10 (p. 54) using the reticulated model of the problem
above.

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 2.7

1. S e = RLT’~ir T RLTi rt~L e =eo--R,~i; R~ = 24 Q

i Ti
2. S e~. R~; 2R~ = RLT .
2.5. SYSTEMS WITH TRANSFORMERS AND GYRATORS 89

3. 79 = ei = (eo - R,~i)i
d79 eo
4. ~ = 0 = eo - 2R,~i. Therefore, i = ~R-’~’~’ e = eo/2.
5. e = RLli = RLT2i. Solving for T and using the above,

= -- 2.0.
= (eo/2R,~)RL

Guided Problem 2.8

1.
S--~ T ---~--.-R
F
2,3. 4000 7 80,000
P, psi ~’’~imum F, lbs
3000 max power’~
60,000 locus of maximum~

2000 40,0013

1000 20,000

00 10 20 30 40 00 0:5 l:0 ’ 1:5 ~ 210

Q,in-’/s Y¢,in./s
-r-- .¢~ = 1.69
4. *--~= 0.050 in2. The piston area is l/T= 20.1 in-’.

5. 1/(pistonarea) = P/F, also.

Chapter 3

Simple Dynamic Models

The systems considered thus far respond instantaneously with a new state when-
ever their environment or boundary conditions change. Whena real physical
system is subjected to a sudden change in boundary conditions, however, it
might in fact respond noticeably slowly. The variables which define its state
would approach their new equilibrium either monatonically (non-oscillatorily)
or oscillatorily, assuming stability. Such systems, or the models that represent
them, are called dynamic.

Dynamic physical systems contain mechanisms that store energy temporar-

ily, for later release. The dynamics can be thought of as a sloshing of energy
between different energy storage mechanisms, and/or a gradual dissipation of
energy in resistances of the type you have examined already. Section 3.1 starts
the subject by introducing a major class of energy storage mechanisms called
compliances. Section 3.2 continues by introducing the other major category
of energy storage mechanisms, called inertances.

This chapter makes a first pass through the major ideas in the modeling
and analysis of dynamic systems. To accomplish this, attention is restricted
to simple models comprising, at most, a source, a resistance, a compliance and
an inertance joined together by a junction. Junctions are virtually the only
elements that can interconnect three or more bonds, and therefore become the
very heart of the structure of a bond graph. They are introduced in Section 3.3.
Dynamic models are represented mathematically by differential equations, as
contrasted to static or steady-state models that are represented mathematically
by algebraic equations. The conversion of the bond graph models to differential
equations in presented in Section 3.4. The behavior of the models, as repre-
sented by the solutions to the differential equations, is the subject of Section
3.5. Nonlinear compliances and inertances, previously omitted, are introduced
in Section 3.6. This leads, finally, to numerical simulation in Section 3.7.

91
92 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

Figure 3.1: Linear spring and spring characteristic

3.1 Compliance Energy Storage

Elementsthat store energy by virtue of a generalized displacement are called
compliances. Physical approximations include mechanical compliances (e.g.
springs), fluid compliances(e.g. gravity tanks) and electrical compliances(e.g.
capacitors), amongothers. Compliancesare designated in bond graphs by the
capital letter C.

3.1.1 Linear Springs and Energy

The mechanical spring is a familiar example of a one-port element that is
totally different from the sources, sinks and resistances consideredin Chapter2.
As illustrated in Fig. 3.1, the spring is characterized by a relationship between
its generalizedforce and its generalized displacement,rather than its velocity:
F
~ SPRING

F = kx. (3.1)
The coefficient k is knownvariously as the spring rate, the spring constant
or the spring stiffness. Note that in equation (3.1), x is defined so as to equal
zero whenthe spring force is zero.
Springs do not dissipate energy, as resistances do; they store energy. This
can be shownexplicitly by integrating the powerflowing into a spring over time,
so as to computethe input work, WI~.~, required to compress or stretch the
spring from x = Xl to x = x~:

Wl-~2 = F~ df F dx = kx dx = -~k(x2 - xl~’). (3.2)

As suggested in Fig. 3.2, this workis the area under the spring characteristic
between the two values of x. If the process is subsequently reversed and the
spring is returned to its original position, the additional workis exactly the
negative of the original work:

W~-+l= ~k(xl =
3.1. COMPLIANCE ENERGY STORAGE 93

XI -~’2 X

Figure 3.2: Work as area under characteristic

It is customary to say that energy is conserved by the spring; the energy it stores
is
_-1 ~=11F_~ (3.4)
2 kx" 2k
so that, in general,
Wl-~2 = ~22 - ~1, (3.5)

A rotary spring acts like a compression or tension spring, except its effort
is a moment, M, and its. displacment is an angle, ¢, which is the time integral
of the angular velocity, ¢:
M = k¢. (3.6)

3.1.2 The Generalized Linear Compliance

A "generalized linear spring" results from replacing the force F of the compres-
sion or tension spring in equation (3.1) by the generalized force e, and replacing
the displacement x by the generalized displacement q. The constitutive rela-
tion is

e = ~q. (3.7)

The same result applies when the M and ¢ of the rotary spring characterized
by equation (3.6) are replaced by e and q, respectively. In bond graph form this
is written

and is called a compliance element or just a compliance. "Compliance"

means the inverse of "stiffness," so C = l/k, a constant, for both translational
and rotational mechanical springs. The result is summarizedgraphically in Fig.
3.3.
Note that the modulus of a compliance is defined in a manner similar to
the definition of the modulus of a resistance. Further, just as the symbol R is
used for both the resistance and its modulus, the symbol C is used for both the
compliance and its modulus.
94 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

Figure 3.3: The generalized linear compliance

ea

(a) circuit C (b) bond graph i ~-C

Figure 3.4: Capacitor as a compliance

The energy stored in the linear generalized compliancefollows from substi-

tution of the generalized variables into equation (3.4):

"1?=-~ ~ q =-~ Ce " . (3.8)

This is knownas a potential energy. The traditional symbol is capital V,

whichin this text is given as script Y (to distinguish it from volume).

3.1.3 Electric Circuit Compliance

An electric capacitor is indicated by its traditional symbolin Fig. 3.4. Its
applied voltage e and charge or electrical displacement q are modeledas

q = Ce. (3.9)

This equation agrees precisely with equation (3.7)~ revealing that, the capacitor
is modeledas an electric circuit compliance, and that the capacitance C is
analogous to the compliance C. The coincidence that "capacitance" and "com-
pliance" both begin with the letter "c" contributed to the selection of that letter
to designate the generic ratio of generalized displacementto generalized effort.
A capacitance usually is considered to be constant; the modelis linear.

3.1.4 Linear Fluid Compliance Due to Gravity

The mechanicalspring and the electrical capacitor have a generalized force which
is proportional to a generalized displacement. A fluid complianceshould have
the same thing: a pressure proportional to a volumetric displacement. Think
for a momentwhat this could be.
3.1. COMPLIANCE ENERGY STORAGE 95

surface area A
P~C

Figure 3.5: Liquid gravity tank as a compliance

The most commonanswer is a fluid tank of constant area independent of

the depth of liquid in it, as shown in Fig. 3.5. A fluid port enters at or near
the bottom of the tank. The depth of the liquid equals the fluid displacement
V, which is the volume of liquid in the tank above the port divided by the
cross-sectional area of the tank:

z = VIA. (3.10)

The pressure in the tank at the level of the port equals the weight density of
the liquid times the depth:
P = pgz. (3.11)
The compliance of the tank, C, is the ratio of tile volume to the pressure:

[c=- e q-V- (3.12)

P pgV/AV
I - pg"A

Note that the time derivative of the volume of liquid in the tank is the volume
flow rate into the tank, which can be designated either as ~’z or Q.

3.1.5 Fluid Compliance Due to Compressibility

A second type of fluid compliance is associated with the compressibility of the

fluid. Assuming small changes in density only, such as found in considerations
of air acoustics and nearly all problems involving the compressiblity of liquids,
it is conventional to assume
dP = ~--,dP (3.13)
P
in which the bulk modulus, fl, is treated as a constant. This equation says,
for example, that a one percent change in density is associated with a pressure
change of virtually one percent of fl; for water with no gas bubbles this gives
about one percent of 300,000 psi, or 3000 psi.
The equation of state for a perfect gas is P = pRO, where 0 is absolute
temperature. Differentiation of this equation and comparison with equation
(3.13) reveals that fl = P0 for small isothermal changes; P0 is the mean ab-
solute pressure. In the absense of heat transfer, the pressure and density of a
perfect gas with constant specific heats are related by p/pk =constant. Upon
96 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

v (< <vd

Figure 3.6: Fluid-filled rigid chamber as a compliance

differentiation, this gives/3 = kPo, where k is the ratio of specific heats. A

one percent change in volume of air at atmospheric conditions therefore, in the
absence of heat transfer, would be associated with a pressure change of about
.01 * 1.4 * 14.7 = 0.206 psi.
A rigid chamber of volume V0 filled with a slightly compressible fluid is
shown in Fig. 3.6. The fluid compliance of this system is

C = q dq _ Vo dp/p Vo I
(3.14)
e - de dP = -~-"

Should the volume of the chamber expand with increasing pressure, the effective
compliance would be larger. Note that this compliance is approximated as a
constant.

EXAMPLE 3.1
A uniform rectangular block has half the mass density as that of the water in
which it floats. Find the compliance associated with small rotations induced
by an applied moment about an axis normal to the page.

i, w "l
"’x applied
cm+~)moment ~
]~
Solution: The center of mass is on the waterline, so it remains fixed when
the block is rotated. For a clockwise rotation through a small angle ¢, a
triangular area shown shaded below emerges above the waterline on the left
side, and an equal triangular area is submerged on the right side:
3.1. COMPLIANCE ENERGY STORAGE 97

The buoyancy forces on the two sides change by the area of this triangle,
(w¢/2)(w/4) = w2¢/8, times the weight density of the water, pg. These
forces act through the centroids of the triangles to give a pure moment
or couple. The couple equals the force times the separation between the
centroids, or
pgw3 ,

This is the momentper unit length of the block in the direction normal to
the page. The corresponding compliance, by definition, is the ratio of the
angular deflection to the applied moment, or

C--- 3l~I¢ - pgw

12

3.1.6 Summary

The reversible storage of potential energy can be represented by one-port ele-

ments for which the effort is a function of the generalized displacement. The
generalized displacement is the time integral of the generalized velocity or flow.
Such elements are designated by the bond graph symbol C, which stands for
compliance. This symbol doubles as the modulus of the compliance, that is
C -- q/e. For the linear or constant compliance this modulus is the inverse
slope of the characteristic. Examples modeled by compliances include the me-
chanical spring with its force or momentand linear or angular displacement,
the electrical capacitor with its voltage and charge, the open fluid tank with its
pressure and liquid volume, and a container confining a compressible fluid.
Nonlinear compliances are discussed in Section 3.6.

Guided Problem 3.1

It is essential that you grasp the idea that the definition and value of a com-
pliance depends on the displacement variables to which it is referenced. This
problem is basic in this regard, while the second problem is more sophisticated.
The rotation of a lever is resisted by a spring with rate k, as shown in Fig.
3.7. Find the compliance of the system with respect to the displacement x and
force F.

Figure 3.7: Guided Problem 3.1

98 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

Suggested Steps:

1. Find the displacement of the spring, which you could call xs, as a function
of the parameters a and b and the displacement variable x.

2. Write the energy stored in the spring as a function of xs.

3. Combinethe results of steps 1 and 2 to get the energy of the spring as a

function of x.

4. Equate the result of step 3 to the known form, ]2 = (1/2C)x ~-, and solve
for C.

5. You might also wish to solve for C using a more familiar force-based anal-
ysis, although presently it is more important that you learn the method
above. Find the force on the spring, which you could call Fs, as a func-
tion of the parameters a and b and the effort variable F. Then, solve this
equation for F. Solve the equation from step 1 for x. Finally, compute the
ratio C. = x/F. The answer, of course, should contain only parameters,
and no variables.

Guided Problem 3.2

A long slender-walled cylinder expands under the influence of an internal pres-
sure, creating an effective compliance relative to an incompressible fluid within.
The internal radius is r, and wall thickness is t << r and the length is L >> r.
The wall material has Young’s modulus E and Poisson’s ratio #.

(a) Estimate the compliance of the chamber.

(b) Estimate the effective overall compliance relative to a fluid which

itself compressible, having a bulk modulus

Suggested Steps:

1. Draw a cross-sectional end view of one-half of the cylinder. Place the

pressure forces across the diameter and the resisting peripheral forces ta
on the shell. Balance the forces, and solve for the peripheral normal stress.

2. Draw a side view, and find the normal axial stress.

3. Use the results of steps 1 and 2 and the elastic parameters of the material
to find the peripheral and axial strains.

4. Find the ratio of the change in volume to the original volume, using the
results of step 3 and the assumption of small strains. Neglect the effects
of the ends of the cylinder.
3.1. COMPLL4NCE ENERG’Y STORAGE 99

5. Evaluate the compliance, which is the ratio of the change in volume to the
applied pressure.

6. Find the compliance, assuming the shell is rigid and the fluid has a finite
bulk modulus,/~.

7. If both the shell and the fluid are elastic, then there are two compliances
bonded to a single junction, which also has a third bond to represent
the flow that can enter or leave the chamber through a port. Determine
whether this is a 0-junction or a 1-junction, and find the combined com-
pliance.

PROBLEMS

3.1 Derive the compliance of a solid body floating on the surface of a liquid
with respect to small vertical displacements. Define parameters as needed.

3.2 Find the compliance of a shaft in torsion with respect to its overall angle
of twist. Define parameters as needed. (You may refer to your textbook on the
mechanics of materials.)

3.3 A pendulum comprises a point mass attached to the end of a massless rigid
rod which is pivoted about its upper end. Interest is restricted to small angles
of deflection from the vertical equilibrium.

(a) Find the gravity-induced compliance by considering the correcting

momentfor a deflection from the vertical.

(b) Find the compliance by considering the gravity energy associated with
1 2
the deflection. Hint: Use the approximation cos 0 ~_ 1 - .~0 .

3.4 Solve the preceding problem substituting a uniform slender rod of mass m
and length L for the massless rod and point mass.
100 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

3.5 For the rolling disk of mass m and radius r shown below:

(a) Define a variable to describe the displacement of the disk from its
equilibrium position. Find the potential energy of the disk in terms of
this displacement.

(b) Find the compliance of the disk with respect to the displacement,
assuming it has only small values.

3.6 Find the compliance of the piston/cylinder shown below with respect to F,
x. Assume x << L, neglect friction and leakage, and presume (a) isothermal
behavior (b) adiabatic behavior.

3.7 Verify that the bulk modulus for acoustic (small) and adiabatic compression
of a perfect gas is ~ = kPo, where k is the ratio of specific heats and Po is the
mean absolute pressure.

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 3.1

1. Xs -~- a._.~_
xa~-b °

1 2 1 a ~
2-4. 12 = =kx~ = =k = lx2; 21
2 2 ( )~ x’~ --2C .theref°re, C= (-~)
3.1. COMPLIANCE ENERGY STORAGE 101

that F ---- Fs = x~.

From step 1, x ----a+b~xs.

a

Finally, C -= F = ~ , which is the same as above.

Guided Problem 3.2

2tap = 2rP, therefore ap = Pr/t

2~rrtaa---- ~rr2 p, therefore

aa = Pr/2t = ap/2
2 nrt a~~

3. peripheral strain: ep = ~(ap - #aa) = 1 ( E--~

axial strain: ea = ~ (aa - #a~) - # ~-~

4. volume: V = ~r[r(1 + ep)]2L(1 + e~) ~rr2L(1 + 2ep+ ea )

change in volume: AV ~_ ~rr2L(2ep + ~a) = (2.5 ~- , z#)

7¢r3Lp

AV = (2.5
5. For the chamber alone, neglecting end effects, Dc = --
p - 2~)
¯ ~rr3L

V ~rr’2L
6. For the fluid alone, C~ = /~
~

Q = _~p o ~’¢" C~ ~ P
"’’~Q Q=~/~ C
C=Cc÷Ci =~rr2L (2.5- #)~-~
102 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

(a) mass (b) characteristic

Figure 3.8: Accelerating mass and characteristic

3.2 Inertance Energy Storage

Inertance energy storage, also knownas generalized kinetic energy, is the second
of the two categories of energy storage. Most models of this storage are repre-
sentable as one-port elements, designated by the symbol I. (More complicated
models are considered in Chapter 10.)

3.2.1 Mass, Momentum and Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy, as its name suggests, is associated with motion, unlike potential
energy, which is associated with displacement. Like potential energy, however,
kinetic energy is potentially recoverable. Consider the mass m of Fig. 3.8, which
is accelerated by a force F(t) from rest in an inertial reference frame to a velocity,
5, and a corresponding linear momentum,p = m2. Newton’s law gives

d2 F
-- (3.15)
dt m’
which can be integrated to give

~:- fFdt _ p (3.16)

m m

The kinetic energy is designated traditionally by a capital T, and is given in

this text by script T (to distinguish it from transformer moduli). It equals the
work done by the force:

T= F/ dx / = m-~2
d~ dt
/ =
1 m ,)2 d2 1._~p.~
= -~m~" = 2m .(3.17)

This energy is represented by the area under the characteristic, as shown in part
(b) of the figure.
The same type of development that gives equation (3.5) for the work associ-
ated with a change of displacement of a compliance gives the work required to
change the velocity or momentumfrom state 1 to state 2:

W~.~ = T~ - %. (3.18)
3.2. INERTANCE ENERGYSTORAGE 103

3.2.2 The Generalized Linear Inertance

The generalized compliance has been described by

e = q/c, (3.19)
which is a linear relation betweenthe generalized displacementand the effort.
The corresponding"constitutive relation" for the generalized inertance is

(3.20)

which is a linear relation betweenthe generalized momentum and the flow. This
is precisely equation (3.16) if 0 is replaced by 2 and the generalized inertance,
I, is replaced by m. The generalized momentumis defined by

lp=/edt or e-= P’I (3.21)

The relationship of equation (3.20) is represented in part (b) of Fig. 3.8

changing the labels ~ to c~ and mto I. The bond graph symbolfor inertance
uses the letter I in the samewaythat the complianceuses the letter C:

e=$ I

The momentum of the mass in Fig. 3.8 is proportional to the velocity, so

that I = mis a constant; the inertance is said to be linear. The generalized
kinetic energy of a constant inertance is

which can be comparedwith equation (3.17).

3.2.3 Common Engineering Elements Modeled by Con-

stant Inertances

Arigid bodywhichrotates about a fixed axis, such as a flywheel, resists angular

acceleration because of its massmomentof inertia, I, as suggested in Fig. 3.9
part (a). (Some authors use the symbol J to represent the mass moment
inertia, in which case you can write I = ~/ for the modulus. Youshould not
write J in the bondgraph, however,since it is not a defined bondgraph symbol.)
In this application, p is the angular momentum. The kinetic energy is 31¢ or
½P2/I, consistent with equation (3.22).
104 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

(a) rotational inertia

~ l=J
M

I=L
(b) electrical inductor

(c) fluid tube

P~ t’IIIQ IIII/1 " Q
I=pL/A

Figure 3.9: Examples of constant inertances

EXAMPLE 3.2
Deduce a formula for the value of I for a rigid mass rotating about a fixed
axis. Use a momentummethod and then an energy method; the results
should agree.
Solution: The angular momentum is

and the kinetic energy is

where r is the radial distance of the element dm from the axis, of rotation,
and the integrations are carried out over the entire body. Either comparing
the first equation to equation(a.20) or the second equation to equation(~.22),
with O = ~, the result is

I = f r2dm.

This is the mass moment of inertia, familiar from introductory dynamics

courses. It gives, for example, mR2 for a slender hoop of radius R, ~mR-
for a uniform disk of radius R and (1/12)m(2R) 2 for a rod of length 2R, all
about their respective normal centroidM axes.

An inductor in an electric circuit impedes the rate of change of current.

It also can be modeled in bond graph language by an inertance, as shown in
part (b) of Fig. 3.9. In this application, p is still fe dt, the modulusI equals
3.2. INERTANCE ENERGY STORAGE 105

1 "" 1 "2
the inductance, L, and the generalized kinetic energy is _~Lwor ~p /L. Many
engineers use the symbol I for inductance anyway.
The mass of a fluid in a tube impedes the rate of change of the volume flow
rate. Its use in a fluid circuit also can be represented in a bond graph by an
inertance, as shown in part (c) of Fig. 3.9. The standard variables e = P and
1.
~ = Q can be used
EXAMPLE 3.3
Deduce the inertance of an incompressible fluid of density p in a uniform
channel of area A and length L. Use both a momentumapproach and a
separate energy approach.
Solution: The momentumapproach can be represented by the successive
steps in the multiple equation below:

I-- p-- dp/dt _ P1- P~_ p__~_L

Q dQ/dt A dv/dt A ’

The final step above directly uses Newton’slaw; P1 - P2 equals the net force
divided by A times the mass pAL and the acceleration dv/dt. The resulting
formula is approximate, and in fact somewhat underestimates the inertance,
since it assumes that the velocity is uniformly equal to Q/A whereas the
velocity is more apt to be nonuniform over the cross section.
Approaching this result from the perspective of kinetic energy,

T= 5mv"= (pAL)
=5

Here, m is the total mass of fluid in the tube and v is its commonvelocity.
The term on the right within the parentheses is the desired inertance, and
agrees with the right-end term of the previous equation.
The inertances of two cascaded constant-area channels sum, as suggested in
Fig. 3.10.

iUse of e = P neglects the dyr~atnic pressure, as notec~ before. Therefore, the inertance
relation presented here will not fully represent the behavior when the dynamic pressure is
significant relative to the static pressure; in particular, entrance and exit losses will need to
be added.

Q --~ ~A~
pL, 12 = pL2
If- A1
-~2

Figure 3.10: Inertance of two cascaded fluid channels

106 CHAPTER3. SIMPLE DYNAMICMODELS

EXAMPLE 3.4
Find an appproximate expression for the inertance of a fluid channel of
varying area A(s), wheres is the distance along the channel.
Solution: A channel of continuously varying area can be considered as a
cascade of infinitesimally long segments, each of which has the inertance
p ds/A, as suggested below:

The overall inertance is the sumof these, or

=p --~ds. (3.)

The result of Example3.2 is the special case for A = constant.

3.2.4 Tetrahedron of State*

The four essential variables of state for physical systems are represented by the
vertices of the tetrahedron of state, picture in Fig. 3.11. Manynew bond
graph modelers like to .use this diagramto help them rememberthese variables
and the R,C and I elements that are defined by relationships betweenthem. It
is a conception of HenryM. Paynter.
The edge of the tetrahedron between the vertices for the generalized dis-
placement q and the flow or generalized velocity ~ represents a simple time
differentiation/integration relationship. The edge betweenthe vertices for gen-
eralized momentum p and the effort or generalized force e -- ib also represents
a simple time differentialtion/integration relationsh~ip. The. edge betweenthe
vertices for e and 0 suggests the relationship that characterizes a resistance,

pd~O~

/( )%
q

q dt

Figure 3.11: Tetrahedron of state

3.2. INERTANCE ENERGY STORAGE 107

~R, or a general source or sink~ S~or~S. The edge

between the vertices for e and q suggests the relationship that characterizes a
compliance, ~ C. Finally, the edge between the vertices for p and 0 sug-
gests the relationship that characterizes an inertance, ~ I. (The hidden
remaining edge, between p and q, has no special significance.)

3.2.5 Summary

A linear one-port inertance or generalized kinetic energy can be characterized

by the proportionality between its flow or generalized velocity and its general-
ized momentum, where the generalized momentumis the time integral of the
effort. Thus, the generalized momentum,p, is to the effort, e, as the generalized
displacement, q, is to the generalized velocity (or flow) 0. The inertance rela-
tionship is represented in a bond graph by the symbol I. The proportionality
constant is the modulus of the inertance, and also is called the inertance and
is designated by the symbol I. The generalized potential and kinetic energies
equal the areas under their respective characteristics, which for the linear cases
considered are, respectively, ~ =. ½ (1/C)q=’~~Ce ~ 2and ~-.
7"= ~1102
= ½(1/I)p
Mass, rotational inertia, fluid inertia and electrical inductance are examples
of a generalized inertance or generalized kinetic energy. General formulas have
been developed for the rotational and fluid cases. Table 3.1 summarizes some
of the more primitive physical elements commonlymodeled as compliances and
inertances.

Guided Problem 3.3

It is esssential that you grasp the idea that the definition and value of an iner-
tance depends on the generalized velocity to which it is referred. This problem
offers a basic example.
A disk-shaped pinion of radius r and mass m is engaged to a fixed straight
rack, as shown in Fig. 3.12. A slender rod of length L andmass Mis welded to
the pinion, as shown. Find the inertance of the unit relative to the horizontal
velocity of its center, 5:.

II/11///I//1111

Figure 3.12: Guided problem 3.3

108 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

Table 3.1 Primitive Physical Compliances and Inertances

compliance inertance
strain gravity

C=l/k C=L3/3EI C= l/Apg

~ M M

~ C= 1/k C=2L/zraG C 1/mgr

C=Vo/~6 P IQ C=A/,og I=pL/A

Suggested Steps:

1. Write the kinetic energy of the unit due to the horizontal velocity of its
center of mass as a funtion of 5.

2. Find the angular velocity of the unit as a function of 5.

3. Find the kinetic energy of the unit due to its angular velocity as a function
of this angular velocity, and then use the result of step 2 to convert this
to a function of ~.
1 "2
4. Add the energies of steps 1 and 3, and set equal to Fix . Solve for I,
which should be the desired answer.

PROBLEMS

3.8 Define the symbols L, E, I, G, r, A, p, /3 and l~b in Table 3.1 as they

pertain to the (a) cantilever beam, (b) floating block, (c) torsion rod, (d)
dulum, (e) compliance volume, (f) gas accumulator, (g) gravity tank and
inertance channel.
3.2. INERTANCE ENERGY STORAGE 109

3.9 A disk of mass mand radius r rolls without slipping downan incline with
angle ~ relative to the horizontal. Represent the situation with a bond graph,
using the velocity of the center of the disk as the flow. Determinethe inertance,
and find the acceleration of the center of the disk. Suggestion: Use the concept
of kinetic energy to find the inertance, as in GuidedProblem3.3.

3.10 A tube of length L and internal area. A is filled with and its entrance
surroundedby an inviscid liquid of density p. The pressure at its entrance is a
constant P = pgh and is zero at the other end. Represent the situation with
a bondgraph, using the volumeflow rate Q as the flow variable but neglecting
entrance and exit losses. Find the rate of changeof the flow.

3.11 A pendulum comprises a point mass m attached to the lower end of

massless rod of length L pivoted at its upper end, as in Problem3.3 (p. 99).

(a) Find the momentrequired to producean angular acceleration, neglect-

ing the gravity compliance property, and thereby deduce the inertance
with respect to angular velocity.
(b) Checkto makesure that 5I¢
"2 , with your I frompart (a), is the correct
kinetic energy.

3.12 Solve the preceding problem substituting a uniform slender rod of mass
mand length L for the massless rod and point mass(as in Problem3.4, p. 99).

3.13 For the rolling disk of Problem3.5 (p. 100):

(a) Find the kinetic .energy of the disk, first in terms of any velocity but
finally in terms of ¢, where ¢ is the angle betweenvertical and a line
drawnfrom the center of curvature to the center of the cylinder.
(.b) Usethe result of step (a) to find the inertance of the disk relative
¢.

SOLUTION TO GUIDED PROBLEM

Guided Problem 3.3
2. 1
1. T~= ~(m+M)2
2. ~ =Sir.

4. %+~=~ ~ =~ ~m+ 1+~ M ~.

110 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

Therefore, I= ~m+ 1+~ AI.

3.3 Junctions
The models presented thus far exhibit no branching. Most models of engineer-
ing systems require branching, which is accomplished through the use of simple
junctions. The conventional bond-graph abstractions for junctions are given
below first, showing that there are precisely two types. Mechanical, electrical
and fluid constraints are then modeled by these junctions, and a single junction
is used at the heart of models for very simple systems. Application to a variety
of more complex systems is made in Chapter 4 and subsequent chapters.

3.3.1 Junction Types

An arbitrary number of bonds can be joined by a junction, identified here by
the temporary symbol J:

e3

The power convention half-arrows in this example are chosen arbitrarily, with
the first two being inward and all others being outward.
The following rules are imposed to define two types of junctions:

Rule (i): For both types, the junction is ideal, neither storing, creating
nor dissipating energy.

Rule (ii): For the 0-junction type, the efforts on all the bonds are equal.
For the 1-junction type, the flows on all bonds are equal.

The first rule implies that the input power equals the output power, requiring

el(~l + e2~2 ’: e3~3+ ... q- en~n. (3.23)

For the 0-junction (spoken zero-junction), represented as

r eo
3.3. JUNCTIONS 111

the second rule requires

el ~ @2=- e3 = .-- ~ en ~- e, (3.24)

which when introduced into equation (3.23) gives

(3,25)

The labels el .. ¯ e,~ have been removed from the respective bonds, not of neces-
sity (they could be left on) but because the effort e, written above and to the
left of the junction symbol, is recognized as being commonto all the bonds.
The 0-junction is the common-effort junction. It is often more useful
to recognize its property described by equation (3.25), so it is also the flow-
summing junction.
For the 1-junction, represented as

e3

q"
e.[

the second rule requires

01 = 0u = 93 ..... 0n = 9, (3.26)

which through equation (a.2a) gives

el -+- e2 = e3 q- ... + en. (3.27)

The labels 01. ¯ - 9,~ have been removed from the respective bonds, again because
they would be redundant. The commonflow or generalized velocity is indicated
by the 9 (or a specialized symbol, if one prefers) written below and to the right
of the 1.
The 1-junction is called the common flow junction. It also is called
the effort-summing junction. It is the dual of the 0-junction, since the
constraints imposed on the efforts in one case are the same as the constraints
imposed on the flows in the other, and vice-versa. The concept and notation
for these junctions was introduced by H.M. Paynter 2, and was the most crucial
step in his creation of bond graphs.
Two junctions of the same type connected by a bond can be collapsed into
a single junction, with the bond vanishing, as shown in Fig. a.13. The only
difference between the expanded and contracted versions of the graphs shown
is the presence or absence of the variable ea or 93, respectively, which may not
be of interest.
2H.M.Paynter, Analysis and Design of EngineeringSystems, The MITPress, Cambridge,
Mass., 1961.
112 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

e5

e2

~4
l~2 q5

Figure 3.13: Bond-graphjunction equivalences

Figure 3.14: Junction for mechanical translation

3.3.2 Mechanical Constraints Modeled by 1-Junctions

Common-flow junctions abound in models of engineering and natural systems.
A mechanical examplefor translation is shownin Fig. 3.14. A push-rod with
compression force Ft drives two push-rods with compression forces FA and FB.
All three push rods share the commonvelocity k, as implementedin the bond
graph by the 1-junction. The conservation of powerrequires

Ft~ -~ FAS: + FB~, (3.28)

so that
F, = FA + FB. (3.29)
Equation (3.29) can be found alternatively from fr ee-body analysis which
is traditionally taught in courses entitled "statics" and "dynamics." General-
ized force balances represent the "conservation of momentum" which is one of
three great principles used to analyze combinationsof mechanicalelements, The
other two are the geometric constraints betweenthe displacements or velocities
(sometimes called "continuity"), and the conservation of energy. Anytwo
the three are sufficient; the third is redundant. It is extremelyadvantageousfor
3.3. JUNCTIONS 113

you to be able to employ any one of the three consequent approaches. When
the modeling becomes complex or confusing, the use of the energy balance and
the geo~netric constraints tends to be clearer and simpler than either co~nbina-
tion using the force balances. It also is more generalizable to non-mechanical
phenomena.

EXAMPLE 3.5
Model the parallel combination of two masses, a spring and a dashpot shown
below with a bond graph. Reduce the graph, if possible, so only one element
of each type remains.

Solution: The 1-junction of the bond graph model below represents the
fact that all four elements share a commonvelocity. The two inertances
(masses) sum to give an equivalent inertance (mass). Constant inertances
arrayed around a 1-junction always can be summedin this manner. Elements
of different types cannot be merged.

EXAMPLE 3.6
Model the parallel combination of three dashpots below by a bond graph.
Also, show how the individual characteristics, as plotted by solid lines, can
be combinedinto a single resistance characteristic.

force
114 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

Solution: All three dashpots experience a commonvelocity (5:), whereas

the force F is the sum of the three individual forces. Therefore, as shownby
the dashed line, the three forces sum for each value of 5: to give the overall
characteristic.

b~ 1.i.~--~R
force

R~
reduces to:

Mathematically,

F = Fa + Fb + Fc = Ra~ + RbiC + Rc~ = RS:,

It follows that the equivalent overall resistance R equals the sum Ra +

Rb + Re. This equation is most easily understood if the resistances are
constants and the characteristics are straight lines through the origin. It
is quite correct, nevertheless, if the resistances are functions of 2 and the
characteristics are curved lines.

EXAMPLE 3.7
Each of the three springs below has a constant spring rate. Determine the
modulus of a single compliance element, C, that can represent the combi-
nation.

kl

Solution: The three individual forces sum to give the total force, as with the
dashpot example above. These forces are proportional to the three spring-
rate constants, which are inversely proportional to the three compliances.
The combination rule therefore is
1 1 1 1
¯
3.3. JUNCTIONS 115

In general, the 1-junction represents the geometric constraint in which

three or more bonds share a commongeneralized velocity or flow. The presence
of a 1-junction maynot be always obvious, as the following examplesuggests.

EXAMPLE 3.8
Modelthe fire-extinguishing system of Chapter 2 with an additional load
driven from the sameshaft, as shown. The "pump"includes its fluid load.

~ pulley drive

._M.,~_M. ~_~-_~. ~ auxiliary

l°a
"~ d~a~

This auxiliary load might be a siren, for example, that is operated at the
same time as the pump, or it might be a separate pump. Also, show how
the individual characteristics of the pumpand the auxiliary load, as plotted
below, combineto give an equivalent overall resistive load.

M’I.
0

O; ’ ’ . ’200 250 ’
5; 100 150
¢,1, rad/s
Solution: To rePresent the combination of the drive and the two one-port
devices, first answerthis: do these three elementsshare one of their respec-
tive conju.gate variables? The answer is yes; they have the same angular
velocity, Cd, because they have a common shaft. This fact is recognized by
a 1-junction:

MOTORM._~.~.~r BELT Md M.~., PUMP

~,,, DRIVE T ~d"~AUXILIARY
LOAD
For emphasis, all three bonds are annotated with "~a." This is redundant;
"~a" need only be noted below and to the right of the "1" symbol, also as
shown.
The powers delivered to the load A, load B and their combination, re-
spectively, are

p~ = Mp~; p~ = M~,
~Dtotal ~- Mv~d+ Ma[~ = (Mp + Ma)~a= Md~d.
116 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

Thus, the total torque provided by the belt drive is

M,~= Mp+
The summationof the last equation above mayimplementedgraphically
by "vertical" addition of the two componentcharacteristics, as suggested
below,to give the characteristic drawnwith a dashedline. This curve is the
effective one-port characteristic of the equivalent combinedload. It can be
used as before to carry out a source-load analysis or optimization.

2.5
~..-- M~=M~+Mo

1.5
Nm
1.~3 (same),,
0.5

0o 50 100 150 . 200 250

Ca, rad/s
Mm BELT -- Ma COMBINED
MOTOR
.----~-~
Cm DRIVE ~a ~" LOAD

3.3.3 Electrical Circuit Constraints Modeled by

1-Junctions
Common-flow implies common-currentfor electric circuits, and common-current
implies series interconnection of components.Suppose that three components
arbitrarily labelled Z1, Z2 and Z3 are connected in series, as shownin Fig.
3.15. The bond graph follows directly. The total voltage of the source equals
the sum of the voltages (or voltage drops) of the three components;the sum

Figure 3.15: Electrical exampleof a 1-junction: series circuit

3.3. JUNCTIONS 117

of the voltage drops around a loop equals zero. Thus if the elements happen
to be resistances, the total resistance of the circuit is the sumR1 + R2 -I- R3.
Electrical resistances in series combinelike mechanicaldashpots in parallel.
If the elements are inductors, the total inductance of the circuit is the sum
I1 + I2 + Ia. The same is analogous to any other type of inertances bondedto
a common 1-junction, such as the masses discussed earlier. If the elements are
capacitors, the sununation of the voltages implies summingthe reciprocals of
the capacitances, or 1/C1 + 1/C.2 + l/Ca. This is like the springs bondedto a
common 1-junction as discussed earlier.

3.3.4 Fluid Circuit Constraints Modeled by

1-Junctions

Fluid flow is analogousto electric current. A series interconnection of compo-

nents such as pumps,valves, hydraulic motors and reservoirs can be represented
by a 1-junction with a bond radiating outwardto the appropriate 1-port element
for each individual component.The order of these bonds is immaterial.
Sometimesthe effect of an element is small enoughto justify its removal
from a model. This action can leave a 1-junction with only two bonds attached.
In this case, if the two remaining powerarrows are directed unailaterally, it
is permissible to removethe junction altogether and connect the two dangling
bonds.

Example 3.9
Model the hydraulic system pictured below. You mayrepresent the four
elements in the bond graph by the words PUMP,VALVE,MOTOR and
RESERVOIR. Also, describe how the model can be simplified if the pres-
sure drop across the valve is negligible or the reservoir pressure is virtually
atmospheric.

~hydraulic ~
motor I t~l reservoir

Solution: The first step is to recognizethat all four elements havethe same
flow, Q. Thus, their bondsare joined by a 1-junction:

VALVE

PUMP ~P !Q’~-~
Pm MOTOR
!

RESERVOIR
118 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

Note that the pressure on the valve bond, P~,, is the pressure drop across
the valve. The pressure Pmis similarly the pressure drop across the motor:
The sumof these two pressure drops plus the reservoir pressure equals the
pumppressure. This means that the resistances of the components also
sum, despite the nonlinearities.
If the valve is wide open, Pv -~ 0, and the powerdissipated in the valve
is virtually zero. In this case the valve and its bondsimply can be removed
from the bond graph model. Similarly, the reservoir pressure P,. maybe
considered to be zero gage, so if atmospheric pressure is employedas the
reference (to give gage pressure), the reservoir bond carries no power.
this case, the bond and the reservoir element maybe removedsimilarly.
Finally, if only twobondsare left on the junction, the junction itself can be
removedand the two bonds simply connected together, assuming the two
bonds have powerconvention half-arrows in the same direction.

3.3.5 Mechanical Constraints Modeled by 0-Junctions

A dashpot is the idealization of a damperwith zero mass; it therefore always

has the same force at its two ends. Thus, a dashpot can be represented by a
three-ported 0-junction and a resistance, as shownin Fig. 3.16. The force is a
function of the velocity difference :b~ - :~2, whichtherefore is the flow on the
resistance bond.

EXAMPLE 3.10
Showhow a cascade of dashpots can be modeled by a bond graph, and
howthat graph can be simplified by combiningthe characteristics of the
individual dashpots.

X1 X~

Figure 3.16: Mechanical exampleof a 0-junction; two-endeddashpot

3.3. JUNCTIONS 119

Solution: The bonds of the successive elements can be joined as shown

in (a) below, because of the commonvelocities at the connections. Then,
the three O-junctions can be coalesced as shown in (b), since their bonds
all have the same effort (force). Finally, since each dashpot has the same
force, the bonds of their respective resistances can be joined together with
a O-junction, as in (c).

R~ R
¢R2
(a) (b) 1-22~ (c) l-X4

¯ ---fo---.-.
Fo.-----F0 x, I
R~ R~ R~
~ X3 X4

R~
The generalizied velocities of the individual resistances sum~o give the
overall generalized velocity. Therefore, the dashed line representing the over-
all resistance characteristic is found by a horizontal summationof the indi-
vidual characteristics:

Mathematically, x

=F + F +F
F
R
Thus, the overall reciprocal ofthe resistance, 1/R~ called the overall conduc-
tance, equals the sum l/R1 + l/R2 + l/R3 of the individual conductances.
The same statement applies if the resistances are nonlinear, as long as the in-
dividual resistances are expressed as functions of the commoneffort e rather
than the non-commonvelocities.

An idealized spring has zero mass, so like a dashpot it has the same force at
each end. It therefore can be represented similarly, by a three-ported 0-jur/ction
and a compliance, as shown in Fig. 3.17. The deflection.which causes the force
(or torque, in the case of a rotary spring) is proportional to the difference
between the displacements at the two ends, ql - q’_,.
Should one end of the spring be motionless, there is no power on the associ-
120 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

M
F’~’~"~x~ F
M~
(a) translational spring (b) rotary spring
~eo ~:~>-~--~. C
¯ ~eo ~

C C
(c) bond graph (d) right side i~obil~ed

Figure 3.17: Double-endedsprings

ated bond, whichtherefore maybe erased. Part (d) of Fig. 17 showssuch a case.
The 0-junction is left with only two bonds, and therefore serves no purpose. It
can be removed, and its two bonds joined (assuming the power conventions of
the two bonds are compatible). The result is a single bond and a compliance,
identical to the case whichintroduced springs in Section 3.1.

EXAMPLE 3.11
Determine the combination rule for combining a cascade of springs with
individual compliancesC1, C2, C3 etc. into a single compliance, C.
Solution: Since the forces are common and the relative displacements sum,
and a relative displacementis proportional to a compliancefor a given force,
the compliances sum:

C=C~+C2+C3+....

3.3.6 Electric and Fluid Circuit Constraints Modeled

by 0-Junctions

A common-voltagecurrent-summingjunction is typified by a soldered joint or

a parallel combination of elements, as suggested in Fig. 3.18. Conductances
sum in the same way as they do for mechanical 0-junctions. Capacitances sum
similarly, satisf~ving the sameequation as the springs of Example3.10, which
applies to any type of compliance.A0-junction for a fluid circuit is typified by
the pipe tee, or interconnection of fluid lines at a point of common pressure.
Anexampleis shownin Fig. 3.19. Finally, you need to consider howinertances
connected to a common0-junction can be combined.
3.3. JUNCTIONS 121

te
Zl

..eo .---~eo---~. eo ~

Zl Z~ 23

Figure 3.18: Electrical exampleof a 0-junction: parallel connection

P P

Figure 3.19: Fluid examplesof a 0-junction: parallel connection

122 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

EXAMPLE 3.12
Determine the combination rule for multiple inertances bonded to a common
0-junction.
Solution: The effort is commonto all the inertances, while the flow (and
its rate of change) sums. The rate of change for the flow of each inertance
is inversely proportional to that inertance. Therefore, the combination rule
is
1 1 1 1
=
This means that the overall inertance is less than any individual inertance.
Should any of the inertances be zero, for example, the overall inertance is
zero also, causing the effort on the 0-junction to be zero.
The "geometric constraints" of mechanical circuits are analogous to the "con-
tinuity" or "conservation of mass" constraints of fluid circuits. (The reader
aware of the difference between the stagnation and the static pressures should
recall that this difference is being neglected for the time being.) Since flows sum,
conductances, compliances and reciprocal inertances (called susceptances)
sum.

3.3.7 Simple IRC Models

Mechanical, electrical and fluid examples of simple IRC systems and bond graph
models thereof are given in Fig. 3.20. All of these models include a source, a
resistance, a compliance and an inertance arrayed around a commonjunction.
Consideration of more complex models is deferred to Chapter 4, although the
R, C and I elements could be the result of combining two or more elements of
the same type. Special RCand IR models result from deletion of the I and C
elements, respectively.
These examples are the major vehicle used in this chapter to introduce the
modeling and analysis of dynamic systems. You are urged to cover up the bond
graphs in the figure and practice modeling these systems yourself.

3.3.8 Summary
0 and 1-junctions normally are employed as the only means of constructing a
branched model, and therefore play a major role in bond-graph modeling. The
junction structure of a model comprises its bonds, junctions, and (as will be
illustrated later) transformers and gyrators. The complete model merely adds
one-port elements to his junction structure: sources, resistances and energy
storage elements.
Newmodelers often are uncertain which junction to use in a particular sit-
uation. This dilema is reliably resolved only by careful identification of the key
variables in the physical system, which is a required step no matter what type
of modeling language is used. The bonds on a 0-junction have a commoneffort
and flows that sum. The bonds on a 1-junction have a commonflow and efforts
3.3. JUNCTIONS 123

F
R=b
k~~ l=m C=l/k
e

I=L
R=R
C=C

~A~_~ C= At /Pg I=pL/Ap

~" QI

orous plug ~’Ap (a) O-junction type

R

C=l/k
R=b

e C=C
R=R

C=A,/pg
A~ I=pL/A~
~~ ~ (b) 1-junction type
Q Ap R=8~/~

Figure 3.20: Simple IRC models

124 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

that sum. Trying instead to remember which type of junction applies to series
connections and which applies to parallel connections usually leads to mistakes,
since the answer depends in too complicated a way on whether the system is
mechanical, electrical or fluid.
Multiple resistances bonded to a common1-junction can be combined to give
an overall resistance greater than any of its components. Multiple resistances
bonded to a common0-junction combine to give an overall resistance smaller
than any of its components. The same statements apply to inertances. On the
other hand, two or more compliances bonded to a common0-junction produce
an equivalent overall compliance larger than any of its components. Twoor more
compliances bonded to a common1-junction, conversely, produce an equivalent
compliance smaller than any of its components. The difference results from
the fact that resistance and inertance are proportional to impedance, whereas
compliance is proportional to admittance, the reciprocal of impedance.
You are expected at this point to be able to find appropriate bond graph
models for si~nple systems such as those pictured in Fig. 3.20. Extracting the
behavior of these models comes next.

Guided Problem 3.4

Needed practice dealing with compliances as well as junctions is provided by
this problem. Part (b) should become routine to you.
Three constant compliances are combined two different ways:

C1 C1

~0~C2 ~1~C2
(i) (~i)
l
C3
(a) illustrate mechanical, electrical and fluid implementations, and (b) find
compliance of the equivalent integrated compliance, ~.C, in terms of the
moduli C~, C2 and C3.

Suggested Steps:

1. For part (a) focus on the type of variable (e or q) which sums and the
type of variable which is commonto all three compliances.

2. For part (b) sumthe variables of the appropriate type to get a total value,
and compare the result with the desired" form.
3.3. JUNCTIONS 125

Figure 3.21: Guided Problem 3.5

Guided Problem 3.5

This problem requires the consolidation of distinct inertances into a single iner-
tance.
Water pumpedfrom a river to cool the steam in a power plant passes through
the circular channels shown in Fig. 3.21. Estimate the overall inertance relative
to the total volume flow.

Suggested Steps:

1. Find the inertances of the four separate channels relative to their individ-
ual flows.

2. Combine the three inertances which share a commonpressure.

3. The inertance resulting from step 2 shares a com~nonflow with the fourth
channel. Combinethe inertances to get the overall inertance.

Guided Problem 3.6

This is the first of three short, basic ~nodeling problems which you should be
able to do at this point.
A drum viscometer comprises a cylinder with a rotating drum submerged
in the fluid being tested, as pictured in Fig. 3.22. The rate at which the drum
coasts to a stop is observed. Model the system with a bond graph, and evaluate
the moduli of its elements. The mass moment of inertia of the drum is known
to be 0.12 in lb s ’~, m~dthe viscous drag on it produces the moment

M- 27rLr3# (b
W

where L = 6 in, r -- 3 in, w = 0.02 in and # = 1.4 x 10-7 ~.

lb s/in

Suggested Steps:

1. Identify the key flow variable, and label this on a 1-junction.

 126 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAIVIIC MODELS

Figure 3.22: Drum viscometer for Guided Problem 3.6

~d
¯ density p

Figure 3.23: U-tube for Guided Problem 3.7

2. Identify the important physical mechanisms that perpetuate and those

that dissipate energy. Represent these as bond graph elements appended
to the 1-junction.

3. State or find the moduli of the elements of part 2, using the given infor-
mation.

Guided Problem 3.7

A U-tube is filled with water, as shown in Fig. 3.23. The motion of the wa-
ter following a non-equilibrium initial condition is of ultimate interest. Model
the system with a bond graph, and evaluate the parameters of your model in
preparation for an analysis. Neglect the effects of viscosity.
3.3. JUNCTIONS 127

r r -7
’,11 ’, _1_,
Ili/¢.)l IR~ -.-C

source filter load

Figure 3.24: Guided Problem 3.8

Suggested Steps:

Compliance and inertance elements are present. Identify the variable

which is commonto them, and deduce which kind of junction is proper.
Bond the C and I elements to the junction.

Express the moduli of the I and C elements in terms of the parameters

given in the drawing.

You may have more than one energy storage element of the same type
in your model. If so, combine these elements into a single element of the
same type, determine its modulus, and draw the reduced bond graph.

Guided Problem 3.8

A current source drives an essentially inductive load. Small perturbations in the
current source are inevitable, and produce undesirable variations in the voltage.
A shunt resistor and capacitor are added to the circuit, as shownin Fig. 3.24, to
moderate these pulsations. You are asked to model the system, in preparation
for an analysis directed at determining appropriate values for the resistance and
capacitance.

Suggested Steps:

1. Determine the effort or flow variable that is commonto the four elements,
and the effort or flow variables that sum. Draw and label a junction
accordingly.

2. Bond the four elements to this junction.

128 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE D}%TAMIC MODELS

PROBLEMS

3.14 An engine drives both a virtually ideal DCgenerator with constant mag-
netic field and a Inechanical load on the same shaft. Modeleach of the com-
ponents by an appropriate bond graph element and assemble a corresponding
complete bond graph model.

~ electrical load

I engine ~- generator ~ mechanical load I

I.
3.15 The bond graphs below can be reduced to a single resistance, ~R
Find the modulusof R’ assumingconstant moduli as given.

R
1 R
3 RI R3 bothcases:
(a)
R~ = 4
--1---~,--0 ~0-~--~1 R2=3
R3= 2
R4=l
R2 R4 R2 R4

3.16 Drawa bond graph to represent the electric circuit below. Reducethe
load seen by the voltage source to a single resistaace, R, and find its modulus.

3.17 Anapplied force F is resisted by the bending of a slender cantilevered

beamof length L, thickness t and width w as well as a spring with rate k, as
shownbelow.

(a) Find the moduli of the two componentcompliances in terms of fixed

parameters. (Youmayuse references in your personal library.)
3.3. JUNCTIONS 129

(b) Represent with a bond graph how the two compliances combine, la-
beling F and 2 appropriately. (Ask yourself: which of these variables is
commonto the two compliances, and which is the result of a summation?)

(c) Find the combined compliance.

3.18 Twolinear springs with rates kl and k.~ are connected in (a) series (b)
parallel. Find the compliance of the combinations.

3.19 Find the capacitance of two capacitors, C1 and C_~, connected in (a) series
(b) parallel.

3.20 A physical damper has significant mass, which can be assumed to be

divided equally between its two ends. Give a bond graph model for this damper~
and relate the moduli of its elements to physical parameters.

3.21 A spring with stiffness k connects a mass Mto ground, as shown below.
The mass of the spring, ms, is relatively small, but not insignificant. Investigate
its effect on the behavior as suggested by the steps below.

(a) Assumethat the mass of the spring, ms, is not great enough to signifi-
cantly upset the uniformity of the strain from one end of the spring to the
other under dynamic conditions. Define a position variable y such that
the left end of the spring represents y = 0, and the right end, y = L. Each
infinitesimal segment dy therefore has mass m~(dy/L). Similarly, the ve-
locity of the segment is (y/L)2, where 2 is the velocity of the large rigid
mass. Evaluate, by integration, the kinetic energy of the entire spring as
a function of ms and ~.

(b) Interpret the kinetic energy of the spring as an inertance relative

the velocity ~. Then, express the total inertance relative to ~, which you
may define as I, as a function of M and ms.

(c) The natural frequency w~, of an ideal mass-spring system is shown in

Section 3.5 to equal V/~/IC. Find the w,~ predicted by your model, which
has the same compliance as if the spring had zero mass.

(d) Comment,qualitatively, on any limitations you suspect this analysis

may entail.
130 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

3.22 A vertical tube of diameter d and length L is capped with a closed chamber
of volume ~/b, as shown below. Water enters from the bottom, and air is trapped
above. Estimate the effective compliance of the system with respect to the
entering water; the following steps are suggested.

water

(a) Evaluate separately the compliances due to gravity and the compres-
sion of the air. Assume that the water never enters the upper chamber,
and that the compression of the air is (i) isothermal (i.e. slow) (ii) adia-
batic (i.e. fast).

(b) Represent how the compliances combine with a bond graph, labeling
P and ~ appropriately. (Ask yourself: which of these variables is common
to the two compliances, and which is the result of a summation?)

(c) Find the overall compliance.

3.23 Define variables, and model th~ electric circuits below with bond graphs.

3.24 Define variables, and model the mechanical circuits below with bond
graphs.

(a)~
3.3. JUNCTIONS 131

3.25 Model the tank and tube shown below left, neglecting the inertance of the
fluid. Specify the moduli of your bond graph elements.

’ ,fluid
tank area: 10 in2 3pg=62.4 lb/ft

~-’~ #=2x10~ lb’s/in2 ~w~," ~I

3.26 A steel plunger (Ps9 = 0.28a lb/in 3) is released from rest in a fluid-filled
cylinder, as shown above right. The fluid can flow unimpeded through an aux-
iliary channel. Model the system in preparation for an analysis to determine its
motion. Neglect fluid inertia, and assume the plunger remains centered. Specify
the values of the moduli of your bond graph elements.

3.27 A water tank of area 2.0 m2 drains through a porous plug in its bottom
with a fluid resistance of 98.7 kN s/m5. It also drains through a tube of length
10 m and diameter 2.0 cm. Model the system with a bond graph, and evaluate
its parameters. Neglect the effect of viscosity.

lporous I
plug tube
~
~
3.28 Often it is impractical to reduce the vibrational forces of a machine to an
acceptable level, .but it is practical to isolate the machine from its foundation,
and thereby prevent large oscillations from shaking the floor, creating noise, etc.
A standard scheme, valid for y-motion only, is shown below. Model this system
in preparation for an analysis which will be used to choose the springs and the
dashpot. If your model has separate elements to represent the separate springs,
combine these elements and give the modulus of the new element in terms of k.

mass m

k~ ~b k ~ support (conceptual)
~ floor
132 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

3.29 Presume that the LRC filter shown below drives an instrument with a
virtually infinite input impedance. The relation betweenthe voltages ei and eo
is of interest, since the latter is intended to be a smoothed but not smothered
version of the former. Model the system with a bond graph in preparation for
au analysis.

L R

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 3.4

(a) (i) common

effort mechanical:

electrical: _1.. _l_ _[_

fluid:

displacement mechanical:
(ii) common

electrical:
fluid:

(b) Themodulineednot be constantsif chordaldefinitionsare used.

(i) q ’~ qi = .~ C,e ~ C = CI 3+ C~_ + C
(ii) e = ~’ei = .S(1/C~)q~ I/C = 1/C~+ 1/C~. + 1/C3

Guided Problem 3.5

1. Large channel: IL = pL _ 4pL 4 x 1.94 x 100 5.
= 6.86lb s’~/ft
A 7rd2 = 7r(6),
~

Each small channel: ls = 4 × 1.94 × 20 5.

- 5.49 lb s2/ft
7r(3)2
2. 5.
Combinationof three small channels: I = ~5.49 = 1.83 lb s~/ft

3. 5.
Combinationof all four channels: 1 = 6.86 + 1.83 = 8.69 lb s2/ft
3.3. JUNCTIONS 133

Guided Problem 3.6

1,2. The key flow variable is the angular velocity of the drum, ~. There is kinetic
energy ½I~2 associated with this velocity, where I is the mass momentof
inertia of the drum. Energydissipation takes place because of the viscous drag
in the narrowannulus. Theshear force is a function of angular velocity, so this
gives a resistance, R. The bond graph that represents these observations is

I~ 1. M-~-~’~R

The mass moment of inertia is the integral 1 = fr2dm 2. = 0.12 in lb s

The resistance is the ratio of the torque Mdue to viscous drag to the angular
velocity ~, or R = 27rLr31~/w= (2zr×6×33×1.4×10-7/0.02) = 0.00713 in-lb.s.

Guided Problem 3.7

The potential or compliance energy is a function of the

displacement of the water, and the kinetic or inertance
energy is a function of the velocity of the water. One
could choose as the.generalized velocity either the com-
monvertical velocity of the surfaces of the water or the
volumeflow of the water. The associated generalized dis-
placements are the common vertical displacements of the
surfaces of the water and the volumedisplacement of the
water, respectively. The latter choice is madehere, with
symbolsQ = g" and V, since equations (3.12) (p. 95)
the compliances and Example3.3 (p. 105) gives the in-
ertance with reference to these variables. Note there are
two compliances,one for each free surface, as shownin the
bond graph.
From equation (3.12), each compliance is C A/p9 = ~rd2/4p9. Fr om Exam-
ple 3.3, the inertance is ~.
I = pL/A = 4pL/Trd
The two compliances share a common flow or displacement, so their efforts or
pressures sum. This means that the reciprocal of the combined compliance
equals the sum of the reciprocals of the individual compliances, so that the
cmnbined compliance is C’ = C/2 = 7rd2/8pg. Note that half the compliance
meanstwice the stiffness; the two stiffnesses sum.

Guided Problem 3.8

1,2. All four elements share the same voltage difference. R

Therefore, all four associated bond graph elements
share a common0-junction. The commonvoltage at
the bottom ends of the elements is taken as ground, s<--77--o
o ----.- z
or zero.

c
134 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

3.4 Causality and Differential Equations

The dynamic behavior of a well-posed model with energy storage elements is
found by expressing it as a differential equation or set of equations, and solving
the equations numerically -- called simulation -- or analytically. The proce-
dures are largely deterministic, unlike in modeling, requiring care but no special
insight. They can be expedited by software. A middle course is chosen in this
text between blind reliance on software and total reliance on mind and hand, so
that you can benefit from modern methods and understand their origin. This
section concerns the determination of the differential equations, and the follow-
ing section deals with their solutions.
It is possible to define all the efforts and flows in a bond graph with sym-
bols, and write one equation for each one-port element, two equations for each
transformer and gyrator, and one equation for the variables which sum about
each junction. This usually large number of equations then can be combined,
eliminating the variables of minor interest, to give a solvable set of differential
equations. This procedure is excessively complex in practice, however, unless
an effective over-arching plan is applied.
Such a comprehensive plan best develops one first-order differential equation
for each independent energy storage element. This state-space formulation
is ideally suited for both numerical simulation techniques and, in the case of
linear models, analytical solution. The plan also ought to be so automatic that
it can be programmed into software. Such programs are indeed available for
bond graph models3. Users of such software (sometimes coupled with separate
numerical simulators) do not have to write the differential equations themselves
or even find their solutions, which are directly plotted. This rapidly evolving
software is not discussed further in this book, however, in favor of the develop-
ment of a more general and basic understanding of the analytic procedures and
the use of more general-purpose and widely used software.

3.4.1 Causalities of Effort and Flow Sources

The effort source Se imparts the effort e as an independent variable onto the
system to which it is attached. The associated flow ~ becomes dependent. You
can say that Se is the cause of e, whereas (~ is caused by the reaction to this
by whatever system (unshown below) is attached to the right-hand end of the
bond. This bilateral causality can be indicated with either of the notations
e--~ e
Se ~ or Se ~
~-q q
Similarly, the flow source S.~ forces the flow ~ into the system, which responds
with the effort, e. You can say that Sf is the cause of 9, whereas e is caused by
3See R. Rosenberg, A Users Guide to ENPORT-4, Wiley, N.Y. 1974. Also, Control-
lab Products B.V. (Netherlands) has a programcalled 20-sim; informa’~ioncan be found
http://www.rt.el.utwente.nl/20sim/clp.htm. Lorenz Simulation SA(Belgium)has a package
called MS1;informationcan be found at http://www.lorsim.be.CadsimEngineering(Califor-
nia) has a product called CAMP-G; information is available at http://www.bondgraph.com.
3.4. CAUSALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 135

’(a) e01~
(b) l.
q2 eo~O4 q~

C-~ eo~eo /R po = f eo dt

Figure 3.25: Effort and flow sources bonded to a 0-junction to give uncoupled
behavior

the reaction to this (~ by whatever system (unshown below) is attached to

right-hand end of the bond. This causality can be indicated as

S! or Sy I~

The short causal stroke drawn transverse to the bond is recognized inter-
nationally:

The causal orientation is completely independent of the power convention ori-

entation.

3.4.2 Junctions with Elements Having Uncoupled Behav-

ior
Consider an effort source bonded to a 0-junction, as shown in part (a) of Fig.
3.25. All bonds on the 0-junction have the same effort, by the definition of
the junction. This effort, e, is specified or caused by the effort source. The
flows ~.), ~3 and ~4, on the other hand, must be separately caused by whatever
(unshown) elements are attached to the outer ends of these bonds. This causal
pattern is recognized by placing causal strokes at the outer ends of the bonds
for these three flows. The flow ~, then, is the sum of 02, ~3 and 04, with signs
determined by whatever power convention half-arrows are part of the model.
Consider now the specific situation shown in part (b) of the figure, in which
the three bonds are attached, respectively, to a C, an I and an R element. The
flow on the R bond then can be written as eo/R, the fiow on the C bond as
C deo/dt, and the flow on the I bond as f eo dt/I =po/I, assuming constant
moduli R, C and I. These three elements are said to be given admittance
causality. This means that their flows respond to an induced effort, and are
expressed as functions of that effort or its time integral, p0. The behavior of the
three ele~nents is said to be uncoupled, which means that the flow on one of them
is independent of the size or even the presence of the others. The flow on the
source bond completes the picture; it is the sum (~ = eo/R + C deo/dt +po/I.
136 CHAPTER3. SIMPLE DYNAMICMODELS

The C element also is said to have differential causality, since its causal
output is a function of the time derivative of its causal input. TheI element is
said to have integral causality, since its causal output is a function of the time
integral of its causal input.
EXAMPLE 3.13
By analogy to the exampleabove, explain whythe causal strokes in the bond
graph below left are drawnwhere they are. Then explain the annotations for
the efforts and flows given on the bondgraph belowright, including giving
appropriate namesto the causalities of the R, C and I elements. Are the
behaviors of these elements coupled or uncoupled?

Solution: A flow source is bonded to a 1-junction. All the bonds and the
elements are forced to have, in common,the flow 00 imposedby the source.
This fact is underscored by the placements of the causal strokes on the
bonds. In general, all the bonds on any 1-junction must have their causal
strokes at their junction ends, except for precisely one whichhas its causal
stroke at the remote end. Similarly, all the bonds on any 0-junction must
have their causal strokes at the remote end, except for precisely one which
has its causal stroke adjacent to the junction. Youwill find that these facts
makecausal strokes very useful.
Three of the bonds are attached to C, I and R elements with the
respective efforts expressed as ROo, (1/C) f ~odt = qo/C, I d(lo/dt and
R(?o + qo/C + I d~o/dt. Theseelements are said to have impedancecausality,
since their efforts are functions of the flow or its integral or its derivative.
They are said to be uncoupled, as in the O-junction example, because each
effort is independentof the presence of the other two elements. The C ele-
mentalso is said to haveintegral causality, and the I elementis said to have
differential causality.

3.4:3 Junctions with Elements Having Coupled Behavior

The system represented in Fig. 3.26 differs from that in Fig. 3.25 in that the
source does not directly determine either the efforts or the flows on any bonds
other than the source bonditself. Oneof the bondsfor the R, C and I elements
must have its causal stroke placed adjacent to the junction; since there is only
one effort, the other two causal strokes must be placed at the outer ends of their
bonds. But which of the three possible patterns do you use?
3.4. CAUSALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 137

C~ 0 "---~’I C’~---’~ 0 ~I

R R
(a) model (b) integral causalites added

"
R R
(c) annotation of causal bonds (d) annotation completed

Figure 3.26: Flow source bonded to a 0-junction to give coupled behavior

The short answer to this question is that, given a choice, you use integral
causality. The reason should become clear later, but for now simply recognize
that differential causalities are defined only for C and I elements (the energy
storage elements), and under the following causal conditions:

compliance : ---~k-~Ci Oi =_C’~-~-,

dei (3.30a)
O~

inertance: ~.i Ii ei = Ii . (3.30b)

qi
Integral causalities apply only to these same elements under the inverse causal
conditions:

ei = ei(q~) q~- 1 J
compliance: ~.i ci
q~ Ci C~ gt~ dr, (3.31a)

ei 1 [ Pi
inertance : .----~I~ 0i = O(Pi)ei dr. - (3.31b)
qi Ii I~
For the present model, integral causality is applied to both the C and I
elements in part (b) of Fig. 3.26. This forces impedance causality on the R
element.
The next thing you do is annotate the effort and flow sides of the C and I
bonds as follows, depending in general on the directions of the power convention
138 CHAPTER3. SIMPLE DYNAMICMODELS

half-arrows:

~ Ci or ~Ci

Thecircles drawnaround(li and/5i are a logically optional device that will prove
to be helpful later. Note that ibi is a wayof writing ei. Note also howthe sign
changes compensatefor the reversal in the powerconvention half-arrow. These
annotations, are madein part (c) of Fig. 3.26.
The next step is to annotate the efforts and flows for the remaining bonds,
as shownin part (d) of the figure. The causal stroke on the C bond, combined
with its effort, dictates that the effort on the R bondbe q/C. The R-element
responds, with its admittancecausality, by giving the flow q/CR.
The only remaining unannotated effort or flow is the effort on the source
bond. This is strictly a causally output variable, and need not be labeled un-
less it is of interest. Here, it is simply labeled with a large cross, signifying
disinterest.

EXAMPLE 3.14
Apply causal strokes to the bond graph below, which substitues an effort
source for the flow source in Fig. 3.26, and substitues a 1-junction for the 0-
junction, so as to achieve integral causality on both energy-storageelements.
Is this causality compatible?Then, annotate all the efforts and flows except
for the flow on the source bond, which maybe labeled with a large X to
signify disinterest.

s~

C’~---~- 1

R
Solution: All but one of the four bondscan and must have its causal stroke
placed adjacent to the 1-junction, since all the flows are the sameand its
specification should comeonly from one place. Since this reasoning allows a
choice, you can choose integral causality for the C bond, and then integral
causality for the I bond. The R bondis forced to have impedancecausality.
3.4. CAUSALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 139

Se

The causal strokes are shown above left. Next, you place the designations
for the effort and flo~v on the bonds that have integral causality, as shown
above right. Finally, to complete the annotation of all the efforts and flows
in the graph, you observe that the causal input to the R element is its flow,
and this flow comes, causally, from the I element, and equals p/I. The effort
on the R element is the causal output of the element, and is written as R
times the flow. The final result is as follows:

se

Rp/l~p/l
R

3.4.4 Writing Differential Equations

Once the bonds in a bond graph have all their efforts and flows annotated
according to the the rules given above, the writing of the associated differential
equations is a simple matter. There is one differential equation for each C or
I element with integral causality. The nmnber of such elements or equations
is called the order of the model. The left side of each respective equation
comprises the term which is circled in the annotation of its bond. The right
side comprises what this term is equal to, as dictated by the bond graph with
its annotations.
For the 0-junction case of Fig. 3.26, the flow ~ = dq/dt is a causal output of
the junction, and equals the sumof the causal inputs S0 (with plus sign due to its
power convention half-arrow), p/I (with minus sign due to its power convention
half-arrow), and q/CR (with minus sign). The rate of change of momentum
[9 = dp/dt is another causal output of the junction, which because there is only
one effort on the junction equals the causal input, q/C. Thus, the equations
become
dq 1 1
0 -junction case : (3.32a)
d--~ = 40 - ~P - ~-~q,
dp 1
dt- ~q" (3.325)
140 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

EXAMPLE 3.15
W¥ite the state differential equations for the bond graph of Example 3.14,
using the method described and illustrated above.
Solution: The effort D = dp/dt is a causal output of the junction, and
equals the suru of the causal inputs e0 (with plus sign), q/C (with minus
sign) and Rp/I (with minus sign). The rate of change of flow 0 = dq/dt is
another causal output of the junction, which because there is only one flow
on the junction equals the causal input, q/C. The equations therefore are

dp 1 R
1 -junction case:
d--~- = e0 - ~q - ~p,
dq 1
dt - ]P"

The differential equations above represent the mathematical ~nodels of their

systems. The variables p and q are called the state variables, since they are
the only dependent variables in the equations. The only other variables are the
independent or causal input variables 00 and e0, which could either be constants
or specified functions of time. The only other letters in the equations represent
parameters, or constants: R, C and I. Each case has therefore two equations
and two unknowns, and the pairs of equations are solvable. Their solutions are
considered in the next section.
Should you be interested in some variable other than one of the state vari-
ables, you first solve for the state variables, and then express the variable of
interest in terms of them. For example, if you are interested in the flow on the
1-junction, you use 0 = p/I; should you want the effort on the zero junction,
you use e = q/C. The annotated bond graph provides adequate information.
Do you get differential equations for the uncoupled cases of Fig. 3.25 and
Example3.13? The answer is yes, you get one for the single instance of integral
causality in each case. For the 0-junction case you get

dq
(3.33)
d-~- = 00,
and for the 1-junction case you get

dp
eo. (3.34)
dt
The fact of uncoupled behavior vastly simplifies these cases; they can be consid-
ered to be degenerate. Most problems of interest do not involve such uncoupled
behavior.
Should one of the C or I elements in Fig. 3.26 or Example 3.14-3.15 be zero,
or missing, the number of differential equations reduces to one, and the model
is said to be of first-order. First-order models without coupling between the C
3.4. CAUSALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 141

after step I: eolX after step II: ealX

p/I

(a) IR model

after step I: XTOo after step II: X-~o

(b) RCmodel

Figure 3.27: First-order models

or I element and the R element are presented in Fig. 3.27. The methodologyis
the same, and so are the results, except for the missing terms. Modelsoften are
called by the elements they contain: RCmodels, IR models and ICR models.
This description is not unique, however,unless you specify whetheror not their
elements are coupled, or which junction type joins them.
The RCmodelrepresented in Fig. 3.27 gives, on inspection, the single dif-
ferential equation
dq 1
(3.35)
d-~ = 00 - ~--~q,
whichrepresents the only variable that is encircled.
EXAMPLE 3.16
Find the single differential equation for the IR modelgiven in Fig. 3.27.
Solution: The only variable that is encircled is ,5. This is placed on the
left side of the equation, and terms on the right side are dictated by the
efforts annotated on the other bonds, which according to the causal stokes
are causal inputs to the junction. Their signs are dictated by the power
convention arrows. The result is
@ R
d-7= eo- ~-p.

Theconceptof causality will proveto be particularly crucial in the writing of

differential equations whenmore complexmodelsare considered, including the
use of transformers, gyrators and multiple junctions. At that point (Chapter 5)
the logical underpinning of the procedures introduced here should becomemore
apparent.
142 CHAPTER3. SIMPLE DYNAMICMODELS

3.4.5 Summary
Eachbond in a bond graph maybe assigned a bilateral causality, as indicated
by a transverse markcalled ~ causal stroke. The effort on the bondis causal in
one direction, and the flow in the other. This refers only to computation, that
is the determination of independent and dependent variables, and mayor may
not be related to physical causes and consequences.
The use of integral causality for the energy storage elements -- the C’s and
I’s -- expedites the writing of the state differential equations for a system. The
causal inputs to these elementsequal the time derivatives of the state variables,
that is the generalized velocity dqi/dt for each C element and the generalized
force dpi/dt for each I element. Each causal output becomesa function of its
state variable, specifically qi/Ci or pi/~i. The causal strokes on the other bonds
in the system usually allows these state functions and any input variables to
be propagated to the other bonds in the model; each effort and flow thus can
be indicated as a function of the state variables and/or the input variables.
(Exceptions will be noted in Chapter 5.) It is usually desirable to annotate
all the bonds before attempting to write the differential equations. Youshould
never annotate an effort or flow in violation of the causal strokes, even if what
you wouldwrite is functionally correct; such an action frustrates the purpose of
the causal method.
Onedifferential equation of first order results from equating the derivative
dpi/dt or dq~/dt, for each energy storage element with integral causality, to the
causal input of its bond. The signs are determinedby the powerconvention half-
arrows. The numberof first-order differential equations that model an entire
system therefore equals the numberof energy storage elements with integral
causality, and is called the order of the model.
Differential causality sometimesis forced. Its treatment for uncoupledmod-
els has been addressed. Its treatment for other cases is deferred.
The use and meaning of the causal method is expanded upon in Chapter 5.
The present applications involve modelswith a single junction, whichis a very
special case.

Guided Problem 3.9

Solving this problemand the next can be considered simple and essential first
steps in your writing of differential equations from bond graph models.
A simple RCmodel is excited by an indepedent effort source, as shown
in Fig. 3.28. Define the state variables, and write a correspondingfirst-order
differential equation(s).

Suggested Steps:

1. Apply the mandatory causal stoke to the effort source bond, and then
(since it is allowed)apply integral causality to the energy-storageelement.
3.4. CAUSALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 143

Figure 3.28: Guided Problem 3.9

2. Annotate the efforts and flows on the source bond and the bond with
integral causality.

3. Annotate the effort and flow on the remaining bond according to the
mandates of tile causal strokes.

4. Write the differential equation by equating the circled term to the sum of
terms dictated by the causal strokes.

Guided Problem 3.10

Write differential equation(s) for the U-tube modeled in Guided Problem 3.7
(pp. 126-127, 133).

Suggested Steps:

1. Apply the causal strokes, using integral causality if possible. Identify the
order of the model.

2. Annotate the energy storage bonds in the standard way.

3. Complete the annotation of any other bonds, if necessary.

4. Write the differential equations by equating the circled terms to whatever

the bond graph dictates.

PROBLEMS

3.30 Determine whether or not the behaviors of the R and I elements shown
below left are coupled. Determine their behaviors for ~0 -- constant.

3.31 Determine whether or not the behaviors of the R and C elements shown
above right are coupled. Determine their behaviors for e0 = constant.
144 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

3.32 I and C elements are bonded to a commonjunction which is excited by

an effort or flow source. The behaviors or the two energy storage elements are
uncoupled. Identify the possible combinations of junction and source types, and
describe mathematically the relations between the behaviors of the sources and
the I and C elements.

3.33 Define state variable(s) and write the corresponding differential equations
for the model represented by the bond graph below.

3.34 Write appropriate differential equation(s) for the electric circuits of Prob-
lem 3.23 (p. 130).

3.35 Write appropriate differential equation(s) for the mechanical circuits

Problem 3.24 (p. 130).

3.36 Write appropriate differential equation(s) for the fluid tank and pipe
Problem 3.25 (p. 131).

3.37 Write appropriate differential equation(s) for the plunger of Problem 3.26
(p. 131).

3.38 Write appropriate differential equation(s) for the fluid system of Problem
3.27 (p. 131).

3.39 Write appropriate differential equation(s) for the vibration isolator

Problem 3.28 (p. 131).

3.40 Write appropriate differential equation(s) for the filter circuit of Problem
3.29 (p. 132).

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 3.9

The model has one energy storage (the compliance);
this can be given integral causality, and therefore must
be given this causality. ASa result, the order of the
R~-------- 1 ~-----~C modelis one.
3.5. SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 145

dq 1 1
4. -~ =-~eo- -h-dq
Guided Problem 3.10

1. C ’~ 1 --~-~I This bond graph assumes the two original compliances

have been combined into one, with one-half the com-
pliance of the individual compliances.
2. C ’-~y~ 1 p-~//I

3. This step is not necessary.

dV 1

(Makesure you have the minus sign.)

dPdt - ~V1

3.5 Solutions of Linear Differential Equations

The forms of the linear first and second-order differential equations found above
are repeated over and over in the modeling of systems with constant parameters.
Even much higher-order differential equations are decomposed into first and
second-order components. In this section, solutions to first and second-order
differential equations are found in the absence of excitations and for stepwise
excitations. These solutions are characterized by certain values called time
constants, natural frequencies and damping ratios. Once found, they can be
used as components in the responses to more complex excitations.

3.5.1 The First-Order Differential Equation

The first-order version of the general linear differential equation with constant
coefficients, such as equations derived above for the RCand IR models given in
Fig. 3.27, can be written in the form

~-~-[ + x = u(t). ] (3.36)

The constant r has the dimensions of time, and is known as the time constant
of the model. For many IR models such as that given by Example 3.13 and that
considered in Problem 3.31, and for many RC models such as that given by
equation (3.35) and that addressed in Guided Problem 3.9, the time constant
is either
146 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

Figure 3.29: Bond graphs for basic RC and IR models

T = RC or T = I/R. (3.37)

The four classic cases cited are reproduced in Fig. 3.29. Only the details of the
excitation term on the right side of the equation vary.

The fact that ~- has the dimensions of time can be seen by comparing the
dimensions of the two terms on the left side of equation (3.36) above. This
is the only parameter that characterizes the models in the autonomous case of
u(t) =

Whenthe right side of equation (3.36) is set equal to zero, describing au-
tonomous behavior, the equation is known as the homogeneous equation,
and its solution is known as the homogeneous solution, xh(t):

[ xh(t) = xoe-t/L ] (3.38)

This decaying exponential is plotted in Fig. 3.30. As suggested in the plot,

the tangent to the curve at any time t intersects the axis Xh = 0 at the time
t + T. During the same time interval the value of the function is reduced by
the factor e = 2.718. These facts expedite the sketching of the curve, as well as
underscoring its nature.

The solution to a non-homogeneous linear differential equation with

constant coefficients, called a forced response, equals the homogeneoussolu-
tion plus any particular solution.
3.5. SOLUTIONSOF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 147

|o0

x 0"8~x p(-t/r) r = RC or r = I/R

~
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 t/r 3.5 4.0
Figure 3.30: Homogeneous
solution of first-order models

EXAMPLE 3.17
Find the solution to the differential equation whenthe right side is a con-
stant, that is when
dx
~-~- + x = xf = constant.

Solution: The simplest particular solution is x = X f, because with this

solution the derivative term vanishes. The completesolution is therefore

x(t) = xoe-t/’~ + xy.

The undetermined coefficient x0 depends on the initial condition. To be

general, let the initial time be called T, and the corresponding value of
x be x(T). Substitution of this value into the solution above gives Xo =
Ix(T)z~]e~/~,or
x = Ix(T) z~]e-(’-v)/~ + x~t >T,
whichis plotted in Fig. 3.31. In the special case.with T = 0 and x(0) = 0 this
is often called the "step response" of the first-order model. Note that the
behavior is essentially the sameas the homogeneous response; a final state
xf is approachedexponentially from an initial state. The only difference is
that the final state is not zero.
148 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

X0 ...... -~

x(r)(
I
I
I
I
O0 T T+ r
t

Figure 3.31: Responseof the first-order modelto a step excitation

3.5.2 Responses to More Complex Excitations Using Su-

perposition
A continuous excitation u(t) maybe approximated as a sum of two or more
steps. Anillustration is given in part (a) of Fig. 3.32.
The solution of a linear-differential equationfor an excitation whichequals
the sumo] two or morecomponentexcitations equals the sumof the responses to
the individual excitations. This is knownas the property of superposition.
(It does not extend to nonlinear, differential equations.) Since the excitation
in the case of present interest has been decomposedinto a sum of steps, the
response to this sumof steps equals the sumof the responses to the individual
steps. Theindividual responsesare given by dashedlines in part (b) of the figure.
Each of these is of the form of the solution to Example3.17 with Xi(T) =
since they are independentof each other. Their sumis given by the solid line.
The time constant in this exampleis rather long comparedto the intervals
between the steps. The response consequently is considerably smoothed. The
response to the sumof steps therefore is not muchdifferent from the response
to the actual continuousexcitation. If the approximationstill is unacceptable,
the individual steps could be madesmaller and closer together.
The property of superposition is the basis of muchof the analysis of linear
models,as you will see later on. Thesimplicity and predictability of the behavior
of linear modelsis the principal justification engineers havefor designingsystems
that behavelinearly. In other cases, the simplicity of linear analysis also tempts
the assumptionof linearity, justified or not.

3.5.3 The Second-Order Differential Equations

Second-ordermodelscomprise a set of two coupled first-order differential equa-
tions. Examplesare given by equations (3.32) (p. 139) and the answer to Exam-
ple 3.15 (p. 140). The two equations can be combinedinto a single second-order
3.5. SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 149

Au(t)
~
~ I AU2 ~ ~ /lu3 (negau "v
e)

t
(a) excitation and step approximation

note: x(to)=Oassumed
sum of step responses=x(t)

toT~ T2 T3 T4 T~ t T6
(b) step responses and sum~ereof

Figure 3.32: Approximationof a response of a first-order modelusing steps and

superposition

differential equation, with one of the dependentvariables sacrificed in favor of

the other. This second-orderequation is of the form

d’~x dx
+ bou(t). (3.39)
a2-~ + al -~ + aox = bl ~t )
Dividing this equation by a0 and makingthe following definitions

natural frequency : w. = x/-~o/a2, (3.40a)

dampingratio : ( = al/2 ax/-d~-~, (3.40b)

gives the conventional form

1 d2x 2( dx bl du(t) bo u(t)

w-~n ~ + -~, -~ + x -ao dt + --ao -- f(t), (3.41)
The cases given in Fig. 3.26 and Example3.14 (p 137-139) are perhaps
the most commonbond-graph models of second-order systems. The first-order
equations for the 0-junction case are given by equations (3.32). Taking the
derivative of the first equation and substituting the first gives a second-order
equation with the dependentvariable q:

dt---T~ ~ ~-~
ar~- q" + 1 dq+ ~--~q
1 = -~-.
dqo
(3.42)
150 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

Alternatively, taking the derivative of the second equation and substituting

both the first and the second gives a second-order equation with the dependent
variable p:
d2p 1 dp 1 1
dt ~ + ~-~ + -i-~P = -~qo. (3.43)

EXAMPLE 3.18
Combinethe two first-order differential equations found in Example3.14 for
the 1-junction case into a single second-order differential equation in terms
of (i) the dependent variable p and (ii) the dependent variable
Solution: Taking the derivative of the first equation and substituting the
second gives a second-order equation with the dependent variable p:

d2p R dp 1 deo
dt --~" + 7-d~ + -]-~P = ~-"
Alternatively, taking the derivative of the second equation and substitut-
ing both the first and-the second gives a second-order equation with the
dependent variable q:

d2 q - +-~-~
dt--~ R dq
+ -i--~q
1 = ~eo.
1

EXAMPLE 3.19
Find the natural frequencies and damping ratios corresponding to equations
(3.42), (3.43) and the two equations in the solution to Example3.18 above.

Solution: When the four equations are compared to equation (3.41), the
natural frequency is seen to be

in both cases and all four equations. The damping ratios, on the other
hand, are different for the two cases:

" O-junction : ~ - 2wnRC - 21-R ’ I,

1 R RV~_~
1-junction: ~- 2wn I - 2

Note also that the right sides of the two differential equations for each case
are different.
3.5. SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 151

Youshould memorizethe left side of equation (3.41), whichapplies generally

for second-order models. It is also useful to rememberthe boxed equation for
the natural frequency, since it applies broadly to the second-order modelsof
the simple types considered in this chapter, but not all second-order models.
You are not urged to me~norize the equations for the dampingratios or the
excitation terms on the right sides of the differential equations, howeve2,since
they apply only to special cases. In general, you should be able to write first-
order differential equations directly from the annotated bond graph, combine
theln to get a single second-orderequation, and by comparisonof its coefficients
to those on the left side of equation (3.41), determinethe natural frequency,the
dampingratio and the forcing function.

3.5.4 Solution of the Second-Order Differential

Equations
The solution to the homogeneous
equation is

(Xhl COS ~2dt sin03dr

~- Xh2 ) ~ <1 or 02 d > (3.44)
Xh :
in which the dampednatural frequency, ~.dd, is

lWd---- V~--~: Wn.] (3.45)

This is such an important result that you are urged to verify it by substituting
equation (3.44) and its first and secondderivatives into the differential equation
(3.41). Note that WdiS smaller than wn,althoughthe difference is very small for
most commonmodest dampingratios ~ < 0.2. To underscore the distinction,
w~often is called the undampednatural frequency.
Equation(3.44) is plotted in part (a) of Fig. 3.33 for the commonly encoun-
tered special case in whichthe initial conditions are xh(0) = 1 and ~h(0) --~ 0.
This special case requires

Xhl : 1; Xh2 -- -- (3.46)

02d ~ ~

Youare urgedto verify this result also. It is found by substituting the solution
into the differential equation, and then substituting the initial conditions.
Dampingoften is neglected to simplfy the analysis of vibrating systems.
The special case with no damping(~ = 0) producesa non-decaying sinusoidal
oscillation. The solution for the special initial conditions becomessimply Xh =
Xhl COSW~t, with the dampednatural frequency equaling precisely the natural
frequency.
Real passive systems normally have at least a pinch of damping, that is a
positive value of ~, regardless of whetherit is recognizedin a model. Damping
causes the homogeneous solution to decay toward zero over ti~ne, even if ~ is
very small. Homogeneous solutions are often called transient solutions as a
result. (Recall that a transient is someonewhodoesn’t stick around for long.)
152 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

1.0
X/Xo

0.5

-0.5

-1.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

(a) homogeneous
response for x(O)=l, x(O)=O

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
(b) responseto a step

Figure 3.33: Responseof the second-ordermodelto initial conditions and a step

excitation
3.5. SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 153

For 0 < ~ < 1 the behavior is oscillatory. As ~ is increased within this range
the oscillations decay faster. They vanish altogether for { >_ 1, which is known
as critical damping. The solution for this special case is

xh = (Xhl +xh~.w,t)e -~n* ({ = 1 or wd = 0). (3.47)

For ~ > 1, Wd becomes an imaginary number. Rather than using imaginary

coefficients, one writes the solution in terms of real numbers as follows:

Xh---- Xhle -t/r1 -t/r

-{- 2Xh2e ~ > 1.

(3.4s)

The same initial conditions as above (xh(O) = 0, kh(0) = 0) give

V/~--1 ± ~
Xhl,2 -- 2V/~-- I (3.49)

The particular solution forced response of the sec0nd-order equation (3.41)

for the excitation f(t) constant = x), is the sameas th e p arti cular solut ion of
the first-order model to the same disturbance, namely, for t > 0, Xp = xI. The
general solution, then, is the sum of this constant and the homogeneoussolution.
It has two unspecified coefficients, regardless of whether equation (3.44), (3.47)
or (3.48) is used for the homogeneous part. The values of these coefficients
depend on the specific situation of interest. Twoconditions must be specified.
Note that any degree of damping causes the homogeneous or transient part of
the solution to decay with time, leaving only the particular or forced response.
Perhaps the most commonconditions of interest specify that the values of
x and its time derivative 2 are zero at the initial time, t = 0. This situation is
com,nonly referred to as a step response. After some algebra, the result for
the case of ~ < 1 is

x(t)=xl II--e-;~nt (COSWdt--~d sinwdt)] ~<1. (3.50)

This response is plotted in part (b) of Fig. 3.33. Cases with { _> 1 also are
plotted.
Tile response of a linear second-order model to a stepwise excitation is,
according to the property of superposition, the sum of the responses of the
model to the individual steps. Thus the response to any excitation, like that of
the linear first-order model as illustrated in Section 3.5.4 above or of any order
linear model, can be estilnated by approximating the excitation by a sum of
steps. This idea is refined in Chapter 5.
154 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

EXAMPLE 3.20
The floating, pitching block of Example 3.1 has a mass moment of inertia
about its center of mass I -- m(w"~ ÷ h~)/12, where m is its mass. Charac-
terize the behavior of the block after it is released from rest at an angle of
~b0. Neglect damping and the effect of any virtual inertia due to the water.
Solution: The model comprises a compliance with the value found in Exam-
ple 1, and an inertance with the value above, bonded to a common1-junction
with the angular velocity ~:

pi/Ii

Since the mass equals the mass of the displaced water, or m -- ½whp, the
inertance is I = hw(w"~ + h~)p/24. The differential equations are

dp 1
~ = -~¢,
de 1

To combine these equations and eliminate the variable p, you can take the
derivative of the second equation and substitute the first:

d2¢_ ldp 1
dt "~ I dt
This is in the .form of equation (3.41) (p. 149) with the forcing function
input f(t) = O, the damping ratio ~ = 0 and the natural frequency

~n - ~ - hi1 + (h/w)~]
Since there is no forcing and consequently a zero particular solution, the
total solution is the homogeneoussolution, which from equations (3.44) and
(3.45) (p. 151)is
¢ = ¢1 cosw~t + ¢~ sinwnt.
The angle ~ is specified as ~0 at t = 0, so therefore ~1 = ¢o- Also, ~ = 0 at
t = 0, which forces ¢: = 0. The final result is

¢(t) = ¢o coswnt.

The motion is a sinusoidal oscillation at the natural frequency, w,~.

3.5. SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 155

EXAMPLE3.21
A system is described by the second-order differential equation

d~ x 6 dx
dt --~ + dt +9x=18’
in which the units of time are seconds. Find the natural frequency and
dampingratio of the system, and find x(t) assumingx(0) = 1, 2(0)
Solution: Dividing by 9 places the equation in the form of equation (3.41)
(p. 149):
1 d~" 2 dx
6dt-- +5-Yi+x =2.
Thecoefficient of the first term gives the natural frequency:
1
w~ = --~ = 3 rad/s

The coefficient of the secondterm equals 2~/wn, so that

23
The particular solution is the const~t Xp = 18/9 = 2. Since ~ = 1, the ho-
mogeneous solution is given by equation (3.47) (p. 153). The total solution,
therefore, is
X = Xh + Xp = (Xhl + Xh2Wnt)e -w"t + 2.

Initial conditions nowcan be recognized.The first initial condition is

x(0) = 1 = x~a +
from whichXh~= --1. The secondinitial condition is

2(0) = 0 = --Xh~Wn+ Xh~Wn= 3(-- -- 1+ Xh~),

from which xhz = --1. The complete solution is therefore

x(t) = -(1 + 3t)e -3t + 2.

156 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

3.5.5 Summary

Whena constant resistance and either a constant compliance or a constant iner-

tance are coupled, the result is a linear first-order model that can be character-
ized by a single time constant, v. The homogeneous solution and the response
to a step excitation approach equilibrium exponentially, that is with terms of
-~/r
the .form e
Whenconstant I, C and R elements are coupled, the result is a linear second-
order model that, if the effect of the R element is not too large, can be char-
acterized by a natural frequency, wn, and a damping ratio, ~. The homoge-
neous solution and the response to a step disturbance feature an oscillation at
a damped natural frequency, Wd, that is very close to w~ unless the damping is
so large that oscillation barely can be discerned. The oscillations decay within
-;~-
the t.envelope e
Whenthe effect of the R element becomes so large that ~ > 1, Wdno longer
exists as a real number. A large effect sometimes results from a large value of
R, and other times results from a small value. The time responses then are
represented by the sum of two exponential terms with distinct time constants.
The borderline case of ~ -- 1 produces a special analytical form.
The response of any model described by a linear differential equation to
virtually any excitation can be estimated by approximating the excitation by a
sum of steps. The response, according to the property of superposition, equals
the sum of the responses to the individual steps.

Guided Problem 3.11

The problems below give practice in solving for the behavior of first-order and
second-order dynamic models.
The drum viscometer of Guided Problem 3.6 coasts to a halt from an initial
velocity of 1.0 radian per second. Find and sketch-plot the speed and position
as a function of time.

Suggested Steps:

1. Apply the causal strokes to the bond graph and annotate all the efforts
and flows according to the procedure developed, in Section 3.4.

2. Write the differential equation.

3. Evaluate the time constant by comparing the differential equation to equa-

tion (3.36) or through the use of equation (3.37).

4. The solution is given by equation (3.38). Evaluate the initial velocity, and
sketch-plot the result.

5. The position of the drum is the time integral of the speed. Integrate and
sketch-plot.
3.5. SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 157

Guided Problem 3.12

The current source of the electric circuit of Guided Problem 3.8 (pp. 127, 133)
undergoes a step change in time, from 0 amps to 1 amp. The load inductance
is 0.01 Henry. The voltage should not exceed 15 V. Choose values for the
resistance, R, and capacitance, C which satisfy the constraint and provide a
good response.

Suggested Steps-"

1. Apply the causal strokes to the bond graph and annotate all the efforts
and flows according to the procedure developed in Section 3.4.

2. Write the two coupled first-order differential equations.

3. Youare interested in the load current. The limiting voltage is proportional

to the rate of change of this current. Therefore, choose as the variable for
your combined differential equations the state variable proportional to
current.
4. Combine the equations so the variable chosen in step 3 becomes the de-
pendent variable.

5. Compareyour differential equation to equation (3.41) (p. 149). Identify

the values of the natural frequency and the damping ratio.

6. Find the homogeneoussolution of the differential equation. Note the pres-

ence of two undetermined coefficients.

7. Find the simplest particular solution possible (with no undeterinined coef-

ficient). Sumthis with the homogeneoussolution to get the total solution.

8. Use the initial conditions to determine the undetermined coefficients. As-

semble the solution.

9. The limiting voltage effectively sets the maximumrate of change of the

current. Examine the nature of the solution with this constraint in mind,
perhaps using plots given in the book for various dampingratios, to choose
an effective damping ratio. Only one undetermined parameter should
remain at this point.

10. Use the limitation of the maximumallowed voltage to find an equation

that determines the remaining parameter. You should now be able to give
values for both C and R, and plot the current as a function of time.

PROBLEMS

3.41 The U-tube of Guided Problem 3.7 (p. 126) has a diameter d = 0.25 inches
and a length L = 10 inches; the fluid is water (pg = 62.4 lb/ft3). Determine the
natural frequency of the motion following a non-equilibrium initial condition.
158 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

3.42 The capacitors of the electric circuits of Problems 3.23 (p. 130) and Prob-
lem 3.34 (p. 144) have an initial charge q0. Find the currents through the
inductors as a function of time.

3.43 The masses of Problems 3.24 (p. 130) and 3.35 (p. 144) are given an initiM
velocity 50, but the springs are initially unstressed. Find the position of the
mass as a function of time for (i) system (a), (ii) system (b). Assume

3.44 The fluid tank of Problems 3.25 (p. 131) and 3.36 (p. 144) has the
Q0 = 0.05 in3/s begin abruptly. Find the subsequent depth of the water in the
tank.

3.45 The plunger of Problems 3.26 (p. 131) and 3.37 (p. 144) is released
rest. Find its subsequent velocity.

3.46 Tile water tank of Problems 3.27 (p. 131) and 3.38 (p. 144) has an initial
depth of 1.0 m. The tube is full of water that has a zero initial velocity. Find
the subsequent depth as a function of time.

3.47 The vibration isolator of Problems 3.28 (p. 131) and 3.39 (p. 144) is
leased from rest 0.02 m from its equilibrium position, but suffers no other ex-
citation. Find and sketch-plot the position of the mass as a function of time.
Assume k = 900 N/m, m = 2 kg and b = 12 N s/m.

3.48 The filter circuit of Problems 3.29 (p. 132) and 3.40 (p. 144) experiences
a step change in the voltage ei, from 0 to 1 volt. Find the output voltage eo,
assuming L = 1.0 mh, C = 10 #f and R = 2.0 ohms.

3.49 An underdamped second-order model oscillates with decaying amplitude

in the absence of a continuing excitation. Show ~hat the logarithmic decre-
ment, A, defined as the natural logarithm of the amplitude of successive peaks,
equals the constant -2~r4/x/~ - 42. Next, invert the relationship to give a func-
tion 4 -- 4(A)¯ Finally, relate A to the log of the amplitude ratio for n cycles.

3.50 The mass-spring-dashpot system below exhibits the response plotted at

the top of the next page when the mass is struck by a hammer. (The blow
effectively imparts a velocity to the mass instantaneously.)

(a) Estimate the natural frequency (w~) and the damping ratio (4)
system. Hint: The damping ratio is so small that there is an indistin-
3.5. SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 159

guishably small difference between the natural frequency and the dainped
natural frequency.

(b) Estimate the spring constant, given that the mass is 4 kg.

position,
inches °.’l[ II II //
0.2
a ^ 1

-0.4

-0.8

-’1
0 9 4 6 8 ’10 ’~9 14 "16 18 90
time, seconds

3.51 The cylinder shown below has a radius and height r = h = 10 cm and
density equal to 750 kg/m3. It bobs vertically in a tub of water of density 1000
kg/m3 with an observed frequency of 1.35 Hz. Damping is to be neglected.

I motion

(a) Find the change in the bouyancy force resulting from a vertical dis-
placement to the disk from its equilibrium position. Interpret this result
to give a compliance.

(b) Solve for the effective inertance, using the observed natural frequency
and the value of the compliance determined in part (a).

(c) By comparing the result of part (b) with the mass of the cylinder,
determine the "virtuM mass" of the water that effectively moves with the
cylinder.

(d) Find the length of a cylinder of water of the same radius r that has
mass equal to the virtual mass. (Note: In estimating the inertance of the
160 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

fluid inside a circular tube with thin-walled ends surrounded by fluid, this
length also should be added to each end. Such a correction is widely used
in acoustics, and is especially important if the tube is short. If the end
of the tube is surrounded by a flange, the end correction should be about
39%greater. These cases are discussed further in Section 10.1.8.)

3.52 A long tunnel or penstock of area Av -- 100 ft 2 and length L = 3000 ft

carries water from a large lake to a turbine. In an emergency shutdown the flow
through the turbine, initially 1000 ft 3/s, ceases abruptly. A large surge chamber
of area As = 1200 ft -~ relieves the pressure surge that occurs.

~ . surge
. 12e_. - ~///~chamber

penstoc~ _- turbine
~

(a) Define variables and parameters and draw a bond graph model for
the system. Neglect all damping and the inertia of the water in the surge
chamber.
(b) Write differential equations of motion.
(c) Solve these equations analytically and sketch-plot the results. How
high does the water in the surge tank rise, and when does it peak?

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 3.11

-- = -~--p (Makesure you have the minus sign.)

dt
3.
~" = R 0.00713 = 16.84 seconds
4. ~) = ~)oe-t/~ = 1.Oe-t/16.s4
5.

o ~o :o ~o 40 0 ~o :o ~0 4o
,t, seconds t, seconds
3.5. SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 161

Guided Problem 3.12

1. R
q/C~q/RC

~o q/C~ p

C
dq 1 1
2. -~ = io - -~-~q - yp
dp 1
d-~ = -~q
3. The load current i equals p/I. Therefore, q will be eliminated from the equations
abovein favor of p.

4. d2p 1 dq 1. 1 q 1 1. 1 dp 1
2dt C dt RC C -~-~P = -~o RC dt ~P
5. Multiplying this equation by IC ~d substituting p = Ii gives
i~d2i I di
~+~+i=io
Comp~ing~his with equagion (a.41) (p. 149) gives

~=~; ~= 7~-~v~
(These results can be seen to agree wi~h those in Example3.19, p. 150.)
6. Assuming~ < 1, the homogeneoussolution is given by equation (3.44) (p. 151):
{h : e-{w=t(ihl sinwat); wa = ~ ~w=
COSNdt + ih2
7. Since the excitation is a step of amplitude i0 = 1.0 amps, the p~ticul~ solution
is i~ = io = 1.0. Thetotal solution is i = ih + io.
8. Theinitial current is zero, so ihl = --io. Therate of changeof this current also is
zero. To determine ih2 it is necess~y ~o take ~he derivative of i(t) at t = 0 and
set this equal to zero:
di It=o= 0 = [(e
)(zowasmwdt+ih2wacoswat)-~w,~(e-¢~"t)(-iocoswat
dt
+ih~ sinwdt)]lt=o = in~wa + ~w~io
Therefore, ih2 = --~Wn/Wd : --iO~/ ~-- if2, ~d

i=i0 1-e -~ coswet ~_~sin~et ,

whichagrees wi~h equation (a.g0) (p. laa).

9. ~he voltage which must no~ exceed 1~ V equals q/C = dp/dt = Idi/dt. The
plots in p~g (b) of Fig. a.aa (p. 1~2) reveal ghag the l~ger ~ is chosen, ghe l~ger
wn can be wi~houg ghe slope of ~he curve exceeding ~y p~ticul~ m~imum;a
l~ge ~ is desired. When~ is ~eater than 1, however, ~he curves appro~h their
final value with an unnecess~ily long ~ail. ~herefore, ~ = 1 is a good solution.
Unforguna~ely, ghe equations above fN1 for ghis critical damping. ~he solution
becomes
 162. CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

-~t.
i = io + (ihl + ih’2wnt)e
The initial conditions render ih2 = ihl = --i0 = --1.00 amps, from which
di ~. -,o~t ¯
d-~ =~" r e
d’2i
dt ~ = io(w~ - w~t)e

voltage occurs whendZi/dt ~ is zero, or whenwrit = 1. At this ti~

The m~imum

e
dt]m~ = Iw~e = 15V =
from which w~ = 15eli = 15 x 2.718/.01 = 4077 rad/s = 649 Hz, and
1
C = w~l - (4077)e 1x .01 - 6.015 pf;

-~
o.1
6.015 x 10

1.0

0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0

t, ms

.3.6 Nonlinear Compliances and Inertances

The compliances and inertances considered thus far are constant, and therefore
give linear relations between effort and displacement or momentum and velocity.
The differential equations considered thus far also are linear. On the other hand,
manyof the resistances considered in Chapter 2 are nonlinear.
The concept of nonlinearity is now extended to compliances and inertances.
The presence of a nonlinear R, C or I element in a dynamic model produces a
nonlinear differential equation. Few nonlinear differential equations possess an-
alytic solutions. Numerical simulation, using MATLAB, is employed in Section
3.7 as a practical alternative.

3.6.1 Nonlinear Compliances

The spring shown in Fig. 3.34 comprises a uniform strip or beam of elastic
material, cantilevered at one end, that wraps around a fixed curved memberas
it deflects. Without the curved memberit would have a linear characteristic
for small displacements. This member,h.owever, foreshortens the free length of
the beam as x increases. Therefore the spring becomes progressively stiffer as
it deflects. This type of characteristic is represented by a curved line as in part
3.6. NONLINEAR COMPLL4NCES AND INERTANCES 163

(a) system (b) characteristic

Figure 3.34: Exampleof a nonlinear spring

ei

qi
(a) linear (b) nonlinear
Figure 3.35: Definitions of compliance

(b) of the figure. The energy stored in the spring equals the area under the
curve, or

V(x) = J g dx. (3.51)

whichalso is true of the linear special case.

A generalized nonlinear compliancecan be described by a nonlinear charac-
teristic, whichcan be expressed algebraically either in a form appropriate for
integral causality or in a form appropriate for differential causality. For the
preferred integral causality,

Thus, the causal input 0 is integrated to give the state variable q, and the causal
output is expressed as the appropriate (nonlinear) function of
The relation ei = qi/Ci, which is used in the linear case, can be retained
for nonlinear cases, if you so prefer. As can be seen from part (b) of Fig. 3.35,
this approachcorrespondsto defining the complianceas the inverse slope of the
chord drawnfrom the origin to the point of interest on the characteristic. The
term chordal compliance sometimesis used to underscore this definition. It
allows the writing of differential equations as thoughthe element were linear.
164 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

fQdt= V
Figure 3.36: Nonlinear fluid compliancedue to gravity

If C is not constant, however,the co~nputational requirement is that Ci be a

funtion of the state variable qi:

[ Ci : Ci(qi), ] (3.53)
ComputingCi involves about the same effort as the direct computation of ei
using equation (3.52). As a practical matter, therefore, there is usually
advantage to the approach using equation (3.53). The two approaches are anal-
ogousto the use of ei = Ri0i as compared to ei = ei (Oi) for a nonlinear resistance
with the same (impedance)causality.
Placing differential causality on a nonlinear complianceshould be avoided,
if possible. Nevertheless,it can be treated directly; applications of differential
causality for both linear and nonlinear compliancesand inertances are given in
Chapter 4. The differential relation implied for the general complianceis

(3.54)
qi(ei) Ci (ti = ~qi; qi = qi(ei).

The constant-effort source, Se ~, could be thought of as a very special

type of nonlinear compliance, since it serves to store and dispense potential
energy and can be represented by an effort-displacement characteristic. Froma
practical viewpoint, however,it is useful to consider the constant-effort source
as a unique element.

3.6.2 Nonlinear Fluid Compliance Due to Gravity

The gravity complianceof a tank of liquid is nonlinear if the pressure at the
port near the bottomof the tank is not proportional to the volumeof the liquid
stored abovethis level. This happens, as illustrated in Fig. 3.36, if the surface
area of the tank varies with the depth of the liquid; the pressure is proportional
to the depth, but the volumeis not. The general relation is P = P(V). For
arbitrary nonlinear compliancewith generalized displacementq and effort e, the
relation is e = e(q), as given by equation (3.52). The correspondingparticular
relation for the tank is found by using the relations P = pgh, where h is the
depth of the water, and V = f2~=: A(z) dz, where z is a running variable for
the depth.
3.6. NONLINEAR COMPLL4NCES AND INERTANCES 165

EXAMPLE 3,22
A conical-shapedtank ends in a small orifice of area A0. Determineits fluid
complianceas a function of the volumeV of liquid in the tank. Then, give a
fully annotated bond-graphmodel, and write a solvable differential equation
in terms of V, with Qi, treated as an input.

Solution: The compliancerelation can be found as follows:

V = ~rr ~" dz = 7~z 2 tan 2 adz =

3 3 "

This result is inverted to get the desired form P = P(V):

3V ~/~
P=pg ~z ¯
The expression P = V/C still applies, although at this point finding C is an
unnecessaryextra step:

V_ 1 1/3
[7~tan2c~V2~
C(V)=
P(V) 3
The fully annotated bond graph below includes the effort P(V) above, and
the orifice flow resistance relation Q(P).

.~i,I

c P(V) ’_ P(v) _

UsingBernoulli’s equation for the nonlinear resistance that gives Q(P),

d--~=Qi’-Q(P)=Qi’~-A° =Qin-Ao
2 2g ~t~n

This equation is solvable, since the only unknowns

on its right side are the
given excitation Qin and the state variable V.
166 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

3.6.3 Nonlinear Compressibility Compliance

A hydraulicaccumulator,shownin Fig. 3.37 part (a), is a rigid chamberinto
whicha liquid such as water or oil enters or leaves, and whichalso contains a
fixed amountof a gas such as air or nitrogen (the latter to reduce the fire hazard
with mineral oils). The gas maybe separated from the liquid by gravity or, more
effectively, by a piston or a flexible barrier such as a diaphragmor a bladder. In
any case the pressures of the two fluids are virtually equal. Accumulatorsserve
the purposes of storing significant amountsof liquid and energy, and reducing
pressure and flow surges in hydraulic systems.
An accumulator can be modeled at least crudely over a wide variation in
pressure by a nonlinear compliance. The flow on the compliancebond refers to
the flow of the liquid, whichis relatively incompressible.It is positive for flow
directed inward. The integral of this flow equals minus the changeof volumeof
the gas. The resulting pressure can be estimated from an appropriate equation
of state for the gas. Adiabatic conditions for an ideal gas give p/pk =constant,
from whichthe characteristic in the desired form is
P0
k (3.55)
P - (1 - V/Vo)
Here, Po is the "charging pressure" that exists whenthe accumulator is empty
of liquid but contains the full charge of gas, and Vois the total volumeof the
chamber.Isothermal conditions give the same equation except that k is replaced
by 1. Thegeneral shape of the characteristic is shownin part (b) of the figure.
Compressingor expanding a gas by a large proportion changes its tempera-
ture significantly, potentially causing heat transfer with the surroundings.Heat
transfer over a significant temperaturedifference is irreversible. Adiabaticcon-
ditions are present only. to the extent that there is too little time for significant
heat transfer to occur. Isothermal conditions, for which heat transfer is re-
versible, are present only whenthe charging and discharging is so slow that
significant temperature differences do not develop. Actual charging and dis-
charging rates usually lie somewherebetween these extremes. The system no
longer conserves mechanicalenergy, and cannot be modeledaccurately as a pure
compliance. For the present this complication is neglected. It is addressed in
Chapter 10.

3.6.4 Junctions With Multiple Bonded Compliances

The characteristics of three arbitrary compliancesare given in part (a) of Fig.
3.38. Whenthese compliances are bonded to a common1-junction, the three
efforts sum for a given commondisplacement; the combinedcharacteristic is
the vertical sumof the three characteristics, as shownin part (b). Whenthe
compliances are bonded to a common0-junction, on the other hand, the three
displacementssum for a given common effort; the combinedcharacteristic is the
horizontal sumof the three characteristics, as also shown.
The chordal definitions of complianceallow the combinationrules for linear
compliances to be retained for nonlinear compliances, assumingdependencies
3.6. NONLINEAR COMPLIANCES AND INERTANCES 167

valve for adjusting ~1 valvefor adjusting

charge
_~~s charge

gas

~e,.Vo-V
p~ston

liquid
standard symbol
P,V
x<~ valve that closes
"l~:~]’whenV=Oto prevent
neck
neck~~ ~l ~]
~]bladder
ext~edfrom
through
being
Q neck by gas pressure
piston type bladder type
(a) majorconstructiontypes

(b) compliancecharacteristic

Figure 3.37: Hydraulic accumulators

168 CHAPTER3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

for commonq
C~

/ add
¯ q’s for commone
e
C~
\ _.
qi q
(a) individualcharacteristics (b) combinedcharacteristics

Figure 3.38: Graphical reduction of multiple compliancesbondedto a junction

P
relativistic mechanics inductancewith saturation

Figure 3.39: Nonlinear inertances

are expressed as functions of the common

variable. Therefore, for the 0-junction,
C = ~-~i C~(e), and for the 1-junction, 1/C = ~ 1/Ci(q).

3.6.5 Nonlinear Inertances

Aninertance is defined as nonlinear if p is not proportional to 0. This is anal-
ogous to a nonlinear compliancein which q is not proportional to e. A happy
fact: in classical mechanics,including fluid mechanics,massesare not functions
of their velocities, and therefore inertances are linear. Youwill find nonlinear
inertances only in relativistic mechanics,and (more importantly to engineers)
in the electromagneticdomain.The shapes of the characteristics for these cases
are shownin Fig. 3.39. (The axes have been reversed to makethem compatible
with the next figure.) The electrical inductor has a limiting generalized momen-
tum because the magnetic flux of real materials reaches a limit; the phenomenon
3.6. NONLINEAR COMPLIANCES AND INERTANCES 169

s called magnetic saturation. (The weight of many electronic packages such

~s stereos often resides mostly in their transformers, which contain considerable
tron in order to minimize magnetic saturation.)
The preferred integral causality and the associated computation are similar
to those for the compliance:

(~)’~1~i
O~(p) (~i = (ti(Pi); Pi = f ~ dt. (3.56)

Eor differential causality they are

~,P(~]i)d dpi
(3.57)

3.6.6 Kinetic and Potential Energies

The power flowing into a simple compliance or inertance, linear or nonlinear, is
the product of the effort and the flow, or

P = eo = ~0. (3.5S)

Since this power is flowing into a reversible energy-storing one-port element, the
energy stored is its ti~ne integral:

/~90dt=/edq-- f Od (3.59)
p.

The integral f e dq above is integrable, as you have seen, if e is a function of q;

this is called potential energy, and is given the traditional symbol Y:

In similar fashion, the integral f c)dp above also is integrable if 4 is a function

of p; this is called generalized kinetic energy and is given the traditional
symbol,/-4:

[T= f O(p)dp. I (3.61)

The dual nature of the functions e = e(q) and c~ = O(p) and the energies ~; and
7- are suggested in Fig. 3.40. Note that linearity is just a special case. (The
axes of the inertances are inverted from those given before in order to emphasize
that momentump plays the same role for kinetic energy that displacement q
plays for potential energy. Both are state variables, as you knowalready.)

4Asnoted before, roman(non-script) Vand T traditionally also are used for potential and
kinetic energy,respectively.
170 CHAPTER3. SIMPLE DYNAMICMODELS

e=p

(a) constitutive relations andenergy

(b) definitions of C and

(c) linear case

Figure 3.40: Generalized compliancesand inertances

3.6. NONLINEAR COMPLIANCES AND INERTANCES 171

The definition of the chordal compliance, C = C(q), is recalled in part (b)

of this figure. The definition of the chordal inertance, I = I(p), is given in a
similar fashion as the reciprocal of the slope of the chord:

q- q e =- P lc -= ~ e ’ -: "q (3.62)

Compliance and inertance moduli are assumed to be chordal unless otherwise

described. The slopes of the chords, that is the reciprocals of the compliance and
the inertance, are called generalized stiffness and generalized suseeptance,
respectively.
Constant inertances are linear. It is not necessary for an inertance to be
constant for its relation between 0 and p to be linear, however; a change in
something else, not infrequently a displacement, might also cause an inertance
to change. For example, the fluid inertance of a channel that is empty toward
the downstream end depends on the displacement of the fluid interface. In
another example, the inductance (electrical inertance) of the coil in a solenoid
depends on the displacement of the moving mechanical member. Consideration
of displacement-dependent inertances is deferred to Chapters 9 and 10.
Constant compliances are linear. Similarly to inertances, however, some
linear compliances vary because of changes in a variable other than the two used
to define the linearity. For example, the capacitance (electrical compliance)
of a capacitance microphone varies with the mechanical displacement of its
diaphragm. Potential energies dependent on two displacments are considered in
Section 10.2, where they are treated as compliances with two ports or bonds.

3.6.7 Summary
Whenan effort and its associated displacement are proportional to one another,
the associated C is constant, and the compliance is said to be linear. When
proportionality does not exist, C = C(q) and the compliance is said to be
nonlinear. In nonlinear cases it is usually more convenient mathematically to
use the particular relation in the form e = e(q) rather than e q/ C(q). Wh en
the generalized force is independent of the displacement, you should substitute
an effort source, Se, for the compliance.
Two or more compliances bonded to a common0-junction produce an equiv-
alent overall coinpliance larger than any of its components. Two or more com-
pliances bonded to a commonI-junction, conversely, produce an equivalent
compliance smaller than any of its components
In classical mechanics, including fluid mechanics, inertances are linear. In
engineering practice, most nonlinear inertances occur because of magnetic sat-
uration in electrical inductances. Analagous to the compliances, these cases
usually are most readily treated computationally using 0 = 4(p) rather than
gl = p/I(p), although either of these forms imply the favored integral causality.
The use of differential causality is treated in Chapter 4.
Sometimes a generalized kinetic energy or potential energy depends on more
than one independent variable. These cases are deferred to Chapters 9 and 10.
172 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

Guided Problem 3.13

This problem gives needed practice in determining a mechanical compliance
relation from a force balance and also from the use of potential energy.
A simple pendulum comprises a slender uniform rod of mass m and length L
pivoted about its upper end. Find the compliance relation between the moment
and the angle without restricting the size of the angle. Also, find the chordal
compliance, and the state differential equations that describe the oscillation.
Thes~ equations are solved in Section 3.7.3.

Suggested Steps:

1. Draw a bond graph model for the system. It is suggested that you start
with a 1-junction labeled with the angular velocity.

2. Perform a force-moment balance to get the relation between the gravity-

induced moment and the angle.

3. Get the relation between the moment and the angle a different way: ex-
press the gravity energy as a function of the angle, and take its derivative
with respect to the angle to get the moment. Make sure the two answers
agree.

4. Find the chordal compliance as a function of the angle (although this is

not needed in practice).

5. Place causal strokes on the bond graph, and annotate the efforts and flows
using the results above.

6. Write the nonlinear state differential equations. Note that the methods
introduced thus far cannot solve these equations.

PROBLEMS

3.53 A well-advertised mattress gets abruptly stiffer above a certain deflection.

Suggest how this can be accomplished with special shaping and mounting of
coil springs, and briefly discuss its desirability.

3.54 Evaluate the nonlinear compliance relation for the two-dimensional paraboliC
tank shown below, assuming integral causality. The shape of the tank is de-
scribed by y = ax2 and the width, w.
3.6. NONLINEAR COMPLIANCES AND INERTANCES 173

3.55 Solve the problem above for the tank being axisymmetric about the y axis.

3.56 The fluid tank of Example 3.22 (p. 165) is now formed in the shape of
two-dimensional "V" rather than an axysymmetrical cone. Repeat the analysis
for this case.

3.57 The conical tank of Example 3.22 (p. 165), but with no supply tube,
drains to atmosphere through a vertical tube of area A and length L. Write a
set of state differential equations to model the system. Viscous effects may be
neglected, and the resistance assumed to correspond to a single head loss in the
tube (giving a pressure drop of ~_pv’).
1 Include the inertance effects of the tube.

3.58 The rolling disk of Problem 3.5 (p. 100) and Problem 3.13 (p. 109) is given
a large initial displacement, so the compliance is not constant.

(a) Determine the compliance relation.

(b) Write a complete set of first-order state differential equations.

SOLUTION TO GUIDED PROBLEM

Guided Problem 3.13

M -- (mgL/2) sin ¢

L dV L
V = m9-~(1 cos¢); M=a¢)-~’---- mg-~sine

c= ¢--=
M mgL sin ¢

C (~mgL~)sin ¢1 1 p’~//t I = mL’2/3

dp
~= -(mgL/2) sin ¢

vd-~ = i
174 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

3.7 Numerical Simulation

Only linear differential equations and rather simple nonlinear differential equa-
tions allow analytical solution. Until the 1940s other differential equations could
be tackled only through limited and laborious graphical or numerical procedures,
often using grindingly slow mechanical calculators. This impacted the modeling
of dynamic engineering systems and, indeed, the very design of those systems.
In particular, great emphasis was placed on linear or linearized models, differ-
ential equations and the systems they represent. Linear systems indeed possess
some intrinsic virtue that commendsthem for engineering design. Nevertheless,
slavish focusing on them is no longer warranted or necessary.
The first major tool developed to solve time-based differential equations au-
tomatically was the analog computer. In the 1950s these "simulators" evolved
away from their mechanical origins to become largely electronic circuits based
on the operational amplifier in which vaxious voltages behaved in time as did
the associated variables in the equations. A maze of patch cords gave structure
to a particular model, and banks of adjustable resistors allowed parameters to
be set. Analog computers were used into the 1970s because of their potentially
high speed, which was realized most fully when they were hybridized with digital
computers.
The convenience, flexibility, accuracy and increasing speed of the digital
computer finally pushed the analog computer into obsolescence. Even if you
have little facility for solving differential equations analytically, you can utilize
them effectively in the analysis of dynamic systems. You don’t even need to
understand the numerical methods that the software employs, including the
MATLAB integrators described below and elsewhere. On the other hand, such
integrators can behave erratically; some knowledge of their algorithms is worth
the modest effort required.

3.7.1 State-Variable Differential Equations

A model first should be reduced to a set of n independent first-order differential

equations. This form results naturally from the procedure described in Section
3.5 and used throughout this book. The use of vector notation is helpful, partly
for its economy when a model is of high order, and partly because the MATLAB
simulator that is used below is based on it. This "state-space" notation is written
as

dx = f(x, t). (3.63)

Boldface is used to indicate vectors; when written by hand, the typesetters’

symbol for boldface is recommended: a wavy underline. The state vector,
x, is a vector of the state variables, or Ix1 x2 ... x~]T. The number of state
variables, n, is called the order of the system.
3.7. NUMERICAL SIMULATION 175

3.7.2 Simulation With MATLAB

MATLAB is a commercial software package that competes with and can be used
in conjunction with C, C++ and Fortran. It is especially easy to use, and has
features that commendit particularly for the analysis of dynamic systems. It
is employed frequently is this book. Before you proceed further it is desirable
that you study Appendix A.
The MATLAB simulators presented below "integrate" any set of linear or
nonlinear differential equations of the form given by equation (3.63). MATLAB
also has a simulator for linear models, presented in Section 5.3.7, that is much
more efficient computationally because it employs analytic solutions.
The first step in carrying out a simulation is to code the coupled first-order
state differential equations (equations (3.63)) themselves. This is done
special subprogramcalled a function M-file. The first active line of this file is
as follows:
£unc~ion f = ~name~(~;,x)
Unless you make special provision, the only arguments that are communicated
to this subprogram from the main program are the time t and the state vec-
tor x, which comprises the state variables x(1), x(2) .... ,x(n). The deriva-
tives dxl/dt," dx:/dt,... ,dxn/dt are represented by the vector f, which has
components f(1), f(2) ..... f(n). The subprogram normally ends with
differential equations in the form

f(1) = <first function oft, x~, x~,...,xn >

f (2) = <second function of t, x~, x~,..., Xn

f (n) = <n_th function of t, x~, x,),. ¯., xn >

f=f,

The last statement above converts a row vector to a column vector. Unless you
make special provision, only the elements of this vector, f(1), f(2),..., f(n),
are communicated back to the main program.
With this basic scheme, any parameters that are needed to evaluate the
derivatives must be defined within the function file. This file may be executed
thousands of times during a single simulation, so the procedure can be quite
inefficient. To avoid the repetition, values can be communicatedback and forth
between the main program and the function M-file through the use of a "global"
declaration. You also can write your main program as a special "script M-file,"
again using the global declarations, rather than merely entering it into the
commandwindow. These optional elements of good programming practice are
presented in Appendix A under the heading Communication Between Files.
The function M-file is called with its file name, not the name given on its
first line, but you should make them the same. All M-files must be given the
extension .m, and be properly opened, in order to be recognized. They may
reside on your floppy disk, or better yet on the hard drive. Their directory
 176 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

location should be entered into the path that MATLAB uses. Procedural details
are given in Appendix A under the heading Script Files.
Before the simulation can be executed, the initial conditions must be spec-
ified as a vector. For example, the initial state vector Xl(0) = 1, x~(0)
0, x3(0) = 2 can be entered

x0 = [1 0 2];

Next, the commandto carry out a simulation using a particular function file
for the differential equations can be issued directly:

[t,x]=ode23(’<name>’, [0 10] ,x0)

The command"ode" stands for ordinary differential equation; the "23" is a

descriptor of the algorithm used (several alternative available integrator algo-
rithims are described under "help: Function functions and ODEsolvers"). The
second argument on the right is a two-element vector comprising the initial time
and the time the simulation should stop. The third argument, x0, is the initial
condition noted above.
Further optional arguments can be added to control the accuracy of the sim-
ulation. Accuracy is increased, at the expense of execution time, by decreasing
the size of the time steps. These, in turn, are set automatically with respect to
error indices that you can specify. Default values are set, otherwise. Details are
found by clicking on " ODESET"within the help window.
Mistakes in the differential equations often result in instabilites in the solu-
tion which take almost forever to execute. Should you wish to abort a simulation
that seems endless, type control-C. Often it is wise to try a very small value for
the final time, until you are sure the behavior is reasonable.
Securing a plot of the results is probably your final step. The command

plot(t,x)

will plot all the variables, with a commonscale, as a function of time. The
color code (which depends on the version of MATLAB being used) gives you
the state vectors in the order they have been defined. Likely different variables
have different magnitudes, and some may be of little interest. Should you wish
to plot x(1) and 100 times x(3), for example, enter

plot(t,x(:,l),t,x(:,3)*lO0)

The state vector x is stored as a three-column matrix; the colon (:) is a wild
¯ card. The time is stored as a vector of the same length. The plot command
will execute only if the number of rows in t equals the number of rows in x.
For information on howto control the colors of individual plots, or to designate
individual data points by various symbols, use the "help" window.
3.7. NUMERICAL SIMULATION 177

EXAMPLE 3.23
The pendulum of Guided Problem 3.13 exhibits interesting behavior because
of the nonlinearity of the gravity-induced compliance. Simulate the system,
starting from rest at various angles. Plot the angle as a function of time for
a period of three seconds. The differential equations are

dp L
~ = -mg-~ sin ¢,
dt
de 1
d--[~=-~P"

Solution: Letting the state vector be x = [p q]’ and the parameters be

L = 1 ft, mg=1 lb and g = 32.2 ft/s 2, the function m-file becomes
functionf = pendulum(t,x)
L=I; W=I; g=32.2; I=L^2*W/(3*g);
f(1) = -W*(L/2)*sin(x(2));
f(2) = x(1)/I;
f=f,;
The final statement above converts a row vector into the necessary column
vector. The main program, entered into the command window with its
prompt >>, could comprise only two lines:
>> [t,x] = ode23(’pendulum’,[O
3],[0 pi/18]);
>> plot(t,x(:,2).180/pi)
This produces a simulation and plot of the angle, in degrees, from 0 to 3
seconds, with initial conditions comprising zero velocity and an angle of
~r/18 = 10°. Should you wish to superimpose plots for simulations with
different initial conditions, enter the command
>>hold on
Someresultsareplottedat the top of the nextpage.The frequency of
the oscillation for the 20-degree swings can be seen to be almost the same as
the frequency for the 10-degree swings. This shows that the assumption of
linearity, with its natural frequency of w,, = 1//x/~ = v/3 * 32.2/2 = 6.9498
rad/s, or one cycle in 0.904 seconds, is approximately valid for angles as
large as 20° . The frequency for an initial angle of 90° , on the other hand, is
noticeably smaller. As the angle approaches 180° , the frequency approaches
zero. Notice the hesitation as the pendumlumpasses through its maximum
angle. Does this agree with your intuitive sense?
178 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE D~NAMIC MODELS

°
180

°120

°60

°0

-60°

°-120

°-180
0 1.0
2"Otime,seconds 3.0

3.7.3 Integration Algorithms

The numericalintegration of differential equations is a major subject in itself.
There are manydifferent methodsavailable, even for the ordinary differential
equations of concern here. Rather than survey these methods, the presenta-
tion belowis limited to the simple class of Runge-Kuttasingle-step algorithms.
This choice is based on their simplicity and robustness, plus their reasonable
if not optimumefficiency. Should you at sometime do a great deal of numer-
ical simulation, you ought to avail yourself of current literature and software
packages.
The methodpresented below is a basic l~unge-Kutta integration scheme.
The fourth-order version with automatic setting of the time increment is a
satisfactory work-horsefor most problemsthe engineer is likely to ,encounter.
Runge-Kuttaalgorithms estimate the state x(~o + h) based solely on knowledge
of f(x, t) and x(to), whereh is the incrementbetweensuccessive times at which
the state is coraputed. Oncex(t0 + h) is found, to is reset to equal the previous
to + h, and the "single-step" process is repeated. Throwingaway the known
history in this mannerreduces the potential efficiency of the process, but makes
the methodself-starting, robust and easy to program. The ease with which the
step size, h, can be varied at any stage in the solution is a special advantage.
This allows the time step to be madeas large as possible, reducing computer
time, without the error exceedingset limits.
The fourth-order Runge-Kuttamethodwill be approachedinductively, start-
3. 7. NUMERICALSIMULATION 179

estimate of X(to+h)
I ~,~f, ,~ actual solution

area is estimated ] ~tual / =f (area underneath the

change in x ~ curve is the actual change in x)
Io t to+h t
(a) classical Eulerintegration

improvedestimate [ actual k =f
of the change in ~..~ ~l/estimated ~.(~o+~
(trapezoidal ~
integration) I to to +h t
(b) second-orderRunge-Kutta

Figure 3.41: First and second-order Runge-Kuttaintegration

ing with the lowest order, whichis

x(to + h) - xo + hf(xo, to), (3.64)
wherexo --= x(to). This is the classical Euler formula; the estimated state is
direct extrapolation of the slope it(to), as shownin part (a) of Fig. 3.41.

3.7.4 Second-Order Runge-Kutta

Afar moreaccurate estimate of x(to + h) results if the term f(xo, to) in equation
(3.64) is replaced by the average of f evaluated at to and f evaluated at to
h. The latter is not knownin advance, but can be estimated using a linear
extrapolation of ± = f, as shownin part (b) of Fig. 3.41. Hence, the estimate
of f at time to + h is
f+(to) = f[x+(to), to + (3.65)
in which
x+(to) = xo + hf(xo, (3.66)
is the sameextrapolation as in the lowest-order method(equation (3.64)).
the second-order symmetrical Runge-Kutta algorithm becomes
h
x(to + h) -~ x(to) + ~ [f(xo, to) + f+(to)], (3.67)
where f+(to) is found from equations (3.65) and (3.66).
A moreformal methodof derivation, whichcan be extendedto higher orders,
employsa Taylor’s series expansionfor x(to + h):

Of f(to) + ~-~ -~- + .... (3.68)

x(to + h) = x(to) + f(to)h + ~xx to
180 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

Here, (Of/OX)to is an n × n Jacobian matrix of derivatives. Equation(3.68) can

be approximated by the general second-order Runge-Kutta formula

x(to + h) ~ x(to) + A,f(to)h + A2f[(x(to) + #,f(to)h, to + #.~h]h, (3.69)

in which A,, A2, #, and #2 are constants to be determined. A second Taylor’s
series expansion, this time for the rightmost term of equation (3.67), permits
the equation to become

Of f(to) +
x(to+h) ~ x(to)+(Al+A2)f(to)h+A2 #1 "~X to to

which can be compared directly with equation (3.68). Equating the terms
through second order gives
A2 = 1 - A,, (3.71a)
1
#, = #2 = 2(1- A,)’ (3.71b)

where A1# 1 but otherwise is arbitrary. Infinitely manychoices exist, but a

highly stable and commonchoice is the symmetrical form

AI = A2 - ’ (3.72a)

It, = #2 = 1 (3.72b)
whichgives precisely the result of equations (3.65) to (3.67).

3.7.5 Fourth-Order Runge-Kutta

The symmetrical fourth-order Runge-Kuttaformulae probably are in most com-
monuse. Twoequivalent forms of this are
1
x(to + h) -~ x(to) + ~(zl + 2z2 + + Z4), (3.73)

x(to + h) ~- x(to) + z2 (3.74a)

1
e = ~(-zi + 4z2 - 2z~ - z4), (3.74b)

in which
z, = hf(xo, to), (3.75a)
1 1
z2 = hf[x(t0) + ~Zl, to + ~h], (3.75b)
1
Z3=hf[x(to) + ½z2, to + ~h], (3.75c)
z4 = hf[x(t0) + z2, to + h]. (3.754)
The error e in equations (3.74) is proportional to the fifth powerof the time
interval, h, and the cumulativeerror is proportional to the fourth powerof h.
3.7. NUMERICAL SIMULATION 181

Thus, for equivalent accuracy to the second-order formulae, much longer time
intervals can be used and the process usually is more efficient.
The magnitude of the vector e or its square eTe, where the superscript T
means transpose, is a very useful gage for the expected error. Thus if eTe is
greater than some preset maximum e~o, the entire calculation for the time step
can be thrown away, the time interval halved, and the calculation repeated.
Similarly, if eTe is less than some small preset fraction of e~, the time interval
for the succeeding ti~ne step can be doubled. There is no point in this latter
case for throwing away the previous calculation, which is merely more accurate
than necessary.
A good integrator such as the fourth-order Runge-Kutta often uses very
small time steps near the beginning of a simulation, which subsequently increase
by a large factor. A fixed-step integrator would either be relatively inaccurate
at first, or would eat up excessive ruu time. The results should be insensitive
to large changes in the error gage, although an excessively large error gage will
produce excessive time steps and resulting error. The problem is more acute
for systems demonstrating sudden changes such as occur when a variable is
abruptly limited, as in a mechanical impact.
The MATLAB integration algorithms are largely hidden from the user. The
algorithm ode23 has some of the features of a second-order Runge-Kutta, and
some of the features of a third-order. The algorithm ode45 is a hybrid fourth-
to-fifth order Runge Kutta. MATLAB also offers other integrators with spe-
cial virtues. MATLAB also offers other integrators with significant particular
virtues, which are described in the "help" window. Somefurther discussion of
the use of these programs is given in Section 5.2 and Appendix A.

3.7.6 Summary

Computersimulation is an alternative to analytical solution of the differential

equations which describe the behavior of dynamic models. It is especially useful
for nonlinear models, where analytic solution is typically extremely difficult
or impossible. Sometimes it is even used merely to find the equilibrium of a
complex system in order to avoid having to. solve difficult algebraic equations,
which itself might require iterative numerical methods with uncertain success.
Basic fourth-order Runge-Kutta is the most practical algorithm presented.
Although it is not the most efficient scheme available, it is simple and robust,
and possesses reasonable efficiency for a very broad range of systems and condi-
tions. The simulators ode23 and ode45 are Runge-Kutta algorithms of between
second and third-order and between fourth and fifth-order respectively; they
are amongst several MATLAB integrators that are simple to use but not fully
documented.

Guided Problem 3.14

This first simulation problem for you to do is about-as simple as a nonlinear
system can get, and allows comparison of simulated and analytical solutions.
182 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

A water tank has an area of 6 ft 2 and an initial depth of 2 ft. A drain orifice
has an effective area of 1.0 in 2. You are asked to simulate the emptying of the
tank, using various error indices, and to compare the result to .an analytical
solution.

Suggested Steps:

Model the system with a bond graph.

The relation between the orifice flow and the tank pressure is nonlinear.
Model it assuming Bernoulli’s equation. The "effective" area is meant to
include the effect of the vena contracta, or flow coefficient.

o Annotate the graph in the usual way, noting the nonlinear resistance. Find
a differential equation relating the volumeof water left in the tank during
draining to time.

Write the function m-file, which can be done in as few as two lines of code.

Simulate the system from the given initial volume until it is empty. Since
you do not knowa priori how long this takes, choose a short time to start
with, and extend it with subsequent runs. What does your model say if
the volume were to become negative? .

Plot your result.

Solve the differential equation analytically. This is a rare example of a

nonlinear equation that is simple enough to be solved: the method of
separation of variables applies. Comparethe result to your simulation.

8o Investigate errors that result from choosing a large error index. You could
change the index by factors of ten. Note that the default index for ode23
is .001, and for ode45 is le-6 (see MATLAB help, "ODESET").

Guided Problem 3.15

This problem gives you practice simulating a nonlinear second-order model,
without having to d(~ muchcoding. The resulting behavior is surprisingly exotic.
A vibration absorber comprises a flexible disk with a fused rigid hub and
fused outer ring, as pictured in Fig. 3.42. The hub is vibrated vertically with
the applied sinusoidal force, as shown. The disk acts like a spring, and the rim
acts like a mass at the end of the spring. You may neglect the masses of the hub
and the disk in your analysis. The rim weighs 3.0 pounds. The force-deflection
characteristic of the disk is nonlinear:

3,
F = kx + cx k --- 3001b/in, 3.
c = 30, 0001b/in
3.7. NUMERICAL SIMULATION 183

top view section view

~induced vertical
motion

Figure 3.42: Disk-and-rim vibration absorber for Guided Problem 3.15

The linear coefficient k results from the bending stiffness of the disk. The
nonlinear coefficient c results from radial or membranestresses set up in the
disk because the rather rigid rim resists being pulled inward as the disk bends.
The effect of non-zero initial conditions does not decay to reveal the forced
part of the behavior unless some damping is introduced. Add a damping term
to the force-balance equation with a damping coefficient b = 0.02 lb s/in.
To explore a little of the behavior of the disk, you are asked first to simulate
its behavior, starting from rest and proceeding for 0.5 seconds, for a small
hub displacement equal to hosinw~t with the small amplitude ho = 0.0001
inch at the calculated natural frequency. Then, repeat the simulation for an
amplitude ten times higher and a frequency 15% higher~ for two seconds or
longer. Next, carry out a third simulation that is the same as the second,
except for introduction of the initial values h = x -- 0.058 inch (compression,
with rim position nqutral). Finally, repeat the last case, increasing the 0.058
inches to 0.059 inches. Plot the position of the rim as a function of time in each
case. Commenton your observations.

Suggested Steps:

1. Model the system with a bond graph, omitting the damping. Note par-
ticularly that while the force on the disk spring and the rim is common,
the absolute deflection of the rim is not equal to the relative deflection of
the disk spring.

2. Apply causal strokes to the bond graph in the standard manner, and
annotate the bonds according to the standard procedure.

3. Write the differential equations. Add the damping term. It is necessary

to introduce the rim position as a third state variable simply to have it
available for plotting.
184 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

4. For very small deflections, the cubic term with the coefficient c in the
force characteristic can be neglected. Calculate the resulting resonant
frequency, which is virtually unaffected by the damping:wn = 1/v~-~.

5. Codethe differential equations in a MATLAB function file. Set the fre-

quency at the frequency computedin step 4, and the displacement asso-
ciated with the excitation velocity at 0.0001 inch.

6. Runthe simulation with zero initial conditions for the specified 0.5 sec-
onds. Use integrator ode45with the default error indices. Plot the result-
ing deflection as a function of time. The amplitude of the oscillation Of
a linear oscillator excited with a sinusoidal signal at its natural frequency
growslinearly in time, except for the effect of damping.Doesyour result
seemto agree with this description?
7. Increase the amplitude and the frequency as indicated, and carry out the
second simulation for two, three or four seconds. Plot the result. The
amplitude of motion for a sinusoidal signal at any frequency other than
the natural or resonant frequency should ultimately reach an equilibrium
value. Doesit?
8. Repeatthe secondsimulation, but specify the rather large initial deflec-
tions indicated. Plot the result. The response of a stable linear model
approachesthe samesteady-state oscillation regardless of the initial con-
dition. Doesit in this case?
9. Repeatstep 8 with the almost infinitesimally larger indicated initial con-
ditions. The results should be drastically different, however. Can you
explain this?

PROBLEMS

3.59 Consider the vehicle of Section 2.5.3 (pp. 74-77) accelerating on level
groundfroman initial velocity of 20 ft/s until equilibrium is reached. It weighs
3500lbs.

(a) Approximatethe characteristics given in Fig. 2.39 by simple polyno-

mial expressions.
(b) Write the differential equation for the speed:
(c) Carry out a numerical simulation.

3.60 Carry out the same steps as in the previous problemfor the acceleration
from rest of the motor of GuidedProblem2.2 (pp. 26-27). The load comprises
an inertia of 2.0 kg.m2 and a linear resistance of 0.005 N.m-s.
3.7. NUMERICAL SIMULATION 185

3.61 Carry out the same steps as in the previous two problems for the accel-
eration of the boat of Guided Problem 2.3 (p. 52) from an initial velocity of
ft/s. Assume50%throttle and a total effective weight of 3000 lbs.

3.62 The differential equation for the conical tank of Example 3.22 (p. 165),
with zero input flow, can be transformed to the tbrm dV~/dt ’ = -(W) 1/6 by
defining a nondimensional "volume" V~ = V/Vo, where ~b is the initial fluid
volume in the tank, and an appropriate nondimensional "time" t ~. Simulate
the emptying of the tank numerically, and compare the result with the analytic
solution (which is readily found despite the nonlinearity).

3.63 Simulate the response of the electric curcuit of Guided Problems 3.8 (p.
127) and 3.12 (p. 157) to the step change in the excitation current. Compare
result with the analytic solution which was found because the model is linear.

3.64 Simulate the response of the fluid tank system of Problems 3.25 (p. 131)
and 3.36 (p. 144) for the initial conditions specified in Problem 3.44 (p. 158),
and (optional) compare the result to the analytical solution.

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 3.14

I.
-~
c-~-----1 .~---~---~¢
~=.~
~
2. Q = Ao ~/-~- where Ao = i ~
.in

3. C
~. WC
I Ao 2V~gy.
~- R
A dV
c=~;-~=
-Ao 2V _Ao%/2~g

(Note that the density p does not affect the

result.)
4. function f = tank(t,Y)
A0=1/144; A=6; g=32.2;
f=-A0*sqrt(2*V*g/h);
5,6. Enter into the commandWindow:
[t,VJ =ode23(’ tank’, [0 100], 12)
plot(t,V)
The result shows that the final time needs to be extended. The plot for 350
seconds (rather than the 100 seconds above) is as follows:
186 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE DYNAMIC MODELS

12
~
V,ft
8

0
0 100 200 300
t, seconds

If the volumeis started negative, or becomesslightly negative due to numerical

errors, the square root of the negative value is treated as zero. Normally, on
the other hand, MATLAB treats the square root of a negative number as an
imaginary number.

= .Ao dt

2~lWo
= -ao~C-~tl’o

2(v/V- v’-~o) -Aow~t

2
A g 32.2
= 12 1 - 1
2x12x

e12(1 - 0.003284t)

The tank empties at t = 1/.003284 seconds. The plot of this equation is

indistinguishable from that above found using ode23. The equation can be
plotted with the MATLAB instructions

t=[0:0.5:304.5];
V=12*(1-0.003284*t).’2; Note the array power (the dot before the ")

plot(t,V)

Increasing the error index by a factor of 1000produces a negligible difference.

This result applies to first-order modelsonly; the behavior of high-order models
is apt to be more sensitive to the eror index. The most commoncause of a
significant error is an abrupt changein a forcing function, such as at the instant
of a mechanical impact.
3.7. NUMERICAL SIMULATION 187

Guided Problem 3.15

Y*-- ~k "[ compressionX~__

q =x-y

C kq+cq~ 0 ~---~- I

s~
dp
-~ = kq + cq 3 + damping force = kq + cq 3 + do

dq _ & _ 1 dx
~c=--d~ d =-~(xosinwt)= xowcos~t
--dr - ~p;

dy 1
cl-~ = ~P

dx
~ ~ ~0~ COS~t
dt

~. = 1/x/7-C= x/gT-J7= x/K~7~

= x/a00x as6/a= 196.47rad/s

5. Let the state vector be x = [p, q, y, x]’. Then,

f=funct±on d±sk(t,x)
k = 300; c = 30000; b = 0.02; I = 3/386; x0 = 0.0001; om = 196.47;
~(4) = x0*om*cos(om*t);
f(3) = x(1)/I;
f(2) = ~(4)-f(3);
f(1) = k*x(2)+c*x(2)’3+b*f(2);

6. Enter into the command window:

[t,x]=ode45(’disk’,[0 0.5],[0 0 0 0]);

plot(t,x(:,4),t,x(:,2))

The resulting plot (with some notational refinements) indeed shows a growing
response:
188 CHAPTER 3. SIMPLE D}%rAMIC MODELS

0.004
inches
0.002

-0.002

-0.0040 ~
0. l 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
t, seconds

Changing xo to 0.001 in, increasing w by the factor 1.15 and increasing the
final time to 4 seconds gives the following result. The ratio of the arnplitudes
of the rim to the hub approaches a constant value of 4.0.

0.008
solid line: rim, y(t)
inches
0.004

0 1 2 3 4
t, seconds

Introducing the initial condition [0 0. 058 0 0. 058] gives the following result.
Although the amplitude starts large, it ultimately decays to the same =t=0.004
inches as when zero initial conditions are specified.

0.08
inches rim motion for hub h(t)= 0.001 sin(1.15%t) and
initial compressiondisplacementof 0.058 inches
0.~

-0.04

-0.08
0 1 2 3 4
t, seconds
3.7. NUMERICAL SIMULATION 189

Increasing the number 0.058 inches slightly, to 0.059 inches, causes a major
change in behavior: the rim amplitude does not decay, but approaches a value
about 17 times larger than before.

rim motion for hub h(t)= 0.001 sin(1.15w, t) and

initial compressiondisplacememof 0.059 inches
0.08
inches
0.04

-0.04

-0.08
0 1 2 3 4
t, seconds
There are in fact two grosssly different resulting riln amplitudes for the same
hub amplitude, depending on the initial conditions. Should the rim motion be
momentarily damped, for example, the large amplitude would vanish leaving
only the smaller motion, a phenomenon known as the jump effect. The short
explanation is that increasing amplitude means increasing stiffness, due to the
nonlinear force term with the coefficient c. Increasing stiffness in turn means
increasing natural frequency.

Therefore, if the amplitude is large enough

resonant frequ_~
at first, the natural frequency will rise
to match the applied frequency, 15%
larger than the small-amplitude natural fre- amr;l~mde] ~ ’,jumps and
quency, and the disk resonates with a rim-
to-hub amplitude ratio of about 67. The be-
havior depends on the history of the state,
or demonstrates hysteresis, as the reso- ~[~ ~eresis
nance diagram opposite suggests. 0 1 w/w.
Chapter 4

Intermediate Modeling

This chapter represents a second pass at the modeling of dynamic systems.

The physical systems considered require bond graph models with more than
the single junction assumed in the previous chapter. Models for the simple
circuits considered in Section 4.1 below employ junction structures comprising
any number of bonds and junctions. Transformers and gyrators are added in
Section 4.2, with special attention on hydraulic-mechanical, electromechanical
and mechanism-based systems.
Models often can be simplified or transformed to make them more amenable
to analysis, without losing meaning. The most commonmodel equivalences that
accomplishthis objective are presented in Section 4.3. This leads to a consid-
eration of the equilibrium state of dynamic models in Section 4.4. Stability,
instability and limit cycle behavior are critical properties that emerge.
The translation of the bond graphs to differential equations, and the finding
of numerical or analytic solutions for imposed initial or boundary conditions,
are deferred until Chapters 5 and 6.

4.1 Simple Circuits

Circuits comprise components, each of which has two sides, interconnected at

simple junctions. Either the generalized forces or the generalized velocities are
commonat each junction. The structure of a curcuit is represented by its
pattern of interconnections, that is its topology. The geometric orientations of
the components, on the other hand, either are i~nmaterial or are constrained
in a simple universal way. Electric, fluid and mechanical circuits are addressed
below. Someof the systems considered in Section 4.2 are circuits, also.

191
192 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

4.1.1 Simple Electric Circuits

Simpleelectric circuits compriseinterconnectionsof resistors, capacitors, induc-

tors, voltage and current sources. Three-port and higher ported elements such
as transistors are excluded, and transformers are deferred to the following sec-
tion. The junction structures.of the bondgraphs are independent of the nature
of its .one-port elements. As a result, one-port elements sometimesare desig-
nated in this bookwith the generic symbolZ, in both the circuit diagrams and
the bond graphs.
The following routine procedure can be employedfor simple circuits without
transformers:

1. Represent each node by a zero-junction, since the voltage is commonto

all joined conductors. It is helpful to label the junction with a symbolfor
its voltage.

2. Represent each branch i by the combination

whereZ~ represents the ith element (source, resistor, capacitor or induc-

tor). This says that the current entering the element on one side emerges
unchangedon the other side. It is helpful to label the junction with a
symbolfor this current.

Discard all bondsfor whicheither e = 0 (ground or reference voltages)

i -- 0, since they represent zero power. (An exception is the rare case in
which capacitors prevent all of the conductors from having any current,
and you still are interested in the distribution of voltages.)

Eliminate all junctions from which only two bonds emanate, and join the
bonds. Coalesce all directly bonded zero-junctions and directly bonded
one-junctionsinto single junctions of the respective types.

Steps 3 and 4 do not changethe meaningof the bondgraph, but serve to simplify
its appearance.
Recall that the electrical and bond-graphsymbols for resistance and for
capacitance are R and C, respectively, whereasthe electrical symbolfor induc-
tance is commonlyL and the bond-graph symbol is I. Do not write L in the
bondgraph;it is undefined. Instead, write I -- L off to one side.
4.1. SIMPLF~CIRCUITS 193

EXAMPLE 4.1
Applythe four steps aboveto get a bondgraph for the electric circuit

Solution: The bond graph after step 2:

After step 3:

and finally after step 4:

After somepractice it is possible to draw the final bond graph directly,

without separating the four steps.

EXAMPLE 4.2
Drawa bond graph for the Wheatstonebridge with arbitrary elements Z~.
The bond graph elments also may be labeled Z~ (as word bond graph ele-
ments). This circuit could comprise any combinationof types of elements,
althoughin usual practice the four legs are of the sametype.
e2

e’~~[~ ~]~6. ,~
194 CHAPTER 4. INTER_MEDIATE MODELING

Solution: The bond graph after step 2 is

eb
Z’\l./ \ 1./z2
e~o ~ 1~--~------- 0

1
Z4~ i~,~x Zs/1/S~Zs

and after step 3 i~ is

Z~ z x Z~

O~ 1i~0

Z~ ¯ Z~
Finally after step 4 it is

z~

You are urged to try this problem using a different node as the reference
or ground; although the benzene-ring-like form of the resulting bond graph
will remain, the order of the elements will change. This change corresponds
to the different choices of variables, and does not imply different physical
behavior.

4.1.2 Fluid Circuits

Fluid circuits include gravity tanks, compression chambers and fluid restrictions
such as orifices or valyes interconnected by pipes or channels that may exhibit
significant resistance and/or inertance. A very large gravity tank might be
approximated as a constant-pressure source, called a reservoir or surap.
4.1. SIMPLE CIRCUITS 195

Themodelingsteps for fluid circuits are analogousto those for electric cir-
cuits. Afluid restriction is modeledlike an electrical resistor, with an R element
bondedto a 1-junction, since the input and output flows are the same. A junc-
tion of three pipes (a pipe "tee") or moreis represented by a 0-junction, like
electric circuit junction, since the pressures are common and the flows sum.

EXAMPLE 4.3
Modelthe hybrid mechanical/fluid sytem pictured below in the form of a
bond graph:

r~-~ .~ ~
~ surge tank
area A
~~~--~toload, P,

¢ i .--.-.~-

area)

Solution: The gravity tank is analogous to a shunt capacitor in an elec-

trical circuit. (Series fluid compliances cannot be madewithout energy
transduction to mechanicalform, whichyou will see later.) The pressure in
the reservoir is considered in the modelbelowto be negligible comparedto
other pressures.

C R

S ~ T ~ lrl---.--PO ~ ln---2A, - LOAD

O[ T = displacementper radian

since S~ = O, its bondc~ be dropped

4.1.3 Mechanical Circuits

Anassemblageof masses or inertances, springs and dashpots that moveeither

in simple translation or simple rotation is called a mechanicalcircuit. A trans-
lational exampleis given in Example4.4 below. Twoor ~nore componentsjoin
at a "mechanical node," where they have a common linear or angular velocity.
This is different froman electrical node, at whichthe efforts (voltages) rather
than the flows or generalized velocities (currents) are common.The two sides
of a spring or dashpot have the sameforce but different velocities, whichalso
is unlike electrical capacitors or resistors that have common flows rather than
efforts. Onthe other hand, the two sides of a masshave the samevelocities but
different forces, like the two sides of an inductor that have the samecurrents
196 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

1but different voltages.

Steps similar to those for electric circuits are as follows:

1. Representeach mechanicaljunction with a 1-junction; if inertia is associ-

ated with the generalized velocity of a junction, add its inertance:

It is usually desirable to label the linear or angular velocity with a customized

symbol.
2. Represent each spring and each dashpot, respectively, with a 0-junction
bonded to the C Or R element:

~0~ 0

Again, it is usually desirable to label the common

force or torque with
particularized symbol.
3. Coalesce bonded junctions of the same type into a commonjunction.
4. Representeach input by S, S)~ or S~, as appropriate.

5. Delete any bondsfor whicheither the generalized force or velocity is zero.

6. Eliminate all junctions from which only two bonds emanate, and join the
bonds.

The exampleproduces a loop of bonds, called a mesh. This and similar four-
bond meshes can be reduced to tree-like bond graphs, as is shownin Section
4.3.
1Somemodelers use the Firestone analogy between mechanical and electrical variables in
order to make the modeling diagrams of similar assembledges of electrical and mechanical
components look alike. In this analogy, velocity and voltage are knownas "potential" or
"across" variables, and force and current are knownas "flow" or "through" variables. Inertial
elements are treated as having zero velocity on one side. Fluid flow is treated like a current
or a force, and pressure is treated like a voltage or a velocity. This analogy turns a hydraulic
cylinder into a gyrator, and a DCmotor into a transformer. "Line graphs" (originally known
as "linear graphs") represent the models. These graphs are more complicated than bond
graphs, particularly when transformers or gyrators are employed. This author considers the
identification of force as a fiow and velocity as a potential to be unnatural, and prefers to define
variables by their nature at a single cut in space rather than with respect to a circuit element"
with its two sides. Furthermore, the effort-flow concept which emerges from the single-cut
idea extends better to thermodynamic systems and distributed-parameter models.
4.1. SIMPLE CIRCUITS 197

EXAMPLE 4.4
Translate the system drawn below in the language of mechanical circuits
into the language of bond graphs:

R!

F~ m, F2
m.
~’
.C
XI X2 X3

Solution: After step 2:

Rl

x3 l x4

After step 3:

Steps 4, 5 and 6 do not apply to the model as pictured. If the right end
were fixed to ground, however, the bond with i4 would be deleted (step
5), leaving a two-port 0-junction that could be eliminated by bonding C2
directly to the 1-junction for i3 (step 6).

4.1.4 Summary

Simple electric, fluid and mechanical circuits comprise assemblies of simple com-
ponents each having two ports with a commoneffort or a commonflow; The
components thus can be modeled with a bond graph having two boundary bonds,
a 0-junction or a 1-junction and an R, C or I element. Interconnections also
occur at 0 or 1-junctions. It is strongly recommendedthat you define symbols
for all commonvariables, and place these symbols on the system sketch first and
198 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

k! L R
2

R~ ~

(a) mechanical circuit

P~ e(t~~

(b) fluid circuit

h! (c) electric circuit

accumulator tank

reservoir i

Figure 4.1: Guided Problem 4.1

the corresponding bond graph junctions second. Bonds with either zero effort
or zero flow, and therefore zero power, may be erased from the graph.

Guided Problem 4.1

The three circuit diagrams in Fig. 4.1 imply unique models. Translate the
language of these diagrams into the language of bond graphs. It is critical that
you attempt these simple cases before you examine the solutions.

Suggested Steps:

1. Define symbols for whichever variable is commonfor the two ports of each
element, and place them on the diagrams.

2. Carry out the steps for electric circuits (which apply by analogy to fluid
circuits also) or mechanical circuits, as given in this section. Label each
junction with the proper symbols from step 1. Do not attempt more than
a crude .modeling of the accumulator.

Guided Problem 4.2

Part (a) and step 1 of this problem are a simple example of the use of junctions.
The balance of the problem gives insight into some of the virtues and liabilities
of major conventional hydraulic circuits.
Hydraulic motors often are driven from simple fixed-displacement pumps
run at constant speed so they produce virtually constant flow. See Fig. 4.2,
which employs~ standard fluid power symbols. The speed of the motor usually
4.1. SIMPLE CIRCUITS 199

bleed-off:

pump control valve motor

meter-in:
valve
~ ~ ~co:~’ntrol-’~~load
pump relief valve motor

meter-out:

lve
pump relief valve

Figure 4.2: Hydraulic system of GuidedProblem4.2

200 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

is controlled by an adjustable valve in one of three ways. In bleed-off control,

excess pump flow is diverted through the valve. In meter-in control, the valve
admits only the desired load flow, while the excess, if any is diverted through
a relief valve. The relief valve is constructed so as to limit the pressure of
the pump, /~p. Meter-out control is similar, but the control valve is placed
downstream of the hydraulic motor. The small symbol at the bottom of each
vertical line represents the vented reservoir or tank, which is common.(This is
like the ground symbol in electrical circuits.)

(a) Draw bond graphs to model the systems, neglecting leakage and fric-
tion and assuming constant pump flow. The terms "RELIEF VALVE,"
"CONTROLVALVE" and "MOTOR/LOAD"may be used for the relevent
components.

(b) Find the overall efficiency of these systems when operation is at the
load-to-relief pressure ratio (PL/PR) of 0.1 and 0.9, and the load-to-pump
flow ratio (QL/QP) is 0.2 and 0.8 (for a total of four combinations), ne-
glecting leakage and friction.

Suggested Steps:

Draw bond graphs for the systems, focusing on 0-junction for pipe tees
and 1-junction for series interconnections.

Plot the pumpcharacteristics, as modified by the relief valve (if any),

a map of flow vs. pressure. Also, plot the four operating load points.

Find and plot on the map the corresponding points at which the pump
operates.

4° Computethe et~iciencies ~ as the ratios of the motor power to the pump

power, power being the area of the rectangles defined by the operating
points and the origin.

PROBLEMS

4.1 Find the bond graph for the circuit of Example 4.1, moving the ground
from the lower end of the inductor to the uppper end. Is the structure of the
graph changed? Are the meanings of the effort and flow variables changed?
(Pay particular attention to signs.)
4.1. SIMPLE CIRCUITS 201

4.2 Model the systems below with bond graphs. Identify variables and param-
eters where appropriate on copies of the diagrams and on the bond graphs.

(a)

porous plug ]’ tube

4.3 A hydraulic circuit includes a positive-displacement pump, rigid fluid lines,

a rotary hydraulic motor and a load with a rotational inertia. Give the structure
for a model of the system in bond-graph form. Describe in words what kinetic
energies are represented by the inertance(s) in your model.

4.4 Model the translational mechanical system below with a bond graph.

4.5 Model the rotational mechanical system below with a bond graph.

flywheel flywheel coupling

4.6 Draw a bond graph for the circuit shown below.

L
202 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

4.7 Infections of the middleear frequently are stubborn and potentially serious,
particularly for small children. It is common to insert a small tube surgically
through the eardrumto act as as a drain for the infectious material. (The tube
is rejected by the body several months later.) The direct effect of the tube
on the hearing, presumingthe tube and middle ear are free of liquid, is the
present concern. The mechanical loading of the eardrum by the tube appears
to be negligible; the question is the effect on the vibration of the eardrumby
the acoustic bypass hole through the tube.

Assumethat a pressure drop of 1 lb/ft 2 across the eardrum produces a

volumetric displacementof 0.5 x 10-6 ft 3. Also, assumethat the effect of the
small boneswhichtrans~nit the vibration is s!mplyto increase the effective mass
of the eardrum by 50%.Other parameters are listed below.

2( area = O. 10 in
eardrum~ thickness = 0.04 in.
3\ (,. density = 2.0 slugs/ft
~ ~bones that transmit
~~~J4~~/ vibration to inner ear
~’~er ear (neglect)

ddle
~’~-//////~~.~/eVaC~U__m~.~ irnni3

\~,~ ~ area of hole i~.0 ~0~1 in

,~~ (diameter ~ 0.035 in.)
density of air = 2.4 x 103 3slug/ft

Describethe physical significance of each of the elementsin the simple bond-

graph modelshownbelow. Relate the moduli of its elements to the parameters
of the physical system, and evaluate those parameters. The motion of the upper
1-junction is transmitted to the inner ear by an "activated" transformer which
you need not consider. (Problem 6.21 (p. 447) requests the response of
systemto sinusoidal excitations, both with and without the drain tube.)
4.1. SIMPLE CIRCUITS 203

.1 ~ T ~ to inner ear

~ o o ---.-c,,

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 4.1

(a) mechanical circuit

1. ~x2
[.~x~, forcesin springs:Fk,, Fl~2
force in dashpot:Fb
~

2. after step2:
~
i

l, ~ 12 C
2
R C~

(note: further reductionis

possible usingFig. 4.18)

I~ ~ 12
204 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

(b) fluid circuit

11 CI I2 C,

R~ R~ Rs

(c) electric circuit

2. after step 2:1 R,

L R, I n°te: /=L I-
2.
1; ~ 0 ~ li~"~

~ ~ R3 Rf-~---- "1 li--~C

ls i-..~-- S
e,_ s, e(.-~t) li

R,.
after step 3:
after step 4:
I R.,’ --R2+R
R~-.~----- ~
li~C
liaR3 i
Se e(’~ t) 1,
3

2’ .~,--~-~-elo --,~-~-R

li~Sy
S~ li~ R~ Sf~ li’---"~’C
4.2. SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL MACHINES 205

Guided Problem 4.2

1. bleed-off: Pe
~ 0 PLQL
= -P¢ MOTOR/LOAD
a~

CONTROLVALVE

meter-in and S Pe o . 1^ Pt MOTOR~LOAD

meter-out: ~ Q~,
L
RELIEF VALVE CONTROL
VALVE
2,3.
_~. pump, bleed-off-~ .~ pump, meter-in
Q~’[~. pump characteristic ~ or meter-out
0.8o~-~,-~............ .:.,,;2
o I t four combinations
I ’; .of~,o.L~, . 1 I’
00.1 PR 0.9 P~PR(relief valve setting)
P

Bleed-off: ~1 = ~12 = 0.8; ~/a = ~14 = 0.2. Meter-in or out: r/1 = 0.1 x 0.8 =
0.08; r~2 = 0.9 × 0.8 = 0.72; r/3 = 0.1 ×0.2 = 0.02; r/4 = 0.9 x0.2 = 0.18.
(Bleed-off control gives higher efficiency, but meter-in or meter-out control is
moredirect and less susceptible to errors in the pumpflow, etc.)

4.2 System Models With Ideal Machines

The models of Section 4.1 comprise one-port elements (S, Se, Sf, R, C, I) in-
terconnected by junction structures of bonds, 0-junctions and 1-junctions.
Constant-parameter transformers and gyrators (T,G) are now added to the
junction structures to permit modeling a much broader set of systems. Circuit-
like systems are considered first. Certain commonlyoccuring two- and-three-
dimensional geometric constraints are then recognized.

4.2.1 Electric Circuits

An idealized electric transformer is shown in Fig. 4.3. The modulus of the
transformer, T, equals the turns ratio of the two coils. The presence of four wires
but only two different currents is represented by the use of two 1-junctions. The
four-port model reduces to the two-port model if the voltage differences across
the terminai pairs are adopted as the effort variables. This simpler model also
applies directly if the voltages on the lower terminals are considered as ground.
The bonds with zero voltage carry no power, and may be excised from the graph.
This model implies that the transformer behaves the same at all frequencies,
including DC. In fact, a real transformer fails completely at DC, and exhibits
206 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDL4TE MODELING

eI =
2 Te
i2 = Til

(a) circuit representation

1.-~-~- T -------r 1/2~ or el - e2

.-~-T .---~--
II 12
.~I1

(b) bond graph representation

Figure 4.3: Ideal electrical transformer

deteriorated performance for very rapid changes or high frequencies. These

limitations are explored in Section 10.4; for the present they are neglected.
Step 2 of the procedure for electric circuits given in the preceding section
is expanded to include placement of the four-ported combination of the trans-
formers and 1-junctions.

EXAMPLE 4.5
Model the following circuit with a bond graph:

Solution: The bond graph after step 2 is

4.2. SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL MACHINES 207

The final graph with the grounds accounted for reduces to

4.2.2 Fluid/Mechanical Circuits with Positive

Displacement Machines

The piston-and-cylinder idealized in Example2.3 (p. 63) has a potentially seri-

ous practical problem:if the piston fits too tightly, friction is apt to be severe;
if it fits too loosely, leakage is boundto result. Further, high pressure expands
the cylinder walls, opening or wideningthe leakage path. Someleal~ge across
the piston usually is tolerated, becauseit is "internal," producingno puddles on
the floor. Fluid is ported to both sides of the piston. The symmetricdouble-
rod variation shownin Fig. 4.4, can be represented by a combination of two
1-junctions (to equate the inlet and outlet flows and the motions of the two
rod ends) and an ideal transformer, muchlike the electical transformer. The
modulusof this transformer is the annulus area of the cylinder. If the power
conventions arrows across T are reversed, the modulusbecomesthe reciprocal
of the annulus area.

T T=A
...........
P~|Q P~tQ

Figure 4.4: Double-rod-endcylinder as an ideal machine

208 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

EXAMPLE 4.6
Three symmetricdouble-rod cylinders are placed in series, as shown. Draw
a bondgraphfor this circuit.

Pl

three cylindersin series

Solution: Since all three cylinders have the same flow rate Q, their fluid
bonds should emanate from a common-flow1-junction. Also, no mechanical
forces are placed on the left sides of any of the piston rods, eliminating the
need for any 1-junctions for the mechanicalbonds.

r, T 2 r~

PI ~ 1£ 2f

EXAMPLE 4.7
The single-rod cylinder is cheaper and more commonthan the double-rod
cylinder. The two ports of this cylinder sometimesare interconnected, as
shown, to give a regenerative circuit with a single external fluid port.
Modelthis system with a bond graph, neglecting friction and leakage.
4.2. SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL MACHINES 209

Solution: The two faces of the cylinder have the same velocity, which is
recognized in the bond graph below by a 1-junction. The flows Qa and Qc
are different in magnitude (as well as direction), however, because the areas
of the two faces are different. Two transformers represent these geometric
relations, one having its modulusequal to the total area of the piston, while
the other modulus equals minus the area of the annulus. Finally, the two
flows are joined at a pipe tee; the flows sum and the pressure is common,as
represented by the 0-juction.

F
~ ~- 1 -----~ T¢
[’ F
T P
10_~
~’P 0’ -
oo
The regenerative circuit also can be viewed as an integrated unit with a
single fluid port and a single mechanical port. The flows Q~ and Qd sum to
give Q, which means that the single modulus T on the reduced bond graph,
drawn on the right side above, equals the sum Tc + T~, which is the area of
the shaft. This result can be deduced directly. The sum of the volumes of
the fluid and the rod within a fixed control volume drawn around the unit is
a constant. Therefore, every net cubic inch of fluid pushed into the cylinder
pushes out one cubic inch of rod, and vice-versa,
A rotary hydraulic motor/pump with a shaft that emerges at both ends can
be modeled as a four-port machine, like the electric transformer and the double-
rod-end cylinder. The now familiar structure has two 1-junctions and an ideal
transformer, as shown in Fig. 4.5 part (a). If the shaft does not penetrate
through the machine, the three-port version of part (b) of the figure applies.
If one of the pressures and one of the torques are zero, the model reduces to a
two-port ideal transformer, as shown in part (c).

4.2.3 Losses in Positive Displacement Machines*

The models of positive displacement machines presented thus far neglect the
effects of friction and leakage. Mechanical friction and fluid friction (pressure
drops due to orifice flow, etc.) can be modeled by bonding the resistances Re

(a) (b) ’/ (c)

Figure 4.5: Ports of idealized model of a hydraulic motor/pump

210 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

(b) leakage

Figure 4.6: Models for friction and leakage in positive displacement fluid/me-
chanical machines

and RQ to the respective terminal 1-junctions, as shown in Fig. 4.6 part (a).
Twotypes of leakage flows are represented in i)art (b) of the figure. Qea
Qe2 represent external leakage; the 0-junctions indicate the literal diversion
of fluid, which either drips on the ground or floor or preferably is carried back
to the reservoir by a special drain line at essentially zero (gage) pressure. The
leakage resistances are Rea and R~2. The internal leakage Qi occurs as back-
flow across the piston or the vanes or the gear teeth, etc, from the high pressure
side of the machine to the low pressure side. The resistance to this leakage is
Ri. The displacement flow of the machine, labeled QD, is the theoretical flow
which would exist were there no leakage.
Any of the five resistances R~, RQ, Re~, R~2 and Ri can be included or
excluded from the complete model, depending on the magnitudes of the phe-
nomena and how accurate you wish to be. Note that the frictional resistances
R~ and RQ can be removed if their moduli are sufficiently small, whereas the
leakage resistances R~, Re2 and Ri can be removed if their moduli are suffi-
ciently large.

4.2.4 Losses With DC Motor/Generators*

The resistance of the armature circuit of a DC motor/generator, given as R in
the model of Fig. 4.7, almost always is important. The brushes of a conventional
machine impose a nearly constant frictional torque on the shaft; the bearings
contribute some additional torque. The bond graph of part (b) of the figure
therefore shows an effort-source element Se with its constant torque labeled as
Mo. Sometimesa viscous resistance is also significant enough to be considered;
although this is not included in the bond graph or the following analysis, it can
be appended readily as an R element.
Note the familiar four-port structure of the bond graph. As with the other
4.2. SYSTEM MODELSWITH IDEAL IVlACHINES 211

M1 M
0 (friction)

l~ el

;~ ~/]J R’-~----- 1 e-Re

K --schematic
e2[i:(M+M°)/~G M2l¢:
e~ (a) (b) bond graph (e-Ri)/G

1 RMo 1.0

Ge 1
0.5

0
0 G(~/e 0 0.2 0.40.6 0.8 1.0
~o / Ge
(c) typical torque-speed
(d) maximum
powersand efficiencies
characteristic

Figure 4.7: Modelof electrical/mechanical machinewith losses

212 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

machines, one or two of these ports may be removed if its effort is zero. The
net applied voltage and torque are taken below as e and M, respectively.
The bond graph reveals that i = (M + Mo)/G and ~ = (e - Ri)/G. These
two relations can be combined to eliminate the current i, giving the nondimen-
sionalized torque-speed relationship

RM G~.
-l-Q---, Q= RMo/Ge, (4.1)
Ge e
in which the parameter Q characterizes the quality of the machine. This equa-
tion plots as a straight line in part (c) of the figure. As with other such straight-
line source characteristics, maximumoutput power occurs at its mid-point, for
which RM/Ge = ~G/e = (1.- Q)/2, so that
2e
P,na~ = (1 - Q)2 ~-~’ (4.2)

The energy efficiency of this operating point, defined as M~/ei, is

1 (1 - Q)2 (1 + Q)-I
~max ~ ~ ~
¯ (4.3)

The maximumenergy efficiency is higher, and occurs at a higher speed and

lower power:
.
a~m~ v _ 1 - ~,
(4.4b)

= ~. (4.4~)
(These results follow from setting the derivative of an expression for the effi-
ciency equal to zero.) The m~imumpowers and efficiencies are plotted in part
(c) of the figure as functions of the quality index
Most electric motors will overheat if run continuously at high torque and low
speed. Complete specifications include a coefficient of proportionality between
the power being dissipated and temperature. Forced air convection increases
the range of allowable operation.
Specifications for permanent magnet DC motors ideally include values for
e, R, Mo and G. The modulus G is typically described as a "torque constant"
or "torque sensitivity" with the units oz-in/amp, or ~ a "back EMFconstant"
with units of volts/rpm. You should convert these to SI units to take advantage
of the fact that one Newton-meter/second equals one Watt and one volt-amp;
they should then give the same number. Oftentimes, the torque, speed and
current are specified instead at two (or more) conditions, perhaps including
stall, the no-load condition, or a "rated" condition, all at some voltage, e. This
information is sufficient for deducing the values of R, M0and G.
 4.2. SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL MACHINES 213

4.2.5 Case Study With Source and Load*

¯
The DCmotor of Fig. 4.8 is driven by an electrical source with characteristic
plotted as S in part (c). It drives a mechanical load, with characteristic plotted
as R3 in part (d), through a viscous coupler. The motor is characterized by
torque constant of G = 0.15 N m/amp, armature resistance of R1 -- 1.67 ohms
as plotted in part (c), and friction torque M0= 0.08 N m. The viscous coupler
has a slip velocity proportional to the torque, with coefficient R.) -- 0.025 N
s/rad as plotted in part (d).
A bond graph model is shown in part (b) of the figure. The viscous coupler
has three bonds, one for its input power, one for its output power and one for
the the difference or dissipated power. The torque (effort) is commonto the
three bonds, while the angular velocities (flows) sum. Therefore, the bonds are
joined by a 0-junction.
To find the equiSbrium, the source S and the armature resistance R~ are
combined in part (c) of the figure to give an equivalent source, ~. I t i s f ound
by subtracting the effort for R1 from the effort for S, since e3 -~ el - e2 and
e~. = R~i. Next, the load characteristic R3 and the viscous coupler characteristic
R2 are combined to give the lower dashed line plotted in part (d) of the figure.
This characteristic is found by a horizontal addition of the characterisitics R2
and R3, since ~1 = ~2 + ~3 and ~ = M/R2. The frictional torque M0 then
is added to this characteristic, vertically because of the 1-junction, to give the
higher dashed characteristic labelled R. This represents the overall load, and is
transcribed into part (e).
The result at this point is a source characteristic S’ bonded through a gyrator
to a load characteristic R. Next, the combination S~ ~ G ~ is reduced
to S" ~, as indicated and i.mplemented in part (e) of the figure. The
definition of the gyrator (e2 = G¢~ and M = Gi) is used to establish the end
points (or any other points) of the S" characteristic, as shown by the dashed
arrows from part (c) to part (e).
The equilibrium operating state is given, finally, by the intersection of the
charactertistics R and S": Mm-= 0.24 N m (which gives .M = 0.16 N m) and
q~ = 67 rad/s (which gives ~3 = 60 rad/s).

4.2.6 Two- and-Three-Dimensional Geometric

Constraints
The complexity of two- and-three-dimensional geometric constraints is not shared
by electrical or other circuit-like systems, and is one of the fascinations of me-
chanical engineering. It is not the purpose of this book to present a course in
kinematics, but certain key ideas are reviewed.
One approach develops direct relations between the displacements of the
inputs and the outputs of the mechanisms. The relations between velocities
are found by differentiating the resulting equations with respect to time. A
different approach deals directly with velocities rather than the displacements.
Sometimes this is easier, particularly when there are multiple independent ve-
214 CHAPTER4. INTERMEDL4TE MODELING

(a) system

~~ t.~o°upler.
load

e3 G’~’- Mm 1.’~" M
S ~e~1.’~- 0 ~.R
3
(b) bond graph
e2 Mo ~
R1 Se R2

(c) given characterisitics S and RI 20~.¢~e,2 (e’s shownfor

and reduced S" volts I~ ~ particular i)

s ---~-G R
0
0 \\1 2 ~ 4
k~ // ~, ~ps

Mm ~ ....... ~ ] N.m~ ~x ,"

.0.4
I I
¯
S
R s~
~" J

~
0 4~ "’,
I
-.s" S
~ s
~I ~’~=~_ J ~ equilibrium ..

~.-- ~- ~ ~ "..
o~ or, , ,
0 40 80 120 160 0 40 80 12(
~, raa/s ~,, raa/s
(d) given R~, R~, M0~d reduced R (e) ~rther reduction S"andsynthesis

Figure 4.8: Exarnple of DCmotor with a particular source and load

4.2. SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL MACHINES 215

(b) pinned joint between two bodies

(a) two points on a body
parallel to surfaces at contact

(c) rolling contact between two bodies (d) sliding contact between two bodies

Figure 4.9: Kinematical constraints for rigid bodies

locities or displacements. The approach is based largely on the following key

kinematical relations, as illustrated in Fig. 4.9:

The vector velocities for arbitrary points A and B on a rigid body are
related by
VB = VA + ~) × tAB, (4.5)

where tAB is a geometric vector from point A to point B, and ~ is the

angular velocity vector for the body.
2. Point A on one member and point B on another member have the same
velocities if both points are located coextensively at a pinned or swivel
joint between the members, i.e.

VA = VB. (4.6)

3. Two instantaneously contacting points A and B which belong to separate

membersin rolling contact also satisfy equation (4.6). (The accelerations
of these two points are different, however, unlike the corresponding points
for pinned members.)

4. Two instantaneously contacting points A and B which belong to separate

members in sliding contact have zero relative velocity in the direction
216 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

normal to the surfaces in contact. That is, if n is a vector normal to the

surfaces of contact,
(VA-- Vt~) ¯ n = 0 (4.7)
The development of a bond graph model normally starts with identifica-
tion of the critical velocity variables, including their vector orientations. These
should first be noted directly on a drawing of the physical system. In the bond
graph, then, a 1-junction is introduced to represent the magnitude and sense of
each such velocity, and the corresponding label is attached to the junction. If
the orientation of a velocity is not constrained by the geometry of the system,
separate 1-junctions may represent its orthogonal components. Next, the con-
straints interrelating the various 1-junction velocities are sought and represented
by proper junction structures. Finally, any inputs or outputs are represented
by bonds or sources, and any dashpots, springs and inertias, etc., are modeled
by attached R, C or I elements.
The procedhre may be understood best by examples. This chapter focuses
only on geometric constraints that can be modeled with junctions and constant-
moduli transformers..More complex mechanisms are addressed in Chapter 9.

4.2.7 Case Study: .Pulley System

Consider the pulley and parallel cables shown in Fig. 4.10. Points A and B are
commonto both the cable and the pulley. The velocities of points A, B and C
are assuraed to be horizontal.
The velocities of points along a vertical diameter of the pulley are parallel.
They form a trapezoidal vector diagram as shown in part (b) of the figure, where
~A and ~B are chosen arbitrarily. The velocities ~A and kB are related to the
velocity of the center of the pulley, ~c, and the angular velocity, ~, by

kA = 2C -- r~, (4.8a)
2~B = ~C "~ r~. (4.85)

The constraints represented by equations, (4.8) are incorporated into the bond
graph shownin part (c) of the figure. Specifically, equation (4.8a) is represented
by the upper 0-junction, and equation (4.8b) is represented by the lower
junction. Study this graph carefully; its construction is the critical step. The
applied forces FA, FB and Fc and the moment Mare added in part (d) of the
figure.
An alternative perspective results from adding equations (4.8a) and (4.8b)
and solving for 2c, and subtracting one from the other and solving for r~b:
, 1
kc ~(2A + 2,), (4.9a)

r~= 1~(~, - 2A)- (4.9b)

These equations are represented directly by the bond graph in part (e) of the
figure. Specifically, the first equation is represented by the left-hand 0-junction,
4.2. SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL MACHINES 217

I
(a) physical configuration (b) velocity diagram 2./A =2r~

k~X, x / re

0-~-~---. \0~ T=l/r

XB

(c) bondgraphwith kinematicalconstraints (d) bondgraph with forces added

"~’.
Xc TI ~ -T2
Ohx ~0 2r--’~
T~ = I/2
\I~
Tz= I/2r
(e) alternateto (c) (f) alternateto (d)

Figure 4.10: Pulley systein

218 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

and the second by the right-hand 0-junction. The forces and moments are
added in part (f) of the figure. Both bond graph models must represent correct
relationships between the forces and the moments, since the kinematical rela-
tionships and the boundary powers are proper. Which ought to be preferred in
practice depends on additional circumstances. For example, if the moment is
zero, the resulting erasures from the bond graphs of parts (e) and (f) lead
simpler interpretation.

EXAMPLE 4.8
The floating lever below represents a minor modification of the pulley sys-
tem, as long as the lever remains nearly vertical. The only substantive
difference is the addition of a force applied at point D. Model the system
with a bond graph.

A:XA : FA
(small deflections assumed)
]~c r~
I T~ =ros/r~s Tc= 1/2
rs=r,,~/r~, 73=1/r~

Solution: The bond graph of part (f) of Fig. 4.10 is adapted below
represent the entire system except for the presence of a force at’ point D.
The key geometric constraint regarding point D is
rDA
~gD : TArA + TBJ:B; TA -- rOB TB : ’FAB
--.
tAB ’

This constraint is implemented by a 0-junction in the bond graph:

~Tc~O ~O~x 0r~o¢ T~ ¢

4.2. SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL MACHINES 219

EXAMPLE 4.9
An epicyclic gear train comprises a sun gear, three kinematically redundant
planet gears, a ring gear and a spider which contains the bearings for the
planet gears. All these members can rotate about their centers, and the
centers of the planet gears also move with the spider. Model the syste~n
with a bond graph.

A~.

3 planet~ ~\ ~ .rp ~_’~"1~’~

gears "~~~."-~t-.i-.-~.-.-~

ring gear ~spider ~onAA

Solution: The key velocities are defined in the diagram below left. The
planet gears share a comnlon velocity with the sun gear at their point of
mesh, ~s, and a commonvelocity with the ring gear at their point of mesh,
2~. The kinematical relations are

i.
s

"~ = ~(z~
~p 1+" ~s).

These four equations are represented in the bond graph by four transformers.
The last equation also requires a 0-junction to represent its summation of
velocities.

note: The 1-junctions are written iCp Tp = ll&

and labeled first to aid in drawing T.,,
the graph. They may be removed T~= 1/2
~
later since they have only two ports. 1. T.~=
T~= r~

" Xs X.
(~s

In usual practice, one of the three input shafts is held motionless at any
moment in time, by some external means, reducing the system to a net
two-port transmission.
220 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

4.2.8 Modeling Guidelines

There is no universal modeling procedure. Nevertheless, the steps below serve
as a useful guideline for most cases.

1. Identify any input and output variables, define symbols for these variables,
and place these symbols appropriately on a sketch of the system being
modeled. If any of these variables are efforts, also define and label the
corresponding flow variables. Use arrows to show directionality.

2. Define and label on the sketch all other variables that appear to be im-
portant in relating the input to the output variables.

3. Identify whatever generalized geometric constraints exist between the var-

ious flow variables you have defined. This can be done in the form of
equations, and often involves defining parameters such as the lengths of
levers or the areas of pistons. This step may utilize knowledge gained in
your engineeering science courses or in some of the examples given in this
book.

4. Start to form a bond graph by drawing any boundary bonds for the input
variables. Then draw a 1-junction without bonds for each other flow
variable identified in step 2, and annotate it with your symbol for that
variable. These ~nay be placed on the sheet, in isolation, wherever you
imagine will leave enough room for the missing bonds and elements.

5. Implement the constraint equations of step 3 by placing appropriate junc-

tions, bonds and transformers. Identify the meaning or values of any
transformer moduli. At this point you may have a completed junction
structure, that is an interconnection between all the flows that you have
defined and are needed to relate the input variables to the output vari-
ables.

6. If one or more of the key variables are not yet interconnected by bonds,
the system may possess one or more gyrational couplings, that is propor-
tionalities between efforts and flows. Identify these, and represent them
by gyrators. Note their moduli.

7. Should there still be a key dangling variable or two, examine each of the
steps above to identify what is missing.

8. Identify the one-port effort and flow sources, resistances, compliances and
inertances that you believe are important. Represent each by a bond graph
element Se, SI, R, C or I, using distinguishing subscripts if necessary, and
place these where they belong on the bond graph. This step and the next
may draw heavily from your knowledge of engineeering science. Whether
to include a possible element depends on the relative significance of its
power or energy compared with the power o~ energy of the other bonds
or elements.
4.2. SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL MACHINES 221

9. Identify the constitutive relations for each 1-port element introduced in

step 8, that is, give the values of constant moduli and equations or plots
for nonlinear characteritstics. Consideration of power or energy may help
here, also.

10. If the display of your bond graph is messy or awkward, re-draw it to suit
your taste. Eliminate any unnecessary 2-port junctions. You, may wish
also to simplify the graph in preparation for analysis. (Some simplifica-
tions are presented in Section 4.3.)

It is important to complete steps 1 - 3 before starting to draw the bond

graph. Most of the critical modeling decisions are made here, and have nothing
to do with bond graphs or whatever other modeling language you plan to use.
The essential virtue of the bond graph is that its junction structure imposes
the conservation of energy, saving you from having to find the relationships
between the various efforts independently. You can substitute such relationships
in the modeling process for the generalized geometric constraints between the
associated flows, but this approach often is harder, and is not recommended
as a general procedure. Examination of force relationships is most helpful as a
check; this becomes an optional step 11.

4.2.9 Tutorial Case Study

The steps above are applied to the hydraulic/mechanical system pictured in part
(a) of Fig. 4.11. Hydraulic fluid drives a single-rod cylinder which is connected
to a weight through a cable and a pulley. The flow emerging from the rod-end of
the cylinde~ drives a rotary hydraulic actuator which in turn drives a flywheel.
Friction and leakage are to be neglected in the model you are asked to create.
Step 1 asks for the key variables to be defined. The input volumetric flow
rate Q and pressure P are given already. The velocity of the piston and cable is
labeled in part (b) of the figure a.s ~. The angular velocity of the output shaft
the rotary actuator is labeled as ¢. These are the key input and output variables.
The flow rate between the cylinder and the rotary actuator also appears to be
a useful internal generalized velocity, so it also is labeled (Q~) as part of Step
Step 3 asks for the key geometric constraints. The velocity ~ is related to
the flow Q by Ap&= Q, where Ap is the area of the piston. The flow Q~ is in
turn related to & by Q~ = Aa&, where Aa is the area of the annulus (the area
Ap minus the area of the shaft.) This flow also is related to the angular velocity
~) by Q~ = Dq~, where D is the volmnetric displacement of the rotary actuator
per radian of rotation. This displacement can be related more specifically to
the diameters and width of the actuator chamber (Problem 2.22), if desired.
Only now that the key variables and constraints are identified ought one
start to draw a bond graph. The input boundary bond and 1-junctions to
allow the key generalized velocities to be registered are shown in part (c)
the figure, following the instructions of Step 4. Their placement on the sheet
is arbitrary, but enough room for likely further development should be allowed.
222 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDL4TE MODELING

hydraulic ram

!(Q~.[J....~~] .| (~ pulley cable

rotary motor
with attached ~ I"~--~--~.~ I /
flywheel (not shown) reserv°ir I ]

(a) given information

(b) labeling of key velocityvariables

(c) start of bond (d) geometric

graph 1Qr constraints
represented

Figure 4.1i: Tutorial example

4.2. SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL MACHINES 223

Step 5 now directs that the constraints found under Step 3 be implemented,
as shown in part (d), in the form of three transformers. This structure implies
relations between the pressures, forces and torques that have not been directly
considered. In place of these relations, however, the conservation of energy has
been assumed implicitly. As a result, these relations must be correct. This is
an automatic benefit of using the bond graph.
Steps 6 and 7 do not apply to the present situation. Step 8 starts by asking
about effort sources. The mass at the right is pulled downwardby a constant
gravity force, which is represented in part (e) of the figure by an effort source.
Acceleration of the mass and the piston requires or imparts an "acceleration
force," which is represented by an inertance element bonded to the 1-junction
for }. The fiywhe.el itself represents a substantive inertia, which is added to
the 1-junction for ¢ by a second inertance. The constitutive relations for these
added 1-port elements, requested by Step 9, are Se -- mg, Ir~ = m (ignoring
the mass of the piston and piston rod, etc.) and I¢ -- J, where J is the mass
momentof inertia of the flywheel.
The bond graph is now complete, barring any refinements to represent fric-
tion, leakage, inertive or compliance phenomena. Step 10 suggests you consider
streamlining or simplifying the graph. One possibility, shown in part (f)
the figure, telescopes the transformers T2 and T3 into a s!ngle transformer with
modulus T2T3, removes the unnecessary 1-junction for ¢, and straightens out
the layout. Subsequent analysis is considerably simplified by combining the two
inertances into a single inertance, as you will see later.

4.2.10 Common Misconceptions

Should you experience difficulty in constructing bond-graph models, the follow-

ing list of commmonmisconceptions and comments may help.
Misconception 1: Each physical component is represented by a bond graph
element.
Comment: Some physical components require several bond graph elements for
their representation. On the other hand, one bond-graph element sometimes
can represent more than one physical component. The bond graph is an
integration of a set of relationships rather than a set of components. Never
invent ad hoc bond graph elements such as three-ported T or G elements or
(before readingChapter 10, at least) two-ported R, I or C elements; they
have not been defined. And, never use ad hoc symbols in a bond graph, such
as L for an inductance or b for a dashpot.
Misconception 2: A "LOAD" always can be represented by a resistance
element.
Comment: Elements indicated by a word in a word bond graph do not have
their type of behavior uniquely specified, unlike the standard bond graph
elements. A "LOAD,"for exa~nple, could include inertance or compliance
effects or a source.
224 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

Misconception 3: One can usually draw a bond graph before defining the key
variables.
Comment: Defining the key variables on a drawing of the physical system is
the key step in the modeling process, regardless of the choice of the modeling
language. The definitions implicitly represent manyof the assumptions be-
ing made. You also should determine the relations between these variables
before drawing the bond graph.
Misconception 4: Gravity implies potential energy, and therefore is always
represented by a compliance elelnent.
Uomment: Oftentimes an Se element, which also can store energy, is much
more appropriate, particularly to represent the (constant) weight of a solid
object. In general, first determine the relation between the generalized force
and the generalized displacement. Also, rememberthat the inertia of a mass
is treated separately from its weight.
Misconception 5: Each unique kinetic energy, T, has a unique inertance, I.
1
Comment:The unique kinetic energy equals ~.Iq-, presuming linearity applies,
but there maybe several different possible definitions of 0. Thus, I is referred
to 0- The same is true of resistances.
Misconception 6: Each unique potential energy, ~2, has a unique compliance, C.
Comment: C depends on the q it is referred to, just as I depends on its 0-
Sometimes the choice is important; for example, the formula w,~ = 1/x/T~
requires that C and the I are based on the same q and its time derivative,
0, respectively.
Misconception 7: The bonds around a junction need not have either a
commoneffort or a commonflow.
Comment: You know better than this when you think about it, but are you
always consistent? Following the 10 steps of the modeling guidelines will
minimize this type of accident.

4.2.11 Summary

Couplers such as electric transformers, fixed-field DCmotors and positive dis-

placement fluid/mechanical transducers often are modeled with two efforts but
with a single flow at one or both of their ends. The corresponding bond graphs
have a 1-junction and two boundary bonds at these ends, joined by a trans-
former or a gyrator. Frictional losses can be represented by resistances bonded
to lojunctions, while slip or leakage losses can be represented by conductances
(or resistances) bonded to 0-junctions.
A hard mechanical constraint between two velocities within a machine can
be represented by a transformer. Such kinematical constraints often are between
the sums or differences of the velocities used as the variables of the model. Such
sums and differences can be represented by a structure of 0 and 1-junc~tions. If
the structure is based on knownvelocity constraints, the conservation of energy
implicit in the structure automatically ensures that the forces are properly re-
lated, apart from frictional losses, which can be added in the form of resistances,
4.2. SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL IVlACHINES 225

~ pa~r [[ spring
flywheel

Figure 4.12: Guided Problem 4.3

and kinetic energy storage, which can be added in the form of inertances. If
the structure is based on known force relationships in the absense of friction
and inertia, the proper velocity constraints also must result. Most students who
have studied elementary mechanics tend to favor force-based approaches at first,
but ultimately recognize that velocity-based approaches are more powerful. You
are encouraged to develop skill in dealing with constraints in terms of velocities,
and in practice to determine the relationships before attempting to draw a bond
graph.

Guided Problem 4.3

This is a relatively simple problem with geometric constraints. It is important
that you attempt it before viewing the author’s solution.
For the system pictured in Fig. 4.12, define variables for a dynamic model,
draw the bond graph for this model and annotate the graph with the variables.

Suggested Steps:

1. Identify distinct components and the variables used in the definition of

their characteristics.

2. Represent the components by bond graph models. If you have not done
so already, identify which variable is commonin the key junction of the
model, and represent this by a 1-junction.

3. Assemble the elements of your model into a complete bond graph.

Guided Problem 4.4

This straightforward problem involves finding a steady- state ~nodel for a circuit
with hydraulic actuators.
The hydraulic system shown in Fig. 4.13 drives two hydraulic cylinders and
one rotary actuator. One of the cylinders is connected regeneratively, while
the other has one side connected directly to a reservoir at a negligible pressure.
226 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

cylinder 2

area of cylinder1:
area of cylinder 2: Ac2
area of shaft 1:
area of shaft 2: As2
diameter of vane hub: dh
diameterof vanetips: d,
width of vanes (normal
to plane of drawing):

Figure 4.13: The hydraulic system of Guided Problem4.4

Drawa bondgraph for the system, identify its elements in terms of the geometric
parameters listed in the figure, and relate the input pressure P and fiow Q to
the forces F1 and F2, momentM, and velocities 21, 22 and ~. Neglect friction
and leakage.

Suggested Steps:

Drawa bond graph for the system, representing each of the actuators
as a simple transformer. (The details of the regenerative circuit are not
addressed at this .point.) Pay special attention to the need for. any 0 or
1-junctions. Label the variables P, Q, F1, 21, F2, 22, Mand ¢.
Find the modulusof the transformer for cylinder 1, which by convention
equals the ratio of the output generalized velocity to the input generalized
velocity as indicated by the powerconvention half-arrows that you have
chosen. (Both half-arrows must be oriented the same way.)

Find the modulusof the transformer for cylinder 2, whichis regenerative.

This can be done either of two ways:

(a) The brute-intelligence way employsa bond graph for the sub-
system, as in Example4.7 (pp. 208-209), with a 0-junction and
1-junction. Note the negative transformer modulus(which could be
madepositive by redirecting the two relevant power-conventionar-
rows).
(b) The insightful genius way notes that for every net unit volume
of oil that enters the cylinder, an equal volumeof steel shaft must
emerge.

4. Find the modulus of the transformer for the rotary actuator. This is
4.2. SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL MACHINES 227

piston area: Ap
cyhnde
shaft area: A
s,
piston and rod mass: rn

pulley mass: M
~ tubing
pulleyradius: r

springrate: k
dashpot ~ spring
dashpotcoefficient: b

~__~ mlley

Figure 4.14: Guided Problem 4.5

directly related to the volumetric displacement, D, defined as the volume

of fluid displacedper radian of rotation.

The three loads are attached to the core of the modelby 0 or 1-junctions.
Write expressions for the efforts and flows on the load bondsconnected to
these junctions in terms of the load variables and the transformer moduli.

Perform the appropriate summationsfor these junctions in order to find

expressions for the source pressure and flow in terms of the load efforts
and velocities.

Guided Problem 4.5

This problemincludes a regenerative hydraulic cylinder as in the problemabove,
but emphasizesmechanical constraints ~vith rotation and dynamics.
Incompressiblefluid is ported to both sides of a piston, as shownin Fig. 4.14.
A belt with a spring at one end and a dashpot at the other end is wrappedwith-
out sliding arounda pulley comprisinga disk of uniform thickness. Parameters
are listed in the figure; phenomena not represented by these parameters, other
than gravity, maybe neglected. Modelthe ~ystem, considering the pressure of
the fluid, P, to be an independentexcitation and the motionsof the solid parts
to be the responsesof interest.
228 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

Suggested Steps:

1. The piston/cylinder is connected in a regenerative circuit; model it ac-

cordingly.

The velocity of the piston is an obvious state variable. Something about

the rotatiorl of the pulley also is needed; choose between its angular veloc-
ity and the velocity at its periphery relative to the.velocity of the piston.
Place corresponding 1-junctions on your paper labeled with symbols for
the chosen velocities.

Write an equation to represent the kinematical constraint between the ve-

locities you have chosen, and represent it by a structure of bonds, junctions
and transformers. Take care with the power convention arrows.

At this point you have completed the junction structure of the model,
which is the difficult part of the modeling process. Complete your model
by adding R, I and C elements, as suggested by the drawing and the list
of parameters. Also, add something to represent gravity.

Guided Problem 4.6

This is a typical problem regarding the interpretation of sales literature for a
constant-field DCmotor.
A permanent-magnet DC motor is advertised as behaving as follows for a
rated armature voltage of 40 VDC:the no-load speed is 1153 rpm, for which
the armature current is 0.27 amps; at a "rated" speed of 900 rpm, the torque is
120 oz-in and the current is 3.00 amps. Find the values of G, R and Mo. Also,
estimate the stall torque, the maximumpower the motor can deliver and the
associated speed and efficiency. Finally, estimate the maximumefficiency the
motor can deliver and the associated speed and power. Assume that the model
given in Fig. 4.7 (p. 211) applies.

Suggested Steps:

1. Extrapolate the current to the stall condition on a plot of current vs.

speed. Compute the armature resistance, R.

2. ComputeG as the ratio of the change in torque to the change in current.

3. Compute M0from the no-load current and the value of G.

4. Computethe stall torque by extrapolating the characteristic as defined by

the two given conditions to zero speed, or use the plot in part (c) of the
figure or equation (4.1) (p. 212).
 SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL MACHINES 229

The speed for maximuinpowerlies at the mid-point of the characteristic.

The associated poweris the product of the speed and the torque. It can
be found from equation (4.2), also. The associated efficiency can be found
fromequation (4.3) or picked off fromthe plot in part (d) of Fig.
The maximum efficiency and the associated speed and powercan be found
from equations (4.4). The efficiency and poweralso can be picked off from
the plots.

PROBLEMS

4.8 Modelthe hydraulic system below with a bond graph.

accumulator

DC motor ~
,~, hydra~lic/~
v.~e --~_ R

whe
~~ el
pump motor ~o..~s~~ flY

I , coupling
reservoir reservoir

4.9 Represent the electric circuit below with a bond graph.

C~

4.10 A motor drives a pumpto supply a hydraulic cylinder that lifts a 3000-1b
weight. Thetorque-speedcharacteristic of the motoris plotted on the next page.
The displacement of the pumpis 0.50 in3/rad, and the area of the cylinder is
5.0 in2. The flow passes through a valve with the characteristic also plotted.

weight

cy
~ lind
P~’ er
val’~ve
Q~ Pc ~
230 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

600 1200
M, pressure,
in.lb psi
4OO 800

200 400

0 ~ 0
0 40 80 120 160 200 0 40 80 12
~, rad/s Q, in~/s

(a) Modelthe system with a bondgraph, neglecting inertia, friction and

leakage.

(b) Determinethe pressure Pc in the cylinder, and add it to the plotted

pressure Pp-Pcto get an effective load characteristic as seen by the pump.
(c) Transformthe given torque-speedmotorcharacteristic to plot an equiv-
alent pressure-flow source characteristic at the outlet of the pumpon the
sameaxes as the plot of part (b).

(d) Determinethe equilibrium pressure Pp and flow Q, the speed at which

the weight rises and the torque and angular velocity of the motor.

4.11 A motor, gear pump, mechanical load and two hydraulic loads are inter-
connected as shownbelow.

pair ~

(a) Modelthe system with a bond graph, identifying the loads as resis-
tances.

(b) Relate the moduliof any transformers in your bondgraph to physical

parameters of the system.

(c) Express the torque on the motor as a function of the shaft speed and
the various parameters.
4.2. SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL MACHINES 231

4.12 Modi~’ the solution of Guided Problem 4.4 (pp. 225, 239) to include fric-
tion in the three actuators and internal leakage in the rotary actuator. Write the
corresponding equations, leaving the friction and leakage relations as unspecified
functions.

4.13 A double-rod-end cylinder exhibits internal leakage across its piston pro-
portional to the pressure difference across it. Model the device with a bond
graph.

4.14 The three-port hydraulic system below can be used to increase or decrease
pressure or flow. (It is used as the heart of a device knownas a hydraulic "in-
tensifier.") Model the system for steady velocity with a bond graph, neglecting
leakage, inertia and friction. Start by labeling the flows for all three ports.
Relate all transformer moduli to the areas ALp, Asp and ASH.

/ / / / / / / //. filled with incompressible liquid

///////~ ~ shaft area: ASH

large piston area: Ate ,,~ ~ small piston area: Asp

4.15 Water is pumpedfrom a well to an elevated tank without the use of electric
power. The level of water in a well is significantly above the level of a nearby
pond. So~ne of the well water (flow Qm)drives a hydraulic motor on the way to
the pond. The motor and pump have displacements of D,. and Dp, respectively.
Assmne steady-state conditions; the heights zw and zt may be assumed to be
given. The water has density p.

Find a steady-state bond-graph model. Identify any parameters in terms of

232 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

the information given. Neglect friction and leakage. The seepage into the well
(flow Qs) maybe represented by a general source.

4.16 A motor drives a fan through a belt drive. The torque-speed charac-
teristics of the motor and the fan are plotted below. The pulley ratio is not
specified, but the motorshould not be run for long with a torque higher than
its continuous-dutyrating of 4.0 in..lb (to prevent overheating).

12
torque,in-lb

0 I I I I I I I I II
0 400 800 1200 1600
speed, rpm

(a) Drawa bond graph model of the system, neglecting energy storage
elements.
(b) Determinethe speed of the motor that maximizesits allowable power.
(c) Determine the corresponding speed and torque of the fan, and the
pulley ratio that achieves them. Neglect belt losses.
(d) Re-drawthe bondgraph, including the effects of kinetic energy asso-
ciated with the motorshaft and with the fan shaft.
(e) Estimate the torque available to accelerate the system, reflected to the
motorshaft, for speeds less than one-half the equilibrium.
~,
(f) The motor and fan have rotational inertias of 0.2 and 1.2 lb.in..s
respectively. Estimate (4-10%) howlong it takes the system to go from
rest to one-half its steady speed.

4.17 Derive equations (4.4) (p. 212) that describe the operating point
maximumefficiency of a DCmotor with constant field.

4.18 You are asked to purchase a permanent-magnet DCmotor which will be

driven by a power supply that has a maximum voltage of 24VDC.The maximum
load is to be 10 oz.in, at 2000rpm. A wide assortment of fair-quality motors
with Q =_ RMo/Ge= 0.04 are available.
4.2. SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL MACHINES 233

(a) Determinethe values of G, R and Moand the associated stall torque

and no-load speed that wouldrepresent the smallest motor possible (which
would therefore have to operate at maximum power).
(b) Determinethe valnes of G, R and M0and the associated stall torque
and no-load speed that wouldrequire the. smallest powersupply possible
(which wouldtherefore have to operate at maximum efficiency).

4.19 A commercial permanent-magnet DCmotor is advertised as having a

speed of 2200rpm at 24 VDC and no load, a 4 oz.in, friction torque, a "torque
sensitivity" of 14.8 oz-in./amp, a "back EMF"of 11.0 V/Krpmand an armature
resistance of 1.9 ohms.

(a) Find the value of G in volt-seconds from the "back EMF,"and compare
to the value of G in N.m/ampfound from the "torque sensitivity." Do
they agree?
(b) Find the quality parameter Q =_RMo/Ge,assumingthe modelof Fig.
4.7 (p. 211).
(c) Use the information from parts (a) and (b) to computethe no-load
speed. Does this approximatelyagree with the advertised value?
(d) Estimate the maximum power this motor can deliver, and the associ-
ated speedand efficiency.
(e) Estimate the maximum efficiency this motor can provide, and the
associated speed and power.

4.20 A shunt-controlled DCmotor is shown below. The gyrator modulus for

the ideal machinepart of this systemis proportional to the magneticfield and
thus to the current if passing through the field circuit; you mayassumeG =
wherea is a constant.

i~ R~

(a) Assumingconstant supply voltage, ea, find the torque Mand sketch-
plot as a function of the shaft speed¢.
(b) Represent this system (with constant ca) by a bond graph with fixed-
parameter elements. (Hint: Twoversions are possible, one using a 1-
junction and the other using a 0-junction; you might try to find both. No
gyrator or transformer is needed.)
234 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

4.21 A Ward-Leonard drive comprises two DCmotors with their electrical leads
interconnected. As pointed out in Example 2.6 (p. 74), the combination acts
like a rotary mechanical transformer. The transformer modulus can be varied
through adjustments in one of the circuits for the magnetic fields. Investigate
the effects of the total of the resistance in the armature curcuits, R, and the
brush frictions M0a and M02. The gyrator moduli can be written as G1 and G2,
and assumed to be known. The following steps are suggested:

(a) Draw a bond graph of the system, neglecting energy storage. Label
the input and output speeds and torques, the friction torques and the
electrical current.

(b) Use the diagram to deduce expressions for the two moments as func-
tions of the speeds and the parameters. (The use of causal strokes can
provide helpful guidance in assembling the equations for the elements.)

(c) Plot the output moment as a function of the output speed, assuming
constant input speed. The use of nondimensional ratios is preferred.

(d) For the particular "quality" values ql = RMo~/G~ = 0.01 and

q2 -- RMo2/G1G~.~ = 0.01, find and plot the efficiency of the drive as a
function of the dimensionless speed r -- G~.~)2/GI~I. Also, find the peak
efficiency, and compare the power delivered at this efficiency to the peak
power that can be transmitted.

4.22 The pulley system shown in Fig. 4.10 (p. 217) has negligible moment,
(implying negligible mass momentof inertia, since Mincludes inertial torque).
Give a reduced bond graph model. (Does it make sense?)

4.23 The pulley system shown in Fig. 4.10 (p. 217) has negligible force, Fc
(implying negligible mass, since Fc includes inertial force.) Give a reduced
bond graph model. (Does it make sense?)

4.24 A cylinder rolls without sliding. One cable is wrapped around the periph-
ery; another is attached to a small central shaft.

cable
fm ~cable

(a) Model the system with a bond graph, using the appropriate geometric
constraint(s) directly. Omit all inertance phenomena. Give the modulus
of any T or G element.
4.2. SYSTEM MODELS I~TTH IDEAL MACHINES 235

(b) Find a. bond graph by a different route: specialize the result of Fig.
4.10 (p. 212) by noting that 2b = 0. Is the result compatible with that
part (a)?

(c) Introduce translational and rotational kinetic energy into your model.

(d) Reduce the model of part (c) so it contains si ngle in ertance, an d gi ve

its modulus. (Reference: Guided Problem 3.3, p. 107.)

4.25 Model the mechanical system below with a bond graph, and relate the
elements in the graph to the given parameters. Assumethat the link rotates no
more than a small angle.

4.26 Determine the speed ratio of the rotating shafts of the epicyclic gear train
of Example 4.9 (p. 219) when the ring gear is clamped. Also, find the result
when the spider is clamped, instead.

4.27 The lever pictured below can be assumed to be massless, and to rotate
only through small angles from that shown. The physical dimensions of the
mass m are small relative to the lengths rl and r2. Define variables, and model
the system with a bond graph. Identify the moduli of the model elements in
terms of the given parameters.

4.28 Repeat the above problem with the lever assumed to be slender and uni-
form with mass M. Let m = 0.
236 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

4.29 Oil passes through a valve to drive a hydraulic to reservoir

cylinder whichin turn raises a cable that lifts a
heavy steel ingot, as pictured. Youare asked to
define appropriate variables, using symbolsplaced
directly on the drawing and explained by words.
Also, relate the moduliof all elements to physical
parameters of the systemwhich you should define.
Includethe effect of the principal inertia.

valve

ingot

4.30 A DCmotor with constant field, armature resistance R and brush friction
M0rotates a winchof diameter d that drives a vertical cable. The cable raises
one end of a uniform heavy beamof mass m and length L that is pivoted about
its other end, as shownbelow. Nevertheless, the beamremains not far from the
horizontal position. Define variables and modelthe system with a bondgraph,
including the principal inertial effect. Relate the moduliof bondgraph elements
to the given parameters.

DCmotor ~ )
cable

m
4.2. SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL MACHINES 237

4.31 A DCmotor with armature resistance rotates a pinion which drives a rack
supported by a linear ball bearing. The rack in turn drives a second gear that
is attached to both a flywheel and a spring. Note that the second gear can
translate as well as rotate. Define appropriate generalized variables and label
the sketch accordingly, state the geometricconstraints betweenthese variables,
draw a bond graph model, and relate the moduli of your model to the given
primitive physical parametersand any others whichyou define. Inertial effects
apart from the mass m maybe neglected. (Hint: Makesure you identify four
distinct mechanicalvelocities.

DCmotor and pinion ~/~ ~wheel

R
k

//II//////I/I/~I/I//

4.32 A motor drives a cable with a winchof radius rw, as depicted below. The
cable is wrappedaround a massless pulley of radius rp, and is terminated in a
dashpot of modulusb. The pulley pulls a weight W1which is supported by two
rollers that each weigh

(a) Define key velocities and forces on a copy of the drawing. Note partic-
ularly that the centers of the rollers W2do not moveat the sameveloc!ty
as the slab W1.

(b) Drawa bond graph of the system, including the effects of both the
weightsand the inertias of the slab and the rollers.

(c) Evaluate the moduli of the elements in your bond graph in terms
the given parameters. Suggestion: The kinetic energy method may be
particularly helpful for the rollers.
238 CHAPTER4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

4.33 A proposed sound ~novie camera must have a steady flow of film past the
sound head despite the discontinuous loads and motion at 24 Hz (plus multi-
ples) of the gate, with its claw drive, which acts on the sprocket holes. One
path for vibrations to reach the sound head from the claw drive is through the
pulley system. To minimizethis transmission, flexible belts are proposedon the
pulleys, as shown.
Treat the claw mechanismsimply as an independent unsteady force on the
top of the claw drive system. Find a bond graph model and identify each
componentwith a couple words (or more). Neglect variations in the magnetic
torque in the motor.

’top view
claw drive

I sounddrive
i

!
sound drive~
opticalaxis
fixed pin

flywheel flywheel

side view

pulleyswith"flexible belts

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 4.3

1. Motorshaft: effort is torque, Mm; flOWis angularvelocity, ~m.

Flywheel:effort is torque, Mr;flowis angularvelocity,
Largergear and spring: effort is torque M~;flow is angularvelocity ~.
4.2. SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL MACHINES 239

2. motor: S e---L--~ 1 .---~- G ---~-

Ro

gear pair: viscous coupling: ~ 0 flywheel:

T

R,. spring: ~ C

assembled bond graph:

Guided Problem 4.4

I^.__._.,_T 2 F...
1. notes: Q1 is the flow to actua-
",-Po A"
2 tor 1, and Q2 is the common flow
through actuator 3 to ~ctuator 2.
The power to the reservoir shown
is neglected, because its pressure is
F~ l~ M
virtually zero
2. T~-

~-.-~
~ To-~I. F.__~
3. (a)

r° -’-’- x:
Q.,---7-° -E-~
52 _ 1 ~2 1
Ta ~ Qa Tb~ Qb - Ac2
- As2 ’
A’c2

Qe Q~ + Q~ Q~/~ + Q~/~z A~ - (A~ - A~z)

(b) Q~ = A~; therefore, T

4. Q2 = D6; therefore, Ts - Q2 - D - w(r~ - r~)’ where r~ is the radius to

the tip of the vanes, rs is the radius of the shaft and w is the width (not the
thickness) of the vanes. See Guided Problem 2.5 (p. 69) and its solution
further explanation.

P=TIFI = TzF: + T3M T,F, + T,M

=~11 + ~ T,F, ~ =2,/T, T.,,M

(choice)
TI T3
240 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

Guided Problem 4.5

1. detailedmodel: Pep alternativedetailedmodel:

0

A~-A~ To = 1/Ap: To =A~-As

T~ = A~
~
At T2 A~,= areaof the piston
A, = area of the shaft

desirable simplemodel:

l/As
=l/r
=m+M

=l/k
R=b
4.2. SYSTEM MODELS WITH IDEAL MACHINES 241

Guided Problem 4.6

~---stall current = 12.71amps

i, amps
M-
~ --~
1. e-Ri G ~ 1~

3.00 ¯~ R S~

0.27
0 9~ 1153
speed, rpm

e 40
R = -- = 3.147 ohms
istau 12.71
120
G = change of torque _ _
change of current (3 - 0.27) x 16 x 39.37 x 0.22481
= 0.310.4 N.m/amp
The citing of the 120 oz.in, of torque is redundant. The value of G can be
found without this datumas follows:
e - Ri = G~; therefore,
e-Ri=
I (e-.Ri =40-3.147x0.27
G 0.3242 volt.s/rad

These units are the same as N-m/amp.The value is slightly different from that
found using the given torque. The difference could be due to round-off by the
advertiser, or errors in the assumedmodel.
WhenM = 0, Mo = Gi = 0.3104 × 0.27 = 0.084 N.m

M~t~,u = Gist,~u - Mo= 0.3104 x 12.71 - Mo= 3.86 N.m. The linear extrapo-
lation gives the samevalue.
3.86 1153 27r
~maw = T X ~ X 6~ = 117 watts

RMo 3.145 x 0.084

- - 0.0213
Ge 0.3104 x 40

= ~(~ - ~)~ = ~.~

242 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

4.3 Model Equivalences

The bond graph models developed thus far often can be simplified readily, with-
out any loss in accuracy despite someloss in detail. Such simplifications usually
are highly desirable for two reasons: the essential character of the simpler model
is easier to grasp, aiding design, and any subsequent analysis is likely simplified.
The most important reduction step has been treated already: the combining ’
of multiple R, C and I elements bonded to a single 1-junction or 0-junction. It
is essential to remember that each element can be combined only with other
elements of the same type that happen to be arrayed on the same junction.
Remember also that two junctions of the same type connected by a bond can
themselves be reduced to a single junction. Further, a junction with only two
bonds can be removed and the bonds connected, as long as the two power half-
arrows are directed similarly. If they are not so directed, you may re-direct the
half-arrow on one of the bonds and compensate by changing the sign of one of
its variables and the sign of the modulus of any associated one-port element.
Further key reductions are given below. First, however, an important elab-
oration is considered which allows you to dispense with all one-port elements
with characteristics that do not pass through the origin, except for the special
constant-effort and constant-flow sources.

4.3.1 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Sources and Loads

This book has repeatedly represented sources with characteristics that are bi-
ased, that is do not pass through the origin. An electric motor, for example, has
a torque at zero speed, and a speed at zero torque; an impeller pump unit has
pressure at zero flow, and a flow at zero pressure. Resistive loads with biased
characteristics also have been employed. The pressure of the water sprinkler
system of Section 2.1, for example, is not zero at zero flow, and the drag of a
vehicle does not vanish when the speed approaches zero. Rather than directly
employ a source with these characteristics, it is usually better, for purposes of
analysis or simulation, to construct the source by assembling more primitive el-
ements: a constant-effort or a constant-flow source, an unbiased resistance and
a junction. The same type of structure also can represent biased loads. The
same approach also can replace compliances having characteristics that do not
pass through the origin with those that do.
These replacements are particularly useful for straight-line characteristics.
The resistances which result are constants, instead of functions. The sources
also are constants, or independent functions of time. The conversion from a
bond graph to differential equations is thereby expedited, as you will experience
in the next chapter.
The creation of a biased sink from an unbiased resistance is shown in part
(a) of Fig. 4.15. Linear examples are shown by solid lines, and nonlinear
examples by dashed lines. In the first example of a sink, the effort eo for
0 = 0 is marked by a heavy dot. The Thevenin equivalent sink is based on the
resistance characteristic that results whenthe whole curve, including this point,
4.3¯ MODEL EQUIVALENCES 243

I sinks/~/

e=eo+e~
~---[eoW---s~=
R

qo q
q=qR-qo10R qo Norton
¯ . .-~.eO~Sf

sources

Thevenin
S, -~--~-1~
eo e=eo-e~ -~
Se~ eo
e~q q
R

e[
I 0 ~/~" Norton qo
s~eo .... e
qo [ilq~=qo-q~ = S~

Figure 4.15: Thevenin and Norton equivalent sinks and sources

244 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

eo

e=e,.+eo eo e0
. lgt’---~S
~ ---

Figure 4.16: Replacing a biased compliance with an unbiased compliance

is shifted vertically until the point is at the origin. The biased characteristic is
reconstituted by adding the effort e0 to this resistance curve with its effort
This summation, suggested by vertical arrows in the figure, is achieved in the
bond graph by bonding the unbiased resistance element R to an effort source,
Se, using a common-flowor 1-junction.
The Norton equivalent is an alternative that employs flow summation rather
than effort summation. The second case shown in the figure has the same
characteristic as the first. A heavy dot is drawn when the curve intersects the
axis, defining the negative flow -O0- A passive resistance R with flow 0R results
when this curve is shifted horizontally until the dot lies a.t the origin. The
biased characteristic is reconstituted by summing ~ with -00, as suggested by
the horizontal arrows. In the bond graph, this is accomplished by bonding the
element R to the flow source S)~ with a constant-effort or 0-junction. Note that
the resistance elements for the Thevenin and Norton equivalents are the same
for linear cases, but are distinctly different for nonlinear cases.
Most sinks have characteristics that pass through the origin, and therefore
need no Thevenin or Norton equivalents. Sources, on the other hand, virtually
always benefit from these equivalents. Examples are shown in the bottom half
of Fig. 4.15. In the Thevenin version, a resistive effort eR is subtracted from a
source effort eo to get the total effort. Effort summations are vertical, again,
and accomplished by a 1-junction. In the Norton version, a resistive flow 0R is
subtracted from a source flow 00 to get the total flow. Flow summations are
horizontal, as always, and are accomplished by a 0-junction. Note again that
the Thevenin and Norton resistances are the same if and only if they are linear.
Compliance characteristics sometimes do not pass through the origin. A
Thevenin decomposition can be applied here, also, as shown in Fig. 4.16. A
Norton equivalent does not exist, since displacement sources are not defined.
Nevertheless, it is possible to redefine the displacement variable of a compliance
such that the characteristic passes through the origin, which is tantamount to
"4.3. MODELEQUIVALENCES 245

(a) original characteristic eR

~R ~-R

el
/ ¯ q~

eo~ ~ .N~ 0 e=e~-eo

o
qe~
I - ’ (b) origin shifted to point R
el
~ I e~

(c) source perspective R

Figure 4.17: Shifting the origin of a source or sink characteristic along its path

horizontal shifting of the characteristic.

4.3.2 Passivity With Respect to a Point on a Character-

istic*
The Thevenin and Norton structures can be viewed as translating the origin
of the characteristics in the effort-flow plane. Translating the origin of source
and load characteristics to the equilibrium point at whichthey intersect can aid
dynamicanalysis. Informationregarding stability can result, for example,as will
be suggested in Section 4.4.7. Consequencesregarding general dynamicbehavior
appear later. For the present, consider only howsuch a translation can be
accomplished.If the origin is to be displaced along a characteristic, translation
of both the effort and flow axes are necessary. This suggests combiningthe
Thevenin and Norton structures.
One way to combine them is illustrated in Fig. 4.17. The original char-
acteristic, shownin part (a), employsthe variables eR and 0R. The shifted
characteristic employsthe variables e and 0. The new axes for the point la-
belled "b" are shownby dashedlines. Note that the only difference betweenthe
sink or load version, shownin part (b), and the source version, shownin part
(c), lies in the signs of the flows.
Aload or sink has been defined as passive if it lies entirely in the first and
third quadrants, that is if it never generates powerbecause the product e0 is
246 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

nowhere negative. This property can change when the origin is movedalong the
characteristic; passivity becomesa property of the point chosen as the origin as
well as being a function of the shape of the characteristic. Consider the given
characteristic with point b as the origin, as shownin part (b) of Fig. 4.17. The
characteristic resides partly in quadrants two and four, and therefore is said to
be active or non-passive with respect to this origin. The same conclusion applies
to any point between points a and c. If, on the other hand, a point to the left
or below point a or to the right or above point c is chosen as the origin, the
characteristic is said to be passive with respect to that origin.
The characteristic in part (c) of the-figure is identical to that of part (b),
except that the sign of the flow is inverted by employing a source rather than a
sink power convention to the bond for e and 0- The resulting plot is a left-to-
right flip of that given in part (b). The property of passivity does not change
as a result of this change in perspective. The test for passivity above, however,
assumes the power convention of a sink; the power convention of a source must
be inverted before the test is applied.

4.3.3 Truncation of Transformers and Gyrators

Bonded to R, C or I Elements

Frequently a one-port element is attached to a system model by a transformer

or a gyrator. The combination of two elements can be replaced by a single
equivalent element. This option simplifies subsequent analysis, and can enhance
your grasp of the fundamental structure of a system.
Table 4.1 gives the equivalences. A transformer does not alter the type
of the combination; a resistance remains a resistance, a compliance remains a
compliance and an inertance remains an inertance. On the other hand, a gyrator
bonded to a compliance yields an equivalent inertance, and a gyrator bonded
to an inertance yields an equivalent compliance. Although a gyrator bonded to
2a resistance remains a resistance, its modulus becomes inverted.
You need not memorize these equivalences, since you can reconstruct them
readily at least two different ways. In the first, or direct way, you first label
either the effort or the flow on the left-hand bond with a symbol. Then, you
employ the definitions of the transformer or gyrator and the one-port element
to find the corresponding conjugate variable. Finally, you compare this result
to the corresponding conjugate variable for the reduced case, and deduce the
equivalent modulus.

2The gyrator is said to be a dualizing coupler. Thus, for example, if two inertances are
bonded together by a gyrator (11 ~G~I.2), each inertance "sees" the other
inertance as a compliance. As a result, this system would exhibit oscillatory behavior, since
an inertance bonded to a compliance --- for example a mass attached to a spring -- is an
oscillator. This is why two fluid vortices, neither of which has any "springiness," interact in
an oscillatory fashion.
4.3. MODEL EQUIVALENCES 247

Table 4.1 Equivalences for One-Port Elements

Bonded to Transformers and Gyrators

Consider the following two examples, which are the first and the fourth
entries in the table:
e= T2R~ T RT~ R e G p/CG C
O TO O CG2
= P~ e/G
In the left-hand example,youstart by labeling the fiow variable on the left as
0- As a consequence,the flow variable on the right must be TO. The resistance
element then requires the effort variable on the right to be RTO,and finally the
transformer requires the effort variable on the left to be TRTO.Since by the
definition of R~ this effort variable also equals R’(L it follows that R~ = T2R.
Alternatively, you could start by labeling the effort variable on the left as e,
and proceed around the bonds in inverse order. In the right-hand example, you
start the procedureby labeling the effort on the left as e or the flow as 0. If
you start with the effort, the gyrator requires the flow on the right to be e/G,
the compliancethen requires the effort on the right to be p/CG(recall that
p =- fedt), and finally the gyrator requires the flow on the left to be p/GCG.
Since the inertance I’ is defined by the relation O = P/I~, its value is I ~ = G~C.
The second methodfor deducing the equivalences is based on poweror en-
ergy, and is recommended as a superior discipline. For the first example, the
powerdissipatedin the resistancesequalsboth~R1
,.2q and~R(Tq)-,1 " ~ so that
R~ = T2R. For the second example, the energy stored in Y, namely~lqlT~.2,
equals the energy stored in C, namely ½C(G0) 2, so that I ~ = G2C.

4.3.4 Reduction of Two-Pair Meshes

Cascadedbonds interconnecting alternate 0 and 1-junctions to form a closed
path is called a simple bond-graph mesh. Meshesoccur often. Meshes of the
types shownin Fig. 4.18 can be reduced to equivalent tree-like bond graphs,
simplifing subsequentanalysis.
248 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

Z~ Z~ ~.1 "Z~
w,¢
0
=g>--,-o---~
""~-o~
z~
Z~,~,.. 0

1
.-o ~ "’~’o---~

Z2 (a) single meshes

(b) nested meshes

Figure 4.18: Reduction of simple even bond-graph meshes

4.3. MODEL EQUIVALENCES 249

A mesh is called even if the number of mesh bonds which have the same
power direction convention in the clockwise sense is even, and odd if the number
is odd. The same statement applies to the bonds with counter-clockwise power
direction convention~ since the total number of mesh bonds is even. All the
meshes in Fig. 4.18 are even. It can be shown that such evenness or oddness is a
property of the mesh.3 This means that reassigning the power convention arrows
and compensating by changing the signs of the efforts or flows, in a compatible
fashion, always leaves the evenness or oddness unchanged. Two meshes that
are identical except for the property of evenness vs. oddness therefore model
markedly different systems.
Four-bond even meshes, as shownin the left side of Fig. 4.18 part (a), can
reduced to the tree-like forms shownin the right side of the figure. In the first
case, the efforts on the left-most and right-most bonds are the same, because
they both equal the sum of the efforts on the two 0-junctions. In the second
case, the flows on the left-most and right-most bonds are the same, because
they both equal the sum of the flows on the two 1-junctions. These reductions
are extremely useful, because tree-like graphs are easier to analyze than graphs
with meshes, as you will see later.
Nested even meshes each having four mesh bonds, as shown in part (b) of the
figure, can be reduced similarly, as shown. These equivalences apply to the junc-
tion structure regardless of whether the elements bonded to it are resistances,
sources or something else. The figure employs the symbol Z to represent un-
specified one-port elements, which could be resistances, compliances, inertances,
boundary bonds or something more complex.
Odd meshes are not reducible in this manner. As a result, their analysis is
more involved. They tend to occur less often, fortunately.

EXAMPLE 4.10
Apply the standard steps to modeling the circuit below with a bond graph,
and show that an even mesh results. Then, reduce the graph to an equivalent
tree-like structure.

aF.T. Brown,"Direct Application of the LoopRuleto BondGraphs,"J. Basic Engineering,

ASMETrans., v 94 n 3 pp 253-261Sept. 1972.
250 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

Solution: The standard procedure gives the following results after steps 2
and 4 (p. 192), respectively:

after step 2 1 after step 4 ~ /6

1
",, /\
1"~-0"--~ 1 "-~’0

Z1 Z, Z~

The mesh within this graph is even, since two of its mesh bonds have
clockwise-directed power arrows and the other two are counterclockwise.
The 0-junction is first split into two 0-junctions in order to removeelement
Z1 from the mesh. The meshthen is in the form of the second meshgiven.in
Fig. 4.18, and so the equivalencegiven there is used to get the final graph.

Z7

1 -.,r- 0 -~- 1 ---~-Z3

Z~ 0

Z
4 15 "--~-Z

z~

4.3.5 Transmission Matrix Reduction of Steady-State

Models*
Often a two-ported modelor sub-modelcomprises a chain-like structure with no
energy-storage elements. A commoncase is shownin Fig. 4.19. Such cases can
be represented as a two-port element described by a single transmission matrix,
whichfor somepurposes is a significant simplification. The transmission matrix
concept is introduced in Section 2.5.6 (pp. 82:83).
The transmission matrices for the shunt and series resistances are readily
4.3. MODEL EQUIVALENCES 251

eI e~
---4-~.’ 0 ~ 1~ ~> -~--~-. TWO-PORT.-~--
q~ l~1-~2 ~2es+e2 l q2 ql q2
R
2

Figure 4.19: Reductionof a chain of junctions with stub elements

deduced as

~1 e2
0

I~:] = I1}R 011 [~:];

e 1 e.~
~1 l q2

R
The cascade of two such structures in Fig. 4.19 can be reduced by multiplying
their respective transmission matrices:

l/R1 I+R.2/R1] "

A cascade of such elements of any length can be telescoped in this manner.

Moregeneral steady-state couplers are discussed in Section 9.3.

EXAMPLE4.11
Find an equivalent transmission matrix for the static two-port model
252 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

Solution: The combination of T.9 and/~3 is first reduced to an equivalent

resistance R~. Also the left-hand 0-junction is expanded into two bonded
0-junctions, in order to isolate the even mesh clearly:

R2

The next intermediate graph implements the standard reduction of this

mesh. In the third intermediate graph, the resistances R.~ and R~ are com-
bined to give R4.

The central portion of the bond graph, with its 0 and 1-junctions and at-
tached resistances, is now precisely in the form of Fig. 4.19:

e~ e2 e3 e4
---~--~.- T~---~--~- 2-PORT ~ G .-~--~
~i ~2 ~ q3 q4

-4e~EQUIVALENT OVERALL2-PORT e.--~

~
q~ q4

The transmission matrix approach allows the transfomer and gyrator parts
of the graph, as well as this central portion, to be telescoped in one step:

l/T1] [1/1~1 01] [~ ~141 [1/G

= (I+R4/R1)/GT1 G/T1R1 (t4

4.3.6 Summary

Subsequent analysis is simplified if general sources and resistive loads are re-
placed by Thevenin or Norton equivalents, if compliance characteristics simi-
larly are made to pass through the origin, if transformers bonded to one-port
elements are replaced by equivalent one-port elements, if simple even meshes
are replaced by three-like structures, and if steady-state portions of models
4.3. MODEL EQUIVALENCES 253

Figure 4.20: Guided Problem 4.7

comprising junction structures and resistances are reduced to simpler one or

two-port models. The use of bond-graph equivalences and analytical reduction
techniques have been presented toward this end.
These equivalences are first used in the next section to help find the equili-
bium states of models. The use of graphical methods for nonlinear structures is
developed, also.

Guided Problem 4.7

This problem typifies simple analytical reduction of a model comprised of steady-
state elements.
For the system of dashpots and a lever shown in Fig. 4.20, (a) draw a bond
graph model, (b) draw an analogous electric circuit, and .(c) find an equivalent
overall resistance. The lever may be assumed to rotate only through a very
small angle.

Suggested Steps:

1. Follow the procedure suggested in Sections 4.2.6 and 4.2.7 for finding the
junction structure, and note that the lever acts as a transformer.

2. Reduce any mesh, should your bond graph have one, to a tree-like graph.

3. Invert the procedure of Section 4.1.1 (p. 192) to find the equivalent electric
circuit.
4. Reduce the graph one junction-structure element at a time, starting pre-
sumably at the right end. At each step find the new terminal equivalent
resistance. The final result should be the desired answer.

5. As a check you might reduce the electric circuit by some other means.

PROBLEMS

4.34 Represent the hydraulic power supply of Fig. 2.45 (p. 85) by (i) Thevenin
and (ii) Norton equivalences. Sketch the characteristics of the resistances.
254 CttAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

4.35 Continue Problem 4.15 (p. 231) with the well and pump. The flow Qs into
the well decreases linearly as the level of the well is raised; represent this source
with a Thevenin or Norton equivalent. Also, add to your model the compliances
of the well and the tank, the resistance due to friction in the pump/motor
subsystem, and an output flow Qt drawn from the tank.

4.36 Determine the criterion for a linear (constant) resistance to be active with
respect to any point on the characteristic.

4.37 The flywheel with rotational inertia If depicted below is driven through
pair of gears with ratio r > 1. The gears and bearings may be presumed to be
frictionless and massless. Drawa bond graph for the system. Also, reduce the
model to a simple equivalent inertia, with no transformer, and find its modulus
in terms of If and r.

4.38 Show that the translating coil device of Guided Problem 2.6 (p. 70)
comes a dashpot when the electric circuit is completed by an added resistor to
give a total electric resistance R. Also, determine the dashpot coefficient, b, in
terms of the given parameters.

4.39 A permanent magnet DC motor can be made into a rotary dashpot by

completing the armature circuit with a resistor.

(a) If the motor satisfies the relation M = ai and the electrical resistance
of the armature curcuit is R, determine the dashpot coefficient, b.
(b) Resistors come in different physical sizes depending on the heat they
need to reject. What power rating is needed if b -- 0.1 N-m.s and the
dashpot must tolerate a steady speed of 5 rev/sec?
(c) State fu nctional advantage th is de vice ha s ov er a vi scous ro tary
damper of the type pictured in Fig. 2.23 part (d) (p. 45).

4.40 Reduce the bond-graph mesh in Fig. 4.6 (p. 210) to a tree-like structure.
Also, combine the two bond graphs to get a single model representing a positive-
displacement pump or motor with both friction and leakage.

4.41 Determine whether any of the meshes in the bond graphs of Figs. 4.10 (p.
217) and Example4.8 (p. 218) are reducible to tree-like structures.
4.3. MODEL EQUIVALENCES 255

4.42 Reducethe mesh for the bond graph of Problem4.7 (p. 203).

4.43 Derive the secondand third entries in the right-hand columnof Table 4.1
(p. 247) using (i) direct interpretation of the elements, and (ii) considerations
of poweror energy.

4.44 A rotary spring with rate k, massless and frictionless pair of gears with
diameters dl and de, and flywheel with momentof inertia I are connected as
shownbelow.

(a) Modelthe system with a bond graph. Relate all moduli to physical
parameters.
(b) Find an equivalent simpler bondgraph with only two elements. Relate
the new modulusto physical parameters.
(c) Find the natural frequencyat whichthis systemoscillates following
non-zeroinitial condition.

4.45 Showthat the bond graph below represents an oscillator, and find its
natural frequency, w~.
C1 1 g ~ C2

4.46 A large charged capacitor drives an ideal DCmotor (neglect armature

resistance and friction) after a switch is closed. The motoris connectedeither
to a (i) flywheel, or a (ii) spring. Certain parametersare definedon the drawings.

DC motor ~ flywheel
M=ai ~

(ii) ~~C "-’~ M=o,

DCm°.t°r~
F S;~g ~

(a) Modeleach case with a bond graph, and state whether or not it
oscillatory in nature.
256 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELLNG

(b) If either (or both) of the systemsare oscillatory, find its" natural
quencyin terms of the parameters defined.

4.47 The electrical terminals of a DCmotor/generator for which e = a~ are

connected to a large inductor with inductance L. In version (i), the shaft
connected to a flywheel with rotational momentof inertia I. In version (ii),
the shaft is connected to a rotational spring with constant k, as shownbelow.
Electrical resistance and mechanicalfriction can be neglected for purposes of
the following questions:

flywheel

(i)
~ ._DC motor/generator ~’~-~

(a) Modeleach case with a bond graph, and state whether or not it
oscillatory in nature.
(b) If either (or both) of the systemsis oscillatory, determineits natural
frequency in terms of the defined parameters.

4.48 A motor with a knowntorque drives a frictionless and leak-free positive-

displacement pumpthat in turn drives a system that includes a frictionless
and leak-free single-rod-end cylinder and two valves (that might be adjustable).
Assumethat all parameters are known,and that the load force F is known.
Gravity maybe neglected.

~ valve

IH- t-.F
...... .........
F.......
dl ~va~ve piston/cylinder
~]l~-L--II-- ]opentank (reservoir)

(a) Define parameters and variables and draw an appropriate bond graph
model."
4.3. MODEL EQUIVALENCES 257

(b) Write whatever relations for the elements that are not explicit in your
annotated bond graph.

(c) Solve for ~ in terms of the knowninformation.

4.49 The energy of an aircraft landing on an aircraft carrier is dissipated in an

"arresting engine" located below decks. A hook on the aircraft grabs a cable
which is connected to this machine by pulleys, which are not shown below.
The cable wraps nine times around the two sets of sheaves (pulleys) on the
machine itself. The nine sheaves at one end rotate about a fixed shaft; the nine
pullleys at the other end rotate about a commonshaft which is attached to a
single large piston via a moveablecrosshead. As a result, hyraulic fluid is forced
out of the cylinder and flows through a flow restriction to an accumulator. The
restriction is adjusted continusously throughout the process in order to maintain
the desired pressure in the cylinder and therefore the desired tension in the cable.
The accumulator contains a free piston to prevent mixing of the oil and the air
(or nitrogen); the pressures of the oil and air are virtually identical. One end
the cable is anchored.

cross-section side view: accumulator/,free piston

~diu~tahle ;~I~ 9 loops of cable -~ attachedxto crosshead

common
fixed shaft came ~ension,’T "~ ancnorea ena or cable

9 sheavest 9 sheaves
top view showing
pulley system
(reducedscale):

.velocity, v
fixed shaft movable shaft tension, T

(a) Find a model for the system, considering the tension T as the input
variable and the velocity v as the output. Define parameters and variables
as needed. The inertias of the crosshead assembly and the pulleys are
important, but losses due to mechanical friction can be neglected.

(b) Reduce your model to give a single equivalent resistance, compliance

258 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

and inertance. Relate these parameters to your primitive parameters.

(c) Evaluate the compliance relationship assuming (i) adiabatic or

isothermal conditions. The initial pressure of the gas, P0, can be taken
as given. The resistance can be presumed to be a known function of the
position of the cable.

SOLUTION TO GUIDED PROBLEM

Guided Problem 4.7

1. R.~
5 "~-- 1 "---"-~- 0 ~R

¯ -----------------~-
0 "~-1 "---’~-R
x
2. The bond graph above is tree-like. However, should you draw the electric
circuit on the right below, the formal procedure gives a meshwhich is best
replaced by an equivalent tree-like graph.

or

R3 ~
R3"-=~"-
6 1 ~R R7 ’

1
R6 R4 R7 =R3 +R
6
T

z~ 0 ~ 1 -----~R ~ 0 ~ I .----~-R~.
x X

R~ R8
~1 R9 =R8 RS=T~’R7
t I
~
2 0 ~ 1 "--’-~-R "
"-~-R ~ F--~O-’-’~R~x X

Thisis left to the student,butthe net resultshouldbethe same:

R = RaR------2--9= Rt{R2 ÷T2[R3

z
+R,,Rs/(R,,+R~)]}
R~ Rt +R2 +T [R3 +R,,R 5/(R4 +Rs)]
9 +R

4.4 Equilibrium
The equilibrium or equilibria of many models are stable. The state of such
a model eventually settles down to one of these equilibria after time-varying
excitation ceases. A model with one or more unstable equilibria might never
settle downto a stable equilibrium, even if one exists, but oscillate in what is
4.4. EQUILIBRIUM 259

knownas a limit-cycle oscillation. The location of an equilibrium can be

affected by compliances,but not by inertances. The stability of the equilibrium
states, on the other hand, is apt to be strongly affected by both inertances and
compliances.
This section first addresses the equilibria of modelscomprisingonly non-
dynamicelements. It then proceeds to consider the effect of compliances. How
inertances affect the’stability of equilibria is deferred until the next chapter.

4.4.1 Reduction of Steady-State Models With a ,Single

Source; Case Study

A steady-state model (no energy-storage elements) with a single unspecified

source or boundary bond can be reduced to a Thevenin or Norton equivalent
load regardless of its original complexity. Sucha reduction allows the location
and stability of its equilbriumstate(s) to be determinedfor any source char-
acteristic. Analytical and graphical options for carrying out the reduction are
illustrated below. The analytical approachimplies the simultaneoussolution of
algebraic equations for the various elements of the model. It is the methodof
choice for linear models;the constancyof the moduliof the various sources, re-
sistances, transformers and gyrators lead to efficient matrix methods.Graphical
methods, however,mayprovide greater insight, can deal directly with experi-
mental data, and offer particular advantagesin addressing complicatednonlinear
modelsfor which analytical models require fancy methodsor create confusion
regarding multiple equilibria. Thus, even if you plan to employan analytical
methodultimately, a preliminary rough graphical analysis can be well worth the
effort. Either procedure employsstep-by-step coalescence of cascades, meshes
and parallel combinationsof elements, until a single source-load synthesis re-
mains. Section 4.3 abovedescribes most of the individual steps in a reduction.
As a case study, consider the system of dashpots given in Fig. 4.21. As a
first step, you maychoose to combinethe resistances R~and R3 to give R5, as
shownin part (c) of the figure. Alternatively, you maydefer this coalescence,
and proceed as shownin part (d) by adding a new 0-junction so as to isolate
the meshin preparation for its reduction. The meshreductions are carried out
with the aid of Fig. 4.18 (p 240). The resulting tree-like graphs are shown
parts (e) and (f); the latter is reduced to the former by the delayed combining
of R2 and R3. The two resulting 0-junctions are combinedin part (g). Next,
R~ and R5 are combinedto give R6, as shownin part (h). Finally, R4 and
are combinedto give the overall resistance, R, as shownin part (i). Note that
the force is common to both boundarybonds. R is the resistance of an effective
overall dashpot.
Carrying out the indicated steps is especially simple if the resistances are
constants. Each of the pairs R2, R3 and R4, R6 have a commoneffort, so

1 1 1 1 1 1
= +--;
R--; R3 R- R4 + R6
260 CHAPTER4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

Rl

(a) system F F

R~
F_~ 1 ~ 0 ~ 1.~F 0 ~
(b) bondgraph

R~
R, ~lter::te choicesg R~

[~0~1~0
~
F F ~0~

~ ~o ~ ~ [ ~4
R~ R~ ~ 0 ~ R~

Figure 4.21: Determinationof the equilibrium for a steady-state model

4.4. EQUILIBRIUM 261

(b)

3~ R~ R
F

Figure 4.22: Graphical analysis of the steady-state model

The pair R1, R5 has a commonflow, so

R6 = R1 q-R5.

Nonlinear characteristics can complicate the algebraic approach consider-

ably. You may prefer to use graphical methods instead. Example characteris-
tics for the five original dashpots are plotted in parts (a), (b) and (c) of
4.22. Horizontal addition is employed in part (a) to form R5 from R2 and R3.
Vertical addition is employed in part (b) to form R6 from R1 and Rs. Finally,
horizontal addition is employed in part (c) to form R from R4 and/~6.
The characteristic for the particular R3 shown in the figure allows no motion
until a threshold of force is exceeded; this is typical of dry friction. Then, the
force decreases for a range of small velocities, before again increasing. This
pattern is typical of some bearings and rubbing surfaces that become better
lubricated as the sliding velocity increases. The resulting characteristic for the
overall system also has a dip-then-rise. In part (d) of the figure, a constant force
Fo is applied to the left end of the system, and the right end is grounded. The
source-load synthesis, showngraphically, reveals three equilibria. All are valid,
but are they stable?
To answer this question it is necessary, as always, to consider non-equilibrium
states. If the resistance force of the overall equivalent dashpot exceeds Fo, rapid
leftward acceleration ensues, impededonly by the inertia of the parts. This case
 262 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

is illustrated by the states associated with the arrows on the left and on the
right. If, on the other hand, the resistance force is less than F0, rapid rightward
acceleration ensues, illustrated by the states associated with the center arrow.
This analysis reveals that the center equilibrium is unstable and the outer two
equilibria are stable. Whichof the two stable states comesinto being depends
on the history of the force and the initial velocity of the dashpot.

4.4.2 Alternative Approaches to Reducing

Steady-State Models
Not all very complex systems can be reduced completely through use of the
above procedures. Recourse can be made to iterative numerical procedures
applied to the set of corresponding equations. In the special case of linear
systems, non-iterative matrix methodscan be used. Such approaches are the
subject of textbooks and monographson algebra and numerical methods, and
are not addressedhere, in favor of a simpler alternative.
This alternative converts the static model to a dynamicor time-varying
model. This is done by adding either real or fake compliancesto 0-junctions or
inertances to 1-junctions. The revised modelleads to differential equations, with
time as the independentvariable, in place of the original algebraic equations.
Routine numerical simulation then applies. The solution usually settles down
¯ to a stable equilibrium state that is independentof the presence of the added
compliances and inertances. If there are multiple equilibria, you may need
to start with an initial condition somewhatclose to the desired equilibrium.
Occasionally, ~the solution maycontinue to oscillate rather than settle down
to an equilibrium state. Youshould then change the assumedcompliances or
inertances until stability is achieved.
The availability of this option sharply reduces your needto becomeproficient
in the more exotic methodsavailable for reducing complexalgebraic or steady-
state systems. It is a by-product of the modeling and analysis of dynamic
systems, whichis the major subject of this book.

4.4.3 Removal of Elements for Equilibrium

Equilibrium implies that each bond has a time-invariant effort and flow. An
inertance with a constant flow has zero effort. Whenever the objective is merely
the determination of equilibria, therefore, all inertances maybe removedfrom a
bondgraph. Further, if an inertance is bondedto a 0-junction, the effort on the
¯ junction becomeszero, so all other bondsattached to it also maybe excised.
The situation is morecomplicatedfor compliances. A complianceat equilib-
rium has a time-invariant effort and therefore a constant displacementand zero
flow. Whenboth resistance and compliance elements are bonded to a common
0-junction, and therefore have a commoneffort, the flow of each compliance
element is zero, whereasthe flows on the resistance elements are not. The com-
pliance elements therefore can be removedfrom the graph; this action leaves
the flow state of the systemunchanged.This situation is illustrated in Fig. 4.23
4.4. EQUILIBRIUM 263

(a) ,~ i.xe" equilibrium~:> ,~._]~F~~._._~

~ ~ ~,~’~-,~
,x~ ~?~ x: ~~-x~
R R
R
(b) x~ ~ x,
- equilibrium
~ C ~ C~I.~R
x~ 2~ x~-x: C

Figure 4.23: Removalof compliancesand resistances for the equilibrium state

part (a). The force compressingthe spring equals the total applied force.
this F is constant, a constant displacementx3 - x2 results, so ~3 = ~72. ASa
consequence, the power on the compliance bond is zero, and this bond maybe
removedfrom the graph.
In the situation illustrated in part (b) of the figure, on the other hand, both
resistance and compliance elements are bonded to a common1-junction. Since
both elements have a commonflow, this flow must be zero if the appled force
is constant. Otherwise, the displacement of each compliance would increase
without limit, requiring infinite force. Since the equilibrium flow is zero, the
effort on each resistance is zero. Thus, removal of the resistances from the
graph leaves the equilibrium state unchanged. Retention of the compliances
then gives the proper displacements.
The above erasures, when combinedwith the other steps for bond-graph
reduction, eliminate either all resistance or all compliancefrom all or major
portions of the bondgraph. If all complianceis gone, the resulting equilibrium
involves a steady flow. If instead all resistance is gone, the resulting equilibrium
is static. Problemsregarding the deflection of static structures, for example,
are of this latter type.
Youusually can tell whetherto delete compliancesor resistances by appeal-
ing to physical reasoning.. The examplesof Fig. 4.23 are no exception.

4.4.4 Case Study with a Steady-Velocity Equilibrium

The objective is to find the equilibrium state of the motor-driven mechanical
system shownin Fig. 4.24, disregarding the dynamicsand assumingthe weight
does not interfere with the pulley before the equilibrium becomesmeaningful.
The model comprises some components with constant moduli and others with
nonlinear characteristics. The winchhas a radius of 0.05 mand the pulley has a
radius of 0.10 m. The weight weighs 150 N. The motor and the viscous coupling
havenonlinear characteristics, as plotted.
The bond graph given in part (b) of the figure includes a compliance
and resistance Rc bonded to a common0-junction. WhenM= constant, the
264 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDL4TE MODELING

/~.~pulley

M~ F

r°as’r’n Cr
¯
spring| ; weight Ca.,~ 1.ta’~RSae
and ~ (b) bond graph
dashpoi

winc(h ~ motor

(a) mechanicalarrangement (c) bondgraphfor equilibrium

15
(motor)
moment, moment
N’mll
’, or //
Jviscous N.ml( ~_.........~,,~"~Ulllbrlum

)’- load
5

0 ~coupling 0 I I I I I I
0 100 200 300 0 " 100 200 300
~, rad/s ~, rad/s
(d) givencharacteristics (e) determinationof equilibrium

Figure 4.24: Case study for 9quilibrium with motion

4.4. EQUILIBRIUM 265

compliance Cr has a fixed deflection (zero relative velocity), and therefore

removed from the graph. The compliance Cd and the resistance/~d are bonded
to a common 1-junction, so when F = constant the velocity ~d = 0; as a
result, Rd is removed. The compliance Ca now becomes bonded directly to
the 0-junction, since there is no significance to a two-ported 1-junction. The
velocity ~2 equals ~1, so Ca also can be removed. Part (c) of the figure shows
the resulting reduced bond graph for equilibrium.
Given W-~ 150 N, T~, -- 0.05 m and Tp = 1/0.10 = 10 m,

’ = 2.0 (4.10a)
Mm = T~,F = T~,(W + TpM) = 0.05(150 + 10M) = 7.5 + 0.5M (4.105)
Values of the viscous coupling mom.ent M= 0, 2.5 and 5.0 N m are now chosen,
and the corresponding values of ¢c picked off from the plot for the coupling.
Equation (4.10a) gives the corresponding values of ~,~, and equation (4.10b)
gives the corresponding values of ~lm. The three resulting points are plotted as
heavy dots on the axes for M:,, and ~),n. Fitting a smooth curve through these
points gives a "load" characteristic that intersects with the "source" (motor)
characteristic to give a close estimate of the equilibrium state.

4.4.5 Case Study with Stable and Unstable Static

Equilibria
Belleville springs are washer-like disks with a conical shape when they are un-
loaded, as drawn in Fig. 4.25. The force-deflection characteristic exhibits a
rise-fall-rise shape as shown. Should a particular given weight Wbe placed on
the spring, there are three equilibria. The stability of these equilibria can be
determined, as usual, by considering off-equilibrium states. Examples of these,
given in part (b) of the figure, indicate acceleration resisted only by inertia. The
analysis reveals that equilibria A and C are stable, whereas equilibrium B is
unstable. This is similar to the stability analyses carried out in Chapter 2 for
constant-velocity equilibria.

4.4.6 Case Study with Limit-Cycle Behavior

The gear-head electric motor in Fig. 4.26 is presumed to have the plotted torque-
speed characteristic. The torque-speed charactertistic plotted for the load that
the motor drives is characteristic of a bearing heavily loaded in a transverse
direction. The friction drops as the speed increases from zero and a lubricant
begins to act. For higher speeds the torque again increases as viscous drag
takes over. The shaft connecting the motor to the bearing is presumed to have
significant torsional flexibility, modeledas a rotational spring. The model of the
system comprises a source for the motor, a resistance for the load, a compliance
for the spring and a 0-junction to recognize that all three componentsexperience
the same torque.
266 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

i ~ fixed support

(a) cross-section through centerline

(b) force-deflection characteristic

and .stability
analysis for applied weight, W

Figure 4.25: Case study of Belleville springs with stable and unstable equilibria

The single equilibrium state is defined by the intersection of the source and
load characteristics. This equilibrium is unstable! The spring allows the motor
to run at a different speed from the load, but requires that the torques at its
two ends be equal. The state of the system at a moment in time therefore
can be described by a horizontal line segment, with the state of the motor at
one end and the state of the load at the other. If the system is started from
rest, it will initially jump to the pair of states labeled as 1 in part (e) of the
figure. (All inertia of the rotor and gears is being neglecte.d, so. ~1 jumps to
the given value virtually instantly.) The velocity difference ¢1 - ¢2 now causes
the twist angle ¢1 - ¢2 to increase in time. Thus the spring winds up, and the
torque Mincreases. When~1 reaches its equilibrium value, at state 2, the load
still hasn’t budged; ¢2 is far from equilibrium. Thus the wind-up of the spring
continues, at only a slightly smaller rate. Whenthe momentattempts to exceed
that of state 3, however, the load finally is forced to break away. It accelerates
virtually instantaneously (no inertia, again) to state 4. At this point ~2 >> (ill, so
the spring rapidly unwinds and the torque decreases. It is still decreasing when
it reaches state 5, at which point the load speed has no choice but to suddenly
become zero, giving state 6. State 6 soon becomes state 2, and then state 3,
and so on: the cycle is repeated.
The endless cycling from states 6 to 3 to ~5 to 6 is knownas a limit cycle
oscillation. This particular type of limit cycle often is called a stick-slip insta-
bility. It is also known as a commontype of "chatter." Should the system be
started somehowat its equilibrium condition, any small disturbance will trigger
the instability, and the same limit cycle results. In fact, any initial condition
results almost immediately in the same limit cycle, as you can verify.
4.4. EQUILIBRIUM 267

C
frictional load
(a) schematic (b) bondgraph

M
~ or), Mvs ~1

(c) torque-speedcharacteristics (d) shaft spring characteristics

of source and load

II II II
II II II
II II II
t3.4ts.6 t3.4ts.6 time

(e) state diagram (f) timehistory

Figure 4.26: Anunstable S-R-Csystem that develops a stick-slip limit-cycle

oscillation
268 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

This problem is continued in Section 5.1.4, with the inevitable load inertia
added. Computer simulation and analysis will show how this inertia modifies
and, if large enough, eliminates the limit cycle.

EXAMPLE 4.12
An induction motor and load have the characteristics plotted below (which
are the same as in Problem 2.4, p. 28.) The shaft and the load are connected
by a spring coupling (rather than the rigid shaft of Problem 2.4). Determine
the stability of the three equilibria, neglecting the effect of all inertias. Com-
pare the result to the case in which the springiness is neglected and inertia
assumed.

M [ ]~~~load

Solution: Model tile system with a

S .~. MO -~-~. R
bond graph, taking care to get the ~M [
right junction type:
C
The momentis common; moment is
plotted on the vertical axis, so the ver-
tical coordinates of the two states are
the same, which means that a line seg- M
ment drawn between the two states is
horizontal. The arrows, which indicate
the direction of change, are pointed /~
M
upward if CdM/dt = ~M -- ~)L > O;
otherwise, they are downward. Equi- ~(
librium 1 is seen to be unstable, while
both equilibria 2 and 3 are stable.
If the initial value of ~Mis between that of equilibrium 1 and the peak
of the curve, equilibrium 2 is approached. If it is to the right of the peak,
equilibrium 3 is approached. If it is less than that of equilibrium 1, the
system stalls altogether.

For inertia but no spring, the 0-

junction is replaced by a 1-junction and
the C element by an I element. The hor-
izontal line segments are replaced by ver-
tical line segments. These indicate that
equilibria 1 and 3 are stable, whereas 2 is
unstable.
4.4. F, QUILIBRIUM 269

4.4.7 Necessary Condition for Instability

or Limit-Cycle Oscillation*

Thestability of an equilibriumpoint betweena static source characteristic and a

static load characteristic, and the absenceof a limit-cycle oscillation, are assured
if both characteristics are passive with respect to the equilibrium point. This
passivity is defined in Section 4.3.2 (p. 245). Whetheror not an equilibrimn
point that fails this test is actually unstable depends on the magnitudes of
any compliances and inertances that maybe present. Further, an equilibrium
point could be stable in the presence of small impulsive disturbances, and yet
respond to a large impulsive disturbance with a limit-cycle oscillation. The
tools necessaryto ~nakethis determination analytically, without simulation, are
developedin later chapters.
All points on the source characteristic in Fig. 4.26 are passive. Onthe other
hand, the non-passivity of any point on the negatively sloped portion of the load
characteristic can be observed readily. The graphical analysis presented with
that simple exampleis sufficient to predict the limit cycle instability associated
with any equilibrium point in this range. Points in the positively sloped portion
of the load characteristic with momentsbelow the break-away momentare non-
passive, also, but the analysis reveals neither an instability nor a limit-cycle
oscillation for an equilibrium in that range.

4.4.8 Summary

The equilibrium states for bondgraphs that modelconstant velocity systems can
be found analytically or graphically. Whenthese methodsbecomeexcessively
awkward,the simultaneoussolution of a set of nonlinear algebraic equations by
iterative numericalmeansis a major alternative, but is beyondthe scope of this
text. A more straightforward approach adds real or fake compliances and/or
inertias to the model,leading to a solvable set of differential equationswith time
as the independentvariable. The equilibrium state is approachedasymptotically
in time, assumingthe modelis stable, using numericalsimulation (as introduced
in Section3.7).
The equilibria of modelswith both compliancesand resistances can be found
by eliminating resistance elements that have zero generalized force, and elimi-
nating co~nplianceelements with a non-zero generalized velocity. In somecases
equilibria with steady velocity result. In others, static equilibria result.
Anequilibrium state betweensource and load characteristics is knownto be
stable if both characteristics are passive at that state. Otherwise,determination
of the stability requires a detailed examinationof compatible non-equilibrium
states. The presence of an unstable equilibrium maysimply favor one or more
stable equilibria. In other cases a limit cycle results.
270 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

P~ ~ P2

~
Q2 valve ~1
--~.Q~ 7--~_ ~
~/ Q~ adjustablel
: .~ relief ( "--~,’il~/i:,"~,’~i~i
~ valve ~~k .......
co on
reservoir

cm3/s / cm3/s | //~

0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
P~, MPa Pl-P~, MPa

Figure 4.27: The system of Guided Problem4.8.

Guided Problem 4.8

This problem typifies graphical reduction of a model comprising steady-state
elements.
Hydraulic oil is pumpedto high pressure by a motor-driven pump. The
fluid in turn drives a hydraulic motor with an unspecified attached load, as
shownin Fig. 4.27. A relief valve limits the pressure, partly for safety, and
an adjustable "meter-in" valve can be set or modulatedto control the torque-
speed characteristic seen by the load. (The drawinguses standard fluid-power
symbols.) Characteristics of the motor/pump,relief valve and adjustable valve
including the attached fluid line are plotted. The motor has a displacement
D = 60 cm/rad, and suffers an internal leakage of 0.2 cm/s for each MPaof
pressure drop across it. It also has a static or break-awayfriction of 60 Nmand
an addedviscous friction of 5.0 Nm/(rad/s).
Youare asked to find and plot the torque-speedcharacteristics of the system
as seen by the load, for various angular positions, ¢, of the adjustable valve.

Suggested Steps:

1. Construct a bond graph model, treating the motor/pumpas a one-port

source. Presumablyyou will include several junctions, several resistances
and possibly a fixed-effort source. This is probably the most critical step
in your solution. Use this graph to guide the steps below.
2. Combinethe given characteristics of the motor/pumpand the relief valve
to plot a source characteristic pertaining to a location betweenthe relief
4.4. EQUILIBRIUM 271

valve and the adjustable valve.

Combinethe results of step 2 with the characteristics of the adjustable

valve to plot a family of source characteristics, each for a different angle
¢, pertaining to a location between the adjustable valve and the hydraulic
motor.

4. Modify the results of step 3 to refer to the flow which actually displaces
the motor but does not leak past it.

Convert the characteristics plots of step 4 to get torque vs. angular veloc-
ity. Due to the simple transformer type of coupling, this can be done by
merely replacing the scales of the ordinate and abcissas.

Correct the characteristics of step 5 to account for the static and viscous
friction on the shaft. The result should be the desired family of source
characteristics as seen by the load. Subsequent specification of a load
characteristic and an angle ¢ would give a specific operating condition.

PROBLEMS

4.50 Slightly compressible fluid enters a cylinder, shownbelow, pushing a piston

against a linear dashpot with modulus R.

//(///////////////////

--~p,_.~ fluid, pressure P piston

~/~ areaA ] dashpot, modulus R

~’//I/////////////////

"-~i "-’-"~ T "--~r- R ~ --~’P i "~" R ’

C T=A C
R’= TeR = A~-R

(a) Model the system with a bond graph. Determine the moduli of the
elements in terms of expressed and implied parameters.

(b) Simplify the model as much as possible; find the moduli of any new
elements.

(c) Give the simplest bond graph valid for equilibrium, and the associated
algebraic relationship.
272 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDL4TE MODELING

4.51 A motor drives a winch of radius 1.0 ft. which both lifts a 50 lb weight
and pulls a massless pulley of radius 3.0 ft with spring and damperattached, as
shownbelow. Characteristics of the componentsare plotted below.

motor

~ winch

200g.Z~ ..........
momenq- ~ force,~- /I force, I- ~ -[

ft-lblo01 ~
51! ’’~~’’’’~ ’’ 12 vO 4 8 12
06’’’~’’’~’’’1’
2
angularvelocity, rad/s velocity, ft/s displacement,ft

(a) Define appropriate variables, and identify and label the plots corre-
spondingly.

(b) Drawa bond graph of the system, and label its variables consistent
with part (a).

(c) Estimate the moduliof any elements not described by the plots.

(d) Find the equilibrium state of the system(i.e. find the values of all
constant, non-zerovariables at equilibrium).

4.52 A gear motor (relatively slow speed), shownat the top of the next page,
rotates a winch which rolls a cylinder of weight W= 10 lbs. up a 30° incline
at steady speed, without slipping, against a restraining dashpot with resistance
coefficient b = 0.25 lb.s/in. Theindicated radii are rw = 6 in., rl -- 10 in. and
r2 ---- 5 in. Thetorque-speedcharacteristic of the motoris plotted.

(a) Define variables, drawa bondgraphfor the system, and find the values
of the parameters (moduli) therein.

(b) Estimate the equilibrium angular velocity of the winch and linear
velocity of the center of the roller.
4.4. EQUILIBRIUM 273

50 -

40 motor~
in-lb "" "~I rider, W
30

O0 I11 I 21 I 13 I 41 ~ 5~ ~ 6~1
~, rad/s

4.53 Design problem. A four-passenger vehicle is to be given an engine scaled

to an engine with a known displacement, plus a manual transmission. Most
parameters can be taken as given below. You are asked to size the engine and
propose the values of between three and five transmission ratios. Factors such
as vehicle loading, hill-climbing capability, acceleration and fuel economyare
left to your discretion. The work can be divided into two phases:

(a) Model the system, presumably with a bond graph. Get explicit con-
stants or functions which detail the meanings of the various one-port ele-
ments in the model. Someinterpolation is necessary. Include hill-climbing
and the possibility of acceleration. The result should give the vehicle speed
and engine torque which results from any specified gear ratio, inclination
of the road and vehicle acceleration.

(b) The design phase of the problem includes your compromises regarding
acceleration, hill-climbing, fuel consumptionand relative cost. In addition
to. stating the engine displacement and the various gear ratios, describe
the performance of the vehicle in a form that an informed consumer would
want and can understand.

Vehicle weight: 2200 lb., exclusive of the engine and accessories.

4.
Air drag coefficient: 0.35. Density of the air: 0.0024 lb.s2/ft
2Frontal area: 15.4 ft
Tires: 1032 rev/mile; constant rolling resistance force equals 0.65% of the
total road weight.
Overall power train losses: 25%at 10 ft.lb engine torque; 15%at 20 ft.lb;
6%at 90 ft.lb.
Axle gear ratio: reduction of 2.6:1.
Engine: The weight, available torque, fuel consumption and needed power
for the accessories are proportional to the engine displacement. An engine
with a displacement of 2.0 liters weighs 240 lbs including accessories, and has
274 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

the characteristics plotted below. The solid lines represent constant values
of the brake-specific fuel consumption(BSFC),defined as poundsof fuel per
brake horsepower hour. ("Brake" refers to the meansof measurement.)The
powerto run the accessories (alternator, cooling fan, power steering and
brakes, etc.) varies linearly from 2 HPat zero speed to 6 HPat 80 mph.

lO0 ~...- ..... ~...maximumtorque

shaft ~-’~solidlines:
torque, // indicated values of BSFC
ft’lb 75 / . "

locus of lowest f~el consumption

0 100 200 300 400 500
engine speed, rad/s
4.54 For the Belleville spring shownin Fig. 4.23 (p. 265), sketch the stored
energy as a function of the displacement. Describe howthe force is related to
this plot.

4.55 Identify the portion of the load curve for the case study in Fig. 4.24
(p. 264) that is non-passive. Also, identify which portion of the load curve
wouldbe unstable or producea limit-cycle oscillation should the source (motor)
characteristic be modifiedto give an equilibrium there.

4.56 A submergedturbulent jet of water discharges into a region of still water,

passing below a stand-pipe with a sharp edge or lip as shownon the next page.
The jet entrains a constant rate of fluid, Qe, fromthe bottomof the stand pipe.
Also, if the constant pressure of the still water, Ps, is higher than the pressure,
P, at the bottomof the stand pipe (just above the jet), with a correction for
the weight of the water in-between, the jet bends upward; if Ps < P it bends
downward.Considerable upwardbending causes a return flow Q~ to be peeled
off by the edge. If on the other hand the jet is not bent upwardvery much,
a pressure difference P~ - P causes a flow Qp to enter or leave the stand-pipe
region through the gap betweenthe jet and the edge. These flows are plotted.

(a) Drawa bondgraph for the system, recognizing that the stand-pipe acts
like a compliance,the sumof the flows Q~÷ Qpacts like like a multivalued
- source of fluid to this compliance,and the flow Qe acts like a (negative)
4.4. EQUILIBRIUM 275

(b) Replace the individual characteristics for Qr and Qp with their sum,
according to the bond graph model.
(c) Determinethe equilibrium states. (Hint: there are three of them.)
(d) Determinethe stability of each equilibrium state. (Postulate compat-
ible non-equilibriumstate pairs in the usual fashion, and identify which
direction the pressure is inducedto changeas a result.)

psi
//~cross-sectional[// "
~/~area A=20ft2 ~/stand-
g~//’~ (1density p ~-//pipe
"94 lb’s2/ft4) -4 ..O.~~OQ, ft3/s

~ -8

~ _Q~ -12

still water ~
/i/i/i/i///i/

4.57 A type of reverse check valve, constructed as shownbelow left, has the
pressure-flow characteristic as plotted. The fluid is incompressible. This valve
can be used as the heart of a "hydraulic ram" (see Problem6.16, p. 407).

~pu,rnp flow Qo

accumulator ~
valve x

valve
"1 reservoir
characteristic Pm testing system
~
am
(a) It is desired to test this valve over as muchof its characteristic as pos-
sible, without inducing an instability. A pumpwith constant flow Qo and
276 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDL4TE MODELING

the traditional accumulatoris used with an adjustable linear restriction

placed as shownabove right. Choose a value of Q0 > Qmand plot this
point on the Q axis of the plot above. Then, construct two or three useful
sourcecharacteristics, correspondingto different restrictions, on the plot.
Deducethe region of the (load) valve characteristic that can be tested
stably with your flow source.
(b) Removethe accumulator and repeat (a). (A tiny fluid inertance
mains.)
(c) The orifice in tile valve has area 2~rrx/x/~, wherer is a constant effec-
tive radius. The valve opening x equals xo whenthe spring (stiffness k)
has no force. The fluid has density p. Find the characteristic of the valve
in terms of the parameters given, and computeP,~ and Q,,~.

4.58 A motor.drives a load through a spring coupling. Assumingthe charac-

teristics given belowand neglecting all inertia, sketch-plot the angularvelocities
of the motorand the load as funtions of time. Hint: limit cycle behavior exists
for a wide range of starting conditions.

~ -~
flexible shaft

4
momem,
N.m
2

I I I I I I I ~I I
20 40 60 \ 100
speed, rad/s \

4.59 Consider the two systems (i) and (ii) below, in which the charactistics
the source and the resistance are a plotted. In each case, and for equilibrium
points. 1 and 2, indicate whether the equilibrium is stable or unstable. Show
your reasoning.

system(i) system(ii) characteristics

4.4. EQUILIBRIUM 277

4.60 Axial-flow fans and compressors typically demonstrate an S-shaped char-

acteristic. A fan with the characteristic plotted belowsupplies air to a chamber
of volumeV = 4 ft 3. Anorifice in the chamberexhausts the air to the envi-
ronment;two different possible characteristics are plotted. Assumeatmospheric
conditions. Determinethe stability of the respective equilibria, and detail any
limit-cycle operationthat results.

15-
Pgage

lO-
psi

5-
orifice
fan t_____._.a

0 10 flow, ft3/s 20

4.61 A motorwith a given characteristic and negligible inertia drives a load

with a given characteristic and insignificant inertia through a gear pair with
negligible friction and inertia. Thecouplingis (i) rigid or (ii) highly flexible.
Estimate the gear ratio in each case that produces the largest possible stable
speed of the load, and permits the load to reach this speedfrom start-up. Also,
estimate the equilibrium speeds.

3O
torque,
fi-lbs
20

10

0 I I I I I I ~1 I I I I I
0 100 200
speed, rad/s

4.62 A cylindrical workpieceis machinedon a lathe by a cutting tool fed axially

by a screw drive at a constant velocity }, as shownon the next page. The tool is
somewhat flexible, however,so its feed rate ~ at the cutting edgecan differ from
~. The reaction force on the tool in the samedirection, plotted as a function of
1), has a region of negative slope (due to heating and softening of the material).
The conCernis that strong vibration might result (tool "chatter").
278 CHAPTER 4, INTERMEDIATE MODELING

force vs. k force vs. 5~

40

~ axial 30
force,
lbs

l/ to01 k__~j
~ rotating workpiece
20

10

........ ..........o 0
case i
I I
0.1
I
case ii
I
0.2
I
case iii
I
0.3
velocity, in/s
I
0.4
I

(a) Model the process with a bond graph, including only phenomena men-
tioned above. (For example, exclude inertias and any variation in the
rotation rate of the workpiece.) Hint: Your model should include but not
be limited to a compliance, a resistance and a junction.

(b) Find the equilibrium drive forces for the three drive characteristics
plotted by the dashed lines above: case (i), 2 = 0.09 in/s; case(ii), ¯ =
in/s; case (iii), 2 = 0.32 in/s.

(c) Determine whether each of the three equilibria is stable. Show your
reasoning. Also, should any limit cycle exist, show how the force and
speed of the workpiece change.

(d) If you were to add one more phenomenon or parameter to the model,
what would it be? (There are several good answers.)

4.63 Review question: Make a table of the dimensions of the moduli of bond
graph elements. Label five rows as follows: R, C, I, T, G. Label four columns as
follows: mechanical translation, mechanical rotation, incompressible fluid flow,
electric circuits. Assumethe transformers and gyrators involve no transduction.
Employthe symbolsL for length, F for force, t for time and Q for electric charge,
as given in Chapter 1.

4.64 Answer the previous question using M for mass and eliminating F for
force.

4.65 Answer the previous question substituting SI units for the dimensions.
Use Newtons, meters, secouds and coulombs only.

4.66 Answer the previous question using kilograms but not Newtons.

4.67 Answer the above question in terms of inches pounds force and seconds.
Omit the electric circuit column.
4.4. EQUILIBRIUM 279

SOLUTION TO GUIDED PROBLEM

Guided Problem 4.8

Rr Ro RL So Rj

R~: resistance to flow of the relief valve.

R~,: resistance to flow of the adjustable valve.

RL: resistance of the hydraulic motor to leakage flow, 0.2 cm3/(s MPa)

R f: viscous frictional torque resistance on the shaft, 5.0 N m/(rad/s)

Se: break-away frictional torque, 60 N m.

40O
cm~/s
200

0
0 5 10 15 ~0
P~,MPa

P2 -- P - 1 - (P1 - P’2). Therefore, subtract the (horizontal) values of P~ -

given in the plot for R, from those of P1 above, to get

Q3 6oo~
’400 ~__150--’~..~

0 5 10 15 20
P~-P~, MPa

4. Subtract QL = P/RL = P/0.2 from Q3 to get Qm:

400 ~.~ 0~"~

cm~/s I ~oo~6"~--.~~

0 5 10 15 20
P~-P_,, MPa
280 CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE MODELING

1 1 rad/s
= T = ~ = 6-~ cma/’~-~; therefore ~ = Q.~/60 and

ideal torque: Mi = 60P,~cma’MN-= 60 x 10-6P~_ x 106ma MNN = 60P.~ N.m

~
m m~ MN

rad/~n~
’
300 600 900 1200
M~, Nm

6. M = Mi - Se - Ry~ = Mi - 60 - 5.0q~ (Subtract torque loss from plot above.)

00°
~,10 ~.~

rad/~g ~
1200
M~, Nm
Chapter 5

Mathematical Formulation

The writing and simulation of differential equations is extended in this chapter

from the simple cases given in Chapter 3 to the much broader class of models
considered in Chapter 4. Models are categorized accordin~ to their causal status,
and whether they are linear or nonlinear. Section 5.1 focuses on the writing and
simulation of differential equations for the simplest causal classification, and
Section 5.2 focuses on more difficult cases. Section 5.3 introduces certain special
features of linear models that are identified by their behavior as well as their
structure. An operator notation is introduced that allows linear differential
equations to be treated like algebraic equations, and an efficient simulation
program for linear models is accessed. Finally, in Section 5.4, methods for
approximating nonlinear models by linear models are presented, along with
reasons why such approximations may or may not be justified.

5.1 Causality and Differential Equations

The application of causal strokes to bond graphs leads to a categorization of
models according to the types of equations that they produce. After these
categories are identified, the discussion focuses on the basic category of "causal
models," for whicha set of state-variable differential equations suitable for anal-
ysis or simulation is produced directly.

5.1.1 Applying Causal Strokes

A certain procedure must be followed in applying causal strokes to every bond

of a bond graph to assure that a subsequent procedure gives a proper set of
state differential equations. In most cases the following steps are sufficient:

1. Apply the mandatory causal strokes for each effort or flo~v source (but not
general source) that is present.

281
282 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

2. Apply any mandatory causal strokes that follow from the presence of 0
and 1-junctions, transformers and gyrators. (See below for the latter.)

3. Apply integral causality to the bond of one of the remaining unspecified

compliance or inertance elements.

4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 as many times as possible.

This procedure produces one of the following outcomes:

Every bond. has assigned causality, and each compliance and inertance
element is assigned integral cuasality. These models are called causal.
They are the easiest to treat.

Every bond has assigned causality, but one or more compliance or iner-
tance elements is assigned differential causality. These models are called
over-causal. They can be treated directly, or re-formulated to become
causal models.

o Some bonds are not assigned any causality. These models are called
under-causal. They are more difficult to treat than causal models.

5.1.2 Differential Equations for Causal Models

Once causal strokes are placed on every bond, a four-step procedure produces a
complete set of state-variable differential equations. The procedure is a modest
generalization of that introduced in Section 3.4.4. Before you start you should
remove any variable designations that may already be written on the bond
graph or, since these designations may still be valuable to you, start with a
fresh unannotated rendering of the graph.

(I) Annotate the input effort on each effort source and the input flow
on each ilow source with some appropriate symbol. Also, if the conjugate
variable is of no interest, you mayplace a large cross (×) in the appropriate
place to register your disinterest.

(II) Annotate the fiow side of the bond of each element Ci with ~i, and
place a circle around this designation. Annotate the effort side of the
bond with qi/Ci or, if nonlinear, a functional designation ei(qi). Similarly,
annotate the effort side of the bond of each element Ii with Pi, and place
a circle around this designation. Annotate the flow side of the bond with
pi/~i or, if nonlinear, a functional designation (ti(ei). It is better if you use
more specific symbols than the generic qi and p~ to represent the respective
generalized displacements and momenta, which become the state variables.

(III) That part of the bond graph that remains without effort and flow
annotations has, as causal inputs, only the input terms from step I and
5.1. CAUSALITY AND DIFFERENTL4L EQUATIONS 283

(a) circuit (b) bond graph with first causal stroke

(c) causal strokes continued (d) step II completed

(~p/l q/C~(~ Qlp/l q/C~Q

I C 1 C
(e) junction causalities employed (f) final annotated bond graph

Figure 5.1: Electric circuit example

the terms q~/C~ and pi/Ii (or their substitutes). Propagate these vari-
able designations throughout the bond graph, following the dictates of the
causal strokes and using the power-convention half-arrows to determine
signs. This key procedure is highlighted in the examples below. Note that
the circled terms are "bottled up," and do not contribute to any further
labelling.

(IV) Write one first-order differential equation for each circled Oi and ibi.
The circled term appears alone as the left side of the differential equation.
The right side of the equation comprises functions of the input and state
variables as dictated by the annotations and power-convention half-arrows
on the bonds in the immediate vicinity of the circled term. For example, if
the circled term is bonded to a junction, the right side comprises the sum
of the properly signed causal inputs of the proper type (effort or flow)
the other bonds on that junction.

5.1.3 Case Study: A Linear Circuit

Consider the electric circuit shown in Fig. 5.1. The bond graph has two junc-
tions. It is driven by an effort (voltage) source, which demandsthe causal stroke
as shownin part (b) of the figure. Next, integral causality is placed on the iner-
284 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

tance (inductance) bond. This also forces the causality on the bondto the right
side of the 1-junction, as shownin part (c). Integral causality nowcan and
must be placed on the compliance bond, forcing admittance causality on the
resistance bond, as shownin part (d). This completes the assignmentof causal
strokes, and the modelis seen to be causal, since both energy-storage elements
haveintegral causality. Part (d) of the figure also showsthe application of steps
I and II for the writing of differential equations; the input effort is designated
as e, the associated flow is markedwith a ×, and the efforts and flows on the
bonds for the C and I elemeuts are designated as directed. Step III starts by
observing that the causal stokes around the 1-junction dictate the labeling of
the flows onthe left and center horizontal bonds as p/I, and the causal strokes
around the 0-junction dictate that the efforts on the center and right bondsbe
labelled with q/C, as shownin part (e) of the figure. This leaves only the flow
on the R bond unannotated. The presence of impedance causality for the R
element forces this effort to be written as q/RC, as shownin part (f).
The first-order state differential equations nowcan be written (step IV). The
circled term dp/dt is written on the left side of one of the differential equations,
and the causal inputs of the attached 1-junction provide the terms on the right
side:
dp 1
d--~ = e - ~q. (5.1)
The circled term dq/dt is written on the left side of the other differential equa-
tion, and the causal inputs of the attached 0-junction provide the terms on its
right side:
dq 1 1
~ = ~p- ~-~q, (5.2)
The first term on the right side of this equation is positive because the power
conventionhalf-arrow on the center horizontal bondis directed towardthe junc-
tion. The second term is negative because the powerconvention half-arrow on
the R bond is oppositely directed.
There are two dependent variables (p and q) and the same numberof first-
order differential equations. As a result, the equations are solvable as a set.
This is always the outcomewhenthe procedures are applied to a causal model.
Takingthe derivative of equation(5.2), substituting the right side of equation
(5.1) for the resulting term dp/dt and rearranging, gives
d2 q I dq
IC-~_ + -~-[ + q = Ce. (5.3)

This is a classical second-orderlinear systemof the form of equation (3.41) (p.

149), which is one of the few that you should have memorized.Comparingthe
coefficients, the natural frequency is seen to be w, = 1/v/~-~ and the damping
ratio is seen to be (R/2)V/~ (which happen to agree with the 1-junction case
discussed in Section 3.5.5, p. 150). The steady-state solution, which emerges
whenthe two derivative terms in the differential equation are set equal to zero,
is q = Ce (whichis different from the 1-junction case).
5.1. CAUSALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 285

EXAMPLE 5.1
A machine of mass m is isolated from its foundation by a spring and a
dashpot, as shown below (and in Problems 3.28 (p. 131), 3.39 (p.
and 3.47 (p. 158)). In the present case, the foundation itSelf has a known
displacement zi = zi(t), and the resulting displacement of the machine,
Zo(t), is to be found. The bond graph below has been drawn as the first
step in the analysis. As the second step, define state variables, find a set of
state differential equations, and relate zo to the state variables.

Zo

~foundation I= m, C = 1/k, R = b I

Solution: The causal strokes are drawn following the four steps given in
Section 5.1.1, starting with the mandatory strokes on the bonds for SI and
Se. Integral causalities on the bonds for C and I produce no causal conflicts
at the junctions, and therefore also are required. Since there is no choice in
any of the causal stokes, the model is causal. Steps I and II of the procedure
for writing the differential equations, as given in Section 5.1.2, also are shown
below as annotations on the bonds for Sf, Se, C and I:

The output variable is related to the state variables p and q by zi = f ~i dt =

(1/I) fpdt. As shown at the top of the next page, the lower 1-junction and
its causal strokes force the writing ofp/I for the flow on the bond to the left
of the junction. The causal stokes on the bonds for the 0-junction mandate
that the flow on the vertical bond be written as izi -p/I, which also becomes
the flow on the bond for R. The effort on the bond for R becomes R(~.i-p/I),
and finally the ettbrt on the vertical bond and the bond to the right of the
0-junction becomes q/C + R(i~i - p/I).
286 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

C q/C 1 R(~-p/I)

q/C+SR ~(~i"~
-p/I)l ii "p/I
q/C+R(zl -p/I) I mg
7 zi p/I ~ 1 t-~--S~

I
The two differential equations result from the respective causal strokes and
annotations on the bonds for the respective 1-junctions:

dq
dt
= ~(t) - -~p
dp 1 R
dt - -~q- Tp + Rib(t) - mg.

5.1.4 Case Study: Nonlinear Stick-Slip

The stick-slip system analyzed in Section 4.4.6 (p. 266) is nowrevisited, intro-
ducing the effect of the rotational inertance of the load that was neglected in Fig.
4.26 (p. 267). The system is re-drawn in part (a) of Fig. 5.2, and the given
linear torque-speed characteristics of the motor and the resistance (frictional)
load are reproduced in part(b). The bond-graph model shown in part (c)
the figure is the same as given before, except for the added inertia, which also
requires the use of a 1-junction to register the fact that the load resistance and
load inertance refer to the same angular velocity.
The model is now too complex for its behavior to be deduced directly; dif-
ferential equations are needed. The source S is neither an effort source nor a
flow source, so step 1 of the procedure for drawing causal strokes (p. 281) does
not apply. In step 2, integral causality is applied to the compliance, as shown in
part (d) of the figure. Step 3 recognizes the causal mandate of the zero junction,
as shown in part (e). No such mandate exists for the 1-junction, however,
one proceeds to step 4 and applies integral causality to the inertance, as shown
in part (f). Finally, the causal mandate of the 1-junction dictates the causal
stroke on the final bond, leaving the bond graph of part (g).
Step I of the procedure for writing differential equations (p. 282) does not
apply. Step II annotates both the efforts and the flows of the energy-storage
elements; it is included in part (g) of the figure. In part III, the causal stroke
on the compliance bond now dictates the annotation of the efforts of the left-
hand and center bonds, and the causal stroke on the inertance bond dictates the
annotation of the flows of the center and right-hand bonds. For convenience,
the effort on the source is also labelled as Ms, and the flow on the resistance
is also labeled as ~R, to give the situation shown in part (h) of the figure.
Finally, the admittance causality of the nonlinear source gives a function in the
5.1. CAUSALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 287

force[ 0.inertive
-- ~ ’,’,load
II
turn ..... ¯
¯
[ ~,o,or I nex’ble shaf~ ~ 8~motor, MsvsCs
[ ....... I ............. ~" t°rque I

(a)sy-- frictional loadu lb

1~1 1~1 1~1

Cs
S~ s 0 ~ 1
CR
g ~R 0 ~0
X
80
speed, rad/s
120

g
/ (b) torque-speedCharacteristics
~
C 1
(c) bondgraph

S"-~-~ 0 -’----’~- 1 "----’~R

S I’-’-~’~ 0 "~’t 1 ~R C I
(d) first causalstroke

C I
(e) causal strokes fromO-junction

(f) causalstroke for the inertance

¢c/CI~ (~p/l
_ M = (/)c/C ¢c/C
C l S~ s ~ 0 ----~-~--~1 ~ .rR _
(g) final stroke, andstep T,,~,p/I,..:.,,i p/I=CR
¢c/C1~.¢c)(~pj~p/l
SI.Ms=. ¢c/C ¢c/C
0~11 MR =MR(~e,) ~-- --~.
r ¯ rR C I
(h) applicationof junctioncausalities
¢c/ /I
C I
(i) fully annotatedgraph

Figure 5.2: Stick-slip systemwith load inertia included

288 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

form q~s(Ms) for its flow, and the impedance causality of the resistance gives
function in the form ]I.’/R(q~R ) for its effort. All the efforts and bonds are now
annotated, as shown in part (i) of the figure.
The writi.ng of the differential equations (step IV) now can proceed. The
circled term ¢c is set equal to the sumof the efforts on the 0-junction:

dec
= (hs(Ms) - ~p; ~s = Ss(Ms); Ms = ¢c’/C. (5.4)
dt
Similarly, the circled term ~ is set equal to the sumof the flows on the l-junction:

~ = ,~/c - M~; M~= M~($~); ~ = (~.~)

dt I"

These equations are solvable, presuming the functions ~s(M8) and Mn(~n)
are known, since the only variables are the state variables ¢c and p. They
are not readily solvable analytically, however, due to the nonlinearities of these
functions.
The source ~nd load torque-speed characteristics, as plotted, are given by

Ms= M~o- M~- M~$~, (5.6~)

M~= sig~(p)M~oM~
Ip/Zl + M~
(p/I)~; p/ Z = ~,(5. 6b)
Mso = 10.0 ft.lb M~0 = 5.9 ft-lb Ms1 = M~ = 0.10 ft-lb.s

Ms2 = 0.0056 ft.lb.s~; M~= 0.00086 ft-lb.s~; C = 0.1 rad/(ft.lb).

(5.~)
Noting that Ms = M = ¢c/C, equation (5.6a) can be solved for ~s:

+s- 2Ms~ ~k~] + Ms~ CMs~ (5.7)

Substitution of equation (5.7) into equation (5.4) and equation (5.6b)

equation (5.5) gives an integrable state-space formulation. A corresponding
MATLAB function file follows. The particular value of I given (I = 0.00001
lb-ft s ~) corresponds to virtuMly negligable inertin.
~c~£on ~=stkslp(t ,x)
~S0=10; ~R0=5.9; ~SI=0.1; ~RI=0.1; ~$2=0.0056; ~R2=0.00086;
~=0.1; I=0.0000~;
f (1) =-~S1/(2,~S2) +sqrt (SS 1/(2.~S2) ) "2+~0/~$2-x (1)
-x(2)/~;
f (2) =x (1)/C-~ ign (x (2)) *gR0+~Rl*abs(x (2) /I) -~R2* (x
The model can be simulated and the output shaft speed ~c = p/I plotted
for 0.1 second, from a resting start, with the following commands:
[t,x]=ode23(’stks~p’ ,0,0.1, [0 0])
p~ot(t,x(: ,2/.00001))
5.1. CA USALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQ UATIONS 289

Plots of load speedvs time:

120 ...........
~
I = 0.00001lb.ft.s
rad/~o
0i i ]! II I| II II II II II /
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
t, seconds

6O

2I = 0.001lb.ft.s 40
rad/s
20
0
5O
40
2I = 0.0021lb.ft.s rad/s
2O

- 0.9100 lb.ft.s ~ 0.0022 lb.ft.s 2 [

I = 0.0022 and
20.0100lb.ft.s rad/?OI/~/A A A A /~//~ /~ ~

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

t, seconds

Figure 5.3: Simulationresults for stick-slip model

290 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

Theresult, shownat the top of plot of Fig. 5.3, reveals a limit-cycle behavior
almost the same as deduced graphically in Fig. 4.37, but with a very small
effect of the inertia. The corresponding result for I = .0010 ft-lb s2, shown
next, reveals a lowerlimit-cycle frequencyand a reduced fraction of time spent
sticking. Whenthe inertia is increasedto I = 0.0021ft-lb s’~, the sticking portion
is seen to have virtually vanished. Whenthe inertia is increased marginally to
0.0022 ft-lb s’~, however,the simulation reveals that the shaft speed converges
toward the equilibrium speed, which is

¯
¢~q~i~ =~/Mso
V Mm.- +MRo_ 25.19 rad/s.
Ms~ (5.8)

Thusthe instability has abruptly given awayto stability. A further increase in

inertia increases the decayrate for Oscillations without any effect on ~equib. The
exampleof I = 0.01 ft-lb s2 showslittle oscillation.
It is instructive to plot one of the state variables of a second-ordermodel
versus the other. This is called a phase-plane plot. In Fig. 5.4, phase-plane
plots of the torque Ms = ¢c/C versus the angular velocity p/I are given for
the various cited cases. Timeis supressed in these plots, but the directions of
increasing time of the trajectories is indicated by arrows. In the present case,
the underlying source and load torque-speed curves are shownby dashed lines,
for comparison.

EXAMPLE 5.2
RepeatExample5.1 (p. 285), substituting the nonlinear constitutive equa-
tions ec = av/-~ for the complianceand eR = b~ for the resistance.
Solution: The only differences from the solution given for Example5.1 are
in the notations for the efforts on the bondsfor C and R:

C aC~q,. ,b(z~ -p/I)~.

aC"q+b(~.i-p/I)2[~.i- p/I
~ X ~agrq +b(~i-p/[) 2 mg

I
The differential equations therefore become

dq_ 1
dt i p- ~ (equation unchanged)

(
d--i =,~vq - ~ ~(t) -
5.1. CAUSALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 291

10
\\motor
8
torque \\ I = 0.00001lb ft s’-
2I = 0.010lb ft s
6
lb ft

2
motor

\40 80 120 \40 80 120

~ speed, rad/s ~ speed, rad/s

10
2
\\motor = 0.0021 lb ft S \\motor
_\ I - 8 \
8torque
6
lbft
4

2
, , i
0
~20 0 0
80 120
~ speed, rad/s ~ speed, ra~s

Figure 5.4: Phase-planetrajectories for the stick-slip system

292 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

el ~T e.~ e~ ~G e.~ or ~!--.~ G~

q: t)~ q: q~ q2

(a) transformer (b) gyrator

Figure 5.5: Causal constraints for bonds on transformers and gyrators

¯
/ ~off~’~)gear

DCmotorwith fixed field

~reduction compliance C

note: bearings not sho~

[
flywheel,ine~ia I
(a) system / R~
: R~p /1
~ ~/I~’
~
e--~e-R~Tq/GC~- Tq/C~ - q/C~
~ /~Tq/GC~e/G-R~Tq/G C-~Te/~RIT q/G C]

~ Rfl C I
(b) bond graph wi~ a~omtedvariables

Figure 5.6: DCmotor driving a flywheel through a flexible shaft

5.1.5 Case Study with Transformers and Gyrators

The causal strokes on the two bonds of a transformer must be aligned the same,
that is be asymmetricalwith respect to the element, as shownin Fig. 5.5. This
follows directly from the definition of the transformer; specifying the flow on
one side also specifies the flow on the other side, and similarly for the efforts.
The causal strokes on the two bonds of a gyrator must be. aligned oppositely,
that is be symmetrical with respect to the element, also as shown.Either both
flows must be specified and the two efforts follow directly, or vice-versa. These
causal constraints direct the propagationof causal strokes through transformers
and gyrators in bond graphs.
The electromechanicalsystemshownin Fig. 5.6 illustrates the use of causal
strokes with transformers and gyrators. A DCmotor with a resistance in the
armaturecircuit and a fixed field drives a flexible shaft througha gear reduction.
The shaft in turn drives a flywheel. The non-idealites of the motorare ignored,
5.1. CAUSALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 293

along with the inertia of all parts except the relatively massive flywheel. The
springiness of the shaft is assumed to be important, however, and is represented
by a compliance. The resulting bond graph model is shown in part (b) of the
figure.
Placing integral causality on the compliance determines the causalities of all
except the two right-most bonds. You should carefully see that this happens,
step-by-step, starting with the two horizontal bonds off the 0-junction. Placing
integral causality on the inertance bond determines the final two causalities.
Step I of the procedure for writing differential equations (Section 5.1.2, p. 282)
places the effort e on the left-hand bond, and is completed by placing an ×
on the effort side of the bond for the flow source. Step II places the standard
notations(~and q/C on the compliance bond, andGand p/I on the inertance
bond.
Step III, annotating the efforts and flows on all the bonds according to the
dictates of the causal strokes, demandsparticular attention. First, the effort on
all the bonds of the 0-junction are labeled as q/C, since this is the causal input
to that junction. Similarly, the flow on all the bonds of the rightmost 1-junction
are labeled as p/I, since this is the causal input to that junction. The resistance
R2 has one of these flows as its causal input; its causal output must be labeled as
R2p/I, consistent with its impedance causality. Dashed lines with arrows have
been placed on the bond graph to underscore the meanings of the causal strokes
and the consequent sequence of the determinations of the variables written next
to each bond. You may find this practice helps you handle confusing situations.
You now proceed to label the remaining efforts, and flows, following a se-
quence dictated by the causal strokes. The effort (~) is a causal output from the
transformer; it equals T times the causal input effort on the right side of the
transformer. The flow (~) then follows from the causal strokes on the gyrator.
This flow is the causal input to the left-hand 1-junction, and therefore is written
also on the bond for R1. The resistance R1 has impedance causality, like
its cau~al output is the effort (~). The efibrt (~) is the causal output effort of
1-junction; it equals the difference between the effort e and the effort(~). Note
that the power convention half-arrows determine the signs of the terms, while
the causal strokes direct their content. Next, the causal strokes on the gyrator
bonds dictate the flow (~). Finally, the transformer converts this to the flow (~).
The differential equations for the system now can be written upon inspection
of the annotated bond graph (step IV). The circled 0 is seen, from the causal
strokes and power-convention half-arrows around the 0-junction, to equal the
flow entering the 0-junction from the left minus the flow exiting to the right, or
dq T ( R~T ~
d--[ = -~,e - --~ q ) - -] p. (5.9)

The circled ~b is similarly seen, from the causal strokes and power-convention
half-arrows around the right-most 1-junction, to equal the effort of the zero
junction minus the effort of the resistance R2, or
dp 1
-p" (5.10)
dt - -~q - --i
294 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

These equations are solved for particular parameter values in a Guided Prob-
lem 5.7 given in Section 5.3.

EXAMPLE 5.3
The bond graph model below comprises elements with constant moduli. Ap-
ply causal strokes, define state variables and write a set of state differential
equations.

S s (~.(~) r 1 ~ T ~I

C
Solution: The causal stroke on the left-most bond is mandated by the flow
source, and the gyrator forces the causality of the next bond, as represented
at the top the next page. The 1-junction allows integral causalities for the
compliance and the inertance, which therefore must be chosen. Note the
constraint on causalites imposed by the transformer. The state variables
therefore are the displacement q on the compliance and the momentum
p on the inertance; these are placed on the respective bonds, with dots to
indicate differentiation and surrounding circles as flags for their significance.
The conjugate variables for the I and C bonds also are shown.

S~I - G ~1 1 -IT r~I

,~,,,(t) p/I

q/CI
@
C
The causal strokes nowdictate the writing of the remaining efforts and flows.
As always, all uncircled annotations must include no variables other than
the state variables and input variables. (Parameters such as I, R, G etc.
are constants in this problem, not variables.) The result is
5.1. CA USALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQ UATIONS 295

olTl
,Git,.(tJ-RplTI-qlC
s~i OplTS -i . - p/TI ~1 T -~----~I
,~,,,¢t)- G plTl
q/C

C
from whichthe differential equations can be written directly:
dq 1

dp 1 R G
+
dt - ~-~q- ~-~P ~qo(t).

5.1.6 Models Reducible to Causal Form; Order of a Model

The causal constraints for effort and flow sources, junctions, transformers and
gyrators sometimesprevent one or more of the compliances and inertances of
a particular system from being assigned integral causality. These over-causal
modelscar/ be reduced to causal form, simplifying the subsequent determina-
tion of their differential equations, although sometimesthis reduction is not
practicable.
The energy stored in any elements found to have differential causality is
not independentof the energy stored in the elements given integral causality.
Specifically, the displacements on the complianceswith integral causality and
the momentaon the inertances with integral causality not only determine the
energystored in their respective members.Theyalso are sufficient, collectively,
to determine the energy stored in the inertances and/or complianceswith dif-
ferential causality. Thenumberof independentfirst-order differential equations,
that is the order of the system, equals the numberof energy storage elements
with integral causality only. This assumes that the standard procedure which
favors integral causality has been followed.
Consider two compliances bonded to a commmon 0-junction, as shown in
Fig. 5.7. One of them must be assigned differential causality because of the
causal constraint of the junction. The two displacements are not independent,
because they both are proportional to the same effort. As a result, the two
energy storages are dependent. This situation is easily simplified by combining
the two compliancesinto a single compliance,as shownin part (b) of the figure:
C =C1 +C.~.
In contrast, consider two compliances bonded to a common1-junction, as
shownin part (c) of the figure. Both can be assigned integral causality; two
state variable displacementscan be defined, and two differential equations can be
296 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

(a) first-order withdifferential causality

~C2 C=CI+Q
~ e (b) first-order,
nodifferential causality
e=el+e2 ~ 1/C=I/CI÷I/C2

(c) second-order,no differential causality

~eo ~ T ~ C~ ~ .~’T~qC
1
q 2
2C=C~+C2/T ~,q
T 1/C=I/C~+T~/C~
C~ CI
(d) first-order withtransformer (e) second-orderwith transformer

Figure 5.7: Combiningdependent compliances

written. The contribution to the order of the overall systemby these compliances
therefore is two. Nevertheless, it is possible to combinethe two compliancesinto
a single compliance:1/C = 1/C1+ 1/C.2. If this is done, the order of the system
is legitimately reduced by one. You can say that the minimumorder of the
system(with the combinedcompliance)is less that the nominalor actual order
of the system whenthe compliancesare treated as distinct.
Parts (d) and (e) of the figure showpairs of compliancesthat are less obvi-
ously combinablebecause of the presence of transformers. The causal strokes
reveal the same pattern as before, however: with a 0-junction, only one inde-
pendent differential equation can be written, whereaswith a 1-junction, two
differential equations maybe written, although the numbermaybe reduced to
one by combiningthe two compliancesand the transformer into a single equiva-
lent compliance. In either case the combinedcompliancecan be found either of
two ways. In the first method, the compliance C2 is combinedwith the trans-
former to give an equivalent compliancewith modulusC2/T’2 (as noted in Table
4.1 in Section 4.3.3), which then is combinedwith C1. In the second method,
the efforts or flows of the two compliancesare related to a common effort or
flow. Their energies, expressedas a function of this commmon effort or flow, are
summedto give the energy of the combined compliance. The second method
tends to be more powerfuland general, and therefore is preferred.
Similar considerations apply to two inertances bonded to a commonjunc-
tion, as shownin Fig. 5.8. As you have seen before, the combinationrules for
inertances are the dual of those for compliances;those for a 0-junction in one
case act like those for a 1-junction in the other case. It is not necessaryor even
5.1. CA USALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 297

(a) first-order with differential causality

e=e, +e~
I=4 +I2
~ e (b) first-order,
~ noI differential causality
~
1/I=1/11+1/I2

(c) second-order, no differential causality

e e
~ 1.1-----.~. T~----"I2 ~ 0 ~T r,12
q ~ I/I=I/II+I/T~I~
~q l=Ii+T2l2’ TdI~
11
(d) first-order with transformer (e) second-order with transformer

Figure 5.8: Combining dependent inertances

desirable to memorize these rules. You should work out each case by focusing on
its variables, noting particularly which variable is commonand which variable
sums, and utilizing the constitutive relations of the elements.
In some cases the reduction of an over-causal model to a causal model is rel-
atively difficult to accomplish. You have the option of foregoing this reduction,
and proceeding directly to the writing of differential equations. This option is
discussed in Section 5.2.

EXAMPLE 5.4
Determine the order of the following model that comprises elements with
constant moduli:

Sy-- O -----’--~- T-------..~ I .-------~-R

Il C
Solution: Causal strokes are placed, starting with the mandated flow-
source bond. Any two of the three energy storage elements can have in-
tegral causality assigned, but the third must have differential causality. One
of the three possibilities is
298 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

l
~’differential causality

Syl--~ O I~--.-~-~.- T I~---~- I ~---~-R

C
As a result, there are only two state variables and two first-order differential
equations. The model is said to be of second order.

5.1.7 Summary

A four-step procedure for assigning causal strokes has been given which is suffi-
cient for causal and over-causal models. Every compliance and inertance element
in a causal model is given integral causality by this procedure; the over-causal
models are those for which one or more differential causalities result. The model
is called under-causal whenever the procedure fails to assign causalities for all
the bonds.
Another four-step procedure is given for subsequently writing a set of state-
variable differential equations for a causal bond graph. This procedure anno-
tates the efforts and flows on all the bonds, before the equations themselves are
written, following the special causal rules. Previously written annotations may
violate these rules, and should be removed or set aside whenever this happens.
Even if an annotated effort or flow is functionally correct, if it violates the causal
strokes it will frustrate the purpose of the causal method. Definitions of vari-
ables using different symbols can be reintroduced after the differential equations
are written.
Onedifferential equation of first order results from equating the derivative
dpi/dt or dq~/dt for each energy storage element to the causal input of its bond.
The signs are determined by the power convention half-arrows.
The energy storages with differential causality in an over-causal model can
be expressed as functions of the same state variables in terms of which the
energy storages with integral causality are described. They are therefore not
independent, and the number of differential equations and the order of the model
equals the number of energy storage elements with integral causality, assuming
the standard procedure which maximizes this number has beeen followed. It is
advisable to reduce over-causal models to causal form whenever the reduction
is not very difficult to carry out; simple examples have been given. Otherwise
it is still possible to proceed, as described in the following section, which also
addresses under-causal models.
5.1. CAUSALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 299

Figure 5.9: Two-tank system for Guided Problem 5.1

Guided Problem 5.1

Neededpractice in finding differential equations for linear models is provided by
this problem. Fig. 5.9 shows two fluid tanks with an independent supply of liquid
to the left-hand tank, an interconnecting tube with both fluid resistance and
inertance, and a resistive drain from the right-hand tank. Draw a bond graph
for this system. The resistances depend on viscosity, and may be identified
by unspecified R’s. Other moduli should be expressed in terms of physical
parameters such as areas, lengths and fluid density. Identify the order of the
system, and write a corresponding number of state differential equations.

Suggested Steps:

Identify five flows: the input flow Qi~at the left, the net flow that fills the
left-hand tank, the flow between the two tanks, the net flow that fills the
right-hand tank and the flow which leaves the drain. Use these flows to
establish a junction structure for the bond graph, and complete the graph.

Apply causal strokes to the graph, using the proper priorities. Is integral
causality possible for all the energy storage elements? Identify the order
of the system.

Label each compliance bond with t~i and qi/Ci, and each inertance with ibj
and pj/I~, where the subscripts are chosen to distinguish different elements
of the same type. Circle the terms Oi and ~bj. Place × for the effort variable
associated with the input flow Qin.

Propagate the causal inputs Q~n, qi/Ci and pi/Ii through the bond graph
until all efforts and flows are properly annotated.

Write the differential equations, using the causal stokes and power con-
vention arrows to direct your work. You are not asked to combine these
equations into a single equation of higher order, but note that this could
be done.
300 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

Guided Problem 5.2

Dynamics are added to a steady-state model in this problem, and the corre-
sponding state differential equations are found. An important way to eliminate
differential causality is demonstrated, which allows the differential equations to
be found.
Augment the model of the hydraulic system of Guided Problem 4.4 (p. 225)
by adding masses or rotational inertia and resistances to the rotary actuator
and the two pistons. Define state variables and write the associated set of state
differential equations.

Suggested Steps:

1. Add 1-junctions, inertances and resistances to the bond graph to represent

the three inertances and three resistances.

2. Attempt to add integral causality to these inertances, and observe the

violation of causal constraints.

3. Computethe kinetic energy of the offending inertance, and express it as

a function of the generalized velocity of one or both of the remaining
inertances. Use this calculation to transfer the removed inertance to one
or both of these inertances, augmenting the value(s) of the inertance(s)
appropriately.

4. Computethe energy dissipation of the corresponding resistance, and sim-

ilarly express it as a function of the generalized velocity of one or both of
the same inertances. Use this calculation to transfer the removed resis-
tance to one or both of these locations, augmenting the resistance there
appropriately.

5. Reapply integral causality (it works now), and prepare the energy storage
bonds with the usual notations.

6. Write the differential equations, employing the causal strokes in the usual
manner.

7. Write auxialiary equations for the outputs Q and ~ as functions of the

state variables, in case these are of interest.

Guided Problem 5.3

Even if your instructor suggests that you forgo carrying out this more sophisti-
cated problem, you should at least study it and its given solution. It involves
the determination of nonlinear differential equation models for the mechanical
snubber shown in part (a) of Fig. 5.10, which is available commercially. The
piston is made with a low-friction coating, and fits closely with the glass cylinder
to give little leakage. An air valve acts like a small orifice for out-flow (which
5.1. CAUSALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 301

drive rod

(b) model neglecting Rs

(air compressibility .
piston eval

spring in
chamber
(c) model with I ~ 1 ~ Cspr
air compressibility Re( l

adjustable 0 -----~ C~
one-way orifice

(a) system Rva!

Figure 5.10: Guided problem 5.3

in practice can be adjusted), but a one-wayvalve (check valve) presents a much

larger effective orifice for in-flow. Asoft spring fits inside the cylinderto resist
compression.Youare asked to find a differential equation modelwhich can give
the position x(t) in response to an applied force F(t). The mechanicalrubbing
can be characterized by a dry friction force F0, the fluid leakage across the pis-
ton by a constant resistance Rp (based on laminar flow), the spring by its rate
and free length x0, the mass of the piston assemblyby m, the nominaldensity
of the air by P0, the effective area of the orifice for out-flowby Ao, the effective
area of the orifice for in-flow by A~and the area of the piston by Ap.

(a) The bondgraph in part (b) of the figure neglects the compressibility
of the air. Annotate the graph with symbols, and find an approximate
differential equation model. Note: the symbolsign(y) maybe useful;
equals +1 when y > 0 and -1 wheny < 0.

(b) The bond graph in part (c) of the figure recognizes compression
the air. Find an approximate differential equation model. The air com-
pliance is more difficult to implementthan most nonlinear compliances,
so significant details are proposedbelow. It is suggested that you retain
the approximatior/Q .~ v/(2/p)lP- Pal for valve flow, since the inter-
est is in pressures P which do not differ radically from the atmospheric
pressure Pa. (A more accurate modeling requires considerations of com-
pressible fluid flow, which are not addressed until Chapter 12.) Further,
the compressionmaybe considered to be isentropic.
302 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

Suggested Steps:

1. Apply causal strokes to the bond graph of part (b), define state variables
in the conventional way and annotate the conjugate forces or velocities on
the I and C bonds with the standard computationally realizable functions.

2. The resistance Rfric acts something like a force source, but with the sign
reversing with the direction of the motion. Write a computationally real-
izable function for this force adjacent to the bond.

3. Use an orifice equation to approximate the flow through the valve, add
the flow for the leakage across the piston, and invert to find the pressure
as a function of the total flow. Then relate this flow to a state variable.
Also, relate the force Fair to the pressure and thereby to a state variable.

4. Write the two first-order differential equations, with guidance from the
causal strokes.

5. To start the solution of the model with compression of the air, apply causal
strokes to part (c) of the figure and adapt the prior model to the extent
applies. Note that the causality on the leakage resistance element is the
inverse of what you used for the incompressible model, so that you do not
need to invert the equation for leakage flow.

6. Note that the assumption of an isentropic process means that the pressure
in the chamber can be written as P = Pa(q/x) k, where q is the portion
of the piston displacement associated with compression of the air and
k = 1.4 (not to be confused with the spring constant). Use this relation
to express the effort on the 0-junction as a function of state variables.
Then, get expressions for the leakage flow in terms of this effo}t and fixed
parameters, depending on the sign of the velocity.

7. Write all three state differential equations. Makesure the only variables
that appear on the right sides of the equations are, directly or by substi-
tution, the excitation variable F and the state variables x, q and p.

PROBLEMS

5.1 Systems are modeled with the constant-parameter bond graphs shown be-
low. Apply causal strokes, using integral causality. Define state variables, and
write the corresponding set of state differential equations.
5.1. CAUSALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 303

5.2 Answerthe question above for the bond graph shownbelow left.

S]- ~-~. 0 ~ 1 "-~-R S~ el-~ i" 1 ~ 0 ----~R

I C C I

5.3 Answerthe question above for the bond graph shownabove right.

5.4 Find electric circuits that correspond to the bond graphs of (a) Problem
5.2 and (b) Problem5.:3.

5.5 Find mass-spring-dashpot systems with x-motion only that correspond to

the bond graphs of (a) Problem5.1 and (b) Problem

5.6 Write the state differential equations for the modeldeveloped in Guided
Problem4.:3. Theelectric current is specified as a function of time.

5.’/ Answerthe questions of Problem5.1 for the bond graph given below:

I C

ein
S~ O "~"7" G"--"-~ I

R, R~

5.8 For the bond graph below, in which the causal input is

rC

0 rR

(a) Applycausal strokes, choosestate variables and label all the efforts
and flows accordingly.

(b) Write the correspondingset of state differential equations.

304 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

(c) The output variable of interest is ~0. Relate this to the state variables
and the input variable, e0.

(d) Express, in terms of the given parameters, any time constants, natural
frequencies or damping ratios that apply.

5.9 Find systems with (i) springs and dashpots, and (ii) electric capacitors
resistors, that are analogous to the two-tank system of Fig. 5.9 (p. 299). Assume
constant parameters. Find a commondifferential equation model, with primary
interest on the response of the second compSance.

5.10 A simple I-C (or L-C) filter connects a voltage source to a resistive load,
as shown below. Find a differential equation relating the load voltage eL to the
source voltage es.

filter

5.11 Continue Guided Problem 4.5 (p. 227) by defining a minimumset of state
variables, considering the fluid pressure, P, to be an independent excitation
and the motions of the solid parts to be responses. Find the corresponding
state differential equations in a proper form for integration. You may employ
parameters of your own devising if they are defined explicitly.

5.12 Consider the mechanical system described in Fig. 4.24 (p. 264) and the
accompanyingtext. Define state variables and write a set of first-order differ-
ential equations in a form suitable for solution. Continue to ignore the inertias
of the moving parts. The nonlinear functions may be defined as unspecified
functions, e.g. ]~/m:/~//ra(~m) or ~)m:~)m(Mrn).

5.13 A hydraulic shock absorber of the type described in Fig. 2.24 (p. 47)
employed as the dashpot in the system of Problem 4.2 part (c) (p. 201). Write
the state differential equations for the resulting nonlinear system.

5.14 Write a set of state differential equations for the aircraft carrier "arresting
engine" of Problem 4.49 (p. 257).
5.1. CAUSALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 305

5.15 Design Problem. Carpenters often use pneumatically driven nailers for
framing, roofing and finish nails, poweredby a large air compressorthrough a
rather large hose. Battery-powerednailers have been considered, but the power
a reasonable-sized battery with solenoid or electric motorcan deliver is vastly
less than the instantaneous powerneeded to drive a large nail in one motion.
The nail must be driven homein a few milliseconds, for otherwise the recoil
momentum is too great. Some~neans is need to store energy for quick release.
Springs weigh too much.Kinetic energy is one possibility. The energy storage
of a compressedgas is another, whichis the subject of this problem.
I~ is proposed to use a small motor-driven hyraulic pumpto force 0il into
a small hydraulic accumulator. The oil also pushes on a piston which, whena
trigger release is actuated, drives the nail. Someof the details are suggestedin
the schematic drawingbelow. The plunger is returned to its initial position by
a small spring, not shown.

~ accumulator

.... ~ three-way two-position valve

restrlcuom~

~ pis!on- [ [ ) ~
mOt
~~ Or
i [ i k~ pump ~

trigger reservoir
1[
~ nail

The principal problemis that although sufficiently small commercialbladder

accumulators exist, they have a vMvemechanismto prevent the gas pressure
from extruding the bladder through the neck of the accumulator. (See Fig.
3.37, p. 167.) This presents an excessiveresistance to the flow of oil that surges
out of the accumulator to drive the nail. Youare asked to investigate the
problem and makedesign recommendations.The questions regard the size of the
accumulator, the gas pre-charge pressure, the minimu~n allowable effective area
of the flow restriction in question, and the diameterof the hydraulicactuator. It
is suggested that a computersimulation wouldbe an effective tool in addressing
these questions. Details about the electric motor, pump,valving and mechanism
details are not to be addressed.
The nails are the large 16-d size, 3.25 inches in length and 0.022 lbs in
306 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

weight. They are resisted by a force that grows linearly with the penetration of
the nail into the wood, for a total work of 100 ft-lbs. It has been decided that
the accumulator can hold a pressure of up to 3000 psi, the charging pressure of
the nitrogen (the pressure when no oil is in the accumulator) should be at least
one-third of the maximumpressure to be used, to prevent excessive flexure of
the bladder. It is suggested that the inertia of the nail and the other moving
parts is important enough to be included in any dynamic model. Energy lost
because of spent momentumand orifice flow must be kept small so that the
battery and electric motor not become too heavy.

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 5.1

1-3. Q i~ A.-2.~ ~ A2

"-Vl-"~,dt :~ ,~ -- V::./’Q:dt~

~porousplugdrain

Integral causality can be applied to the inertance and both compliances without
producinga causal conflict. Theorder of the system, therefore, is three. Thestate
variables are Vx, }~ and p.
5.1. CAUSALITY AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 307

Guided Problem 5.2

1-2.

T~ T3

F~.~, M~
1~-’-- 1 1 I~-l~ ~ differential causality forced

RI R~

1 "2
3. T = -~I~¢3 = l~I3(T3Q2)2 = ~I3(T3 ~ 2]T 2)
2 1., .2
z ~13x2

Therefore, I’3 = (T3/T2)213.

Combine this inertance with I2 to give the overall inertance

x~_=I2 +(T~/T2)2X~.

Combine R~ with R2 to get R~ = -~2 + ¯(T3/T2)2R3

dp~
6. dt = 1p_ R,
__
-~l pl
T~
t
dp__~_dt= I PT2- ~ P2

7. Compare the two bond graphs above to get

1 1
Q= T~---~,2
+
308 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

Guided Problem 5.3

1. 2. Let ~ > 0 for upwardmotion.

FI Fftic = -sign(~,)Fo = sign(p)Fo
I~ 1 ~C C=l/k; I=m
3. volumeflow:
~IF,~II=QIA~,
R)~,. R,~,. Q = Ao~(P- P,) + ~(P- P~),

~ = -A, (P. - P) - ~( a - P),

Therefore, F~=A~(P-P~)=A~-~+V 2p +
P ’ p >0

(-RvA{,[ ~ ~ + IReAe ~ ~
p , p<0
~,,.=-d~ ~ +V~
4. Differenti~ equations (note that p is downwardmomentum):
dx 1
dt p
m
@ _1
F
d~ = ~(~ - ~o) - F~
=F+k(x-xo)-Fo-Ap ~+ V 2p A~I] ’ >0

2
a; h
=F+k(x-x°)+F°+Av~+ V ~ + A~I] p< 0

k6. P = P~(q/x)
Therefore, F~ir = ApPa[(q/x)~ - 1]

and Q = Ao + RpAp’ P>0

Q =-di V --~--~
~ F~.~
+ R~,A’~-~, p<O

The differential equations are as given below, with the expressions given in t[
above step substituted for Fair and Q.
dx 1
pdt m

dPdt = F - +(x - xo) - Ffric - F~ir

= F + k(x - xo) sgp(p)Fo - F~ir
dq 1 Q
dt - -]P Ap
5.2. OVER-CAUSAL AND UNDER-CAUSAL MODELS 309

5.2 Over-Causal and Under-Causal Models

Over-causal models are described by fewer differential equations than there are
energy storage elements, as noted above. As a result, direct use of the bond
graph produces equations in which derivatives appear on both sides of one or
more of the first-order differential equations. Under-causal models produce a
typically more difficult problem: some of the equations produced are algebraic
rather than differential. In many cases of both types, the equations can be
reduced to a simple set of differential equations. The problem of a mixed set of
generMly nonlinear differential-algebraic equations (commonly known as DAE’s)
sometimes must be faced, however. Special software is available. Also, a method
for treating these situations is described which approximates an under-causal
model by a causal model, permitting use of standard methods for ordinary
differential equations.

5.2.1 Treatment of Over-Causal Models; Case Study

Differential equations can be found directly from most over-causal bond graphs.
The same four steps given for causal models in Section 5.1.2 (p. 282) are used,
with careful interpretation, and a fifth step is added. The care is in properly
implementingthe differential causalities in the third and fourth steps. The fifth
step is the rearrangement of the resulting differential equations to insure that,
the derivatives of the state variables lie only on the left sides.
An example is shown in Fig. 5.11. After the mandatory causal stroke is
placed on the bond for the flow source, integral causality is placed on the como
pliance. This placement forces the causalities of all the other bonds, as shown
in part (a) of the figure. The inertance I~ receives integral causality, but the
inertance I., is forced to have differential causality. As a result, the model is
only second order; the energy in I.~ is expressible in terms of the state variables
for the other energy storage elements. The modeler must decide at this point
whether to find an equivalent bond graph with only two energy storage elements,
or whether to press ahead with the existing graph. The following presses ahead.
Step I starts with placing the notations O0 and x on the bond for the flow
source. Then, step II proceeds with the placement of notations adjacent to the
bonds describing integral causality: 0 and q/C on the compliance bond and
~5 and p/I1 on the inertance bond. This completes the step; the inertance I2
does not participate, since it does not have the required integral causality. The
situation at this stage is shownin part (b) of the figure.
The propagation of the terms 0o, q/C and p/I onto the remainder of the
efforts and flows, step III, is shown in part (c) of the figure. Dashedlines with
arrows describe the sequence followed. First, the remaining effort off of the 0-
junction is annotated as q/C. Second, the gyrator causalities are implemented
by writing the flow on the 1-junction as q/GC. Third, this flow is replicated
as the causal inputs to both the resistance R and the inertance I2. Fourth,
the causal output of the resistance is written as Rq/GC, as mandated by its
impedance causality. The causal output of the inertance 1.2 is written as 12
310 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

Sf~--.~- O .------~t G b---.--~ l b---~-l:

I I (a) bond graph with causal strokes

1
C R

Sf~.-.~O.~..IGI-.------~I]~=.-I
2

q°q/CIq(q
@ ~ (b) a~ersteplI
I C R

~P/~q/C-.
e~- I~/GC.~
~o t T ~ ~q/u~ /’T~

C kx~// (c) ~lly annotatedgraph (step III)

Figure 5.11: Exampletreatment of an over-causal model

5.2. OVER-CAUSAL AND UNDER-CAUSAL MODELS 311

times the time derivative of the flow, or I2(t/GC, as shown. This appearance
of the time derivative of a state variable is peculiar to the differential causality,
although it does not depart from the procedure. Fifth, the effort noted as e
(to save space) now is written as shown to the right of the graph. This term
is dictated by the causal strokes; the signs of the sub-terms are determined by
the power-convention half-arrows. Finally, the flow to the left of the gyrator is
written as e/G, completing step III.

The two state differential equations for the system now can be written (step
IV). The equation for ib is

dp 1
dt - ~q" (5.11)~

The equation for q differs in an important respect:

dq 1 1 1 I: dq R
q" (5.12)
d-~ = (~o - ~P- -~e = ~o - ~P G’~C dt G:~

The difference is that the derivative term appears on both sides of the equation.
This problem is rectified by collecting the two terms together on the left side:

I~ ) dq 1 R
1+~ (5.13)

This final step can be viewed as a usually simple step V that is necessary when-
ever derivative causality is implemented. Equations (5.11) and (5.13) comprise
the state differential equation model of the system.

This model is somewhat more complex than the corresponding model which
results from subsuming the dependent inertance element into the independent
compliance element. This is because different state variables are employed.
The propagation of the state variables can be carried out even when the el-
ements are nonlinear. You need to be especially careful in these cases to follow
the dictates of the causal strokes meticuously. There is one potentially seri-
ous complication, however: if the causal output of an element with differential
causality is a nonlinear function of the derivative of a state variable, it may
be difficult or impossible to carry out step V. This rare situation sometimes
can be avoided by proper choice of the energy storage element given differential
causality. In the case considered above, for example, the element I2 could have
been given integral causality, rather than the element C.
312 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

EXAMPLE5.5
Find a differential equation relating the displacementof the compliancein
the modelbelowto the excitation ei(t). All elements have constant moduli.

I C

el(t)
Se’------~ r G . 0 -~-’--~R

Solution: Either the inertance or the compliance element may be given

integral causality, but not both; the modelis over-causal. Since the question
asks for the displacementon the compliance,written here as q, it is simplest
to makethis the sole state variable by assigning integral causality to the
compliance.The result at this point is

I C

e,(t)
S~ rlGI ~ 0 --~--~R

Propagating the variables according to the dictates of the causal strokes

gives the effort on the right side of the gyrator, the flow on the left side of
the gyrator, and the flow on the inertance, as shownbelow. The differen-
tial causality on the inertance tells you that its effort is I times the time
derivative of the flow, or I(t/GC:

The completed annotations then become

I C

I?I/GC Iq/GC q/CIQ

ei(t) ei(t)-l[l/GC q/C q/C
S~ 1 q/GCr I G lei(t)/G_l~l/G2 ~ 0 -~-.~-~IRq/RC

Thesole differential equation becomes,at first,

dq 1 I dq 1
dt -- -~ei(t) q’
G~C dt R~
5.2. OVER-CAUSAL AND UNDER-CAUSAL MODELS 313

in which ~ has been written with the more formal notation dq/dt in order
to emphasizethat this term appears on both sides of the equation.
Collecting these terms,

The literal answerto the question is this equation with both sides divided
by the constant within the parentheses.

5.2.2 Equations for Under-Causal Models

Under-causal models result when the four-step procedure for placing causal
strokes (Section 5.1.1, pp. 281-282) leaves somebonds without strokes. The
author advocates a special procedureto handle these cases. As Step 5, a virtual
inertance is bondedto a 1-junction that has somestrokeless bonds, or a virtual
compliance is bonded to a 0-junction that has some strokeless bonds. These
added elements normally will be considered to have zero moduli, so as not to
change the meaningof the model.
Step 5 is completedby applying integral causality to the addedvirtual el-
ement, and propagating the causal strokes as far as possible, consistent with
the usual rules. The step is tentative, contingent on it not producinga causal
conflict. In somecases involving a bond-graphmeshsuch a conflict appears at
a junction; in this eventuality the step is aborted in favor of a Step 6, described
below. Step 5 is repeated, using other junctions with strokeless bonds, until all
bondshave causal strokes or causal conflict prevents further application.
The numberof virtual energy storages added by step 5 plus the numberof
implementationsof step 6 (below) can be called the degree of under-causality.
For each degree, one algebraic equation results. Takentogether with the differ-
ential equations in the model,ghey forma set of differential-algebraic equations
(DAE’s)that are said to be in semi-explicit form:

dx
d-~= f(x, y, t), (5.14a)
0 = g(x, y, t). (5.14b)

5.2.3 Algebraic Reduction Method; Case Study

The algebraic equations (5.14b) potentially can be used to eliminate the vari-
ables y from equations (5.14a), that is to reduce the DAEto an ODE(ordinary
differential equation). DAEmodelsfor whichthis reduction is possible are called
index zero models, which is the simplest type of DAEto solve.
An exampleis shownin Fig. 5.12. Steps 1-4 of the procedure for placing
causal strokes (pp. 281-282)leave four bondswithout causal strokes, as shown
in part (a) of the figure. The newStep 5 adds either a virtual inertance to the
1-junction or a virtual complianceto the 0-junction. The first option (it makes
314 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

C~

(a) steps 1-4 for placing causal strokes (b) step 5 with virtual inertance

T T

qo /.:.,,[ 4o-.f,./ -pZ " Rz

~p/l
I
(c) steps I-II of procedureto write (d) after step
the differential equations

Figure 5.12: Linear under-causal exa~nple

5.2. OVER-CAUSAL AND UNDER-CAUSAL MODELS 315

little difference) is implemented in part (b) of the figure. All four bonds
given causal strokes as a result; the degree of under-causality is one.
The four-step procedure for writing differential equations for causal bond
graphs (pp. 282-283) now is implemented, with a critical difference that recog-
nizes the zero value of the added virtual inertance, Iv. Specifically, in place of
writing a circled/),, on the effort side of the virtual inertance bond and pv/Iv on
the flow side, a circled 0 is written on the effort side to represent its zero effort,
and a symbol fv is written on the flow side to represent its non-zero flow. The
result after completion of step II is shown in part (c) of the figure, and after
part III of the procedure is shown in part(d).
The equations for the two real and one virtual energy storage elements are
now written (Step IV)

dq
(5.15a)
d-~ = fv,
(t°dt
dP=R’2( (5.15b)
fvT ~)’

0=~- 00 fvT ~) q_
-~ R1 f~,. (5.15c)
R2(

The virtual inertia has given algebraic equation (5.15c) which, since it is linear,
can be solved for the flow fv in terms of the input variable 00 and the state
variables q and p. This fv is then substituted where it appears in the differential
equations. The final result is the ODE

dq T T q]
(5.16a)
dt - I + R1T2/R.2[1 ~lo- ~p- ~C ’
dp _ T RIT 1 ]
RIToo -[-p + -~q ¯ (5.165)
dt 1 + R~ T2 / R2 [

EXAMPLE 5.6
Write a differential equation for the sole state variable in the following model.
All moduli are constants.
316 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

Solution: Only the left-most and the right-most bonds have mandated
causal strokes, so the model is under-causal. You have the choice of adding a
virtual inertance to the 1-junction or a virtual compliance to the 0-junction.
Doing the latter, the flow on the virtual compliance is written as a zero and
is encircled, and the effort, which is the non-zero ratio of a zero displacement
to a zero compliance, is written as ev:

The annotations on all the bonds now can be completed to give the result

_ e~(t) ei-Rle~,/G _ e,,

Se~ l ~,~ G 2~
e~]~ ,T e~tr lei/G_Rle~./G
i p’-~l
Rae~./G~e~,/G
R~

Setting the encircled zero flow equal to ~he sum of the input flows to ~he
O-junction gives ~he algebraic equation

1 Rx 1 1

which can be solved for ev. Setting the encircled ~ equal to ~he effort of ~he
O-junction gives the answer

-- = = ~(t)-
dt e~ R~/G ~ ~ 1/~ ]P "

5.2.4 Differentiation Method; Case Study*

Equation (5.15c) is solvable for fv because it is linear. Multiple linear equations

also are solvable if they are non-singular. In other cases, however, different
methods usually are needed.
A nonlinear example is the ground-effect machine or GEM(sometimes called
a Hovercraft) shown in Fig. 5.13. This vehicle hovers over land or especially
water, without direct contact, due to air pressure underneath caused by a large
fan. A rigid skirt around the periphery constricts the outflow of air from the
interior plenum, or chamber. If the craft is displaced downward~the restriction
5.2. OVER-CAUSALAND UNDER-CAUSALMODELS 317

2OO

top
view 160
volume
flow
A fan A 120
m3/s
80
lO.Om

40

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
section A-A pressure, kPa

(a) systemand fan characteristic

(b) system model

(c)causal strokes
after step 4

S Se

(d) placementof virtual P P P/T

complianceand R ~l-,¢-a--~,~~0~.
annotation of bonds Qslr, y) T~I~I

Cv

Figure 5.13: Primitive GEM

for vertical stabilization
318 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

for this airflow increases, increasing the pressure and causing the craft to rise.
The GEMpictured, with its single plenum, does not correct for the tilting
motions of roll and pitch; embellishments to the design are needed for these,
as described later. For now, attention is directed toward vertical translational
motion only.
The vehicle shown measures 4 x 10 meters, with a plenum depth of 0.8 meters.
The pressure-flow characteristic of the fan, as plotted, can be }epresented by
the equation
Q f = Qo - a~ P + a~P"2 P4,
- a4 (5.17a)

Qo =180; m3/s; a1=0.08m 5/Ns; -SmT/N2s;

a~=2.0×10
a4 = 1.482 × 10-12 m9/N3 s, (5.17b)
2
where the pressure P is in N/m (Pa) and the flow Q is in m3/s. The pressure-
flow characteristic for the skirt flow can be approximated by applying Bernoulli’s
equation:

Qs = LycdI~P. (5.18)

The periphery of the GEMhas length L = 28 m, and y is the eleveition of the

bottom of the skirt above the surface. The coefficient Cd = 0.65 represents a
discharge flow coefficient, and p = 1.23 kg/m3 is the density of the air. The
fan is represented in the bond graph of part (b) by a general source, and the
resistance to skirt flow by a resistance. The effect of the compressibility of the
air in the plenum is slight, and is neglected, so that the excess of the fan flow
over the skirt flow, QI - Qs, produces the vertical velocity of the vehicle, ~.
The relation is represented in the bond graph by the transformer with modulus
T = l/A, where A = 40 m~ is the area of the vehicle. The weight Of the craft is
represented by the element Se, and its mass by the element I = 4000 kg.
Step 4 of the procedure for placing causal strokes (p. 282) ends without
designations for the source and resistance bonds, as shown in part (c) of the
figure. Therefore, step 5 (p. 313) is invoked, as shown in part (d), by adding
a virtualcompliance C,, to the 0-junction. Steps I-III for writing the equations
(p. 282) also are included in part (d). The resulting equations become

dp = PIT - rag,
(5.19a)
dt
dy 1
~ = ~P, (5.19b)
1
0 = Qf - Q8 - ~--~p

= Qo - alp + a2P2 - a4P4 - Lycd - ~-~p. (5.19c)

The momentum of the vehicle, p, is a state variable. The fact that the resistance
R is a function of y makesy a state variable, and requires the inclusion of equa-
tion (5.19b). (In general, state variables are contributed both by energy-storage
5.2. OVER-CAUSAL AND UNDER-CAUSAL MODELS 319

five times actual compliance

0.3 actual compliance
elevation,
meters
0.2

0.1
~~ mpliance)

0
0 1 2
time, seconds

Figure 5.14: Three simulations of the lift-off of the single-plenum GEM

elements and by resistances and transformers that are functions of displacements;

other cases of the latter are illustrated in Chapter 9.) Equation (5.19c) theo-
retically can be solved for the pressure in the plenum, P, in terms of the net
fiow Qf - Qs = p/TI, and the result substituted into the differential equations.
As a result, the DAEmodel is officially of index zero, and P is not a true state
variable. An analytic solution of such a high-order polynomial equation is not
known, however.
Algebraic equations become differential equations upon differentiation. The
index of a DAEis defined as the number of differentiations theroetically needed
to solve for the time derivatives of the variables represented by the algebraic
equations. The higher the index, the more difficult a DAEis to solve, regardless
of the method used. The derivative of equation (5.19c) cma be solved for readily
for dP/dt as a function of p, x and P. This differential equation can be used
as the third in a solvable set of ODE’s. Therefore P is treated as though it is a
third state variable, despite the minimumorder of the model being two.
The derivative of equation (5.19c) can be solved for dP/dt as follows:

dR LCdx/~--~(dy/dt) + (1/TI)(dp/dt)
(5.20)
d---~ = al - 2a2P + 4a4P3 + Lycd/ 2~-~ "
A solvable third-order ODEresults when this equation is combined with equa-
tions (5.19a) and (5.19b). The three dependent variables are p, y and P.
elevation y is plotted in Fig. 5.14 for a simulation that starts at lift-off ("dif-
ferentiation model"). The initial conditions are p(0) = 0, y(0) = 0.0001
prevent division by zero) and P(0) = 2000 Pa. Note that the number that
represents the fan flow at P = 0 (180 m3/s) was lost when equation (5.19c)
differentiated; its effect is recovered through the use of the proper initial condi-
tion P(0) = 2000 Pa. This value is mandatory. No other value has a legitimate
meaning, given the values of p(0) and y(0), since the model has minimumorder
two, permitting only two independent initial conditions.
320 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

5.2.5 Methodof Non-ZeroVirtual Energy-Storages; Case

Study Continued*
Regardless of the index of a DAE,it is possible to generate an approximate
ODEsubstitute by imbuing the virtual complances Cv and inertances Iv (in
the step 5 above) by small but non-zero values. Eachalgebraic equation is then
converted to an approximate differential equation, so any ODEsolver can be
used.
For the current example, the annotations on the bond for the virtual com-
pliance C~are changedto ~. on the flow side and q,/Cv on the effort side, like
any real compliance. Therefore, P = qv/C~, and equations (5.19) are replaced
by

dp 1
-~ - CvTq~, (5.21a)
dy 1
~-~ = ~p, (5.215)
dqv
d---~ = Qo-al--~q, +a2(D
C2v -~ - -C-~q~- LyCd.. qv - 1~-~P. (5.21c)
2 a3 3
2~/-~_~
The principal questions noware what value should Cv be given, and howsignif-
icant an error does this complianceintroduce into the modeland its solution?
A more accurate model of the system, it so happens, would recognize the
compressibility of the air in the plenum, resulting in an actual compliancein
place of the virtual compliance. Treated as a constant, this compliancewould
have the approximate value Vo/kPo = 0.265 × 10-3 mS/N, where Vo is the
nominalvolumeof the plenum(a little greater than its minimum value, due to
the meanelevation y of the craft), Po is the meanabsolute pressure (virtually
101 kPa) and k is the ratio of specific heats (1.4).
The result of a simulation with this modelalso is given in Fig. 5.14. It is
barely different from the solution with Cv = 0, demonstrating that compress-
ibility is of virtually negligible effect. Executionof the simulationis relatively
slow, however, due to the smallness of C.. (In absolute terms, however, the
simulation is not excessively slow for this simple model.) Pressure excursions
from the nominal movingequilibrium have very rapid dynamicsrelative to the
basic motion of the vehicle. Simulations must proceed at ~ rate dictated by the
need to have manytime steps per cycle of the fastest phenomenon in the model,
even if this phenomenon is not of interest. The execution can be speeded up by
using a larger value of C., but at a cost of inaccuracy. A faster simulation with
five times the proper complianceis included in Fig. 5.14. The error is signifi-
cant, although it might be acceptable for somepurposes. A trade-off between
accuracy and computingtime is characteristic of the methodof non-zero virtual
complianceor inertance.
Modelscombiningrelatively very r~pid and very slow phenomenaare called
"stiff." Multi-step integrators typically are superior to single-step Runge-Kutta
integrators for handlingstiff models.
5.2. OI/’ER-CAUSAL AND UNDER-CAUSALMODELS 321

5.2.6 Commercial Software for DAE’s

The solving of DAE’sin general is a major enterprise. Should you deal with
themoften, you probably should avail yourself of a software package designed
explicitly for them. Twopresently popular packages are DASSL 1 and LSODI.
2 These are based on multistep backward-differentiation formulas (BDF). Ex-
tensive discussions of these formulas and the programsare available. 3 These
programswork well for most index zero and index one systems, and someindex
two systems. They are beyondthe scope of this book, however,whichfocuses on
modeling rather than numerical methods. The MATLAB integrator odel5s is
a variable-order integrator for "stiff" systemsthat you can readily use to handle
4a class of DAE’s,however.

5.2.7 Case Study With Meshes*

Somebond-graph meshes, or closed loops of bonds, produce special complica-
tions. Sophisticated or basic methodscan be used to overcomethese compli-
cations. For simple ever~ meshesa sophisticated methodsubstitutes a tree-like
equivalent bond graph, as given in Fig. 4.18 (p. 248). (Care must attend
treatment of the power-conventionhalf-arrows should they not be aligned ini-
tially in the mannerillustrated.) Moregenerally, an even or odd meshcan be
re~novedby reformulating the modelwith different state variables, based upon
examinationof relations for the stored energy, as described in Chapter 10. For
the present, no such cleverness is attempted for a complexbond graph with a
mesh:the basic methodfor finding differential equations is applied directly to
the given graph.
Step 5 Of the procedurefor designating causal strokes (the introduction of
a virtual complianceor virtual inertance whena modelis under-causal) some-
times produces an uncorrectable causal conflict when a bond-graph mesh is
present. In these cases, the offending virtual element must be removed. Some
different junction should be chosen, the proper virtual energy-storage element
appended,and the resulting graph checkedfor causal compatability. Occasion-
ally, an apparent causal conflict can be corrected by switching the causality of
an energy-storageele~nent from integral to differential. Youmight prefer, how-
ever, to retain the original state variable by ~selectinga different virtual element,
if this is possible.
The classical modelfor the small-motiondyna~nicsof an assumedrigid vehi-
cle shownin part (a) of Fig. 5.15 illustrates the problemand its solution. Rolling
and side-ways motions are omitted, so there are two "degrees of freedom": that
1L.R. Petzold," A description of DASSL:A differential/algebraic system solver", Scientific
Computing, eds. R.S. Stepleman et al., North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1983, pp. 65-68.
2A.C. Hindmarsh, "LSODE and LSODI,two new initial value ordinary differential equation
solvers" ACM-SIGNUM Newsletters, v 15, 1980, pp. 10-11.
3K.E.Brenan, S.L. Campbell and L.R. Petzold, Numerical solution of Initial-Value Prob-
lems in Differential-Algebraic Equations, North-Holland, Elsevier, New-York,1989.
4L.F. Shampine, M.W. Reichelt and J.A. Kierzenka, "Solving Index-1 DAE’sin MATLAB
and Simulink," SlAMReview, v. 41, 1999, pp. 538-552.
322 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

(a) sc~

L2--~1
0

,/.r Tl / L2
ly2 T3 = L1 +L2

0"
(b) junction structure with mesh

r~

o
q~ /Cl~O
, q2/C2~
IT, ’’’’~ "x"~" T2 ,~,,.."
1-.r~--0~ 1 1-~.-0-~.- 1

R~ S~ 0" S~ R2

(c) bond graph before choice

l p*/T3I~’ (Can add gravity force or
Tz weight,but this is just a
of unspecified causality constant and doesn’t
(~IP~/1:,
affect the dynamics.)

C~=l/k~ ; C2=1/k2 ; Ira=m; l¢=J ; R~=b~; R2=b2

Figure 5.15: Model of vehicle dynamics with bond graph representation

5.2. OVER-CAUSAL AND UNDER-CAUSAL MODELS 323

is, two generalized displacements and their derivatives are required to specify
the state of the system. The two displacements could be yl and y.,, which are
the vertical displacements of the two axles. However,the vertical displacement
of the center of mass, ycm,and the pitch angle, ¢, are moreconvenient, since the
kinetic and potential energies are morereadily expressed in terms of these and
their time derivatives. The ground under the front and rear axles has vertical
displacementsyg~(t) and yg2(t), respectively, relative to somereference level;
the time derivatives of these displacementswill be co~{sideredto be the exci-
tations of the system. The suspension at each axle (springs, tires and shock
absorbers) is modeledsimply (and rather crudely) by a parallel spring-dashpot
combination, with parameters k~, b~, k2 and b2, as shown. The vehicle has a
knownmass, m, and knownmomentof inertia, J, ~bout a known center of

The geometric constraints betweenthe velocities of the ~les and the center
of m~s are
L2 L~
Vc~= ~~L~+ +~~’L~ (5.22a)
+L~
1
~ - L~ + Le(92 - 9~). (5.22b)
These lead directly to the junction structure of the bond graph shownin part
(b) of the figure.
Expressions for the kinetic and potential energies of the modelin terms of
the defined displacements and velocities are written ~ the next step in the
modelingprocess. These are

T=1 ~ (5.23)
~mv~ + ~ "
J¢~,
1 ~ 1 k ’~
~ = ~k~q~ + ~ ~q~, (5.24)
where q~ and q2 are the extensions of the springs from their nominallength:

q~ = y~ - y~l, (5.25a)

q2 = Y~- Y~. (5.25b)

These allow the bondgraph to be completed ~ shownin p~rt (c) of the figure.
Integral causality is applied successfully to all four energystorage elements,
as Msoshownin p~rt (c), revealing that the modelis indeed fourth order. The
causalities of manybonds, including the mesh bonds, are not mandated by
this causality, however,indicating an under-causal model. Therefore, a virtual
energy-storage element is to be bondedto one of the causally incompletedjunc-
tions. If you try to appenda virtual inertance to either of the mesh1-junctions,
however,a causal conflict results, ~ illustrated in part (a) of Fig. 5.16. This
conflict is correctabl~ by switchingthe causality of the I¢ elementto differential
form. Althoughacceptable, this approach is more complicated than necessary;
a simpler methodexists.
324 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

G ~-[[ 10 __
q2 IC~

1~0.-¢-~1 .’T" 1 ~-=,- 0 ~-~---~ 1

RI 1
SI R2
I
\ ~,/T31¢,
(a) additionof virtual inertia T3
with attempedretention of ~’~[p
integral causalities -~_ ,/1~.

~ q~I
q,/C~(~ T1
~Y
0 -.,~-- 1 1 ----~- 0 -~- 1

R| S: R~
0

(b) addition of virtual T3

compliance to a mesh bond ~[p~/l~

.C,
~e,TpmI1~...,,. C~l C~
Cv~ ~0 ~ note: T,+T,=I

v"
11-~---L2 0 ql
-.~-I 1 ’~, 1,--~ 0 ~ 1
. qil e2_ I. ~~Tle

s,
(c) addition
of second
vi~al complianceto
completecausality --~ +il~ Note:for~and~ R~R~C~
seeequations(5.26)

Figure 5.16: Continuation of analysis from Fig. 5.15

5.2. OVER-CAUSAL AND UNDER-CAUSAL MODELS 325

As a second attempt, a virtual compliance is added to the upper mesh 0-

junction in part (b) of the figure. This produces no causal conflict, but still
leaves the bond graph under-causal. Thus, a second virtual compliance is added
to one of the remaining 0-junctions with incomplete causality, as illustrated in
part (c)¯ Now,the causal strokes are completed without conflict, and the efforts
and flows on all the bonds can be annotated in the usual manner, as shown. To
reduce the clutter on the graph, it is helpful to define the flows fl and f2 as
functions of the state variables and the efforts el e2 of the virtual compliances:
1
fl : f2 - T3I---~’ (5.26a)

¯ el + e~. q2
f2=-yg’,. (5.26b)
R~ R~.C.~_"
The algebraic equations associated with the circled zeros on the bond graph
are
eu q~
fl --~ii+ /~IC-~--~
0 ---- - #g~, (5.27a)

¯0 =Tifi Pm
+ T2fa im (5.27b)

Substituting equation (5.26a) into equations (5.27), and using the fact

T1 + T2 = 1 (5.28)
reduces these equations to
pc e2 q~
0=~.) ~- ~gi, (5.29a)
T~Ie~ RI R~ C~

0 = A Tlpo (5 ¯295)
TaIo I,~ "
Solving equation (5.27a) for e2, substituting equation (5.26b) for f.) and noting
equation (5.28) gives the effort e2 in terms of state variables, as desired:
T~R~p¢ R~pm q~
~2 _ (5.30)
T3I¢ + ~ + ~- ~l~gl-
To find the corresponding equation for e~, equation (5.26b) can be substituted
into equation (5.29b) to eliminate f2, giving
q2 TIR2P¢ R2Pm
el = R2~g2 -- e2 (5¯31)
C2 T31¢
Substituting
equation
(5.30)therein
givestheeffortel in termsof the state
v~riab]es,
as desired:

el = R2~g2 + Rl~91 + (TzR1 - T~R2)p¢ (RI + R2)Pm ql q2 (5.32)

T3I¢ Ln C1 C2"
Finally, the four state differential equations, which employe~ and e~ on their
right sides, are
326 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

(5.33a)

(5.3ab)
(5.33c)

(5.33d)

The choice of variables above and the resulting differential equations are not
the only ones possible. A recast model presented in Chapter 10 for this problem
has no mesh, saving effort at the cost of increased required competence.

EXAMPLE 5.7
Determine whether the three mesh-type bond graphs below are reducible
to tree-like equivalences. Then, determine whether each of the graphs is
causal, over-causal or under-causal. Finally, define state variables and write
the corresponding set of state differential equations for case (ii).

i~

C
(iii)
C~
1 1

1 1
~
12 (ii) I

R
Solution: Three of the mesh bonds have clockwise power arrows and one
has a counterclockwise power arrow in all three cases. Therefore, the meshes
are odd and not reducible to tree-like structures. The mandated causal
strokes are as follows:

./l differential C
(i) .[~= causality (iii)
~
C 1

’~qi’(t) 0"-~ 1 ~,,-" / 1 )SY~

0 ~I 1 ~strokes
} S~ 0 ~ } u~quely
(ii) } unspecified specified
I~ I
caus~ strokes
R
5.2. OVER-CAUSAL AND UNDER-CAUSAL MODELS 327

In case (i) the causalities of the two inertances could be inverted, but re-
gardless of the choice only one of them can have integral causality, so the
model is over-causal (and of first order). In case (ii), several bonds have
mandated causalities, so the model is under-causal. In case (iii), both energy
storage elements have integral causality and no bonds are left unspecified,
so the model is causal.
The under-causal case (ii) is the most difficult to address. An attempt
place a virtual inertance on the lower 1-junction produces a causal conflict, as
shown below left. A second attempt, this time placing a virtual compliance
on the left-hand 0-junction, produces a satisfactory result, as shown below
right. Therefore, the efforts and flows on this bond graph are annotated in
the standard fashion, as shown.

C
C q/C~(~

I" 1 ~conflict

0 V""~" -)’~~ 0 "~1I 0 ~2e~’/R-q/RC+p/I’~O~’-~I

S~ T-_~,,~-e~, ~’- e,,-q/C~ p/l
S~ "~1
~
e~) "~ l ~f
C,, 2e,,_q/ci2e,,/R-q/RC
I,,~R
R
The algebraic equation associated with the circled zero is

4e~, 2q p
0 = q~ (t) - -h-- + n--~ - 7’

which gives
q Rqi(t)
e~ = -~ + 4
41"
The state differential equations become

dq 2e,~ 1
7 -~O~(t)
dp q_ 1 R R
d-[ = ev C ~q + -~?li(t) - -~p.

5.2.8 Summary

Over-causal models are those for which it is impossible to apply integral causal-
ity compatibly to all the inertance and compliance elements. The differential
causality on an energy-storage element implies that its energy is not independent
of the state variables for the other energy-storage elements. The basic 4-step
methodfor writing differential equations still applies, but requires special atten-
tion to insure faithful application. Time derivative terms appear on both sides
328 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

of the differential equation that involves an element with derivative causality. In

most cases these terms can be collected on one side, and the equation solved for
the derivative. The result is a set of differential equations equal in number to
the number of energy storage elements with integral causality plus the number
of resistances or inertanccs that depend on a displacement that is not otherwise
a state variable.
Under-causal models are those for which the basic four-step procedure for
placing the causal strokes (pp. 281-282) fails to define all of them. A fifth step
appends a virtual compliance to an affected 0-junction, or a virtual inertance to
an affected 1-junction. Whena bond-graph ~nesh is present, this step sometimes
produces a causal conflict. Should this happen, a different junction must be
chosen for appending a virtual inertance or compliance. One algebraic equation
is produced for each virtual energy storage element in a bond graph, because of
the zero value of its modulus.
The algebraic equations emerging from step 5 may or may not be solvable
for the defined effort or flow in terms of the input and state variables. If they
are so solved, the writing of differential equations can proceed normally. Oth-
erwise, the model comprises a set of one or more algebraic equations as well as
differential equations, called a DAE(differential-algebraic equation).
DAE’sare more difficult to solve numerically than ODE’s(ordinary differ-
ential equations). Special software is widely available, including the MATLAB
integrator odel5s. Alternatively, it is possible to approximate a DAEby an
ODEby conferring small non-zero values to whatever virtual compliances and
inertances have been introduced by the procedure for placing causal strokes.
The smaller the moduli chosen, the more accurate the approximation but the
more difficult the solution. Simulation based on multistep BDF algorithms
(backward-differentiation formulas) usually work better than single-step Runge-
Kutta algorithms.
In a more accurate procedure, algebraic equations within a DAEset are
differentiated to give differential equations, and the resulting expanded set of
differential, equations is simulated with a simple ODEintegrator. Care must be
taken to employthe proper initial conditions fcir the added differential equations.

Guided Problem 5.4

The system of Fig. 5.17 is used here to illustrate the two basic methods for
handling dependent energy storages. Start by drawing a detailed bond graph
for the system, and defining the moduli of all elements. Then apply causal
strokes, and note that differential causality appears for one of the inert’ances.
Proceed to find the corresponding differential equations, using the standard
method. Then, as an alternative approach, find a bond graph which has only
one inertance; also find its differential equations, and comparewith the first set.

Suggested Steps:

1. Carry out the first part of the solution; it is suggested that the angular
5.2. OVER-CAUSAL AND UNDER-CAUSAL MODELS 329

Figure 5.17: System of Guided Problem 5.4

velocity ~ describe one of the 1-junctions, and that the two radii become
transformer moduli. To get the correct sign for the force source, note
whether the input work is positive or negative for your defined velocity.
Note that the inertance bond with differential causality has no state vari-
able; its effort should be labeled as the product of the inertance and the
time derivative of the flow. Annotate both sides of all bonds, and then
write the differential equations.

Re-do the bond graph with only one of the inertances. To find what this
equivalent inertance should be, write an expression for its stored energy
in terms of its velocity, and compare to an expression for the sum of the
original two stored energies also reduced as a function of the same velocity.
Find the differential equations.

Are the differential equations the same? Are they equivalent? Which set
more clearly reveals the behavior?

Guided Problem 5.5

This relatively complex problem compares the the use of virtual energy-storage
elements with the differentiation method in the treatment of under-causality. It
extends the modeling and analysis for the ground-effect machine addressed in
Sections 5.2.4 and 5.2.5.
Roll stability is imparted to the GEMby introducing two internal skirts, as
shown in Fig. 5.18. The lower edges of these skirts are in the same plane as
the external skirts. Whenthe GEMrolls to the right, the resulting increase
in the resistance to flow for the right-side skirt and the decreased resistance to
flow for the left-side skirt produces a higher pressure in the right-side plenum
than the left-side plenum. These pressures impart a correcting moment, Or roll
stiffness, to the vehicle. You are asked to model the system with a bond graph
330 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

lO.Om ~

i ]-~-~ ght plenum

~
enter plenum
:
i _.~left plenum
~-j
A skirts~
top view section A-A

Figure 5.18: GEMwith internal skirts for Guided Problem 5.5.

that ignores the small compliances of the plenums, and proceed to develop the
corresponding describing equations. "tbu will see that the algebraic equations
are too complex to permit direct reduction of the model to a minimal set of
state differential equations.
The simplest approach confers non-zero values to the virtual compliances,
increasing the order of the model by three. The differentiation approach is more
difficult and also increases the order of the model by three, but does not modify
the model. The effort required for you to carry out the details may not be
justified, but it is instructive for you to establish a plan. The steps below and
the solution at the end of the section outline the procedure and describe the
solutions, which illustrate important conclusions.
The two models are simulated first with no roll angle, partly to determine the
equilibrium elevation. The physical compliances and five times these values are
employedseparately. Next, the behavior following an initial roll velocity of 0.05
rad/s at the equilibrium elevation is simulated. The radius of gyration of the
GEMin roll is taken as 1.5 meters; other parameters are as before or as shown
in the figure. The various results are compared with respect to the behavior
of the physical design, the accuracies of the simulations and the computational
time required.

Suggested Steps:

1. Definevariables and parameters. Draw a bond graph for the system,

omitting compliances. Each of the three plenums merits a 0-junction, and
there are 1-junctions and inertias for both elevation and roll.

2. Apply the first four step; for placing causal strokes. Note that the model
is under-causal.

3. Carry out step 5 of the procedure for causal strokes.

4. Annotate the bond graph in the recommended manner.

5,2. OVER-CAUSAL AND UNDER-CAUSAL MODELS 331

Writethe state differential equations and associated algebraic equations.

The algebraic equations cannot be solved analytically for the non-state

variables in terms of the state variables. The simplest approach employs
non-zero values of the virtual energy-storage elements. Write the corre-
spondingset of state differential equations.

Find the differential equations for the derivative method.This is done by

taking the derivatives of the algebraic equations. A3 x 3 matrix equation
can be written, with the time derivatives of the three pressures as the
dependent variable. This equation is readily solved by MATLAB.

Establish the initial conditions for lift-off (with no roll) for the three mod-
els. Also find the initial conditions whenthe physical complianceis in-
creased by a factor of five. Notethat the pressures in all three plenumsis
non-zero, and that the center pressure is higher than the others. A very
small initial elevation is required to preventthe differentiation modelfrom
trying to invert a singular matrix (which wouldmakeit an "index two"
problem).

Carry out three-second simulations for lift-off, and comparewith each

other and with the response in Fig. 5.14 (p. 319). Note howmanyseconds
your computertakes to carry out the simulation.

10. Establish the initial conditions for equilibirum height and roll angle but
the specified roll angularvelocity.

11. Carry out the respective simulations, and again compare.

PROBLEMS

5.16 Continue Guided Problem4.5 (p. 227) by defining a minimumset of state

variables, considering the fluid pressure, P, to be an independent excitation
and the motions of the solid parts to be responses. Find the corresponding
state differential equations in a proper form for integration. Youmayemploy
parametersof your owndevising if they are defined explicitly.

5.17 Augment the bondgraph belowwith causal strokes, define state variables,
and write the correspondingset of state variable differential equations.
332 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

5.18 For the bond graph given below left:

(a) Apply causal strokes to find the order of the system, assuming constant
parameters.
(b) Find the set of state differential equations corresponding to your causal
strokes.
(c) Reduce the number of energy storage elements to a minimum and
find the corresponding state variables and differential equations. Check
to make sure they agree with the results of part (b),

5.19 Answer the questions of the preceding problem for the bond graph above
right.

5.20 The bond graph below left has constant parameters.

(a) Assign causality, identify state variables, and write state differential
equation(s).
(b) Find the output fiow 0o as a function of the input effort eo.

e.o eo
O~G~ 0 S~ 1 -..-~-G--..----- 1 ~. Sf

R
1 C
2 R~ 12

5.21 Answer the questions of the preceding problem for the bond graph above
right, except note that the input is 00 and the output is eo.

5.22 A hydraulic shock absorber of the type described in Fig. 2.24 (p. 47)
employed as the dashpot in the system of Problem 4.24 (p. 264). Write the state
differential equations for the resulting nonlinear model. (This is a modification
of Problem 5.12, p. 305.)
5.2. OVER-CAUSAL AND UNDER-CAUSAL MODELS 333

5.23 Write the state differential equation(s) for the model shown in part (d)
Fig. 5.7 (p. 296), using the differential causality given. Comparethe result
the single equivalent differential equation.

5.24 Repeat the above problem for the model shown in part (d) of Fig. 5.8 (p.
297).

5.25 The motor of Problem 4.52 (p. 272) has a rotational inertia J = 0.3
in..lb.s 2 and the cylinder has a radius of gyration rg = 8 in.

(a) Repeat part (a) of that problem to include dynamic effects.

(b) Assign causal strokes to the bonds. Note the presence of differential
causality. State the order of the model.
(c) Carry out the procedure illustrated in Guided Problem 5.4 to combine
the energy of the element with differential causality with that of a different
element, so as to eliminate the differential causality.
(d) Write state variable differential equation(s) for the model. The elec-
tromagnetic torque on the motor may be left in the form M= M(~).

(e) Simulate the response of the system, starting from an initial motor
speed of 1.5 rad/s. Plot the angular velocity for the motor and the dis-
placement of the center of the roller as functions of time until equilib-
rium is virtually reached. The function M(~.) can be approximated

5.26 Augmentthe bond graph below with causal strokes, define state variables,
and write the corresponding state variable differential equation(s).

5.27 The bond graph model below comprises elements with constant moduli.
334 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

(a) Definestate variables, and write a set of state differential equations.

(b) Sketch an engineering system for which the bond graph could be
reasonable model, and relate the parameters of the bond graph to those
of the engineeering system. Suggestion: Let the source be electrical, and
the right-hand portion of the modelrepresent a mechanical subsystem.

5.28 The bond graph below has constant parameters I, C, R, T. The source
is characterized by a knownfunction es = f(0s) or ?Is = g(es).

(a) Determinethe values of e~ and Os a.t equilibrium in terms of the given

parameters and/or functions.
(b) Definestate variables, and find a set of state differential equations.

5.29 Answerthe preceding question for the bond graph given below.

5.30 Consider the bondgraph given in Problem4.7 (p 202) for the effect of
drain tube on humanhearing, except omit the transformer.

(a) Definestate variables and write differential equations without changing

the given bondgraph with its mesh. (Note that integral causality specifies
the causalities of all the bonds, makingthis a relatively simple problem.)
(b) Applya bondgraph equivalence from Fig. 4.18 (p 248) to eliminate
mesh. Find the differentia1 equations in terms of the samestate variables
as in part (a), and compareto makesure they are the same.
5.2. OVER-CAUSAL AND UNDER-CAUSAL MODELS 335

5.31 Repeat the problem above for the bond graph below. Note that integral
causality does not specify the causalities of all the bonds, makingthis a more
difficult problem.

5.32 Consider that the ground-effect machinediscussed in Sections 5.2.4 and

5.2.5 hovers over water that rises and falls uniformly according to the formula
z = zo sin wt. Carry out simulations for frequencies wt = 2 rad/s, w2 = 8
rad/s and w3= 32 rad/s, all with the amplitude zo = 0.05 meters. The initial
conditions can be for equilibrium conditions.

5.33 The ground-effect machinediscussed in Sections 5.2.4 and 5.2.5 lacks roll
stability and pitch stability, and the improvementinGuidedProblem5.5 lacks
pitch stability. The design pictured below employsfive plenumswith internal
and external skirts all having their lower edges in the same plane. Modelthis
systemwith a bond graph, as a first step towardan analysis.

10.0m
A~,-~

top view A section A-A

336 CHAPTER 5. IVlATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 5.4

T~ ~- r2

C = 1/k

dx T,
dt - I¢ p= -~P (a)
dp Tx ( I~T~ dp (b)
d-7= c x - T~ \ v, d* ]
Collecting terms in equation (b),
I~T~2 "~ dp T~
1+ I~ / ~-~ = -~-x+Turng

or -- "~ ---- kr~x + rimg (c)

Equations (a) and (c) are a completeset of state differential equations.

Note that ~ = pig.

i , 242 1 2
V=~r~ =~-~¢
therefore, C’ -- 1/kr]

T= J~b ~ + ~rny = (J + mr~’~)(b ~ = ~ ~

~ ,’therefore, I=J+rnrl

de 1 , 1
’2p
dt- ~P - J÷ rnr~
dp’ = r~mg- 1
d---~ -~7¢ = r~mg - kr/ ¢

1 , 1
These are the same equations, since (b - j + ~nr~p = -~p

orp’= l + ---~-) p an(~ ¢ = x/r~.

Although the first method shows the structure in more detail, the second
methodis easier and shows the behavior more clearly.
5.2. OVER-CAUSAL AND UNDER-CAUSAL MODELS 337

Guided Problem 5.5

iCangularmotion(roll)

left plenum~ plenum

center t~ ~right plenum

I vertical motion(heave)

The area of the deck is .4 = 40 ms, and T~ = Tt~ = )-~ = 0.100 m-~;

Tc~ = ~]~ = 0.050

1 1 m_a.
The width of the deck is w = 4m, and -Tic = T,V --
(A/4)(aw/S)
~.
From the given information, I~ = 4000 kg; I~ = mr~ = 9000 kg-m
Repeating equation (5.17), Qf(Pc) = Qo - al P¢ + a~Pf - a4P~;
Q0 = 180 m3/s; at = 0.08 m~/N.s; a~ = 2.0 x 10-amT/N2.s; aa = 1,482 x

The center plenumhas a periphery of outer skirt of length L~ = 4m, with flow
Q~ = L~yCd~Pc.

Outer skirt are of the left-hand plenum: At = ~,(L + ~) - ~w (~- + ~-~)

Outer
) skirt are of the right-hand plenum: A, = y ( L + -~ ) + ¢w (-~ + ~-66

The respective flows are Ql= Alcd~/~Pl and Q~= Arcd~P~.

The flows across the internal skirts are Q¢~= L y - c~ (P~ - P~)
338 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICALFORMULATION

/ s \

. s~~

Thefoursta~ev~iablesp~, p~,g and~ giveNurdifferentialequationsin terms

of the functionsdefinedin step1:
d~
~ = ~/I~
5.2. OVER-CAUSAL AND UNDER-CAUSAL MODELS 339

--= --P~+ +
dt T~u "1’~
dp ¢ 1
~ p~
d~’~" = ~¢Pt + 77¢

There are also three algebraic equations:

0 = Qcl(Pc - Pt,y,¢) - Qt(Pt,y,¢) - ~b/Tl¢ - ~/Tt~

0 = Qcr(Pc - P~;y,¢) - Q~(P~,y,¢) - ~/T~ -
0 = QI(P¢) - Qc(Pc,y) - Q¢,(Pc P~, y, ¢) - Qc~(P~ - P ~,y,¢) - ~ /T

Thethree state variables V~, V~and V~ are added to represent the three volu-
metric compressionsin m3. In the differential equations of step 5, the pressure
Pt is replaced by V~/Ct, P~ is replaced by V~/C~and P~ is replaced by V~/C~.
The following three state differential equations replace the derivatives of the
pressures:

dV~ 1 1
d’-~
= Q.- Q~- T~--~V~
-
1
d--~- = QI - Q~- Q¢~- Q~- --T~uI~ p~

Note that C~ represents half of the total compliance, and C~ and C~ each
represent one-quoter. The total compliance is about 0.265 x 10-am~/N, ~
computedin Section 5.2.5.

IdP~/dt] =F-lf, wheref f¢ andF f~ 0

[ dP~/dtJ f~o f7 fS f9

f~ = OQ~ f2 = OQ¢l + OQt

O(P~- P~)’ O(P~ - Pt) OPt

I.~ f =i)Q~\ OQcl’~

o~ o~~ +) ( \OQi0¢OQct-~)~ ~ ~-~ + 1~ ~
+ 1 d(b
340 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

Duringlift-off, the pressures in the side plenumsbriefly drop belowzero because

of the rapid rise of the craft caused by the high pressure in the center plenum.
Consequently, it is necessary to employsign and absolute value functions in
computing the flows Qt and Qr and their derivatives. This problem doesn’t
quite arise in the simulation with the compliances~ since these compliances
reduce the pressure decrease enoughto keep the pressures positive.

At equilibrium, the flow leaving one of the side plenumsequals the flow enter-
ing. Therefore, for ¢ = 0 and any y,

wherePs is the pressure in the side plenumand Pc is the pressure in the center
plenum. Therefore,
Pc=l+
P8
1+ ( =2.44.
Wheny = 0 the fan flow is zero, so the pressure in the center is 3000 Pa.
The reasoning above gives the pressures in the sides as 1042 Pa. The initial
compressionof the center plenumis therefore Vc(0) = ~ x 0.265 x -3 x 3000 =
0.399 ma, and in the side plenumsis ~ (0) = V~(0) = ~ x 0.265 -ax 1229. 6 =
a.
0.0818 m

9-10. 0.3
~five times nominal compliances
elevation,
meters
0.2

0.1 --no compliances

(differentiation model)

0
0
~ 1 2 3
time, seconds

The lift-offs with and without the compliancesdiffer little, although increasing
the compliancesby five times gives a significant error. The responsesare similar
to those found in the absense of internal skirts, although the loweredpressures
in the outer plenums reduces the equilibrium height. The final elevation is
0.1703 m, which is used as an initial condition for the simulation with roll.
The final pressures in the center and side plenums, respectivbly, are 1392 Pa
and 570 Pa. The roll rate of 0.05 rad/s corresponds to an initial condition
for the angular’momentumof 9000 × 0.05 = 450 kg.m/s. For this roll, the
proper initial pressure in the left plenumis 13 Pa greater than the 570 Pa, and
the initial pressure in the right plenumis 13 Pa less. (These corrections can
be found by trial-and-error; any other values gives an equilibrium roll angle
different from zero. Note that the minimumorder of the differential model is
four, so that only four initial conditions can be selected independently.)
5.3. LINEAR MODELS AND SIMULATION 341

11.
0.01
roll angle,
radians
0

-0.01
0 1 2 3 4 5
time, seconds

The simulations for roll reveal significantly less dampingthan those for
lift-off, a weaknessin the performance. Thethree simulations are nearly indis-
tinguishable, unlike for lift-off. The reason is that the three pressures do not
vary nearly as muchas in the case of lift-off.
Thesix-second simulation for roll with the nominal compliancesrequired 32
seconds of computer time on a particular PC computer, using an error factor
of 0.0001 with MATLAB’s ode23 in version 4. Increasing the compliances by a
factor of five reduced the computationtime to 5 seconds. The derivative model
took only about 2 seconds, despite the fact that each iteration required roughly
twice the computation. Hadthe efficiencies of the computations been increased
through, the use of script files and global variables, the relative ~dvantageof
the derivative model wouldhave been even greater. Nevertheless, it is hard to
justify the effort required to carry out its programming.Whenevercomputer
time becomesexcessive for the virtual energy-storage methodto give adequate
accuracy, the use of special software such as DASSL can be justified.

5.3 Linear Models and Simulation

The property of superpositlon defines the class of models called linear. Bond
graphs with elements having constant moduli are linear models. Linear mod-
els also can be represented by linear differential equations. Operational nota-
tion allows these equations to be manipulated like algebraic equations. Unlike
nonlinear models they are generally amenable to analytic solution. This fact
allows numerical simulation to be carried out considerably more efficiently than
through the use of a general purpose algorithm such as the Runge Kutta in-
tegration presented in Section 3.7. A MATLAB command that directs such a
linear simulation is presented below, after the statements above are clarified.

5.3.1 Superposition and Linearity

Linear systems can be identified merely by their response to disturbances; it
is not necessary to have any analytic representation. Consider a "black box"
system, as in Fig. 5.19 part (a), with a single disturbance or input, u(t), and
single response or output, x(t). Suppose that you can choose u(t) and observe
x(t) for a variety of separate "runs." First, you choose two arbitrary functions,
ul(t) and u2(t), and observe the respective responses xl (t) and x2(t), as
trated in part (b) of the figure. Then you choose a function u3(t ) which equals
342 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

(a) "black box" systemwith excitation and response

excitation
u l (t ).,_~

"~~esP°nsexflt)__.________
~ rune

exci~t~ion
k~~~g--.- response x2(t) time
excitationu3(t) =u~(t) +u2(t)
. = ~(t)

~ ~e
(b) signals

Figure 5.19: Property of superposition

5.3. LINEAR MODELS AND SIMULATION 343

the sum of ul(t) and u2(t):

u3(t) = ul (t) + u2(t). (5.34)

The property of superpositlon is said to pertain to the system if the observed

response x3(t) equals the sumof xl (t) and x~.(t), that is if

X3(t) : Xl (t) ÷ X2(t). (5.35)

More precisely, the property applies if this relation is true for arbitrary ul (t)
and u2(t). Systems often have a domain of u,x within which superposition
is satisfied and the system acts linearly. Outside of this domain, that is for
sufficiently large signals, the system is nonlinear.
A convenient special test employs

u2(t) ul (t), (5.36)

which implies
u~(t) = ul(t) + us(t) = 2ul(t), (5.37a)

x2 (t) = xl (t). (5.37b)

The property of superposition, if it pertains, requires

x3(t) = xl (t) + x2(t) = 2x~ (t). (5.38)

In words, superposition requires that the doubling of an excitation merely dou-

bles the response at each and every time, t. Further, this happens regardless of
the size of u~ (t), leading to the conclusion that the response to the excitation
cub(t), where c is any constant, is cx~(t). This is what is meant by linearity.
The simplest case of all eliminates time as an independent variable, leaving
an algebraic relation between the excitation and the response. Now, if u~ pro-
duces x~, 2u~ must produce 2x~, so in general x = ku where k --" x~/u~. A plot
of x versus u is a straight line through the origin; any other relation violates
superposition and mandates the name nonlinear:

5.3.2 Linearity and Differential Equations

You may be most familiar with linearity in the context of algebraic and differ-
ential equations. The nth order differential equation

d’~x d~-~x d~-~x dx

an-~ + an-l ~ + an-s d-~i"~_2 + "’" + al-~ + aox
dm u d"~ - ~ u du
=f(t) ,=b~,-~-~÷bm_~ d-~-~-ff_~ +.’.÷b~-~-[+bou (5.39)

in which the coefficients ai and bj are constants, represents a linear relation

between the independent function u(t) and the dependent function x(t~) because
each term satisfies superposition and therefore is linear. For example, doubling
344 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

x(t) doubles each term, and therefore corresponds to doubling u(t). Were any
term raised to any power other than unity, for example, the linearity and its
property of superposition would be lost.
More explicitly, equation (5.39) expresses a stationary linear model. The
model becomes nonstationary if one or more of the coefficients ai become
explicit functions of the independent variable of time, t. Superposition still
applies, however; the modelis still linear.
The fact that the shape or form of the response of a linear system depends
only on the shape or form of the disturbance and not on its magnitude allows
the system to be characterized simply in terms of its operational behavior. This
property of linear systems is developed in later chapters to give powerful an-
alytic results. By comparison, characterization of most nonlinear systems in
terms of their operational behavior is very difficult and usually impracticable;
the response to a given disturbance may for example vary wildly depending
on the initial condition. (The modern theory which goes by the name "chaos"
actually is based on deterministic nonlinear dynamics.) Despite this complex-
ity, nonlinear models may be deduced from direct considerations o] the physics
almost as easily as linear models. Identifying a dynamic nonlinear model from
observation of dynamic behavior rather than knowledge of the internal structure
of the system, on the other hand, is apt to be rnuch more difficult than for a
linear model of comparable complexity.
The use of causality..on a particular bond graph results directly in a set of
first-order differential equations. Whensuch a set of equations is linear and
stationary, it can be placed in the canonical or standard matrix form
dx
~ = nx + Bu, (5.40)
in which A and B are matrices of constants. The general excitation is the vector
u(t) and the response is the vector x(t). Note again that the term "stationary"
does not i~nply "static," but rather means that the dynamic characteristics are
invariant in time. Thu_s, characteristics such as natural frequencies and time
constants do not change over time. In matrix notation, nonstationary linear
models are represented by the same equation with A = A(t) and B = B(t).
This book considers analytical solutions for stationary models only. As you
probably have noticed, bond graphs in which the moduli of all the elements are
constants directly produce linear algebraic and/or linear stationary differential
equations, with all their conceptual and computational advantages.
A model described by a set of first-order differential equations such as equa-
tion (5.40) can be called complete, since the behavior of all the state variables is
represented. Equatio_n (5.39), by _coptra~s_t~ descri_be~ only the relation between
single input variable and a single output variable of the system. This incomplete
model may nevertheless be all the modeler needs, and is the focus of the solu-
tions developed in Chapter 6. (Matrix methods are largely deferred to Chapter
7.) The relation between input and output variables, for example, establishes
the transfer function between these variables, which is sufficient for vibration
analysis or classical control calculations.
5.3. LINEAR MODELS AND SIMULATION 345

In general, the modeler maybe interested in one or more weighted sums of

the state variables and the input vector. Representingthese sumsby the vector
Y(Q,
[y(t) = Cx + Du. (5.41)
This classical representation includes as special cases y = x (C equals the unit
diagonal matrix, I, and D = 0) and a single output (C and D become row
matrices). Usually, one wants D = 0.

5.3.3 Operator Notation

The manipulationand solution of linear differentia t equations is simplified by

’~
the use of operator notation. The derivative operator, S, is defined by

S =- dr" (5.42)
Withthis notation, equations (5.39) and (5.40) become,respectively,
(arts n + a,-1S~-1 + ... + alS + ao)x
= (bins m + bin_iS m-~ + ".. + b~S + b0)u, (5.43)
(SI - A)x = Bu, (5.44)
where I is the unit diagonal matrix. Theseequations also are written in terms
of the transfer function operators, G(S), G(S) and H(S):

bmSra + bm-~sm-1+ "’" + b~S + bo

X = a(S)u; a(s) = a~s~ + an_~S~_~ +.. ¥’a-~-[oo (~’~)

x= G(S)u; G(S) = (SI - A)-~B,

y= H(S)u; H(S) = C(SI- A)-~B (5.46)

wherein the last case equation (5.45) has been used to give the result in terms
of the output variable y(t).
Transfer functions commonly are placed in boxes, ~ shownin Fig. 5.20. The
functions upon which they operate are indicated by an arrow pointed into the
box, and the functions whichresult are indicated by an arrow pointed out from
the box. The result is called a block diagram. Equation (5.45) is represented
by part (a) bf the figure. Equation (5.46) is represented by part (b)
figure; the double lines indicated that the associated variables maybe vectors
rather than scalars. The circle with the summationsign inside indicates that
the output variable is the sumof the two input variables.
Block diagrams are most widely used in the specialized domain of auto-
matic control, although somepractitioners use them more broadly to represent
dynamicmodels. Mostuse in this text is restricted to control applications.
5Someauthors prefer to use the symbol D for the time derivative operator, which histori-
cally is known~ the Heaviside operator.
346 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICALFORMULATION

(a) scalar u(t)

u(t) ,x(~
(b) vector _~, y(t) _

Figure 5.20: Block diagrams of equations (5.45) and (5.46)

5.3.4 Transformation from State-Space to Scalar Form

Oneuse of the operator notation facilitates the reduction of the state-space mod-
els of equations(5.40), (5.44) or (5.46) to the single-variable formsof equations
(5.39), (5.43) or (5.45).

EXAMPLE 5.8
Find a transfer function relating the input u(t) to the output q(t) for the
following differential equation, and give the correspondingsecond-orderdif-
ferential equation:

-- = -2p + 2q + 24u(t),
dt
d-~ = 4p - 9q + 4 + 2u(t).

Solution: In operator notation, these equations become

(S + 2)p = 2q + 24u,
(S + 9)q = 4p + (4S + 2)u.

The variable p can be solved for in terms of q, algebraically:

2q + 24u
P-- S+2
This result then can be substituted into the secondoperator equation, giving
the following equat, ion from whichp has been eliminated:

(S + 9)q 4(2q + 24u)

S + 2 + (4S + 2)u.
5.3. LINEAR MODELS AND SIMULATION 347

This equation can be multiplied by the denominator factor (S + 2) to give

[(S + 9)(S + 2) - S]q(t) = [96 + (4S + 2)(S +

from which

96 + 4S2 + 10S + 4 4S 2 + 10S + 100

G(S)= 2+11S+18_8 = S ~ +11S+10

This transfer function can be interpreted to give the differential equation

d’2q + 11-~ + du
d2u 10
10q = 4-~., + dt + 100u.
dt---~.
Notice that algebraic operations have replaced derivative operations, which
is a great convenience.
The procedure 6 becomes even more streamlined if you choose to use matrix
notation in addition to the operator notation. Pre-multiplying both sides of the
equation x = (SI - A)-IBu by det(SI - A) (from equations (5.46)) gives
general result

det(SI - A)x = det(SI - A)(SI - A)-IBu. (5.47)

This is a vector set of scalar differential equations: the first in terms of x~, the
second in terms of x2 and last in terms of x~.
EXAMPLE 5.9
Solve the problem of Example 5.8 using equation (5.47)
Solution: The state-space equations in matrix form are

Note that the derivative term 4 du/dt has been accomodated by the use of
the derivative operator, S. The square matrix (SI - A) becomes

- S+9 ’

which when substituted into equation (5.47) gives

The second of these two scalar equations identically gives the resulting dif-
ferential equation of Example5.8.
6TheHeavisideproceduredescribed here is formalizedand extendedin the definitions and
applications of the Laplacetransforml whichis introducedin Section 7.2.
348 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

5.3.5 Transformation from Scalar to State-Space Form*

It is possible also to transform a scalar differential equation into state-space
form. Theresult is not unique; it dependsuponwhat definitions of
are chosen. The simplest schemeassumes x~ = x and an = 1, and employs

--an-i-an-2 .... al
-ao
1 0 ... 0 o| ]
0
A-- (5.48a)

0 0 ... 1

(5.48b)

C = [bn-1 bn-2 "" b0] (5.48c)

D=0 (5.4Sd)

whichapplies as long as m_< n - 1.

EXAMPLE5.10
Find a state-space differential equationconsistent with the scalar differential
equation
d3 x 3 d~ x~ dx du
2
dt ~ + dt~_ + 4-~ + 2x = dt + u"
Equation (5.48) gives

-3 -4 Xl
-d Xl
= 0 x2 ~,(t); ~=[o21]x_~
dt x2
x3 1 x3 . x3

5.3.6 Transformations Using MATLAB

MATLAB provides translation from the state-space format to the scalar format.
This is accomplished with the command
[hum,
den]=ss2~f
(h,B,C,D,i
The ss2tf can be read "state-space to transfer function" (which really means.
scalar transfer function). The state-space matrices A, B, C, D must be defined
numerically before this command is issued. The argument± is an index desig-
nating which of possibly multiple inputs is to be considered; if you have only
one input, as in Examples5.8 and 5.9 above, insert 1. The output argumentnum
(whichcould be designated with any symbol)is a row vector of the coefficients
of the numerator polynomial of G(S). The output argumentden is a row vector
5.3. LINEAR MODELS AND SIMULATION 349

of the denominator polynomial. If the matrix C has more than one row, more
than one transfer function is being requested. Each has the same denominator,
which therefore is reported only once. The respective numerator polynomials
are reported as the rows in num.
EXAMPLE 5.11
Use MATLAB to find the transfer function from the input u(t) to the output
x.2 (t) for the third-order model

dXl 1
(5.61a)
dt - 4x~ + ~x.~ + u(t),
dx.~
-- = 2Xl -- 2X’2 + 2X3, (5.61b)
dt
dx3
(5.61c)
d--~ = x2 - 4x3,
Solution: The MATLABentry
A=[-4 1/2 0;2 -2 2;0 1 -4];
B=[1;0;0] ;
C--[O~ 0];
D=[0] ;
[hum,den] = ss2tf(A,B,C,D,1)
gives the response

IlUm =
0 0 2.0000 8.0000
den =
1.0000 t0.0000 29.0000 20.0000

which indicates the transfer function

2S+8
G(s) = $3 10S2 + 29S + 20"

The inverse transformation is given by the command

[A ,B,C, D]=tf2ss(num,den)
in which tf2ss can be read "transfer function to state-space."

5.3.7 Simulation of Linear Models Using MATLAB*

Numericalsolutions to linear scalar differential equations are plotted, with little
effort on your part, by the MATLAB command
Isim(num,den,u,t)
Related options given below include the treatment of matrix differential
equations, lsim stands for "linear simulation." The argument t is a row vector
350 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

of the times at which the response is to be computed. The argument u is a vector

of the input values at precisely those same times; it must have the same length
as t. Normally, the. program assumes that the actual input for intermediate
times is given by a linear interpolation of the immediately surrounding given
values. (In some cases it concludes that a step-like zero-order-hold function is
intended, and excercises that assumption.) Exact analytical solutions of the
differential equations are evaluated numerically, a process which is potentially
both more accurate and more efficient than the numerical simulation scheme
presented in Section 3.7.

EXAMPLE 5.12
Secure a plot of the solution of the differential equation used in Example
5.10, repeated here:

dUx d2X 4 dx du~

2
dr--- 4- 3~. + dt 4-2x= dt + u’
~
with the particular excitation

(5sin(2~rt/10),
u= 0,
0 < t < 5,
t_>5.

Consider the range 0 < t < 10 seconds. Superimpose a plot of u(t).

Solution: You start by defining a vector of discrete times at which the
solution will be found. The commands
tl = [0:.i:5];t2 = [5.l:.l:lO];.t=[tl
establish vectors for the two segments of time and the combined time
duration of 0 to 10 seconds. Next, you specify a corresponding vector
for the excitation signal, u(t):

ul = 5*sin(2*pi*tl/lO);
u2 = zeros(size(~2));u=[ul

The coefficients on the right side of the differential equation, which are
given in the numerator of the transfer function format for the model,
are recognized by the statement
hum = [2 1] ; ¯
Similarly, the coefficients on the left side of the differential equation or
the d4nominator of the transfer function are recognized by the state-
ment
den = [1 3 4 2];
A plot of the response results from the single added command"
isim(num,den,u,t)
5.3. LINEAR MODELS AND SIMULATION 351

The plot below results. The excitation u(t)/2 is added by the commands
hold
plot(t,u/2,’--’)

3.5

2.5

0.5

-0.5

-1 0 1 2 3
4 5 6 9 10
Time(secs)

The commandl sim handles matrix differential equations through use of the
standard A,B,C,D notation. The options below include creating an accessible
file of the results by adding a left side to the statement:
[y,x] = lsim(A,B,C,D,u,t);
[Y,X] = lsim(A,B,C,D,u,t,x0);
[y,x] = lsim(num,den,u,t);
The second case allows you to introduce non-zero initial conditions by first
defining the vector x0. In the third case, the output vector y and the state
vector x actually are identical.

EXAMPLE 5.13
Repeat Example 5.12 using the state-space formulation (as given in Example
5.10).
Solution: The matrices A, B, C, D are defined with the commands
A = [-3 -4 -2;1 0 0;0 1 0];
B = [1;0;03;
c = [o 2 ~];
D=O
The plot results from the command
lsira(A,B,C,D,u,t)
or you could use the commandwith the left side [y,x] and then type
plot (t,y)
352 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

lsim converts the differential equation into a difference equation which for
initial-value problems is accurate regardless of the size of the time interval. (It
does this using a matrix exponential, which is described in Sections 7.3.1 and
7.3.2.) Because of the assumed linear interpolation of u(t), however, the time
interval might have to be rather small to give acceptable accuracy.

5.3.8 Summary

Systems that exhibit a ~lomain of input and response variables satisfying the
property of superposition are, by definition, linear within that domain. They
may be represented by linear algebraic or differential equations. The domain
cannot be infinite for a real physical system, of course; if the variables get large
enough there must be a catastrophic failure, which is a nonlinearity of the most
severe type.
Operator notation allows a linear differential equation to be treated like an
algebraic equation. This expedites the transformation of differential equations
from one format to another, including the elimination of unwanted variables.
Transfer function and state-space formats are of particular interest. MATLAB
carries out these transformations with little effort on the part of the analyst.
Operator notation also leads to analytic solutions using transform methods,
as is developed later. MATLAB capitalizes on some of this with the linear
simulation Commandls±m, which you can use even before you understand its
mathematical basis. This simulation is more efficient than a corresponding one
using a nonlinear integrator such as a Runge Kutta algorithm, but it applies
only to linear models.

Guided Problem 5.6

You will use operator methods in this problem to combine two coupled first-order
linear differential equations with the objective of characterizing the dynamics
of the model.
A model is described by the two state-space differential equations below.
Determine its natural frequency and damping ratio.

dp
-- = -2p-q
dt
dq = 7p - q
dt

Suggested Steps:

1. Write the two equations with operator notation.

2. Solve one the the equations for p as a function of S and q, or q as a funciton

of S and p.
 LINEAR MODELS AND SIMULATION 353

Substitute the result of step 2 into the other equation so as to eliminate

either p or q.

Cast the result of part 3 into the form f(S)p = orf(S )q = OThe
function f(S) should be a polynomial.

Interpret the result of step 4 as a differential equation with dependent

variable p or q.

Use the result of equation (3.41) (p. 149) to determine the natural
quency and the dampingratio.

Guided Problem 5.7

This guided problemgives neededpractice in the reduction of state-space dif-
ferential equations into differentiM equations with a single dependentvariable,
using both direct and operator analytical methods, and using MATLAB. It also
offers practice in linear simulation with
Considerthe electromechanicalsystem of Fig. 5.6 (p. 292) and equations 5.9
and 5.10 (p. 294). Combinethese equations directly to get two single second-
order differential equations with dependentvariables p and q, respectively. Then
use operator methods (but not MATLAB) to accomplish the same objective.
Next, find the matrices A, B, C, D, assuming that the input variable is the
voltage e, and that the output variable of interest is the angular velocity of
the shaft. Use MATLAB to find the two second-order differential equations a
third way. Finally, use ls±m to plot the shaft speed as a function of time for
1.0 second, assuminge = eosinwt with e0 = 5 volts and 03 = 8~r rad/sec. The
parameters are T = 0.2, G = 1.0 volt sec, C = 0.05 N-~m -1, 2,
I = 0.2 kg m
Rl=4ohmsandR2=l.0Nms.
Suggested Steps:

1. Place equations (5.9) and (5.10) in the forms p = p(q, dq/dt) and q =
q(p, dp/dt), respectively.

Take the devivatives of the equations found in step 1. Then, substitute

the results of step 1 into these equations to get two resulting differential
equations of secondorder, each having only Onedependentvariable, p or
q, respectively.

Rewrite the original differential equations using operator notation. Com-

bine these algebraic equations to get one equation with dependentvariable
q only, and one equation with dependentvariable p only.

4. Interpret the results of step 3 in terms of differential equations, and check

to see that they agree with the results of step 2.
354 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

Place the original equations in the state-space matrix form, extract the
coefficients A and B and evaluate these matrices numerically.

Relate the desired output variables to the state variables p and q, so as to

define the coefficients C and D. Evaluate these matrices numerically.

Use the MATLAB function ss2tf with the results of steps 5 and 6; check
to see that the differential equation that emerges agrees with those of steps
2 and 4.

Define a new vector of times from 0 to 1.000 seconds with an interval

of perhaps 0.005 seconds, using MATLAB. Then, express the excitation
voltages at these times as a row vector.

Employ the isimcommandto secure the resulting plot. You may annotate
this plot by hand if you do not care to learn MATLAB
labeling procedures.
Are the results reasonable?

PROBLEMS

5.34 A system responds as shown below to the given excitation. Examine the
data carefully and report whether there are any signs of nonlinearity.

excitatlon,
t

o ’i’’
time, seconds

7 ~
time, seconds

5.35 Consider the IRC model of Fig. 3.26 (p. 137), as represented by equations
(3.32) (p. 139):.

(a) Combinethese equations to get single second-order differential equa-

tions with dependent variables p and q, respectively.

(b) Repeat part (a), using operator methods (but not MATLAB).

(c) Find the state-space matrices A, B, C and D, assuming that (~ = p/I

and q are the output variables of interest.
5.3. LINEAR MODELS AND SIMULATION 355

(d) Use MATLAB to convert your answer to part (c) to single differential
equations in ~1 and qc, using R = 1, C = 2 and I -= 3. Verify whether
your answers are consistent with those of part (a).

(e) Characterize the dynamics of the model with the parameter values
given in part (d) by finding its natural frequency and dampingratio. Hint:
Use equation (3:41) (p. 149).

5.36 Answer the questions of the preceding problem for the IRC model of Ex-
amples 3.14 and 3.15 (pp. 138, 140).

5.37 Answerthe questions of the preceding two problems for the electric circuit
of Fig. 5.1 and equations (5.1) and (5.2) (pp. 283-284).

5.38 Answer the questions of the preceding problems for the example of Fig.
5.11 and equations (5.11) and (5.13) (pp. 312, 313). In part (d), let I2

5.39 Consider the linear model of the two-tank system of Guided Problem 5.1,
(p. 299) with A1 = 2.0 2, A2= 4 .0 ft 2, Ap = ~ra : = ~r/ 4 in 2 and L = 20
ft. Assuming quasi-equilibrium laminar flow of water at 70°F, this gives (from
equation (2.14)) RI~. = 8pL/~ra 4 = 7056 lb.s/ft ~ and I = 4pL/3Ap = 9480
lb-s2/ft 5. The resistance of the outlet is Rd -= 2RI:.

(a) Evaluate the matrices A, B, C, D, assuming the output variables

interest are the depths of the water in the two tanks.

(b) Find the equilibrium depths of the water in the two tanks for steady
flow Qi : Qo = 3/s.
0.025 ft

(c) Using the MATLAB command ls±m, find and plot the depths of the
water for 8000 seconds following an abrupt dumpingof 2.0 ft 3 of water into
tank 1 (giving an initial depth 1.0 ft above the equilibrium) with Qi =
as above. Suggestion: First make sure the unexcited system produces no
response.

(d) Using lsi~, find and plot the depths of the water for 300 seconds
when, at t = 0 seconds, the input flow Q~ switches from Q0 to Qo[1 +
sin(2~rt/100)].

5.40 Consider the vehicle of Figs. 5.15 and 5.16 and equation (5.33) with equa-
tions (5.30) and (5.32) (pp. 322, 324, 325). The values of the parameters
m = 1250 kg, L1 = 1.4 m, L2 : 1.6 m, J = mr~" with r 2 = 1.6 m2, kl = 30
kN/m, ks = 32 kN/m and R1 = R2 = 4000 Ns2/m.
356 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

(a) Evaluate the matrices A, B, C, D assuming that the input variables

are ~gl and ~g2 and the output variables are ~cm and ~.

(b) Using the MATLAB commandls±ra, plot the res~)onses of the vehicle
to a bumpwhich passes under the first axle and then under the second. Let
y~l = yo sin(2rt/T), valid for 0 < t < T/2; the road is otherwise smooth.
The rear wheels pass over the same bump T seconds later; y0 = 0.05 m
and T = 0.2 seconds.

(c) Using MATLAB, find the scalar transfer function between the ex-
citation ~gl and the response 9c,~. Give the corresponding differential
equations. (This part can be done independently of part (b).)

5.3.9 SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 5.6
(S + 2)p -- -q,
(S + 1)q = 7p.
2. Fromthe first equation, q = -(S + 2)p.
3. Substituting the result above into the second equation, -(S + 1)(S + 2) 7p.
4. Rearranging, (S2 + 3S + 9)p = 0.
d2p
5. + 3 ~ + 9p = O.

6. Comparingthis differential .equation to equation (3.41) (p 149), w~= vf~

rad/s, and 2(w~= 3 so that ~ = 0.5.

Guided Problem 5.7

RiTeI
p= -O~ q - 7i idq
+ -~IT e (a)
CR ~
q -- --~--p ÷ C (b)
~tt
dp _ R~T2I dq d’-)q IT de
(c)
dt G~C dt I-~ + --~--~
dq _ CR~ dp d~-p
(d)
dt I dt + C-~
Substitution of equations (b) and (d) into (a)
R~T:I [CR~ + cdP~ dep~ IT
~,--i-~ "~) - I(CR:
v =- a~----5- \-i- dp
-~ + c T~) + "5"e
or, collecting terms,

~ c -~ + C R ~ + --~-- ] -~ + 1+~ ] ~ = -~ ~
Substitution of equations (a) and (c) into (b)
CR~ f R,T~I
q=-i-t,--drO-q-~+~ IT) +c a~c ~ ~-~+-~-~]
( R~T~Idq d~q ITde’~
5.3. LINEAR MODELS AND SIMULATION 357

or, collecting terms,

IC-~ + \’--’GT-- + CR’~ 2 G dt

3. S + -~-,] q + ~p = ~e and ~q = 0

Solving the second equation for p and substututing into the first,

eS+ -~U-~-,] + R~/ I - TG

R1T2"~ q+ 1I Sq/C

Multiplying both sides by (S + R~/I) gives

Solving the second equation for q, on the other hand, and substituting into the
first,

(
o, s +tN+ s+t +N
The differential equations resulting from step 3 ~e the same as those resulting
4. from step 2 (apart from the multiplicative factor IC in p~t 2).

5. ~ =[ l/C -R~IIJ + ~G e

2Substituting values into the two matrices, A_ = [-’23d

The output variable is ~ = p/I, so C = [0 5] and D = 0.

The MATLAB
programming and its response is as follows:

.a. = [-3.2 -5;20 -5]; B = [.2;0]; C = [0 5]; D=O;

[z,p] = ss2tf(A,B,C,D)

Z =

0 0 20. 0000

p =

1.0000 8.2000 116.0000

2O
This means that ~+8 .2S+116e
~= S
or (S 2 + 8.2S + l16)p = 20Ie(t) = 4e(t), which agrees with the result
above.
358 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

7.-8. The MATLAB

programmingand response is ms follows:
t=[O: ;
.005:1]
e=5*sin(8*pi*t) 0.4 r~
isim(A,B,C,D,e,t) ~, rad/s
0.2

-0.2

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

time, seconds
5.4 Linearization
Nature is nonlinear. Nevertheless, for small perturbations about some nominal
state, as is typically the case for vibrations, most nonlinear systems act as
though they were linear. The simplicity of the characterization and analysis of
linear models further motivates the modeler to overlook nonlinearities. Methods
for approximating a nonlinear system by a linear model are considered in this
section.
A model may be linearized before or after it is converted to differential
equations. In most cases the latter procedure is preferred. The meaning of
linearization usually is clearer when it is carried out directly on the individual
elements of the model, however, so this approach is presented first. It also allows
a graphical alternative approach, and therefore sometimes is preferred.

5.4.1 Case Study With Linearization of a Resistance

Consider a fluid tank with uniform area At and a Bernoulli square-law orifice
flow, as shown in Fig. 5.21. The pressure at the bottom of the tank is related
to the orifice flow by ¯

P = 21-0 ~00 ’ (5.49)

where Q is the volume flow through the orifice and A0 is its effective area
(including the vena contracta). This characteristic is plotted in part (b) of the
figure. A bond graph model of the system is given in part (c). It shows that
the flow is computed with the causality Q = Q(P), inverting equation (5.49).
An analytic solution to the nonlinear differential equation

- Ao v ~ (5.50)

happens to exist if the input flow Qin is a constant, or changes in discrete steps.
This is not usually the case, however; simulation would be the natural recourse.
The solution of the corresponding problem with a linear or constant resis-
tance is muchsimpler. Further, the property of superposition would apply if the
5.4. LINEARIZATION 359

volume V
pressureP
tl~orifice
a
(a) system (b) resistancecharacteristic

P= WC
1R
P *_ P*I~
ss ~---~--~-
0

LQ(p
R

(c) bondgraph (d) linearizedcharacteristic

4

s; ° linearized:

~-- 20%increase in flow

(e) linearized bondgraph

t/r
(f) responsesto step changesin Qi,,

Figure 5.21: Linearization of a fluid resistance

360 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

model were linear, enabling the response to a complicated excitation O,~n(t) to

be assembled from a sum of the responses to simple components of that excita-
tion. Can an approximate linear model be substituted for the nonlinear model
in order to gain these advantages?
The answer to this critical question depends on how greatly the depth of the
water varies, and how accurate the solution needs to be. A linearization now
will be carried out, and the behavior of the linearized model compared with
that of the nonlinear model.
A linearized model describes the behavior of perturbations, or changes,
in the state variables relative to some nominal condition. The water tank has
a single state variable, the volume of water in the tank, V. This volume is
represented as the sum of a nominal volume, V, and a perturbation volume,
V*:
y = v + y*. (5.51)
The nominal volume is the equilibrium state for a particular flow rate, which
also is designated by an overbar: Q. Note that at equilibrium, the input flow
equals the output flow. Further, the pressure at the bottom of the tank then
has its nominal value, designated as P. The non-equilibrium values of these
variables are designated as

Qin = ~ + Qi*~, (5.52a)

Q = ~ + Q*, (5.52b)
P = ~ + P*. (5.52c)

where Qi*~, Q* and P* are the perturbations. The three pressures and three
output flows are indicated in part (d) of Fig. 5.21.
The linearization corresponds to replacing the curved characteristic for the
resistance by a straight line, as shown in the figure. The usual choice is a
tangent to the nonlinear characteristic passing through the equilibrium point.
The linearized characteristic is described by

P* ~- R*Q*; R* = ( d-~Q ) ¢2= (5.53)

~.

The slope R* is called the linearized or perturbation or tangential resis-

tance, which is very different from the nonlinear or chordal resistance as defined
in Fig. 2.22 part (b) (p. 44) and equation (2.15) (p. 46). The value of
be estimated by drawing the tangent with a pencil, and measuring its slope. It
also can be computed mathematically by evaluating the derivative, as given in
equation (5.53), from equation (5.49).
The linearized or perturbation variables and parameters can be placed on
a special linearized bond graph, as shown in part (e) of Fig. 5.21. This graph
gives a linear differential equation in terms of the perturbation state variable,
V*:
dV* , ~ dV* V*
*
dt - Q~n -R*c V* or ~---~- + = ~-Q~n, T = R*C. (5.54)
5.4. LINEARIZATION 361

This equation is in the standard form for a first-order model, as given in Section
3.5 (p. 145).
Solutions to the cases in which the input flow is increased by 20%and by
100%from initial equilibrium values are plotted in part (f) of Fig. 5.21. The
nonlinear solutions are found by simulation. The linear solutions are plots of
the analytic solution of equation (5.54) for Qi*,~ = constant, namely

V* = (1 - e-t/r)~-Q~
n. (5.55)

The solution of the linearized model for the 20%increase in flow is seen to be
close to that of the nonlinear model; agreement would be better for smaller
perturbations. The solutions for the 100%increase, on the other hand, are
significantly different; the results of the linear model are only of qualitative
usefulness.
Nonlinear models with small disturbances about some equilibrium act virtu-
ally the same as their simpler linearized models predict, in most cases. Thus, for
example, linearized models are used almost exclusively in the field of acoustics,
which deals largely with very small pressure and velocity perturbations. The
same situation commonly applies regarding mechanical vibrations. The engi-
neering analyst must excercise vigilence, however, for nonlinear effects that are
large enough to require abandonmentof the simplicities of linear analysis.

5.4.2 Linearization of a Function of One Variable

The function
y = f(x), (5.56)

if continuous in x, can be expanded in a Taylor’s series expansion as follows:

Y = f(~) + -~xdf x-~- (x - ~) + ~d2f x=~ (x -2~)2 ~- higher-order terms. (5.57)

It is convenient to designate some nominal values of x and y as ~ and ~, such

that
~ = f(~). (5.5S)

The actual values of x and y are designated as

x = g + x*, (5.59a)

y = y + y*. (5.59b)
The differences x* and y* between the actual and the nominal values are the
perturbations. With this notation, equation (5.57) becomes

y. = df -~-+ (5.60)
-~x ~=~x* + dx 2 ~=5 x*2 higher-order
d2f terms.
362 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

*1
_p* C
P

Figure 5.22: Linearization of a compliance

This relation can be approximated, at least for small values of x* and y*, by
truncating the series after the first, or linear, term. The resulting linearization
can be written

df
y* ~_ax * ; a : -~x ~=.~" (5.61)

The linearization of the resistance relation applies this more general result;
in that case, x = Q and y = P. Another application is to linearization of a
compliance relation between a generalized displacement x = q and a generalized
force y = e. In this case, the derivative (df/dq)q=- 4 equals the reciprocal of the
linearized compliance, or l/C*. This linearization is pictured in Fig. 5.22 for
the special case of a gravity fluid compliance for a tank of nonuniform area, in
which x equals the volume of liquid in the tank, V, and y equals the pressure at
the bottom, P. The derivative can be found either analytically or graphically
(by drawing the tangent to the curve at the nominal point, and measuring its
slope). The latter procedure does not require an analytical expression for the
nonlinear function, but can proceed based on a plot created from experimental
data.

EXAMPLE 5.14
Linearize the compliance and the resistance of the conical tank of Example
3.22 (p. 165) about some nominal volmne, ~7. The relation between the
volume of the liquid in the tank and the pressure at its bottom is reproduced
here for convenience:

V = 7~tan2~ (~9)3
5.4. LINEARIZATION 363

Solution: The slope of the characteristic at a nominal volume ~ is

1 _ dP pg
1/3 ~ 3
~-~7/" v=V- 3 (~7-~tan’~(~)
C*

The corresponding linearized resistance becomes, from equations (5.49) and

(5.53),

(cdA) 2- cdA -- CdA \ntan2a)

EXAMPLE 5.15
Write the linearized differential equation corresponding to the results of
Example 5.14 above, and identify the time constant that characterizes the
response to changes in the input flow.
Solution:
The compliance and the resistance of the combined system are at equilibrium
if the flow into the tank, Qin, equals the flow out at is bottom, Q. A
linearized bond graph for perturbations about this equilibrium is as follows:

u IflCR*" IR*

Although this has the same structure as the bond graph for the actual
variables, the products of its conjugate efforts and flows are not the true
powers, and are not even proportional to the true powers. Such a graph
sometimes is called a pseudo bond graph to underscore the distinction.
The graph gives
dV* 1
dt Q~n C’R* V* .
This is a linear first-order differential equation of the form of equations (3.36)
and (3.37) (pp. 145-146) with the time constant
364 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

(a) value (b) slope (c) curvature

Figure 5.23: Types of discontinuities

5.4.3 Essential Nonlinearities

There is one case in which the model for the resistance to flow of an orifice
may not be considered accurate within acceptable bounds for any departure
of the arguments from their nominal values. This occurs when linearization is
performed for perturbations about the state of zero pressure drop and zero flow,
that is about the origin of the characteristic plot. The calculation in Example
5.14 gives R* = 0 or l/R* = c~, which implies no resistance whatever. This is
correct; for precisely zero pressure drop and flow the linearized pressure-vs.-flow
characteristic is horizontal. Thus, if one is truly interested only in extremely
small flows one could choose to neglect the orifice restriction altogether. (This
assumption is indeed commonly made in acoustics.) On the other hand, the
resistance departs from zero very rapidly as the flow increases. You could well
decide that this characteristic comprises an essential nonlinearity, that is a
condition for which linearization is not justified.
A characteristic whichsuffers a significant discontinuity in value at a singular
point clearly demonstrates an essential nonlinearity at that point. This case is
illustrated in part (a) of Fig. 5.23. If, instead, it suffers discontinuity in a f ir st
derivative at the point, as shownin part (b) of the figure, the linearization still
cannot be carried out formally by taking the derivative. If a discontinuity of
value or of slope is small enough, however, one might choose to overlook it in
favor of some linear compromise. The issue faced at zero pressure drop for the
orifice and in part (c) of Fig. 5.23 is even more subtle: di scontinuity of a second
derivative, which is a kind of borderline essential nonlinearity. Discontinuities in
the third or higher order derivatives are not considered essential nonlinearities.
A possible resolution of the question for the orifice results from use of a more
accurate model of the orifice flow. The discontinuity in the second derivative
disappears, and linearization about the origin becomes fully justified for srnall
disturbances. This happens because when the flow is very small the effect of
viscosity, which is neglected in equation (5.49), is no longer negligible compared
with the effect of inertia. The actual characteristic for a fixed orifice would
resemble the plot shown.in Fig. 5.24. The resistance to flow (slope of the
characteristic) never goes below some value associated with "creeping viscous
flow." Details can be found in texts on fluid mechanics or hydraulics.
5.4. LINEARIZATION 365

Bernoulli model
O

Figure 5.24: Correction of Bernoulli modelfor viscous effects

Generalizing, someapparent essential nonlinearities are consequencesof our

modelingabstractions rather than the physics, although the more commondan-
ger is the overlooking of significant phenomenathrough excessively crude ab-
stractions. Modeling,as noted before, is an art.

5.4.4 Linearization of a Function of TwoVariables

The function
y = f(x, u) (5.62)
can be linearized about the nominal values x = 5, u = ~ and y = ~ = f(5, ~)
by retaining only the first or linear terms in a Taylor’s series expansion:

(5.63)
Y~-~ +O-~xx=5(x - ~)+ -~uOf
~=~_
(u -
Defining perturbation variables as before, this result can be written

~* ~ c~z* + c~u*; c~ = ; cu = (g.64)

It is applied belowboth to single resistances and entire differential equations.

Resistances not infrequently vary in response to Changesin somedisplace-
ment. Such cases are perhaps best understood in graphical as opposedto alge-
brNc terms. The adjustable hydraulic vane, as re~resented in ~ig. g.2g, is
an example. Note that flow is plotted on the vertical ~is and pressure on the
horizontal axis, contrary to the normalusage in this bookbut consistent with
the valve industry.
Such a valve is essentiMly an adjustable orifice. The area of the ven~ con-
tr~ct~ is considered a function of somevalve displacement, labeled here a~ x:
~ = ~(~. (s.~)
366 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

X
P~

O_
-= "--0

pa=p~-p2

Figure 5.25: Characteristics of variable orifice (valve) and linearization

The pressure-flow characteristics, assuming the model A = Ao(x/xo) 1"~, are

plotted in the figure for three equally spaced values of x. This plot could be
refined by adding any number of added characteristics for interpolated or ex-
trapolated values of x. Mathematically, it is of the form

Q = Q(P~, x), (5.66)

which is a function of two variables.

The family of characteristics may be approximated in a region about some
nominal pressure difference Pd, valve displacement 5 and associated flow Q by
a set of parallel, equally spaced straight-line characteristics, as shown in the
figure. These represent a linearized model. Mathematically, equation (5.63) can
be appled to give
Q, = P~
~, + kx*, (5.67a)

X* ---- X -- ~, (5.67b)

1 _ OQ (5.67c)
R* OPaP~=-f ~ ’
x-~’~

k =~ p~=_~
x=’~

For most cases this linearization is accurate within any desired bound for
sufficiently small departures of x, Pd and Q from the nominal 5, Pd and Q,
respectively. Where to set these bounds, that is how much inaccuracy to accept
in order to reap the benefits of linearity, ultimately is a matter of engineering
judgement. Often an engineer will elect to start an analysis with a quick, rough
and simple linearized model, and when satisfied with the general nature of the
result, refine the analysis with a relatively expensive-to-use nonlinear model.
5.4. LINEARIZATION 367

EXAMPLE 5.16
Linearize the drag and thrust characteristics of the boat described in Guided
Problem2.3 (p. 52) about the equilibrium condition at 45 feet per second.
Incorporate the results into a linear state-space modelof the boat, assuming
a virtual inertia 50%higher than the mass of the boat and its contents to
approximate the effect of the water which is accelerated along with the
boat. The boat and its contents weigh 2500 pounds. Finally, for howlarge
a changein thrust wouldyou judge that the linearization gives a reasonable
representation?
Solution: The first step is to drawtangents to the drag and thrust curves
at the given equilibrium point directly on the. given plot. Then, a set of
equally spaced parallel lines can be drawnto approximatethe thrust for
other values:
800 100
~c~~9
force, F ~
600 [

0’0 10 20 30 40 ~ 5~0 ~ 60
This plot helps yourepresent the linearized characteristics with linear alge-
braic equations. Let the thrust be Fa and the drag be Fa, both in pounds
force, and ~he percent throttle be P:

Fa = 324 + 5.59(P - 70) - 11.6(~ - 46.2) = 5.59P - ll.6k +

Fa = 17.3(~ - 27.5) = 17.3 k - 476
The differential equation for the speedof the boat simplyrepresents that
~heacceleration equals the ra~io of the net thrus~ (F1 - Fa) ~o the effective
inertia:
d~ _ F~ -Fa - z-0.248k + 0.0480 P + 8.11 ft/s
dt m

The linearization applies exclusively in the region wherethe boat planes,

workingfairly well for speeds between42 and 52 ft/s. It totally fails to
represent the decrease in drag associated with the onset of planing.
368 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

5.4.5 Linearization of a First-OrderDifferential Equation

The differential equation for a first-order dynamic model with state variable x
and excitation u(t) can be written

dx
d--i=f(x,u(t)). (5.68)

The term on the left side equals a function of two variables, so this equation is
in the form of equation (5.82), and can be linearized in the same way. Thus,
the variables x and u are decomposed into two parts:

x(t) = ~(t) x*(t), (5.69a)

u(t) = ~(t) + u *(t). (5.695)

The novel feature is that x and u are functions of time, but this does not
upset the linearization. The terms x* (t) and u*(t) are generally small variations
or perturbations of x(t) and u(t) about their nominal values Z(t) and ~(t).
These nominal values, as always, must satisfy the original nonlinear equation.
In general, they represent some nominal "trajectory" in time about which the
linearization is taken. Usually, the engineer is interested in perturbations about
an equilibrium or steady state, in which ~(t) = constant and the derivative
d-2/dt = O. This is the only case considered in detail below, although the
more general case is hardly more involved. All time-dependent phenomena are
therefore left to x* (t) and u* (t). The first order of business is to solve for the
which corresponds to the given ~. For the case of a constant equilibrium, this
implies solving the algebraic equation

f(~,~)= (5.70)

The second step applies equation (5.64) to give the linearization

dx* Of
; B = ~u
Of ~=~ " (5.71)
-d~ ~- Ax* + Bu *, A = ~x ~:~

One approach to linearization linearizes the individual nonlinear ele~nents

before constructing the differential equation. This has been done above for
the example of the conical tank and orifice, with its nonlinear resistance and
nonlinear compliance. A simpler and more reliable approach, in most cases, is
to find the nonlinear differential equation and then linearize. This approach
now is illustrated.
5.4. LINEARIZATION 369

EXAMPLE 5.17
Return to the conical tank and orifice of Examples 3.22 (p. 165), 5.14 (p.
362) and 5.15. Linearize directly the nonlinear differential equation, which
is
dV A0x/~ (3V)1/6,
d--i = Qi, (~ tan~ O01/6
and compare the result to that found in Example 5.15 by linearizing the
resistance and compliance elements individually.
Solution: The equilibrium solution corresponding to Qin = -0 is

_
0 = Q - A0
~t~ a

Using equation (5.71), the linearized differential equation becomes

dV*
~ ~ Qi~ 6
Ao~( ~5
3 tan2 ~
)~/~V*.
This is a first-order linear differential equation of the form of equations (3.36)
(p 145) and (3.37) with the time constant

r = Ao~
-

It agrees with the results of Example5.15, and is reasonably valid for pertur-
bations in the volume, V*(t), that are considerably smaller than the mean
volume, V.

5.4.6 Linearization of State-Variable Differential Equations

Linearization of a higher-order model usually is best carried out on the individ-

ual first-order differential equations in state-variable form, or

dx
(5.72)
d~- = f (x, u(t),
The discussion that follows drops the final argument t, restricting consideration
to stationary models. In this case the equilibrium and perturbation variables
are
X:~+X *
~ (5.73a)

u = ~+ u*, (5.73b)
The equilibrium solution to equation (5.72)

0 = f (~,~). (5.74)
370 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

The Taylor’s series expansionof equation (5.73)

dx dx* _ _ Of Of
-- = O+ = f(x,u)+ x*+ u* +higher order terms. (5.75)

This result can be cast in traditional form as follows:

(5.76)

The matrices of derivatives that comprise A and B are called Jacobian ma-
trices.

EXAMPLE 5.18
A mass rests on a spring which in turn rests on a rigid foundation. The
spring satisfies the nonlinearstiffening relation

Fs = kl X + k3x3; kl = 2000 rmN/m; k3 = 340,000 N/m

(in order to support a range of massesand applied forces without bottoming
out). The particular mass of interest compresses the spring 0.100 meters
whenthe applied force F is zero.
Modelthe system, determinethe mass, find a single linearized differen-
tial equation relating F = F* to x*, and determine the linearized natural
frequency.
Solution: The bond graph

gives the state-space model

d-~ = F+mg-klX-kaz a "

The equilibrium condition for F = F* = 0 is

0 : 0 + mg- kl5 - ~3,
k3
5.4. LINEARIZATION 371

from which

m= !(k1~ + k3~ 3) = 2000(.1) + 40,000(.1) 3 = 24.5 kg

g 9.81
Thelinearized differential equation is

2-kl p. + F*,
~ p* -3k~

so that
d~2x*_ 1 dp* _ kl4:3k~-~
2x,
+ IF*.
dt 2 m dt m m
The linearized natural frequencytherefore is

o)~ ~/kl + 3k3~~" -~/2000 + 3 × 40000(.1)

’~ = 11.44 rad/s = 1.820 Hz.
m 24.5

5.4.7 Case Study With Three Different Types of Equilib-

ria
The second-order system

-- = -q + sinp
dt

d-~ = p- ~rq 1- (5.77)

has three equilibria, each of a different type. The behavior can be studied
globally, using simulation, to achieve a picture of the overall behavior. With
muchless effort, the behaviorsfor states close to equilibrium can be determined
using linearization. The two approaches are developed and comparedbelow.
Equations(5.77) represent an autonomoussystem, that is with no excitation.
The entire behavior depends on whatever initial state is imposed. A phase-
plane plot of the system is shownin Fig. 5.26. Trajectories in state-space are
given by solid lines with arrows that designate direction with increasing time.
These trajectories were found by simulation of the equations using the standard
MATLAB routine ode23, using various initial states on the boundaries of the
plot. All trajectories starting above the line designated separatrix A sweep
across the state space, remaining above the separatrix, and continue toward
infinite values. This region is unstable.
A secondregion in state space is virtually surroundedby the line designated
as sepm’atrix B. Anyinitial state in this region producesa trajectory that ap-
proaches and then encircles point Pl, ql in the clockwisesense. This point and
this region are called meta-stable, since no trajectory ever reaches the point
itself, but rather encircles it indefinitely. Lookedat as functions of time, both p
and q oscillate virtually sinusoidally. All trajectories in the third and remaining
372 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

Figure 5.26: Phase-planeplot of systemwith three different types of equilibria

5.4. LINEARIZATION 373

region, which lies between separatrix A and separatrix B, end at point P3, q3-
This point and region are stable.
Equilibrium points satisfy the conditions dp/dt = 0 and dq/dt = O. Labeling
such points as ~ and ~, equations (5.77) give

~ -- sin~, (5.78a)
~ = n~(1 - ~/2). (5.78b)

These two equations are plotted in Fig. 5.26 by dashed lines. Their intersections
represent the equilibrium points. In addition to points Pl,ql = ~r/2, 1 and
P3, q:~ = -2.4886,-0.60757, noted above, there is point p.), ~ = 0, 0. This is an
unstable equilibrium point, because any initial condition represented by a point
near but not at it produces a trajectory that heads away from it.
The behaviors in the local neighborhoods of the three equilibrium points
can be determined by linearization, without any need for extensive numerical
computations such as those that produced the trajectories and separatrixes
shown in the figure. Equations (5.77) linearize about any nominal state
state trajectory ~,~ to become

dp*
- q* + (cos~)p*, (5.79a)
dt
dq_~_*= p. + ~r(~ - 1)q*.
(5.795)
dt

(You are urged to derive these equations yourself.) This result now will
particularized to give linearizations about the three equilibrium points.
Substituting the values ~ = ~r/2, ~ = 1 for the first equilibrium into equations
(5.79), there results

dp*-- q*
dt
dq* _= p,
" (5.80)
dt
Combining these two equations to form a second-order differential equation in
p*,
*d~-p
dt ~ +p* = O. (5.81)

This equation describes an oscillation with natural frequency wn = 1 and damp-

ing ratio ( = 0. The absense of damping renders this equilbirum meta-stable.
Substituting the values ~ --= 0, ~ = 0 for the second equilibrium into equa-
tions (5.79), there results

d~_Z*
=~.-q*,
dt
dq* p.
(5.82)
d--i- = - ~*’
374 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

In operator notation these become

(S - 1)p* = -q*,
(S + ~)q* = p*. (5.83)
Combiningthese two equations to give an equation in p*
*d2p
[S2+(~r-1)S+(1-~r)]p * = 0 or dt ~-(~r-1) +(1-~r)p* = 0. (5.84)
2 d_~_~_~
The solution is
p* = p~e-2"ss41t + p~e0"7425t, (5.85)

where p~ and p~ are arbitrary constants dependent on the initial conditions.

The secondterm, with its positive exponent,reveals the instability.
Substituting the values p = -2.4886, ~ = -0.60757 for the third equilibrium
into equation (5.79), there results
dp*
-- = -0.7943p*- q*,
dt
d*q .
-~- = p - 5.0503q*. (5.86)

Combiningthese equations, (the use of operators methods as above is sug-

gested), gives
*d: P
dt 2 + 5.1297d_~t
+ 1.4011p* = 0. (5.87)
This has a natural frequency of 1.184 rad/s, but no oscillations appear because
it is overdampedwith ~ = 2.167. It is rock stable.

5.4.8 Case Study: Stick-Slip System With Inertia*

The stick-slip systemaddressed in Section 5.1.4 (p. 286) is linearized below
order to demonstrate the methodand someof its advantages and limitations.
Recall that the system, as shownin Figs. 5.2 and 5.3, exhibits rather exotic
limit-cycle behavior whenthe load inertance is small. Whenthe inertance is
large, however,the state convergeson the equilibrium point, whichin this case
is stable. Could this stability have been determinedwithout carrying out the
nonlinear simulation?
The nonlinear modelis represented mathematicallyby the differential equa-
tion (5.4) with the algebraic equation (5.7) substituted, and differential equation
(5.5) with the algrabraic equation (5.6b) substituted. Thelinearization of these
equations is
d¢5 1 -(1/CMs~)¢~: 1 ,
- ~p , (5.88a)
dt -- 2 !
~/(Ms1/2Ms2)°" + Mso/Ms2 -
alp*1~M~.___~
p .__[_- 2. MR~eq~b.p,. (5.SSb)
-~ -- ~¢c’ +
5.4. LINEARIZATION 375

Substituting all the given parameter values except for the inertance I gives

d¢~ _ 26.17¢~- (1/I)p*,

(5.89a)
dt
dp_~*= lobby: + (0.0567/I)p*. (5.Sgb)
dt
The state-space formulation therefore gives

If.
A scalar second-order differential equation with either of the state variables
as the unknowncan be found several ways, as outlined in Section 5.3.4 (p. 346).
There is no excitation (i.e. u(t) = 0). Equation (5.47) (p. 347) is a one-step
method that gives

- -~-+ -- ~b c=0. (5.91)

-~ dt
det(Si_A)¢~,_d2¢~+(26.lT_O.O__~67)d¢~, (9.9~17)
This is a standard linear second-order differential equation with constant coef-
ficients. As discussed in Section 3.5.3 and given in equation (3.41) (p. 149),
can be characterized in terms of a natural frequency, wn, and a damping ratio,
if, as follows:
d ¢c , dec (5.92)
dt--~-- + 2;w,~--~- + n~,6, = O.
Thus the natural frequency is ~/I, which for I = 0.0021 ft-lb s z is 63.7
rad/s = 10.14 Hz = 1/0.0987 s -1 and for I = 0.0022 ft-lb s e is 62.2 rad/s = 9.90
Hz = 1/0.1010 s -1 . These values can be seen to agree with the corresponding
plots in Fig. 5.3.
The damping ratio can be either positive or negative, depending on the
magnitude of I. Rememberthat the solution of the linear equation is a sinusoid
oscillating within an envelope with the factor e-;~"t, as discussed in Section
3.5.4 and given in equation (3.44) (p. 151). Therefore, a positive value 6f ~
indicates stability, and a negative value indicates instability, since the envelope
decays to zero in the first case and explodes to infinity in the second. Thus
the model indicates instability for small values of I (note the instability of the
original model with I = 0) and stability for large values of I. The borderline
case, for which ff = 0 is given by

~, 0.0567
I - 26.17 - 0.00217 in.lb-s (5.93)

which is between the value of 0.0021 ft lb s 2 that gave an unstable simulation

and the value of 0.0022 ft lb s "~ that gave a stable simulation.
What happens if the linear simulator :~sira is used for this system? The
results that correspond to the three largest inertances considered before are
given in Fig. 5.27. The linear model is inaccurate for large perturbations from
376 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

21 = 0.002t lb.ft-s

40 / ......... |

2I = 0.0022lb.ft.s
:FAAAAAAAA
4o / .........

21 = 0.010lb.ft.s
-20 K

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

t, seconds

Figure 5.27: Linear simulation of stick-slip system

5.4. LINEARIZATION 377

equilibrium, which is essentially all there is in the first case: the result merely
certifies that the system is unstable. The results for the second and third cases
also also inaccurate at first, when the perturbations from equilibrium are large,
but becomeincreasingly accurate as the oscillations decay. The only substantive
advantage of the linear simulation is its computational speed and efficiency,
which can be quite important for very complex models.
Coding of the MATLAB ls±m command for the case with I = 0.0022 ft-lb
s 2 can be as folows:

I=O. 0022;
A=[-26.17 -l/I; lO 0.0567/I] ;
B=[0;0];C=[0 1/I];D=0;
t=[O:.001:1] ;
u=zeros (i,1001)
x0=[0;-25.19.I] ;
[y,x]=lsim(A,B, C,D,u,t,xO)
plot(t,y)

5.4.9 Summary

Most nonlinear systems behave as though they were linear for sufficiently small
disturbances about some equilibrium, motivating the linearization of nonlinear
models. Linearization usually is applied best upon the set of nonlinear state
differential equations. Alternatively, nonlinear resistances and compliances can
be linearized directly, before differential equations are formulated, by replacing
their nonlinear effort-flow or effort-displacement characteristics, respectively,
with linear or straight-line characteristics. The linearized characteristic passes
through the origin defined by these incremental or perturbation variables, which
is located at the point of tangency of the two characteristics and may be dif-
ferent from the origin of the full variables. Graphs that act much like bond
graphs may be constructed using the linearized variables, but such pseudo bond
graphs do not represent the actual power flows and energy storages, or even
their incremental variations.
Analytical linearization of a term in an algebraic equation or of a differential
equation is carried out formally by truncating a Taylor’s series expansion after
the linear or first-order terms. Graphical linearization is carried out by replacing
curved characteristics by straight lines, and families of curved characteristics by
familes of equally spaced straight lines. The graphical option is especially useful
when you have experimental data rather than an analytical model. Even if you
perform a linearization analytically, a comparison of the graphical representa-
tions of the nonlinear and approximate linear characteristics conveys a sense of
how the error imposed by the linearization varies with the span of the changes
in the state variables.
A third way to linearize a system is to expand the energy storage functions
12 and 7- and the power dissipation function :P in Taylor’s series, and drop all
378 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

terms of third and higher order. This method is illustrated in Guided Problem
5.10 on p. 379.

Guided Problem 5.8

This first linearization problem employs the straightforward analytical proce-
dure on a set of differential equations.
Linearize the following state differential equations about the equilibrium
state. The variables are p and q; the coefficients a, . .., ] are constants.
[1 + (a + bq)~’]~t "~
= el - cq + d(a + bq)p

dq
d-~=ep- f v~

Suggested Steps:

1. Find the equilibrium state or states by setting the two time derivatives
equal to zero. Label these as p and ~.

2. Expand each term in a Taylor’s series expansion. Note that the equi-
librium value of dp/dt is zero. (Derivatives do not always have a zero
equilibirum value, however.)

3. Truncate the expansions to the linear, terms in p* and q*.

4. Subtract the terms of the original differential equation, with p and ~ sub-
stituted for p and q, from the truncated expansion, to leave.only terms
proportional to the incremental variables p* and q*.

Guided Problem 5.9

This second linearization problem employs graphical linearization with a subse-
quent mathematical analysis, a very commonprocedure.
An induction motor drives a load that has the resistive characteristic plotted
in Fig. 5.28 plus a rotational inertia of 0.05 kg.m2. The drive may be considered
to be inflexible. Perturbations are imposed on the load torque equal to M =
2.0 sin(40 t) N.m. You are asked to make a close estimate of the resulting
perturbations of the angular velocity.

Suggested Steps:

1. Linearize the steady-velocity characteristics of the motor and the load,

determining numerical values for the resistances.

2. Drawa linearized bond graph for the system, including the inertance and
the disturbance. Apply causality, and define the state variable.
5.4. LINEARIZATION 379

0 10 20 30 40
~, rad/s

Figure 5.28: Guided Problem 5.9

Write the differential equation.

This text has not yet addressed the solution to differential equations with
sinusoidMexcitations. The differential equation is only of first order, how-
ever, and the part of the solution you want is so simple that the most
primitive method taught in your course on differential equations can be
applied. Substitute an assumedsolution of interest p~ sin 40t + p~ cos 40t
into the differential equation, and determine the coefficients pl*. and p~.
The answer you want is the magnitue of the simusoidal motion ¢*, which
equals +
Checkthat the resulting perturbations of the angular velocity are not large
enough to impart significant error to the linearization.

Guided Problem 5.10

This third linearization problem is intended-to show how linearization can be

carried out in terms of energy relations.
A simple pendulum has a momentof inertia I about its center of mass and
Io -- I ÷ md~ about its center of rotation, where m is its mass and d is the
distance between the centers of rotation and mass.

(a) Neglecting dissipation, find a nonlinear characteristic for the gravity-

based compliance, and sketch a plot of this characteristic.

(b) Linearize this characteristic, and plot on the same axes as the nonlinear
characteristic for comparison.

(c) Write the nonlinear and linear state-based differential equations.

380 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

Suggested Steps:

1. Sketch the pendulum, and find its gravity energy V relative to its minimum
for the vertical equilibrium, using the angle of departure from vertical, ¢,
as the displacement.

2. Compute the torque M = dl)/d¢ and plot M versus ¢.

3. Carry out the linearization two different ways. First, directly linearize the
relation between Mand ¢, and plot.

4. For the second approach, do a ~aylor’s series expansion of the function

V = V(¢). Drop terms higher than the quadratic. The result gives the
linear relation between M = d)2/d¢ and ¢.

5. Write the state differential equations, using as state variables either the
standard pair (p, q = 4) or an alternative (¢, q~).

Guided Problem 5.11

The last guided problem involves linearization in two variables.
The resistance to the flow of oil through a hydraulic spool valve is associ-
ated with an orifice in the shape of a very short segment of a cylinder of diameter
d, as shown in Fig. 5.29. The fluid can be considered to be incompressible with
density p, and viscous effects can be neglected.

(a) Find the volume flow rate Q through the valve as a function of the
pressure drop P and the spool position, x. Sketch the characteristics using
appropriate dimensionless coordinates.

(b) Linearize the characteristics about some non-zero operating pressure

drop and flow. Addthe resulting linearized characteristics to your plot.

Suggested Steps:

Assumethe Bernoulli equation for the flow, representing the area of the
orifice as the area of the segment of the cylinder of length x. A flow
coefficient Cd can be applied, which has a theoretical value of 0.611.

Group the variables and parameters such that a dimensionless group pro-
portional to the flow Q is a function of a dimensionless group proportional
to the pressure drop P and a dimensionless group proportional to x. An
arbitrary maximumor reference pressure Ps can be defined to make this
possible.
5.4. LINF~ARIZATION 381

.*-x

etry

"~+Ap .

Figure 5.29: Guided Problem 5.11

3. Sketch-plot the results with the first group above as the ordinate, the
second group as the abcissas and the third group as the parameter which
distinguishes three of four different curves.

4. Carry out the linearization about someoperating point Q, P, ~. Equation

(5.67) (p. 366) can be adapted to the dimensionless groups.

5. Drawa set of equally spacedparallel lines that correspondto the linearized

characteristics. Notethe limited-area of applicability.

PROBLEMS

5.41 A dashpot obeys the relation F = a~3/2. Find its linearized resistance R*
for perturbations about a nominalvelocity ~.

5.42 A "stiffening" spring satisfies the force-displacementrelation

’~
F .= kx + ax

find its linearized complianceC* for perturbations about the displacmentz = 5.

382 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FOR_MULATION

5.43 A vehicle weighing3000lbs. is driven at a constant speed of 50 ft/s, The

thrust force then is increased suddenly by 10%,and maintained at that level.
Youare asked to find howthe speed of the vehicle increases with time. The
drag characteristic is plotted below.

(a) Estimate the initial and terminal thrust forces.

(b) Linearize the drag characteristic, and estimate the terminal speed.

(c) Drawa linearized pseudo-bondgraph and write a differential equation

describing the transient behavior.

(d) Solvefor the velocity as a function of time; sketch-plot the result.

6O
drag force,
lbs.
40

2O

I I I I I I
0
0 20 40 60 80
speed,fl/s

5.44 A series-wour/d DCmotor has the torque-speed characteristic plotted be-

low. It drives a load with a total massmomentof inertia of 0.25 in.-lb-s 2 and
steady-state torque of 5.0 in..lb at its equilibriumspeed.

15
torque,
in.-lb
10

1000 2000 speed, rpm 3000

(a) Determinethe equilibrium speed, ~0-

5.4. LINEARIZATION 383

(b) At time t = 0 a brake applies an additional torque of 1.0 in..lb. De-

termine its final speed.
(c) Drawa linearized bondgraph and write a linear differential equation
that whensolved approximates the transient change in speed, ~*(t), for
ti~ne t > 0. State the values of all constants.

(d) Sketch the speed vs. time, noting the values of any time constants
natural frequenciesthat exist.

5.45 Briefly describe under what circumstances the following situations give
rise to essential nonlinearities:

(a) coulomb(dry) friction

(b) fluid checkvalve

(c) electrical diode
(d) finite-sized fluid gravity tank of uniformarea
(e) a simply mountedcompression spring

5.46 Linearize the following differential equation about the equilibrium corre-
sponding to ~ = 4.
dx
-- = -6v~ + 3u
dt

5.47 Linearizethe followingset of state differential equations about the smallest

positive equilibrium correspondingto ~ = 2.
dq
2 x/~ p2 4pq u
dt 7r
dp
10 cos q
dt

5.48 A system has been modeled using a bond graph and characteristics as
shownbelow. :

C Q, m3/s 3V, m
384 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

(a) Annotate the bond graph as needed and find the state differential
equation(s).

(b) Determine the equilibrium state(s) of the system if P0 = 50 2.

(c) Linearize the resulting differential equation(s) for disturbances about

the equilibrium state.

5.49 The model described by

dt~-~ + 2 + 2x = u(t)
has a nominal input u(t) = ~(t) = 2 +

(a) Find the nominal response, ~(t). Hint: ~ = a + bt .

(b) Linearize the differential equation for the responses x*(t) = x(t) -~(t)
to the disturbances u*(t) = u(t) -~(t).

5.50 The system with an axial-flow fan and tank given in Problem 4.60 (p. 277)
is. modified by placing a duct of length L = and cross-sectional area 3 × 3 inches,
as pictured below. Consider the case of orifice #1.

- L ~ m[~ orifice

fa~n tube, areaA

(a) Model the system with a bond graph.

(b) Write a set of differential equations for thee model. At this point you
may leave the source and load charateristics as unspecified functions of
specific variables.

(c) Linearize the model of part (b). Take particular care with the signs.

(d) Determine the natural frequency and damping ratio of the linearized
model.

(e) Show that a small value of L produces instability (and by inference

limit-cyle oscillation), and a large value of L produces stability.

(f) Determine the borderline value of

5.51 Consider the ground effect machine (GEM)described in Section 5.2.4 (pp.
316-319) and Fig. 5.13 and modeled by equations (5.17) - (5.19).
5.4. LINEARIZATION 385

(a) Determine the equilibrium values of the state variables y and

(b) Linearize the differential equations for perturbations about the equi-
librium.
(c) Determine the natural frequency and damping ratio of the vertical
(heave) behavior. Comparethese results to the corresponding nonlinear
simulation in Fig. 5.14.

5.52 A memberwhich moves at a controlled speed ~ pushes one end of a linear

spring, the other end of which pushes a weight at velocity 3. The weight slides
over a horizontal surface with the friction force as plotted below.

2friction

force,
lbs.

I I I I I I I

W = 5 lbs -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
~, in./s
k=21b/in.
~

(a) Draw a bond graph for the system.

(b) For the case & = 1 in/sec, determine whether the corresponding equi-
librium value ~ = 1 in/sec is stable, neglecting the effect of the inertia.

(c) Linearize the friction characteristic for the equilibrium state of part
(b), and estimate the corresponding incremental or linearized resistance,
R*.

(d) Determine whether the inertance affects the stability of the equilibrium
state, and describe the character of the behavior.

5.53 Consider the standpipe and fluid jet of Problem 4.56 (p. 274). The net
upward flow in the standpipe has been plotted as a function of the deviation of
the pressure just above the jet from its nominal value. Three equilibrium states
have been found, the outer two of which are stable.

(a) Linearize the characteristic for the upward flow for the region -2.5
P- Ps < O psi.

(b) Represent the dynamics of the system by a bond graph, allowing the
linearized characteristic to substitute for the actual characteristic. Inertial
effects in the standpipe may be neglected.
386 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

(c) The jet is suddenly turned on, following a quiescent state. Compute
the transient and steady-state response of the level of the free surface,
using the model of part (b).

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 5.8

1. If~-~=0and ~-=0, then ~= and

0 = el - cqo + d(a + b~)-~,

or e2 +f --
~, C2

or q +
dbf2 ~+~=0.

Therefore, ~ = -~
db]~ ¯ ~ db]~ ] dbf~.

+d(a + b~)2~p* + *.db~:q

dq*a
Since ~ ~ = 0, d~

4. After the equilibrium terms are substracted, this gives

[~ + (~ + ~)~] *,
dp"
~ ~ -ca* + 2d(a + b~)~p* + db~2q
dq* ~ ,
~ _ ep -~ q*.

Guided Problem 5.9

o[or ’ ’ ’
40

N.m
20

01 I ~ ~ I I ~,~ I
0 10 20 30 40
~, rad/s

Fromthe linearized characteristics superimposedon the plots above,

motor: M~, = -a~*, a = 3.94 N.m.s
load: M* = -b~*, b ~- 1.86 N.m.s
5.4. LINEARIZATION 387

MOTOR LOAD

!
dp* a- b,
3. -~- = M" - a(~" - (-~’) = M* - ---i--p
alp*
Therefore, -~- + 41.6p* = 2sin40t.

4. The suggested substitution gives

40(p~cos 40t - p~ sin 40t) + 41.6(p~sin 40t + p~ cos 40t) = 2 sin
from which

40p~+ 41.6p~---- 0,
41.6p~ - 40p~p2= 2,

giving p~ = ,0.025 andp.; = 0.024 so that the magnitude of the sinusoidal

response of ~ equals X/(0.025)~ + (0.024)~/0.05 = 0.693 rad/s.

5. Fromthe plot it can be seen that the magnitude of the perturbations ~* are
so small that the linearization introduces negligible error.

Guided Problem 5.10

7- = mgy = mgd(1 - cosO)

dT = mgsinO linearized
2. M = -~ M]characteristic/~_..l~ actual . .

mgd~
0 z/2 t? z

3, ~1 = (dM)_~_ o=o=mgdc°sO=mgd;theref°re’C°= lmg-~

O~ 04 06 ~~for small 8.
4. T = m#d 1 - 1 + -~. - -~. + ~ ..... -~madO
( )
dT
M = --~ = mgdO

-mgdO d-~ =- Io
p/ o = -~ = Co
or
dO 1 dO
-~ Top -~ o
388 CHAPTER, 5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

Guided Problem 5.11

1. The area of the orifice is A = x~rd. The volume flow rate, according to
Bernoulli’s equation, is

Q, = cdAV/~
where Ap is the pressure drop between the inlet and outlet channels, and
Cd = 0.611.
The dimensionless flow rate is

CdX,~Trd x,~ V Po
where xm and P0 are the nominal maximumvalve opening and the maximum
applied pressure, respectively.

~r ~~ =x/x,,
Q ~0.8
0.6
~ ....... , 0.4
0.2
00 AP/Ps AP/ps ~

( AP - Po OQ
)Q = qo + O(A-~/po
eo,~o\ "P-: J + ~)Po,~o
x AP
For the special case -- = 0.6 and = 0.5,
Zm --~0
there results Q0= 0.6 0yz~--~.5= 0.424,

2x~
0(A~Ps) Po,~o =1x~1
(oQ) = ~(0.6)~ = 0.424;

= 0.707.
O(~) =

5. See the set of parallel lines superimposedin the plot above (step 3).
Chapter 6

Analysis of Linear Models,

Part 1

Linear modelshave alwaysenjoyed a special status in engineering, despite being

a small subset of all possible models. There are two reasons. First, linear
modelscan be analyzed mathematicallywith relatively little difficulty. Before
the advent of the computerthis fact forced linear modelsto the forefront, but
the present ubiquity of simulation routines weakensthe motivation. Second,
the behavior of linear modelscan be characterized in vastly simpler ways than
almost all nonlinear systems, regardless of whether mathematics is employed.
The significance of this fact has not waned;well engineered systems ought to
behavein simple,, predictable ways, so linear behaviorremains a frequent object
of design.
This chapter deals with scalar differential equations,that is differential equa-
tions in terms of a single dependentvariable. Sucha formulation alwayscan be
deduced from a state-variable formulation by using the methodsintroduced in
Section 5.3.4. Classical or direct methodsof solution are given. Later, operator-
based methodsusing an expansion of the transfer function are seen to be more
efficient for high-order models. Anextensive study of the response of linear
models to sinusoidal inputs is based on complexnumbermethods. Application
of the property of superposition is used to find the response of a system to
complicated inputs. Several of the calculations are expedited by MATLAB.
Thedirect solution of matrix differential equations is deferred to Chapter 7,
along with the formal use of transform methods.

6.1 Direct Solutions of

Linear Differential Equations
This section reviews the solution to the general nth-order scalar linear ordinary
equation with constant coefficients, which is given as equation (5.39) and

389
390 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART

repeated here:

dn-lx d~-2x dx
an~Z+a~-ld~-~_~+a~-~d-~ + "’" + ~1~+ ao~
= f(t) =b ,~d~udtm + bm-~
d~-lu
~ +... du + bou.
+ b~-~ (6.1)

The consideration of impulses as disturbances or input excitations maybe new

to the student.
Someresults are given without derivation; you are referred to almost any
mathematicaltextbook on linear differential equations for a rigorous develop-
ment.
The homogenousequation is the differential equation with f(t) = O. Its
solution, designated xh(t), plus any particular solution of the full equation,
designatedas xp(t), equals the general solution to equation (6.1):
x(t) = ~h(t)+ ~p(t). I (6.2)
The existence and uniqueness theorem states that this solution is unique,
provided that precisely n independentconditions are specified. Theseconditions
most commonly comprise values at the initial time: x(0),2(0),...,
d’~-lx/dt’~-~It=o.

6.1.1 The Homogeneous Solution

The homogeneous solution is the complete solution whenthere is no excitation
f(t). This solution contains undeterminedcoefficients equal in numberto the
order of the system. Their values are determined by an equal numberof con-
ditions that must be specified to make the solution unique. Most commonly,
these conditions are specified at time t = 0 and are called initial conditions.
The most common initial conditions specified are the values of x and its first
n - 1 derivatives. If all these conditions are zero, all the coefficients and the
solution are zero.
Whenthe excitation f(t) is non-zero, the homogeneoussolution forms a
part of the complete solution, as indicated by Equation (6.2). In this case
the undeterminedcoefficients dependpartly on the excitation, and usually are
non-zeroevenif all the initial conditions are zero.
The homogeneousdifferential equation can be written in an algebraic form
through the use of the operator notation introduced in Section 5.3.3 (p. 345):

(a~S~ + a~_~S~-~ + a,~_~S~-~ +... + a~S + aO)Xh = 0. (6.3)

Since the general Xh ~ O, the following characteristic equation results:
~n
an + a~_lS~-~ + a~_~S~-2 + ... + a~S + ao = O. I (6.4)
This is an nth order polynomialin S whichpossesses n solutions, or roots, that
are labeled here as S1, S~,..., S~. It is necessaryto find these roots, regardless
of whetheryou use the direct solution techniqueor a fancier transformtechnique.
6.1. DIRECT SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQS. 391

The homogeneous solution comprises a sum of terms associated with the

individual roots. A real unrepeated root Si contributes the term cie s~t to this
solution, where ci is an undetermined coefficient. The simplest example is the
first-order differential equation, for which the only root is $1 = -ao/al =- -1/~-,
giving

IXh = ce-t/’.J (6.5)

This solution is consistent with equation (3.38) (p. 146). Real roots $1 and
of a second-order equation give the solution

Xh = cle -t/~l -t
+ ITs,
c2e T1 ~ -1/S~; ~ ~ -1/S~, (6.6)

which is consistent with equation (3.48) (p. 153). Recall that the symbol
called a time constant; while Si h~ the dimension of inverse time, its negative
reciprocal Ti has the more palpable dimension of time.
Second and higher-order charateristic equations often have complex roots,
which come in complex-conjugate pairs. If the second-order characteristic equa-
tion is written with the familiar notation

Is + (s =0,[ (6.7)
its roots are, when the dampin~ratio ~ < 0,

8~,2 = -¢wn ~ j~ - ~2Wn = -a ¯ jwd. (6.8)

The relations between the two forms of the coe~cients can be seen to be

The homogeneous solution becomes

Xh = c~e(-a+j~")~ (-
+ a-j~")~.
c~e (6.10)

To be meaningful physically, this solution must be real. This happens ff and

only if the coefficients c~ and c~ are also complex conjugate:
1
c~,:= ~(c~¯ ~c~). (6.~)
With the use of the identities

ej" ~ cos~ + j sin~, (6.12a)

e-i~ ~ cosa - j sin~, (6.12b)

there results

[Xh = e-at(C~COSW~t-- c, sinwat), ~ < 1 or w, > 0.] (6.13)

The result agrees with equation (3.44) (p. 151). Alternative equivalent forms
with conceptual and plotting adv~tages are

Xh = ce-at COS(Wdt+ a) = -at si n(walt + ~) (6.14)

392 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

A multiple real root of the characteristic equation, S~, repeated m times,

contributes to the homogeneoussolution the terms

(c~o + c~lt + cet 2 slt.

+... + C~mt’~)e

The example of a second-order equation with two equal roots $1,2 = -w~ (cor-
responding to a = -w~, for which Wd = 0 and ~ = 1) gives

Xh = (c~ + -~"~,
c~t)e (6.15)

which corresponds to equation (3.47) (p. 151).

A repeated pair of complex roots (which doesn’t happen very often) produces
a combined contribution of the form

[c~0 sin(wrist + ~o) + C~ltsin(wd~t + ~) +’’ -at,

similar to the case with repeated real roots.
EXAMPLE 6.1
Find the homogeneou.ssolution of the fifth-order differential equation

d5x 9 d4x d3x d2x dx

24
dt-- [ + -~ + 43-~-f + 71~-~ - dt - 2.
100x = 2 + 3t
Solution: The characteristic equation is

S5 +9S 4 +43S3 + 71S ~- 24S- 100 = 0.

No general analytic solution exists for a fifth-order polynomial; resort to a

numerical solution is necessary. To solve by MATLAB, you enter and receive
noindent>> roots(J1 9 43 71 -24 -100])

-3.0000 +4.0000i
-3.0000 -4.0000i
-2. 0000
-2. 0000
i. 0000
TherootS = 1.0000contributes thetermc~e~ to the homogeneous solution.
Since this root is positive, Xh --~ oe as t --~ oo, and the model is unstable.
The pair of roots S = -2.0000 contributes the terms (c2 + c3t)e -2t, and
the pair of roots S = -3.0000 =h 4.0000i contributes (c4 sin 4t + c5 cos -3t
4t)e
which.also can be written as c~ sin(4t +/~)e -3~. Collecting these terms, the
homogeneoussolution can be written in either of the equivalent forms

Xh = c~et + (c2 + c3t)e -2t + c4e-3t sin(4t + ~),

Xh = c~et + (c2 + c3t)e -~t + e-~t(c4 sin4t + c5 cos4t),

which have five’undetermined coefficients.

6.1. DIRECT SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQS. 393

0 time

Figure 6.1: Unit step waveform

area = 1
lIT area = 1

area

0 0 t 0 t

Figure 6.2: Unit impulse waveform

A methodfor determining the undeterminedcoefficients is given in Section

6.1.6, followingthe discussion regarding the particular solution. Shouldthere be
no excitation or input disturbance, the proceduredescribed there can be applied
directly. If there is an input, however,the determinationof the coefficients must
be deferred until the particular solution is addedto the homogeneous solution.

6.1.2 Singularity System Inputs

A family of singularity functions that is zero for all time t < 0 is particularly
useful.
The unit step function us(t), pictured in Fig. 6.1, is defined as

for t < 0
u~ (t) (6.16)
{01 for t > 0

Step changes of other amplitudes or dimensions can be represented by multi-

plying the unit step by a constant.
The unit impulse function 5(0 approximates a sharp pulse disturbance.
As pictured in Fig. 6.2, it is defined as the limit of the square pulse of width T
and integral (area) 1 as T -~
394 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

0 time

Figure 6.3: Unit ramp waveform

0 for t < 0
~(t)= limiT(t);
T-,o ~r(t)= lIT O<t<T (6.17)
0 for t > 0.

The time integral of the unit impulse is the unit step:

’_ ¢J(t) dt =us(t). (6.18)

Conversely,the time derivative of the unit step can be considered to be the unit
impulse, although discontinuous functions are not differentiable in the formal
sense:
5(t) = dus (6.19)
dt
The unit rampfunction uT(t), pictured in Fig. 6.3, is defined as increasing
linearly with derivative (slope) 1 from the origin:

ur = t0 for t <0
fort>0 (6.20)

The rampis the integral of the unit step, and the unit step is the derivative of
the ramp:

ur = us(t) dr; u,(t) = --~. (6.21)

OO

A singularity can be located at a time t = t* different from t = 0 by writing

t - t* in place of t (or t - 0) as the argumentof the singularity function.
exampleis shownin Fig. 6.4. This allows functions composedof a series of
steps, rampsand impulses to be represented as a sum of singularity functions.
The property of superposition then can be invokedto represent the response of a
particular systemto such a function as the sumof the responses of the individual
singularity functions. This possibility considerably enhancesthe usefulness of
singularity functions.
6.1. DIRECT SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQS. 395

0.5 ur(t) 1.5 u,(t-l) - 2 6(t-2) - 0.5 ur(t-2)

0 1 2"".,. 3 4
~",, -0.5 ur(t-2)

Figure 6.4: Time-shifted singularites and waveformsynthesized therefrom

2 r plots of e ~’ ~
u/c l ~- ..... ~~.~,.~’~=0.05

1 ]~/-- s=O
~ s=-O.05

0 s =-0.4 ~
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
l

Figure 6.5: Real exponential waveforms

6.1.3 Exponential and Sinusoidal Inputs

The exponential input u(t) = st occurs naturally as theoutput of a fir st -
order process and as componentsof the outputs of higher-order processes. The
coefficient s can be real, imaginaryor complex.
Positive real values of s produce functions which grow "exponentially" in
time, whereasnegative real values of s producefunctions which decay exponen-
tially, as indicated in Fig. 6.5.
Complexvalues of s and c must appear in complexconjugate pairs to produce
a real function u(t), just as the complexconjugate pairs S and c are required
to contribute real componentsto the homogeneous solution of equation (6.13).
Therelation c1,~ = ½(cr =l: jci) will be assumed,as before. The special case of
pure imaginary values of s, written as s = =l=jw,gives the sinusoidal waveform

u(t) = cr cos~t - ci sin wt, (6.22)

which is plotted in Fig. 6.6. The more general case of complexconjugate pairs
396 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

cr cosag - cl sin ag

Figure 6.6: Sinusoidal waveform

"--.. envelopeae

~ """-’---.._ e~ (cr cos a~t - qsin 6)0

Figure 6.7i Waveformfrom complex conjugate pair

s = a =l: jw gives

1 1
u(t) = -~(cr + jci)e (~+~)t + ~(c~ - jci)e
=eat (cr cos wt - c~sin wt). (6.23)

This waveformcan be viewedas a sinusoid oscillating at frequency w within an

envelope of amplitude ~eat, as shown in Fig. 6.7.
The excitations or inputs to engineering systems frequently are assumedto
be sinusoidal, particularly whenthe concern is vibrations. Virtual sinusoids with
amplitudes that grow or decay exponentially in time also are important, since
they often emerge from commonsystems with singularity inputs to becomethe
inputs to other systems.

6.1.4 Power-Law Inputs

Occasionally a memberof the power-lawfamily u = ct n, where n is a positive
integer, is used as an input to a system. Power-lawfactors occur naturally in
the outputs of modelswith repeated roots, as noted above.
6.1. DIRECT SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQS. 397

6.1.5 The Method of Undetermined Coefficients

This is the classical methodfor finding the particular solutions to linear ordinary
differential equations with the various types of inputs f(t) detailed above. The
particular solution can be any solution to the completedifferential equation; it
might as well be the simplest possible solution. The forms of the terms in the
particular solution that correspondto the various input terms are given in Table
6.1. All that needsto be done is to affix initially undeterminedcoefficients to
each of the applicable terms, substutite themfor Xp in the differential equation,
and evaluate the coefficients by satisfying the resulting equationfor all times, t.

Table 6.1 Method of Undetermined Coefficients

term in f(t) corresponding terms in Xp
1 c
st
e st
ve
nt Cntn q- Cn-1tn-1 ~- ¯ " ¯ -~ Clt -~" CO
sin wt or cos wt or cos(~t + #) ca sin wt + c2 cos wt or c cos(~vt + # +

The particular solution for the step input can be seen to be xr = constant
for t > 0.
The exponential input u(t) = uoest gives the form f(t) = foest. This corre-
spondsto the secondentry in Table 6.1; the particular solution is of the form
xp(t) = cu0est. Carrying out the methodof undeterminedcoefficients by sub-
stituting these into the differential equation (equation (6.1)) and performing
indicated differentiations,

(an8 n q- an-18 n-1 -~’" ~t = (bins m + bm-lsra-1 +.’. + bo)uoest. (6.24)

+ao)cuoe

Solving for c and thus zp(t),

binsmq- bin-1sin-1 + "’" +bo

c = = G(s), (6.25a)
an8 n q- an-18 n-1 + " ¯ " ¯ ao

[xp(t) "t. [
= G(s)uoe (6.25b)

Thusc equals the sametransfer function G(s) as given by the operator notatiort
of equation (5.45) in Section5.3.3 (p. 345) to represent the general linear differ-
ential equation with constant coefficients, except that the original argumentand
derivative operator S is replaced by the exponential coefficient s. This fact is
very useful; it is employedbelowextensively, particularly for sinusoidal inputs.
398 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

EXAMPLE 6.2
Find the particular solution to the differential equation given in Example
6.1.
Solution: The terms on the right side of the example, namely f (t) = 2+ ~,
are of the power-law form t ’~, with n = 0 and n = 2. Table 6.1 gives the
form of the particular solution as follows:

Xp -- c2t2 + Clt + Co.

Substitution of this solution into the differential equation gives

71(2c2) - 24(2c2t + cl) - 100(c2t 2 + 2,

clt + co) = 2 + 3t

from which

-100c2 = 3; -48c2 - 100ct = 0; 142c2 - 24c~ - 100co = 2.

The result is
x~ = -O.03t 2 + 0.0144t - 0.046056.

6.1.6 Application of Initial Conditions

The undetermined coefficients in the homogeneoussolution must be found after

the complete solution is formed by adding the particular solution, if it is non-
zero. The particular solution itself should at this point have no undetermined
coefficients. The undetermined coefficients in the homogeneouspart of the solu-
tion are resolved through the introduction of the same number of independent
conditions. In the most commoncase these conditions are given at t -- 0 and
therefore are called initial conditions. This case is illustrated below. Whenone
or more conditions are specified at a different time, such as a final time, the
procedure is essentially the same.

EXAMPLE 6.3
Solve the following second-order differential equation for the given initial
conditions:

d~ x 2 dx
dt ~+ dt +Sx=3(1-e-2t); x(0)=0; 5(0)=0.
Solution: The characteristic equation and its roots are

S~ + 2S+ 5 = (S + 1) 2 + (2) 2 = 0; $1,2 = -1 =t:j2,

so that the homogeneoussolution is

Xh = e-t(c~ cos2t + c2 sin2t).

6.1. DIRECT SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQS. 399

Treating the input as u(t) = ul (t)+ u2(t) with ul (t) u2(t ) = -e -2~,
the particular solution can be found from equation (6.25b) as follows:

xp = 3G(0) - 3G(-2)e -2~ - 3 2 3 e_2~ = 0.6(1 - e-2~).

5 s + 2s + 5 8=-2
Note that ul is in the proper exponential form with s = 0, giving sim-
ply G(0) = 0.6 for its response. Thus the complete solution and its time
derivative are

x =Xh
d__~_x + Xp
= e- = e-~(Cl cos2t -+ (2cl
c2 sin2t) + 0.6(1 -2~.
2t] + -- e-2~),
~ [(2c2 - Cl)cos2~ - c2)sin

dt
Substitution of the initial conditions into these equations specifies the coef-
ficients Cl and c2:

0=c~+0 or c1=0
0=2c2-c~+1.2 or c2=-0.6.

Substitution of these values gives the unique result

x = 0.6(1 - e-2t - e-t sin 2t).

This is plotted below, along with its homogeneousand particular compo-

nents. Notethat the given initial conditions are satisfied, and that virtually
any other initial conditions also could be satisfied by different weightingsof
the two components.

0.8

0.4

-0.4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t

6.1.7 Solutions to Impulse Inputs

The impulse function f(t) = 6(t) is not included in Table 6.1, since it acts in a
special way.The entire excitation lasts but an instant; it is useful to say that
its duration is betweentime t = 0- and time ~ = 0+. The excitation is zero for
t > 0+, which meansthat the total solution has identically the same form as
400 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

the unforced or homogeneous solution. The effect of the impulse is to impart

an initial condition for this particular solution at time t = 0+ that is different
from the condition at time t = 0-.
The jump x(0+)-x(0-) can be determinedby integrating the full differential
equation betweenthe times t = 0- and t = 0+. For the first-order case, dx/dt+
(1/T)X = C~(t), this integration is

(6.26)
_ dt +rJo- xdt= c~I(t)dt,

which gives

+ - = c. (6.27)
T
Note the use of the fact that the integral across a unit impulseis 1. Theintegral
term in equation (6.27) must be zero unless x were infinite over the vanishingly
small interval betweenthe limits of integration, whichit is not.
Since x(0-) is by definition zero, the result is x(0+) = c, whichgives
-t
x /r
= ,ce t > +.
0 (6.28)

For the nth-order case,

°
Onlythe highest order derivative contributes to the left side of this equation,
with the result that the impulse imparts a non-zero value to only this term:

= c. (6.30)
dt,~_~

EXAMPLE 6.4
Find the response of the general underdampedsecond-order model to an
impulseof amplitudec, for both general initial conditions and for zero initial
conditions.
Solution: The complete solution (for t >_ +) i s t he s ame as t he homoge-
neous solution, as given by equation (6.13) and repeated here:

x =e-at (cr cos Wdt-- ci sin Wdt), +

t . >_0

This gives

x(0+) =or
~(0+) = -acr - ~dC~
6.1. DIRECT SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQS. 401

Since only the highest-order derivative changes across the impulse,

x(0+) -- x(0-). Fromequation (6.30), +) - ~(0-) -- c. Therefore,

c~ = x(0-),
-~[ax(0-) + ~(0-)

Should the initial conditions x(0-) and ~(0-) be zero, the solution
plifies to x = (1/w4)e-a~ sin w4t.

6.1.8 Differentiation and Integration Properties

If an excitation u2(t) of a systemis the time derivative of an excitation ul(t) to
the samesystem, then the response x2 (t) is the time derivative of the response
x~(t). That is,
dul
if u2=--~- then x2----’dr (6.31)
Thus, for example, the response of a given model to a unit impulse input,
traditionally written 9(t), equals the time derivative of the reponse to a unit
step, traditionally written h(t), since the impulse is the time derivative of the
step; 9(t) = dh($)/d~. Inversely, if the excitation u2(~) of a systemis the time
integral of the excitation u~(t) of the samesystem, the response x2(t) is the
time integral of the responsex~ ($),

if u2=/Ul(t)dt then x2(t)=Ixl(t)dt. (6.32)

Thus, similarly, the response of a given modelto a unit step input equals the
time integral of the responseto a unit impulse; h(t) = fg(t)
Theseproperties allow you to extend a knownsolution to certain other cases.
Rather than go through the analysis above to find the response to an impulse,
for example, you have the option of finding the response to a step, and then
computingits derivative, taking care not to overlookany discontinuities.

6.1.9 Step and Impulse Responses Using MATLAB

MATLAB automatically computes the step and impulse responses of linear mod-
els. Youenter the coefficients b,n,’ "’, bo of the numeratorpolynomialand the
coefficients an," ¯, a0 of the denominatorpolynomial, and then simply call the
routine of interest. The programchooses its own(default) scales for the axes
(which you can override).
EXAMPLE 6.5
Using MATLAB,
plot the unit impulse and step responses of the model

d3x d2x dx
dt + 200.
dt a + 3~- + 102~ + 100x =50du
402 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

Solution: The transfer function is

50S + 200
G(S) = $3 3S2 + 102S + 100"

To get the plots below, you enter

>>nam= [50 200];

>>den = [1 3 102 100];
>>step(num, den)
>>±mpulse(num,den)

~r~
2

1.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

O O.S 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

;;me
(ram)
6.1. DIRECT SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQS. 403

Pressing the enter key will erase the present plot, unless you enter hold on,
whichwill superimposesubsequent plots. Further options to control the details
of the plots and secure data files for further use are available. If you substitute
[y, x, t] =step (num, den) or [y, x,t] =impulse(num, den), the times used
stored in a vector t, the output values are stored in a vector y and the state
variables chosenby the routine are stored in a matrix x. Valuesof t specified
in advancewill be used if t is used as the third argumentof the command, i.e.
step (num, den, t). Tospecify 201values of time evenly distributed over ten sec-
onds, for example, you enter either t=linspace (0,10,201) or t= [0 :. 05 : i0].

6.1.10 Summary
Theclassical representation for the solution of a linear differential equationwith
constant coefficients comprisesthe general solution to the homogeneous equation
(with zero right side) plus any particular solution to the completeequation. The
homogeneous solution is found using the roots of the characteristic polynomial
formedfrom the coefficients of the various terms. The particular solution can
be found, for the cases of primary interest, using the methodof undetermined
coefficients. The final step in finding the unique solution to a particular input
is the determination of the coefficients of the homogeneous part of the solution
throughthe use of the initial conditions.
Singularity waveformsincluding impulses, steps and ramps, and exponen-
tial and power-lawwaveformshave been featured as simple system inputs with
readily calculable particular solutions. Thesewaveformsare particularly useful,
because they can be combinedto represent muchmore complicated waveforms.
Carrying out this promiseis the subject of most of the remainderof this chapter
and Chapter 8. The first case addressed in detail, in the following section, is
that of sinusoidal excitations.

Guided Problem 6.1

This straightforward problemreviews the classical methodfor solving linear
differential equations. It also illustrates an important phenomenon.
Find and plot the solution x(t) to the followingdifferential equation, subject
to the initial conditions x(0) = 0, ~(0)

i d2x ( 0 "t <0

w-~dt--~ + x =~ sin(0.95cant) t > O.

Suggested Steps:

1. Note that the equation can be simplified by employingt ~ = wnt rather

than t as the independentvariable.
2. Write the characteristic equation and find its roots. Use these to write
the homogeneoussolution with its two unknownconstants.
404 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

3. Use the methodof undeterminedcoefficients as summarizedin Table 6.1

(p. 397) to find the particular solution.
4. Substitute the initial conditions into the total solution to evaluate the
unknownconstants.
5. Plot the results using MATLAB or someother software package~ The re-
sult demonstrates a "beating" phenomenonbetween motion at the natural
frequencyand motionat the slightly different forcing frequency, which is
perpetuated because of the absence of damping.

PROBLEMS

{}.1 Solve the followingdifferential equation with the initial condition x(0) =
and the forcing function u(t) 10. Sketch-plot yo ur answer.

d’-~ +5x = u(t)

6.2 Answerthe precedin~question substituting u(t) 10sin2t.

6.3 Answerthe preceding question substituting u(t) 10(1

6.4 Solve the followingdifferential equation with the initial conditions x(0) =
and 5(0) = 0. Sketch-plot your answer.

d2x 4dx
dt ~ + dt -b 8x = lO

6.5 Solve the preceding problemwith the coefficient 4 replaced by 6.

6.6 Solve the preceding problem retaining the coefficient 6 but changing the
coefficent8 to 9.

6.7 For the bond-graph model below,

Se e---£-~ 1 ~ 0 ~R

I C

(a) Definestate variables and find a set of state differential equations.

(b) Find the step response of the displacement on the compliance for
e = eous(t), wheree0 is a constant.
6.1. DIRECT SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQS. 405

(c) Find the responsefor e = e0 sin wt valid for t

6.8 A particular system responds to a step excitation with a ramp response.

Characterize the dynamicsof the system generally.

{1.9 The excitation u(t) and impulseresponse g(t) of a linear systemare plotted
below.

(a) Carefully sketch and label the step response, h(t), of the system.

(b) Representthe input u(t) as sum ofsteps.

(c) Sketchthe response of the systemas the superposition of the responses

to the individual steps in part (b).

6.10 An input to a system is as plotted below:

u(t)21 /

I I
0 1 2 t 3

(a) Representthis waveformas a sumof singularity functions.

(b) Find the response to the first-order system dx/dt + x = u(t).

6.11 Carry out the above problem for the input plotted below:

I I I
0 2 4 6
t
406 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

{1.12 A spring pushes a piston whichforces a viscous liquid through a tube, as

shown.

(a) Find the effective resistance of the systemwith respect to the motion
of the piston, in terms of the symbolsgiven. Assumefully developedflow.

(b) Find the time constant for the motion. Evaluate for k = 50 lb/in.,
dl = 1 in., d2 = 0.05 in., L = 40 in. and # = 2.9 x 10-6 lb.s/in 2 (water at
70°F).

6.13 The combination of two springs and a dashpot shownbelow are hit with
an impulse (perhaps from a hammer)with f F dt = Z lb.s. Find the resulting
motion.
k

k/
F(t) ~~x

6.14 Find F(t) for the system shownbelow with x = xous(t).

6.15 One way to measure viscosity is to observe the velocity v at which small
spheres settle in still fluid. The terminal velocity sometimesis not reached
quickly, however,due to the inertia of the sphere and someof the surrounding
fluid.
3Consider a sphere of radius r = 0.13 cm and density Ps = 7840 kg/m
(steel) settling in a fluid of density p = 1200 kg/m3 and viscosity # = 0.20
N.s/m2. AssumeStokes law, which gives a force equal to 67r#rv and applies
with considerable accuracy for Reynold’s numberNR= 2pvr/# < 2 and can be
adequate for 2 < NR< 10.
6.1. DIRECT SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQS. 407

(a) Find the resistance with respect ot the velocity

(b) Find the effective inertance, which includes the mass of the sphere
plus the "virtual mass" of the fluid that also is accelerated. The latter
approximately equals the mass of fluid that occupies a volumeequal to
one-half that of the sphere.

(c) Find the time constant, the velocity v(t) starting from rest, and the
time at whichv reaches 95%of the terminal velocity. Checkthe Reynold’s
numberto makesure Stokes relation applies.

(d) Find the correspondingdistance.

{1.16 A penstock such as in Problem3.52 (p. 160), but smaller, is terminated

in a reverse check valve such as given in Problem4.57 (p. 275) to form what
knownas a hydraulic ram. A drawingis shownbelow. Water accelerates through
the long tube until its velocity is so great that the valve slams shut, whereupon
the pressure rises and opens a simple check valve to a load tank with a constant
high pressure PL, pumpingwater to that tank. After the flow has stopped,
the check valve closes to prevent downward flow, the reverse check valve opens
automatically, and the cycle repeats. Water passing through the reverse check
valve is dumpedinto a stream at that level. The device is attractive whenno
electrical poweris available and a cheap, simple systemis preferred.

PL= pghL

check valve

Find the quantity of water pumpedto the load tank in one cycle, neglecting
losses, in terms of the parameters given aboveand in Problem3.52. Also, find
the cycle time.

6.17 Guided Problem5.5 (pp. 329-331) finds nonlinear models for a ground-
effect machine(GEM)with roll stiffness. Linearize the modelwith the actual
compliancesfor roll motion. Determinethe characteristic values numerically,
using MATLAB. The equilibrium values given in step 9 of the solution maybe
used.
408 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

SOLUTION OF GUIDED PROBLEM

Guided Problem 6.1

d2x
1. With t’ = w~t, dt,~ -~- x = 0 t’ < 0

= sin(0.95t’) t’ >
2. The characteristic equation is s 2 ÷ 1 = 0, which has roots sl,2 -- =l=j.
The resulting homogeneous solution is xh = csin(t’ + ¢).

3. Since f(t) = sin(0.95t’), xp Xpl si n(0.95t’) + xp2 cos(0.95t’),

d2x~ = -(0.95)2[x~1 sin(0.95t’) ÷ x~ cos(0.95t’)].

Substituting into the differential equation,

[-(0.95) 2 ÷ 1][sin(0.95t’) ÷ x~2 cos(0.95t’)] -- sin(0.95t’).
1 2 = 10.256,
Therefore, xp2 = 0, xpl = 1 - (0.95)

giving x = csin(t’ + c~) 10.256 si n(0.95t’).

d2 x
4. dt,~ -- csin(t’ ÷ ¢) - 9.256sin(0.95t’).

At t’ -- 0, x -- 0 = csin¢; therefore, ¢ = 0.
dx
At t’ = 0+, ~- = 0 -- c cos t’ ÷ 9.744 cos(0.95t’) = c ÷ 9.744,

therefore, c -- -9.744, giving x -- -9.744 sin t ~ ÷ 10.256 sin(0.95t’).

X/Xol©

-2O

6.2 Sinusoidal Frequency Response

Periodic excitations of natural and engineered systems abound. Aerodynamic
and water wave forces vibrate bodies, acoustic signals comprise music and
speech, and rotational imbalance shakes machines. The simplest representa-
tion of excitations such as these is sinusoidal. It will be shown in Chapter 7
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCYRESPONSE 409

that any periodic waveformcan be decomposedinto a sum of discrete sinu-

soidal oscillations at multiples of the base frequency, and any waveformcan be
decomposedinto an infinite sumof sinusoidal oscillations. "Frequencydomain"
methodsform the basis of the Fourier and Laplace transform methodsdeveloped
in that chapter. Further, systems often are characterized by howthey respond
to sinusoidal inputs. Physical experimentsare carried out using electrical func-
tion generators and mechanical shaker tables that sweepan excitation over a
range of frequencies.
This section is concernedwith the response of linear modelsto the sinusoidal
excitation
[u(t) = u0 cos(wt + ~). J (6.33)
The focus is on the particular solution, whichoften is called the steady-state
response since it persits as long as the input persists. The homogeneous part
of a complete solution, on the other hand, usually decays quickly. All that is
neededis stability and a pinch of damping.Withoutstability, there is no point
in studying any particular solution, which wouldquickly be overwhelmedby the
exponential growth of the homogeneous solution. The tacit assumption is made
below, therefore, that the systemis stable, whichmeansthat the real parts of
all the roots of the characteristic equation are non-positive.

6.2.1 The Phasor Method

The sinusoidal excitation of equation (6.33) can be recast as the sum of two
complexconjugate terms:

u(t) = 1 [ej(~+~ ) ÷ e_jC~t+~)]

~uo
= + .
The equivalence of equations (6.33) and (6.34) follows from trigonometric iden-
tities (equations (6.12), p. 391). Eachof the terms is exponential, ~d therefore
contributes a term of the form of Equation (6.25b) (p. 397) to the particular
solution, with s = ~jw:

xp(t) = 1 [eJ~G(jw)e ~t -j
+ ~t]
e-~ZG(-jw)e (6.35)

G(jw) is called the frequency transfer function. The terms G(jw) and
G(-jw) are complexconjugate, so that they can be written
-~¢,
G(j~) = ~G(j~)~e~¢; G(-jw) = ~G(j~)le (6.36)
where ¢ ~ gG(jw) is called the phase angle of G(jw), which has as its tangent

tan¢ = Im[G(jw)] (6.37)

Re[G(jw)]
410 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

a =Im[G(]w)] b =Re[G(]w)]

~a>Oa>O[N~ b<~ >0

Re aR<eo

FORe ~Ol ~e a<o~/~

first quadrant second quadrant third quadrant fourth quadrant

Figure 6.8: Determination of the quadrant of G(jw)

Equation (6.35) becomes

xp(t) = ~]G]uo[ej(~°t+~+~)+ e-J(~t+~+O] (6.38)

or

xp(t) IG(jco)lUo cos(wt + ~3+ ¢),

¢(w) =/G(jw) = tan -1 [Im[(G(jw)]
[ Re[(G(jw)]j
(6.39)

Thus, x~(t) is sinusoidal with an amplitude IG(j~)I times the amplitude of

the excitation; IG(jw)[ is called the amplitude ratio or magnitude ratio
gain. The phase angle of x(t) is advancedrelative to that of u(t) by the angle
¢(w), knownas the phase shift. Most commmonly this angle is negative;
is knownas the phase lag.
Examples of the complex number G(jw) are drawn in Fig. 6.8 as vectors
or phasors in the complexplane. It is essential that ¢ be recognized in its
proper quadrant. For example, if both ~3[G(jw)] and ~[G(jw)] are negative,
¢ lies in the third quadrant, or 180° < ¢ < 270°. Youare urged to find the
quadrant of phasors by first determining the signs of the both terms, and then
sketching the phasor. Be warned that manysimple calculator and computer
routines automatically assumethe first or fourth quadrant.

EXAMPLE 6.6
Find the steady-state response of the modelwith the transfer function
50S + 200
G(S) = $3 + 3S2 + 102S+ 100

to the excitation
u(t) = 2 sin(10t).
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCYRESPONSE 411

Solution: At the specified frequency,

50(j10)
IG(jl0)I = (jl0) 3 + 3(j10) 2++ 200
102(j10") + 100
I I
200+500j
= ](100 - 300)+2(1020- 1000)I/(200)2+(500)2
= V ~-~-~-U¢~ = 2.679

¢ = tan-1 \200] - tan-1

= 68.20° - 174.29° °= -106.09

The particular solution, therefore, is

xp(t) = 2 x 2.679sin(lOt- 106.09°) = 5.358 sin(10t- 106.09°).

Note that the numeratorof G(jl0) is a phasor in the first quadrant, whereas
the denominator is a phasor in the second quadrant. The phase angle of
G(10j) equals the angle for the numerator minus the angle for the denomi-
nator. Plots of u(t) and x(t) are given below.
°106.09
6
4
2
0
-2

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

t

6.2.2 Bode Plots

Magnituderatios and phase angles expressed as functions of frequency serve to
characterize a linear transfer function completely. Plots of the magnituderatio
or gain and the phase angle as functions of frequencyconveyto the analyst not
only the meaningof a frequencytransfer function, but also the very character of
the dynamicmodel, in a clear, visual way. The information can be deducedfrom
direct experimenton the physical system, with no use of modelsor mathematics;
the response to sinusoidal excitation at manydifferent frequencies is observed
and plotted. A shaker table ofter is used to producethe sinusoidal disturbances
on mechanical systems.
Both linear and logarithmic axes have been used widely for the plots. An
exampleusing logarithmic axes for the frequency and the magnituderatio and
412 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

0.1 1.0 10 100

o), rad/s

Figure 6.9: Example Bode plot

a linear axis for the phase angle is given in part (a) of Fig. 6.9. Such a repre-
sentation is known as a Bode plot. The transfer function chosen is the same
as in Example 6.6 above. You should check to see that the magnitude ratio and
the phase angle as plotted at 10.rad/s agree with the calculated values.
The particular Bode coordinates have become the standard for system an-
alysts interested in dynamics and control. This is largely because they allow a
model and its transfer function to be decomposed into components and reassem-
bled graphically, as you will see later. Further, the use of the logarithmic axes
allows small but important amplitudes to be seen clearly despite the presence of
vastly larger amplitudes at other frequencies. Finally, widely available software,
including MATLAB,employs Bode coordinates.
The decibel scale has become a conventional representation of the logarith-
mic magnitude ratio. If the magnitude ratio is m, the decibel scale, abbreviated
"db," is ~ "

[ db -- 20 log lo m] (6.40)

Both the m and the db scales are shown in part (a)of the figure.

1Some older references use 10 log10 m. The use of the multiplier 20 rather than the more
natural 10 appears to be a carryover from the prior and continuing use of decibels to represent
the power of an acoustic wave or an acoustic field. Power is proportional to the square of the
sound pressure (or the product of pressure and velocity, as we have seen), and the logarithm
of a square gives a multiplier of 2.
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCYRESPONSE 413

EXAMPLE 6.7
Use MATLAB
to produce a Bode plot for the model of Example 6.6.
Solution:
>> hum = [50 200];
>> den = [1 3 102 100];
>> bode(num,den)
Compare
theresulting
plotwiththatofFig.6.9:

0
10
Frequency
(rad/sec)

"1
10 0
10 101 =
10
Frequency
(rad/sec)

The alternate command[mag,phase,w] = bode (hum, den) directs that the

calculated values of frequency, magnitudeand phase be stored in the vectors
w, magand phase, respectively. It also lets you specify the frequencies. For
example,to specify 200 values of frequency with even logarithmic spacing over
the band from 1 to 40 rad/s, you enter w=logspace(1,40,200).

6.2.3 Models Without Damping

Modelswithout dampinghave only even-ordered derivatives in equaiion (6.1)
(p 390), that is a~ = 0 and b~ = 0 for i = 1,3,5,.... As a result, G(jw) is real,
no phase angle is needed, and equation (6.39) is simplified
xp(t) = G(jw) u(t). (6.41)
Note that G(jw) can be negative, °.
which corresponds to a phase angle of +180
At any particular frequency, the response is said to be "in-phase" or "out-of-
phase" with the excitation.
The second-order IC modelis a simple example. The equation
1 d2x 1
(6.42)
w--~ dt --~ + x = Uo cos(wt + 8); wn = --~,
414 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

gives

a(S) 1 + (6.43)

Equatioa (6.41) yields the solution

Uo
~ cos(wt+ fl). (6.44)
zP = 1 - (u/un)

Note that xp(t) is in-phase with u(t) for (w/wn) < 1 and (180°) out-of-phase
for w/~,~) > 1.

EXAMPLE 6.8
A machinecontains an unbalanced rotor whichproduces a vertical com-
ponent of excitation force Fe = -ml (d2/dt2)[r cos wt]. The machineis
constrained to movevertically, and is supported by a spring with rate
k in order to reduce the vertical force F transmitted to the floor; such
a force promotes undesired noise and vibration. Give a Bodeplot for
F normalized to (divided by) the fixed force mlrw~n, where wnis the
natural frequency. Also, give a second Bodeplot for F/F~.

Solution: A bond graph for this system,

gives the state differential equations

~
dPdt mlrw coswt - ~x,
dx 1

These equations can be combinedas follows:

ICd2x
2dt = cd. p. = Cmlrw 2 coswt - x.
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCY RESPONSE 415

With uo -- 1, this gives

2
~
xp- 1 Cml rw
- (~/~n) cos wt.

The force on the floor is

2
mlrw
F -~ Xp
-- ~-- cos

The solid line plotted below represents the nondimensional ratio of the am-
plitude of this force to mlrw~. It shows how the amplitude of the force
varies with the applied frequency, w. As the frequency of the excitation is
increased well above the resonant frequency, this ratio approaches unity.

normalized
force on floor
0.1

o.(
0.I 1.0 :~/~o~10

The dashed line represents the ratio of the amplitude of the force on the
floor to the excitation force mlrw2, which grows rapidly with frequency. As
the excitation frequency is increased well above the natural frequency, or the
natural frequency is reduced well below the excitation frequency~ this ratio
rapidly decreases toward zero. At high frequency, the center of gravity of the
masses ml and ms remains virtually fixed; the amplitude of the force on the
floor therefore is proportional to the resulting fixed amplitude of x times
k. The design objective therefore is to make k so small that the natural
frequency is considerably below the actual excitation frequency.
Whena shaft-driven machine that is operated aboye its natural or resonant
frequency is started from rest, or is shut down, the resonant frequency is tra-
versed. An unacceptable resonance can result. You may have noticed a brief
vibration when you looked at an auto engine being started or stopped. The
vibration can be minimized by passing the engine speed through the resonant
frequency quickly.
416 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

A second-order mechanical model, such as described above, is said to have

one degree of freedom. This is because there is one geometrically independent
position variable. A model with two degrees of freedom has two geometrically
independent positions. In general, such a model would be fourth order, since
there would be two momentumstate variables in addition to the two position
state variables. A third-order mechanical model, then, still has two degrees of
freedom, but is degenerate in the sense of having only one momentumvariable,
because of a neglected inertance but a considered resistance or damping. Sim-
ilarly, a first-order mechanical model still has a degree of freedom but also is
missing an inertance. Models without damping, however, are always of even
order, as the following example with two degrees of freedom demonstrates.

EXAMPLE 6.9
A vibration absorber comprises an added mass and spring on the system
modeled in Example 6.8. Find a transfer function between the input cos wt
and the output force, made nondimensional by normalizing by rmlw~ as in
Example 6.7. Show that this force vanishes at one frequency of excitation.
Also, produce the associated magnitude Bode plot to show what happens
for other excitation frequencies. To get a particular result, consider only the
special case in whichthe natural frequencyc~n-- 1/x//x//x//x//x//x//x~ equals1/x/7"-2-~2,
and the mass ratio 12/11 is 0.2.

z cos cot
me (~gca F~ = m~rco

Solution: From the bond graph of the idealized model with no damping,
the state differential equations corresponding to the four energy storage
elements are
dx 1
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCY RESPONSE 417

The dependent variable of primary interest is x; all others should be elimi-

nated, to give a single fourth-order differential equation. This can be done
various ways, with or without the use of operator notation, retaining the
unspecified values for the parameters. None of these are nearly as easy as
using the MATLAB function ss2tf, which requires specific values of the
parameters. Because of the restrictions given, the following specific num-
bers can be assigned: I1 = 1, C1 = 1, I2 = 0.2, and C~ = 5. These give
wn = 1 tad/s, so that regardless of the units of the individual parameters,
the results can be interpreted with time considered as the nondimensional
w,t and frequency considered as the nondimensional w/wn. With this inter-
pretation, the results apply to any values of the parameters that satisfy the
given restrictions.
The matrices needed for ss2tf are

A= 0 0 1 ¯ B= ¯
-1 -0.2 0 ’ ’
0 0.2 0

c=[1000]; D=0.
The MATLAB
coding to get the transfer function from Fe to F is
A=[0 0 1 0;0 0 1 -5;-1 -.2 0 0;0 .2 0 0];
B=[0;0;1;0]; C=[1 0 0 03; D:0;
[num, den] =ss2tf (A,B,C,D)
The response is
num= 0 0 1.0000 0 1.0000
den = 1.0000 0 ~.~000 0 1.0000
which means that
$2+1
G(S) = S4 2. 2S~ + 1

-w 2 + 1
G(jw) = w4 _ 2.2w2 + 1
The force therefore vanishes when w = 1 (or in the general interpretation,
when w/w~ = 1).
This transfer function has as its input the force Fe = -rml w2 coswt,
which increases in magnitude with frequency, whereas the requested Bode
plot is to have the constant-amplitude -rmlw~ coswt as its input. There-
fore, the G(S) needs to be multiplied by the ratio (w/w~) 2, which can be
accomplished by multiplying the numerator by S2, changing it to S4 2. +S
The MATLAB coding continues:
num=[1 0 1 0 0];
bode(hum,den)
418 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

The resulting magnitudeplot, with someannotations, is given below. The

existence of two resonant freqencies is revealed, one at 80%of Wnand the
other at 125%.Therefore, the idea of the vibration absorber has merit only
whenthe excitation frequency is fixed or nearly fixed. The two resonances
can be spread further apaxt in frequency by increasing the mass I~
(and decreasing the complianceC2 correspondingly). Similarly, if the mass
were reduced, the separation woulddecrease, and in the limit of zero mass
the behavior (and the system) wouldbe identical to that of Example6.8.

4O I I i I I I I i I I I I I

special case for ~o~= ~

F 20

note: ding segments

decibels
-20

ire °ut °f Phase

I I I I I I
-40
O.1 1.0 co/a4 10

The vibration absorber is analyzed in the alternative style of classical vi-

brations in AppendixB. This style somewhatsimplifies the analysis for the
restricted class of modelsto whichit applies, makingit easier to retain
unspecified parameters.

6.2.4 Models Comprising a Single Pole or Zero

The transfer function G(S) = is sai d to have a z er o at theorigin, sinc e
G(0) = 0. The model G(S) = 1IS is said to have a pole at the origin, since
it becomesinfinity whenS = 0. Bodeplots for these cases are given in Fig.
6.10. For the square magnitudeformat used, the slope of the magnitudecurve
is +1 in the first case and -1 in the second case. (With the decibel format, it
wouldbe ±20 db/decade.) The phase angle is a constant 90° in the first case
and a constant -90° in the second case. Youshould verify that the substitution
S ~ jw gives these results.
Multiplyingthe transfer functions by a constant factor k, to give G(S) =
and G(S) = k/S, would merely shift the magnitude plots up or down, leaving
their slopes unchanged. The phase plots would be unchanged.
The transfer function G(S) k(1 ± S/wz) is described as a zero at S =~:wz,
since G(~Wz)=O. Bodeplots for this modelare given in Fig. 6.11 for the special
case of k = 1. As before and for all transfer functions, a value of k different
from zero simply shifts the magnitude curve up or downand leaves the phase
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCYRESPONSE 419

20" 1£
db
0

-2O

0.01 0.1 1 10 100

°90 ¢o, rad/s
G=S

OO

G=I/S
-90°

Figure 6.10: Bodeplots for a pole or a zero at the origin

curve unchanged.
Theseplots follow from the substutution S = jw:
logxo [G(jw)[ = log~o [1 + jw/wz[ = log~o V/1 + ~,
(w/wz) (6.45a)

,/G(jw) = +tan-l (~z) (6.45b)

Note that the magnitudeplot is the sameregardless of whether the plus or the
minussign is used. Onthe other hand, the phase angle increases whenthe sign
is plus, and decreaseswhenit is minus.This is a critical difference.
The transfer function G(S) = k/(l+S/wp) is described as a pole at S =
since G(-wp)-~ ~. Its Bodeplot, again for k = 1, is given in Fig. 6.12. Again,
these plots follow from the substutution S = jw:
1 I
loglo IG(jw)l = lOglo 1 + j-w/wp[
1 _ l°gl° V/1 + (w/w~)2’ (6.46a)
= l°gx° ~/1 + 2(w/w~)

/ G,i(jw) = - tan-~ (-~ . (6.46b)

Note that only a plus sign is used in the transfer function, rather than the +
sign used in the transfer function for the zero. The reason is that a minussign
wouldrepresent an unstable system. As noted before, the particular solutions
of unstable systemsare of no interest.
420 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

20 - 10

db " magnituderatio

10-

asymptotes
0 - I.C ,
° O. 1.0 10
90
phaseshift
°
50
-" left-half plane
°
30 - (+ slgn).~

linear approximation,,

° (- sign)
.50

_900

Figure 6.11: Bodeplots for single real non-zero zeros

6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCYRESPONSE 421

asymptotes
0 - 1.0
magn~ :\/ ........
db "

-10 -

-20 - O. 1
O. 1.0 10

""
~- .......... l~:ar approximatio~

Figure 6.12: Bodeplot for single real non-zero pole

The magnitudeplots for the modelswith the single pole and the single zero
are top-to-bottom flips of one another. So are the phase angles, for the common
plus-sign case. The magnitudeplots for the real non-zero poles and zeros can be
approximatedby asymptotes, as shownin Figs. 6.11 and 6.12 by dashed lines.
The low-frequency asymptote corresponds to the neglect of the term w/wz or
W/Wprelative to 1; it produces a horizontal straight line. The high-frequency
asymptotecorresponds to the exact opposite: neglecting the term 1 relative to
the w/wz or w/wp. The high-frequency asymptote therefore is the same as a
pole or zero at the origin, scaled so that it equals 1 at the break frequency
w = w~ or w = Wp. The two asymptotes intersect at the break frequency. This
fact enables you to closely approximatea break frequency if you are given the
plot (e.g. experimental data) rather than the equation, a common situation for
an engineer. The greatest departure of the actual magnitudefrom the closest
asymptoteoccurs at the break frequency, where it equals the ratio v~ or 1/~/~.
Asymptotesalso exist for the phase angles, corresponding to the neglect of
the corresponding terms. The asymptote for low frequency is 0°, and for high
frequency is +90°. The greatest departure between the actual value and the
value of the nearest asymptoteis 45°, again at the break frequency. The phase
asymptotes represent the actual phase more poorly than the magnitude asymp-
totes represent the actual magnitude, however. A muchbetter approximation
for the frequency range 0.1wi < w < 10wi is a straight line (in the semi-log
422 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

coordinates of this plot) betweenthe two asymptotesat the two respective fre-
quencies a decade below and a decade above the break frequency. These linear
approximationsare represented in Figs. 6.11 and 6.12 by dashedlines.

6.2.5 Models Comprising a Pair of Complex Poles or Ze-

ros
The modelwith the transfer function
k
2G = 1 + (2~p/Wp)S + (S/wp) (6.47)

has a pair of complex conjugate poles wheneverthe dampingratio ¢ < 1. The

Bodeplot variables are

1
I
log10 IG(jw)[ lo g10 1 - (w/w,~) 2 +

= -l°g~°
\w,~] \ wn

zc(j,,.,)=- tan-’ ]

Plots for various values of ~ are given in Fig. 6.13. Althoughcases with ~ _> 1
are included, these cases are better computedby factoring the transfer function
into a product of two real poles, as described later.
Lowand high-frequency asymptotes are drawn as dashed lines. As with
the first-order poles, the low frequency asymptote corresponds to the neglect
of all terms in any sum except those proportional to the lowest powerof w.
This leaves simply a horizontal line with value 1, regardless of ¢. The high-
frequency asymptote neglects all terms in any sum except those proportional
to the highest powerof w. This leaves a straight line with a slope of -2 which
intersects the low-frequencyasymptoteat the break frequency, which equals the
natural frequencywnregardless of ~.
The dampingratio ~ strongly affects the behavior only for frequencies near
the break or natural frequency. For low dampingratios, the magnitudepeaks or
resonates at approximatelythe break frequency. At precisely the break or nat-
ural frequency, the magnitude ratio equals 1/2~, which can be deduced simply
from equation (6.48a). Use of this fact plus the asymptotesallows you to sketch
the magnitudecarve for a particular dampingratio with adequate accuracy for
most purposes. The phase curves are harder to sketch with accuracy (you will
likely refer back to this plot for this purpose), but observe that the drop in
phase totals 180° and is relatively abrupt for small dampingratios and gradual
for large dampingratios. Since the case of ~ = 1 corresponds to the product of
two equal real poles, the straight-line approximationused for real poles applies,
with the total phase changebeing double the 90° for a single pole.
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQ UENCY RESPONSE 423

- ~-0.1

mag ~ - 0.25 -

0.1 0.05
,/ ,/ ~ o0
-2O

°
-90
-4O

~
1 +2 IS~ton+(S/a~n)

o
10 1011800

Figure 6.13: Bodeplots for second-order poles

424 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

A system with a pair of complex-conjugate zeros rather than poles has a

transfer function that is the reciprocal of the transfer function above. The
logarithm of the magnitude of this transfer function therefore equals precisely
minus the logarithm of the transfer function above; this relationship is the same
as you saw before with first-order zeros. Consequently, the magnitude plot for
the complex pair of zeros is exactly the top-to-bottom flip of the magnitude plot
for the complex pair of poles. For this reason, and because such second-order
zeros occur relatively infrequently, a separate plot is not given here. The phase
angle plots for the zeros are similarly top-to-bottom flips of the phase angle
plots for the corresponding poles; the phase increases by a total of 180° rather
than decreases. On the other hand, the case of the zeros permits the damping
ratio to be negative without causing an instability. In this case, the phase plot
is identical to that of the pole with positive damping.

6.2.6 Factorization of Higher-Order Models

Transfer functions of second and higher-order models are profitably factored as

follows:
k(S - zl)(S z2)... (S -- Zm)
G(S) -- SN(S _pl)(S_ P2)"" (S --pn_N)" (6.49)

The denominator of G(S) is the characterisitic polynomial, and the values

Pl,’",Pn-N, known as the poles of the transfer function, are precisely the
roots $1,. ¯., Sn-N of the characteristic equation. The integer N represents the
number of additional poles with zero value (or at the origin), if any. The numer-
ator is factored similarly; the values z~,..., Zm are the roots of the numerator
polynomial, and are known as the zeros of the transfer function. Should there
be one or more zeros at the origin, equation (6.49) still applies, but N becomes
a negative integer.
Individual poles and zeros can be real, imaginary or complex numbers. They
often are represented in an S-plane plot, in which the abcissas is the real part
and the ordinate is the imaginary part. Poles are indicated b~ crosses (×), and
zeros by (0), as illustrated in Fig. 6.14. The pole labeled 1 in t~is exampleis real
and negative. It contributes a term to the homogeneous solution proportional
to e-2t; the minus sign in the exponent is associated with the presence of the
pole in the left-half of the S-plane. Right-half-plane poles produce instability,
but left-half-plane poles do not. The pole 2 is at the origin. It allows the
homogeneoussolution to contain a constant (or c e°t).
Imaginary and complex poles and zeros come in complex-conjugate pairs.
The pair of poles labeled 3a and 3b in the example S-plane lie in the left-half
plane; they contribute a term porportional to e-t sin(3t + f~) to the homogeneous
solution. Again, their presence in the left-half plane is associated with the minus
sign in the exponent and the stability of their contribution to the unforced
behavior. The imaginary parts +3 give the damped natural frequency, Wd, and
the real part -1 gives the exponent a = -~wn. The length of the chord from
¯the origin to either pole is the natural frequency wn = V~d
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCYRESPONSE 425

ImS

0
5b -I

×
3b

Figure 6.14: ExampleS-plane plot

The zero labeled 4 is real and positive; those labeled 5a and 5b are complex
with conjugatewith negative real parts. Zeros, unlike poles, can exist in either
half plane without affecting stability.
For most purposes it is convenient to replace the factors for a complex-
conjugate pair by its real product, as was done above for the underdamped
second-order model. They are then described in terms of its dampednatural
frequency and dampingratio. Also, the non-zero poles and zeros are interpreted
in terms of postive frequencies w~i =
m
k l-I(1 ± s/~:~) II [1 +
~=~+1
G(S) = ~=~k n-N
(6.50)
s l-I(1 + Slo: ) H
i--~l i=k+l

The notation l-I~=l(1 + S/wzi) implies the product (1 ± S/w~i)(1 ± S/wz2)

¯ .. (1 ± S/wzj), with plus signs being used for left-half plane zeros and mi-
nus signs for right-half-plane zeros. The parameters z~,..., zj and p~,- ¯ .,p~
are real zeros and poles. The dampingratios ~zd+~,’",~zm and Cp,k+~,’’’,
~n-Nall represent subcritical behavior; they are less than 1.
MATLAB will factor a transfer functipn with the numerator and denom-
inator specified in terms of the polynomials numand den with the following
command:
[z,p,k] = tf2zp(num,den)
The "tf2zp" can be read as the "transfer function to zero-pole" transformation.
Should you start with the state-space format A, B, C, D, the command
[z,p,k] --- ss2zp(A,B,C,D,~.)
426 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

produces the same result. The index ± is an integer that indicates which of
possibly several scalar transfer functions is being requested.

EXAMPLE 6.10: Find a factored transfer function for the model de-
scribed by

~ = x+
-~2
with the output y = x2 (t).
Solution: The MATLABcoding

A=[-4 1/2 0;2 -2 2;0 1 -4];

B=EII0;03; C=£0 1 0]; D=[0];
[z,p,k] = ss2zpA,B,C,D,1
gives the response

-4

-5.0000
-4.0000
-1.0000

which indicates the factored result

2(s+ 4)
G(S) = (S 1) (S + 4)(S +

Notice that the example has a zero and a pole for which S = -4. These
should be canceled, but MATLAB is not that smart (yet). In practice, poles and
zeros rarely cancell exactly. Cancellation of an approximately equal left-half-
plane pole-zero pair produces little error, but cancellation of an approximately
equal right-half-plane pole-zero pair covers up an instability.

6.2.7 Bode Plots for Higher-OrderModels*

Bode plots for models with any number of poles and zeros can be assembled
readily from the Bode plots of the individual poles and zeros. The ordinate of
the magnitude Bode plot equals the logarithm of the magnitude of G(jw), or
log10 IG(jw)l. From equation (6.46), this becomes

J
loglo IG(j~)I = log~o k + ~ log~o I1 ¯ Jw/wzil
i=1

+ ~ log10 tl - (w/wzi) 2 + j2~iw/w~il - Y log Ij~l

i=j+l
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCYRESPONSE 427

The ordinate of the phase Bodeplot is the angle of the phasor G(j~), with
mathematical symbol /G(jw):

LG(jw) = ~ L(1 :t: jmlw:i) L[I1- (~/~:i)~ + 5j2¢:~1~] - N

2
i=1 i=lq-j
k n-N
- ~ Z(1+ jwl~p,) - ~ L[1- (~/~,)~ + j2~,,~l~,,]. (6.52)
i=1 i=k+l

Theseequations expedite the determination and interpretation of Bodeplots.

Equation (6.51) shows that the ordinates of both the.magnitude and phase
plots equals the suin of the ordinates of the componentpoles and zeros. The
magnitudeplot also is shifted vertically by loglo k. Decibelssumdirectly. These
summationsapply to the asymptotes and linear approximations as well as to
the exact curves.
The two examples below regard the third-order model

d~ x d~ x . dz
a3 -~ q- a2 -~ + al ~ -t- aox = fo cos(wt q-/~). (6.53)

EXAMPLE 6.11: Find analytic expressions for the Bode plot variables in
the case of three real roots with break frequencies ¢ul, w2and wa. Then, for
the special case ofw~= 10 rad/s, ~vz= 50 rad/s and w3= 200tad/s, plot the
asymptotic approximation for the magnitude curve and the approximation
for the phase curve, and sketch the complete Bodecurves.
Solution: The transfer function becomes
Y0
G(S) = a3S3 q- a2S2 + alS -t- ao = (1 q- S/Wl)(1 -t-
kSIw2)(1

The Bodeplot variables are, in light of the equations abovefor individual

poles,

logIG(jx)l=lOglok-lOglo 1+ ~11 -l°gl° 1+

z,
-log,oTl+(~)

ZG(jw)=-tan:’(~l)-tan-’ (-~2)-tan-l(-~3).
428 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

-20 O°
~- magnitude \...._.~.N..~
linear iappr°ximati°ns
:
db

-40
~3 zGO’~o)

°-180

100,000
~ ~ = (S+ 10)(S+~0)(S+200)
o(~)

°lO .......................
~ ~ ~0~70°
lO 10

The Bode plots above are for the given values of ~, ~ and ~ and ~ =
fo/ao = 1. The sum of the asymptotes for the magnitudes of the individual
poles is shown by a dashed line. Below the first break frequency all the
asymptotes equal 1. Between the first and the second break frequency only
the asymptote for the first pole is sloped, and therefore the sumof the three
has the slope of -1. For frequencies between the second and third breaks
both the asymptotes for the first two breaks have slope -1; their sum has
slope -2. Above the third break frequency all three poles have asymptotes
with slope -1, so their sum has slope -3.
The linear approximations to the three individual phase curves also
are shown. Recall that these approximations equal 0° for frequencies less
than one-tenth their break frequencies, -90° for frequencies greater than ten
times their break frequencies, and a straight-line interpolation in between.
The sum of these three approximations can be seen to approximate the
actual phase shift rather nicely.

A generalization can be made regarding the magnitude asymptotes: in the

absence of zeros, the slope of the asymptotic approximation to the magnitude
curve at any frequency equals -1 times the number of poles that have lower
break frequencies, including poles at the origin.
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQ UENCY RESPONSE 429

EXAMPLE 6.12
Find analytic expressions for the Bode plot variables for the case of one real
root at Wl and a pair of complex roots with damping ratio ( at w2. Then,
set wl = 10 tad/s, 0;2 = 100 rad/s and ( = 0.065, plot the asymoptotic
approximation for the magnitude curve and the approximation for the phase
curve, and sketch the complete Bode curves.
Solution: The transfer function can be factored as
k
G(S)
= (I+ S/~I)[I
(~
.(/~2)S
(S
/~2)~]"
+
The Bode variablesbecome

log~o Ig(jw)l = loglo k - log~o 1 + ~-~

log~0 1- (~-~ + \ w-’-~/

ZG(jw) =-tan -1 ~ -tan -~ 1- (w/wz) ~] "

The case with the given parameters and k = I is plotted below:

"~agnitude ~\

-20

db

-4O

-60 °
-180

-8O °10 ~’270°

10
101 102
430 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

The magnitude asymptote for the model has the slope -1 for frequencies
betweenwl and w2, and the slope -3 for frequencies above w2; the drop in
slope of -2 results from the double break, or two poles, located at w = w2.
The model resonates about this natural frequency w2. The value of the
magnitudeat the break frequency is almost exactly a factor of 1/2~ = 7.69
greater than the intersection of the asymptotes at that frequency; about
one-half percent error results from the effect of the break frequencywl.
The linear approximation to the phase curve can be seen to apply rea-
sonably well for w < w2. The phase drops precipitously 180° in the vicinity
of w = w2, because the dampingis fairly small. The total phase shift at
infinite frequency is the total numberof poles times -90°, or -270°. Note
that the same result applies to the other third-order models in Examples
6.11 and 6.13.

EXAMPLE 6.13
Repeat Example6.12 for the case in which wl and w2are switched.
Solution The procedure is the same as in the previous example. The re-
sulting plots are given below. The resonance nowappears at 10 rad/s, and
the first-order pole appears at 100 rad/s. In general, the lowest-order sin-
gularies tend to be the most important. In the present case, the presence
of the first-order pole in this case might be neglected for practical purposes
(as also noted below).

o0

°
.90

o
.180
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCY RESPONSE 431

A time constant in a homogeneous solution or an impulse or step response

is the reciprocal of the break frequency for a real pole, and a natural frequency
is the break frequency for a complex conjugate pair of poles. Step and impulse
responses for the cases of Examples6.11, 6.12 and 613 are given in Fig. 6.15, with
the respective designations (a), (b) and (c). These plots can be secured readily
through the MATLABcommands step and impulse. In case (a) (Example
6.11), the dominant time constant is rl = l/w1 = 0.1 second, which can be
seen in both the impulse and step responses. In case (b), (Example 6.12)
oscillations occur at the damped natural frequency w2v/i -- (2 = 98.2 rad/s
15.63 Hz, and decay according to the damping ratio ( = 0.065. In addition,
the effect of the time constant r = 0.1 second is similar to that of case (a).
case (c) (Example 6.13), the oscillations occur at the lower resonant resonant
frequency of virtually 10 red/s, and decay with the damping ratio ~ = 0.1. The
time constant in this case is so relatively short, only r = l/w2 = 0.01 seconds,
that it effects the responses imperceptibly. For manypurposes, therefore, this
model could be simplified by omitting the real pole (as also noted above).

EXAMPLE 6.14
Sketch-plot the Bode curves for the fifth-order model

200,000
a(s) = (s + 1)(s + lo)2(s~2000)
Also, use MATLAB
to plot the impulse response of the model.
Solution: This case includes a pair of identical first-order poles, which is
the same as a second-order pole with critical damping. There is also a first-
order pole at low frequency and a second-order pole at high frequency. The
impulse response shows the effects of all these poles, but the pole at the
lowest frequency produces the dominant relatively slow exponential delay.
The double break at w = 10 controls the rise in the first one-half second. The
resonance at about w = 45 produces the small rapid oscillation superimposed
on an otherwise smooth response.
432 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

15

0
1. 0’1 ~] ~.2~ ~J 0.3"~ ~.~.0.4
0 t 0.5
for E: ~-nple6.11 for Example6.12

I I I I I
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 t 0.5

1C

-5
2 for Example6.13

I I I
00 1 2 t 3

Figure 6.15: Impulse (g(t)) and step (h(t)) responses for the modelsof Examples
6.11, 6.12, and 6.13.
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCY RESPONSE, 433

-90o
’1

phase ZG(jeo)

-6o
~ °-270

~)=
G:S’ 200,000
(s+ 1)(s+ ~o)~(s%ss+

lift 10° lOt co 10~

MATLAB coding that gives the complete Bode plot (although with
decibels) ~s well as the impulse response is as follows:
hum = [200000] ;
den = [1 26 2225 42700 240500 200000];
bode(hum,den)
impulse(num,den)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 t 3 4
434 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

Zeros always contribute an increasing value to a magnitudeplot as frequency

is increased. A transfer function with a zero produces a magnitudeBode plot
that is unchangedif the sign of the real part of the zero is changed,that is if
the zero is movedan equal distance into the opposite half-plane. On the other
hand, the right-half-plane zero contributes an increasing phase as the frequency
is increased, whereasthe left-half-plane zero contributes a decreasingphase (or
increasing phase lag) as the frequency is increased. Therefore, you can use the
phase plot to determinethe signs of the real parts of zeros. Modelswith no zeros
in the right=half plane are called minimumphase-lag models. It is possible
to deduce the transfer function of a knownminimum-phase-lagmodel from its
magnitudeplot alone. A modelwith one or more right-half-plane zeros is called
non-minimum phase-lag.

EXAMPLE 6.15
The Bodeplots below correspondrespectively to the following transfer func-
tions with zeros:
1 -4- 0.1S 0.01(S2 4- 2S 4- 100)
Ga(S) - $2 4- 0.2S ÷ 1’ Gb(S) S24- 0.2 S ÷ 1

20[ 10:

I G(/~,

dbOI 10

o0
-20
I

-401 10"
° ° ~180
10-1 1~ 101 ~ 10~ -I
10 10 101 °
(~ ~0

Resolve whether the 4- signs should be plus or minus.

Solution: In both cases the behavior in the vicinity of w = 1 is caused by
the identical poles (in the denominator). Both zeros have break frequencies
of w -- 10. In both cases the breaks cause the slopes of the asymptotes
to increase, from -2 to -1 in the first-order case and from -2 to 0 in the
second-order case. Therefore, both d= signs should be +.
The magnitude asymptotes and phase approximations also given in the
figure themselvesare sufficient to determinethe transfer functions.
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCY RESPONSE 435

Models often are classified according to their numberof poles or zeros at the
origin. The generic designation is type N, where N is the net number of poles
at the origin. The models presented previously have been type zero. Type-one
models (with the factor S in the denominator) are also fairly common;type-
two and type-minus-one models (with the factor S in the numerator) are not
uncommon, but others are rare. The presence and number of poles or zeros
at the origin is readily identifiable by the slope of the magnitude curve as the
frequency approaches zero, which is -N or -20N db/decade. Note that the
°.
phase angle at zero frequency is directly affected also; it is -N x 90

EXAMPLE 6.16
Verify that the model with the first Bode plot below has a single pole at the
origin, and that the model with the second Bode plot has a single zero at
the origin.

lO’t
I ~~’~,a~.mptotes I -90’ appr°ximati°n’~ ~’" "~

~ G~(S)~,I ~ -~ phase
10"~ .. ~ti~~
~ magNm~ ~]~ -180_
q -
10-~ -270° ~
~ ~ 10 10 10 ~ ~
~ 10

104 , ,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,~ ,

I0° I0~ I0~ ~

N~lu~m~he slope of ~he magnitude curve ~ ~ ~ 0 is -1 in the first c~e

and +1 in ghe second, directly leading to the indicaged conclusions. ~rther,
the phase angle for ~ ~ 0 is -90~ in the first case and 90~ in the second,
corroborating the conclusions.
The magnitude ~ymptotes and the ph~e approximations are also shown
above. These are su~cient to give the complete transfer functions.

A summ~y of the Bode ~ymptotes and line~ ph~e approximations for

first-order poles and zeros is given in ~ig. 6.16. Recall that an approximation
any higher-order model results from appropriately summing these ~ymptoges
~d approximations, and shining the magnitude result vergicNly to account for
the coe~cient ~. The ph~e of a second-order pole or ~ero that h~ low d~ping
436 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

10
key:
a,
o
1 magnitudeasymptote:
phase approximation:
’~g l oi _90
o.1
O.lcoo olOco ° O.lcoo co
o lOco
o
lOO _~’1 I 90 10
~ i/~ ! ~ 90°
1+s/69
o
lO 1 ~
0
~

1~ °90
j
,J
~ 90°
] 1 10
I’S/~v ]1 ~
I+S/~o ~
~ [ ~ °0 ~ ’ ~ °0
1

1 °
-90 o.1 i I °_90

Figure 6.16: Summaryof Bodeasymptotes and linear phase approximations

is a partial exception, however.Rather than spread its 180° phase change over
two decades of frequency, it is better to concentrate the change in an abrupt
jump at the break frequency. You would also wish at least to approximate
the resonance or anti-resonance in the magnitudeof such a case, which is not
included in the asymptotes, by noting the factor of 1/2~ at the break frequency.

It is possible to estimate a transfer function from a Bodeplot drawnusing

experimental data, as suggested in Examples6.15 and 6.16. An understand-
ing of the asymptotes and the discrepancies mayhave its greatest Utility in
the interpretation of experimental data, since knowntransfer functions can be
plotted readily by software programsincluding MATLAB. The slope of the mag-
nitude asymptoteat infinite frequencyfor any transfer function equals -1 times
the numberof poles minus the numberof zeros, called the pole-zero excess.
Youguess the type and locations of the break frequencies, drawthe associated
asymptotes and the phase approximations, and note the discrepancies between
the approximation and the actual curves using Figs. 6.11, 6.12 and 6.13. You
then makeadjustmentsuntil a satisfactory fit results. This process is an example
of what is called the experimental identification of a dynamic model.
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCYRESPONSE 437

EXAMPLE 6.17
The Bode plot below might represent experimental data, Approximatethe
associated transfer function, and thereby write the associated differential
equation.

10 .................................

magnitude
ratio
1.0

0"10.01 0.1 1.0 10 100

~o, rad/s
°90
phase
0o

°_90

°-180

Solution: First, examine the magnitude ratio and observe that the low-
frequency asymptote is horizontal. This meansyou have a type-zero model;
N = 0. Next, observe that you also have a horizontal asymptote at high
frequency; the pole-zero excess is zero, or the numberof zeros equals the
numberof poles. The most prominent feature of the magnitude plot is an
apparent resonance at about 2 rad/s. Youconfirm the presence of a double
pole by examinationof the phase plot, whichshowsthe telltale rapid drop
of well over 90° in the vicinity of 2 rad/s. The magnitudestarts to rise
noticeably for frequencies lower than one-quarter of this, however, which
doesn’t happen for sharp resonances, as can be verified by examination of
Fig. 6.13 (p. 423). Youalso knowthat there has to be at least two zeros
in the model(because of the pole-zero excess). Finally, observe that the
phase rises at low frequencies, which only can happen because of a zero
there. Puting this information together, you annotate the magnitude plot
as follows:
438 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

magnitude
ratio
1.0

~
second-order
polefirst-prd.e,r.ze.r,?,
0’ 10.01 .... (~.1 1:0 10 100
to, rad/s
The break frequency for the zero is merely guessed; in any case it is followed
by an asymptote with slope +1, as shown.
The break for the second zero must occur at some frequency above the
resonance, for otherwise the magnitude curve would not bend from a sharply
downward slope toward zero slope. Therefore, you try an asymptote with
slope -1 before this pole, as also shown by a dashed line above. You note
with pleasure that the two sloped asymptotes have a difference in slopes of
-2, which is precisely what the second-order pole demands. Further, the
intersection of these asymptotes is close to the peak of the resonance at
about 2 rad/s.
You now make adjustments to the asymptotes to make their intersection
more precisely align with the resonant frequency, and to take advantage of
the fact that at their respective breaks the deviation of the actual curves
from the intersection of the first-order zeros is v~, or about 3 db, plus
something more for being near the second-order pole. The result is:

magnitude
ratio
1.0

O. 0.01
1.0 10 100
a), rad/s
°90
zero’in’e’ft’-l~i ~ ’plan~~:::~’;~ ...........
phase
0o
[......~........zeroin right-halfplane
second-order
po~le.................
-90 °

°-180
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCYRESPONSE, 439

Your value of k = 0.5 is determined so that G(jO) 0. 5, as plotted. Not e

Msothat your transfer function gives G(joo) 0.2, a confirmation.
The damping ratio can be estimated by comparing the value of the
magnitudeat the resonanceto the intersection of the two asymptotesthere.
The ratio of the values is 5:1, whichequals 1/2¢, so that ~ = 0.1.
There is one ambiguity left to be resolved: the sign of the zeros. The
phaseincreases in the vicinity of the lowerzero, so it mustbe in the left-half
plane. Onthe other hand, the phase change due to the higher-frequencyzero
is negative, whichdictates the right-half plane. Thepresence of one zero in
the right-half plane is confirmedby the fact that the overall phase change
is -180°. Were this a miniumum-phase-lagsystem, the final phase would
be zero, because the pole-zero-excess is zero. The phase approximations
associated with the zeros are shownabove by dotted lines. The sum of
these, plus the 180° phase drop approximatingthe pole, is shownby dashed
lines. The differertces betweenthe actual curves and this approximationare
consistent with the plots of Figs. 6.11 and 6.13 (pp. 420, 423).
The resulting transfer function can be interpreted to give the following
differential equation, whichin turn could be used to solve for the response
of the systemto any other input:

d2x + 0.2~-~ + 4x du
d2u 1 8
-~
dt = -0"2~ 5 + " dt + 2u"

The procedure used in Example6.17 is one of manythat would arrive at

the same answer. The information is redundant. You should not attempt to
discover one procedurefor all cases. If you understand the individual effects,
you should be able to identify the wholepicture, as with a picture puzzle having
several pieces.

6.2.8 The Pure Delay Operator*

Imagine a pure-delay model, for which the step response is a step delayed
by T seconds, and the impulse response is a impulse delayed by T seconds, etc.
Transport and wave-like phenomenaare among those often approximated by
this model. To find its transfer function, imagine a sine waveof frequency w
which also is delayed by T seconds. If the frequency is one cycle in T seconds,
or ~ = 2~r/T rad/s or Tw= 2~r tad, the phase shift is -360° or -2~r radians. If
for examplethe frequency is halved, the phase shift is halved. Thusthe phase
shift, in general, equals Twradians, and the frequencytransfer function is

G(jw) = -jTw. (6.54)

This is representable by a phasor of unit length and angle Tw, since the pure
delay neither amplifies nor distorts the signal. The more general pure-delay
operator becomes
G(s) = e -Ts, (6.55)
440 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

so that
x(t) = e-Tsu(t) = u(t -- T). (6.56)
Since the magnitude of the pure delay operator is 1 while the phase lag is
non-zero, it must be a non-minimum-phase-lag operator. That is, it must have
zeros in the right-half plane. There are an infinity of such zeros, in fact, each
matched by a pole of the same magnitude in the left-half plane.
A crude approximation for a pure delay phasor is offered by the combination
of a single right-half-plane zero in combination with a single left-half-plane pole
of equal magnitude:
Gl(jw) _jwjw +- 2IT’
2IT (6.57a)

[Gl(jw)[ = (6.575)

/Gl(jw) =-2 tan-X (-~-~). (6.57c)

This is the crudest of a series of approximations to the pure delay in the form
of ratios of polynomials known as the Pade approximants (pronounced Pah-
day). The Pade approximant with third-order numerator and denominator is

G3(jw) -( Tjw)3 + 12(Tjw)2 - 60Tjw + 120 (6.58)

(Tjw) 3 + 12(Tjw) 2 + 60Tjw ÷ 120 ’

which also has unity magnitude for all frequencies, identical to the exact phasor
e-jTw. The phase angles are reasonably valid only for a restricted band of
frequencies which increases with the order of the approximant2, as indicated in
Fig. 6.17.

6.2.9 Summary
Sinusoidal excitations abound in the physical and engineering world, so the re-
sponse of engineering systems to these inputs is a major concern. The transfer
function G(S), when evaluated with S = jw, gives a complex number G(jw)
called a frequency transfer function. Its magnitude equals the ratio of the ampli-
tude of the sinusoidal response x(t) to the sinusoidal input u(t) at the frequency
w. Its phase angle equals the phase shift between the sinusoidal response and
the input. Plots of the logarithm of the magnitude ratio IG(j~)I and of the
phase shift versus the logarithm of the frequency are called Bode plots. The
quantity 20 loglo IG(jw)l, called decibels (db), often is chosen for the magnitude,
including by the bode routine of MATLAB.
Transfer functions for systems described by ordinary linear differential equa-
tions are ratios of polynomials which can be factored to reveal poles and zeros.
Models without damping have only even powers of S, so their frequency transfer
functions are real and their poles and zeros come in plus-and-minus imaginary
2The Control SystemToolboxof the professional version of MATLAB
includes a command
l~ade whichgenerates Pade approximantsof any order.
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQ UENCY RESPONSE 441

o0

phase

°-180

°
-360

°-540 I I I I ~, I
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
T~o

Figure 6.17: Phase lags of a pure delay and Pade approximants

pairs. The numberof resonant frequencies that the poles represent equals the
numberof degrees-of-freedomand one-half the order.
Models with damping include real poles and/or complex poles. Complex
poles and zeros comein complexconjugate pairs; it is convenientto leave their
polynomials in unfactored quadratic form. Each pair is describable in terms
of its natural frequency and dampingratio, and is associated with a degree-of-
freedom.Real poles occur in all first, third and other odd-orderedmodels, and
contribute exponential behavior that is either dampedor explosively unstable.
Fourth-order models, then, have two degrees of freedom, two natural frequen-
cies and two dampingratios, although if a dampingratio exceeds unity it is
preferable to factor the associated second-orderpolynomialinto two first-order
polynomials.
Bodeplots can be sketched quickly by first drawingtheir straight-line asymp-
totes and phase approximations. Conversely, the transfer function correspond-
ing to a given Bodeplot can be estimated by approximating these asymptotes
and phase approximations. As the frequency rises past a pole the slope of the
magnitude asymptote breaks downwardby an added -1; for a zero it breaks
upward by ÷1. This applies even to poles and zeros at the origin. Complex
poles cause resonancesin the vicinity of their second-order break frequencies,
while complexzeros cause notches. Each left-half-plane pole reduces the phase
asymptote by 90°, as does right-half-plane zeros. The opposite changes occur
for right-half-plane poles and left-half-plane zeros, although only zeros can be
in the right-half-plane without causing instability. As a consequence, models
442 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

q=ql sin ~

Figure 6.18: System for Guided Problem6.2

with only left-half-plane singularities are knownas minimum-phase; the phase

angles follow directly from the magnitudes,and vice-versa.
Modelswith right-half-plane zeros are non-minimum phase. The pure delay
function includes an infinity of right-half-plane zeros. Its approximationshave
a finite numberof such zeros.

Guided Problem 6.2

This is a classical elementary probleminvolving the undampedvibration of the
single-degree-of-freedomsystem shownin Fig. 6.18.
The objective is to comparethe amplitude of the steady-state displacement
of the block, ql, with the amplitude of the displacement of the bottom end of
the springs, q = q0 sin

Suggested Steps:

1. Model the system With a bond graph. Note that its input is the time
derivativeof q(t).

2. Write the state-variable differential equations for your model.

3. Combinethe differential equations to give a second-orderequation in terms

of a momentum.

4. Express the output variable of interest, ql, as a function of the momentum.

5. Determinea transfer function betweenthe input variable, q, and q~.:~Con-

vert this to a frequencytransfer function.

6. Either sketch the Bodeplot correspondingto the transfer function, or use

MATLAB.

7o Presumingthe mass is given, observe the approximate range of spring

constants, k, that would(i) keep the amplitudeof ql to within ten percent
of that of q, (ii) wouldkeep the amplitude of q~ to less than ten percent
of that of q.
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCYRESPONSE 443

Guided Problem 6.3

This problemregards the use of the phasor methodto find a frequencyresponse.
Combining the four first-order differential equations into a single fourth-order
differential equation is the mostdifficult part, unless matrix software is used;
both the use of MATLAB and detailed manual steps are indicated below. Plot-
ting is particularly simple if MATLAB is used.
The mechanical system shownin part (a) of Fig. 4.1 (p. 198) is excited
with the force F = F0 sin wt. Find the frequency transfer function for the
displacementof the massml relative to the exciting force, and plot its magnitude
and phase in Bodecoordinates. The parameters are as follows: rnl = 1 kg,
ms = 2 kg, kl = 25 N/m, k2 = 100 N/m, R = 0.25 N s/m.

Suggested Steps:

1. Find a bondgraph modelfor the system. (This is done in the solution to

GuidedProblem4.1, p. 203.)

2. Applycausal strokes, and write the four first-order differential equations

in the standard fashion.

If you wish to use MATLAB for finding the scalar transfer function of
interest, find the elements A, B, C, D of the state-variable formulation.
Then, use the MATLAB function ss2tf to find the answer.
If you wish to practice manualdetermination of the scalar transfer func-
tion, start by convertingthe differential equations to algebraic equations,
using the operator S =- d/dt. Steps 5-8 below complete this part of the
problem.

At this point it is possible to apply equation(5.47) (p. 347) to get a single

fourth-order equation in terms of one of the variables; your interest is in
the momentum of the first mass, which equals mlle. Since the matrix
operations required are awkwardwithout the use of appropriate software,
a different approachis suggested. Multiply the two most complexalgebraic
equations by S, and substitute the other two equations to eliminate two
of the four variables. Youshould be left with two equations in terms of
the two momenta.

Solve one of the equations to get the second momentum as a function of

the first (and the operator S), and substitute this into the other equation
to get the first momentum as a function of the input excitation.

7. Write pl/F as a ratio of polynomialsin S. Convert this to the ratio xl/F

by noting that Sx~ = p~/m~.

8. Substitute jw for S. The result is the frequencytransfer function G(jw).

444 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

0.1

0.001
]0 100 400
~o, rad/s

Figure 6.19: Bode plot for Guided Problem6.4

9. To compute and plot the frequency response, you can apply equations
(6.39) (p. 410), or use the bode command of MATLAB as illustrated above.
You have nowcompleted what, if done analytically in an introductory
course in vibrations, is usually considereda very difficult problem.

Guided Problem 6.4

This is a basic problemin the identification of a linear modelfromits frequency
response.
A Bodemagnitudeplo~ for a modelis given in Fig. 6.19. Assumingthe model
is minimumphase, (a) sketch-plot an approximation for the corresponding Bode
phase plot, and (b) estimate the correspondingfrequency transfer function.

Suggested Steps:

1. Estimate the asymptotes of the magnitudeplot, noting that their slopes

must be whole integers. The deviations of the curves from the asymptotes
can be appreciated with the help of Figs. 6.11, 6.12 and 6.13 (pp. 420-423).
2. Identify the break frequencies from your magnitudeasymptotes, and start
the phase diagramby sketching its corresponding horizontal asymptotes.
3. Note the sloped straight-line approximationfor the phaselag of first-order
poles and zeros given in Figs. 6.11, 6.12 and 6.16 (p. 436). Incorporate
this improvementinto your sketch whereverit applies.
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCYRESPONSE, 445

°
90

0.1 °
_90

°
-180

°
-270

0.01 r’-q~6360°
10 100
~ rad/s

Figure 6.20: Bode plot for GuidedProblem6.5

4. Completeyour phase estimate with a smooth curve.

5. Usethe break frequenciesyou have already identified to estimate the trans-
fer function.

Guided Problem 6.5

This problemillustrates the effect of right-half-plane zeros on the frequency
response of linear models.
Three stable models have the same Bodemagnitudeplot given in Fig. 6.20,
but different phase plots as shown. Estimate the corresponding transfer func-
tions.
Suggested Steps:

1. Estimate the asymptotesof the given magnitudeplot. Note that a second-

order zero has precisely the same form in Bodecoordinates as the cor-
responding second-order pole except for an opposite sign. Identify the
dampingcoefficient from the degree of inverse peaking. Write the transfer
function or functions, assumingall poles and zeros affect the plot. Rec-
ognize any ambiguitywhich nevertheless results in a stable system, which
the existance of the plot assumes.
2. Predict the phase angles using the results of step 1. Can a non-minimum
phase lag exist? Comparewith the given plots for the three cases, and
drawconclusions.
446 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

3. Additional phase lag with no effect on the magnitude can result from
symmetricplacementof one or more pairs comprisinga zero in the right-
half-plane and a pole in the left-half-plane, as in the Pade approximants
for a pure delay. A pure delay itself is included as a possiblility. Estimate
the actual case by focusing on the differences betweenthe phaselag of the
remaining unknownsystem and the phase lags of the two knownsystems.

PI~OBLEMS

6.18 Evaluate, directly from the given transfer function, the magnituderatio
and phase angle of the steady-state response of the modelgiven in Fig. 6.9 (p.
412) for sinusoidal excitations at 1 and 100 rad/s. Checkto see that they agree
with the plots.

6.19 Showfor what ratios of parameters the torsional system shown below
corresponds to the tuned vibration absorber shownof Example6.9 (p. 416).

6.20 A shaft with angular velocity ~ and applied momentMdrives the central
memberof a torsional vibration absorber that has a momentof inertia Id = O. 1
ft.lb.s. This memberin turn drives, through four springs as pictured below
(bearings not shown),a flywheel of momentof inertia I = 1.0 ft.lb. Eachspring
has stiffness k -- 500lb/ft, and the length a is 0.25 ft.

(a) Modelthe system with a bond graph.

(b) Evaluate the parameters of your model.
(c) Find a single differential equation relating $ to M.
(d) Find the steady-state amplitude of ~ in response to.an Mthat~
oscillatory at frequencyw. Sketch-plot this amplitudeas a function of w.
Does this system act as an ideal vibration absorber at somefrequency?
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCYRESPONSE 447

6.21 Return to Problem4.7 (p. 202) and Problem5.30 (p. 334) in which
effect of a drain tube placed through an eardrumis modeled.Find the transfer
function from the input Pin to the output Pe/Ie. (Your may use MATLAB’s
ss2tf.) Find and sketch the Bode magnitude asymptotes for the model, which
ignores dissipation, and compareto the corresponding modelwithout the tube.
Briefly discuss the anticipated consequencesthe tube has on hearing. Also,
speculate on the waythe inner ear compensatesfor the natural response, using
whatever knowledgeyou may have about hearing.

6.22 Find the steady-state force F(t) for the system shown below with x =
x0sin

6.23 An instrument transducer produces a signal that contains an unwanted

periodic noise signal at 60 Hz. The part of the signal of interest lies below5
Hz. The signal is received by a recording and display instrument that requires
negligible signal current, i.e. its input impedance is very high. A simple potential
solution employsan RCfilter, as shownbelow. Standard electrolytic capacitors
of 2, 5, 10 and 20 mf are available, as are the standard resistors of 10, 12, 15,
22, 27, 30, 33, 39, 43, 47, 51, 56, 62, 68, 75, 82, 91 kf~ and all factors of 10 lower
and higher.

Find a design, if it exists, that reduces the unwantedsignal by a factor of

at least 10 without reducing any of the wantedsignal by more than 40%,while
¯ keeping the current small. The instrument is inaccurate if more than 0.1 ma
peak-to-peak is drawnfrom the transducer for a signal of 4 volts peak-to-peak
at the 5 Hz.
6.24 Consider the classical case of sinusoidal position excitation of a mass-
spring-dashpot system shown on the next page. The objective is to choose
springs and the dashpot so that the motion of q produces little motion of ql.
(Note that this problemis similar to GuidedProblem6.2 (p. 442), except that
a dashpot has been introduced. The use of similar steps is suggested.)
448 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

q =qosln ~

(a) Model the system with a bond graph. (Hint: Two junctions
needed.)

(b) Determinea transfer function betweenthe input, q(t), and the output,
ql (t). Write the correspondingfrequencytransfer function.
(c) Determinewhether b should be large or small if the frequency is (i)
muchsmaller than the natural frequency of the system, wn, (ii) about the
sameas wn(iii) muchhigher than wn. Also, describe a design strategy
k as well as b can be chosen. Suggestion: Consider the nature of the Bode
plots for large and small amountsof damping,b.

6.25 A duct leads from a acoustic source to a resistive load; an exhaust pipe
from an engine is an example. In order to reduce the propagation of acoustic
pulsations in the flow, a Helmholtzresonator is attached, which comprises a
chamberwith fluid compliance, C, attached to the duct by a narrow entrance
with fluid inertance, I, as shownbelow.

duct ~
-~ Helrnholtz resonator

Q~ az ~-~

(a) Modelthe system with a bond graph.

(b) Writedifferential equations.

(c) Combinethe differential equations to get a second-order differential

equation with a momentum as the dependent variable.

(d) Relate this momentum

to the input flow, Q1. Also, relate the output
flow Q2 to this momentumand Q~, in order to get a transfer function
between Q1 and Q~.
(e) Sketch, or plot using MATLAB,
the Bodeplot for the particular case
which I = R2C/4 (The frequency Wn= 1/x/7-~ can be used as normalizing
frequencyto give a dimensionlessfrequencyratio.)
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCYRESPONSE 449

(f) Use the aboveresults to suggest the design of a muffler that would
effective over a range of frequencies.

6.26 A system with the transfer function

G(S)- $2lO0(S
+2S+10
I)
0
is excited by the disturbance

u(t) -- 4sin |-’" t| 0 < t < 2.5sec

\5]
=0 t _> 2.5sec
(a) Find the homogeneous
solution xh(t).
(b) Find the particular solution xp(t) valid for 0 < t < 2.5 seconds. (Use
of the phasor methodis suggested.)
(c) SumXh(t) and xp(t) to get the completesolution valid for 0 < t < 2.5
seconds. Evaluate the undeterminedcoefficients using the knowninitial
conditions x(0) -- 0, 5~(0)
(d) Find x(2.5) and :~(2.5), and use these as initial conditions for
solution for t >_ 2.5 seconds.

6.27 Find an approximate numerical solution to the previous problem using

the :[s±m commandof MATLAB.

6.28 The systemrepresented in Fig. 6.9 (p. 412) is excited by the samedistur-
bance as the two previous problems.

(a) Find the response analytically, following the steps given for the first
of these problems.
(b) Find the response numerically, following the steps given for the second
of these problems.

6.29 The impedanceof a spring is 1/CS in terms of the operator S, and 1/Cjw
in terms of the frequency w. The factor 1/j = -j describes the fact that the
force lags the velocity by 90°, or is in phase with the displacement. Sometimes
a servo system is designed to imitate a spring, but produces a force that lags
the displacementsomewhat,or lags the velocity by a little morethan 90°; it can
be described as a "spring with a lag." Yourtask is to determinethe stability of
a system comprising a mass connected to ground through such a "spring," and
what effect is producedby adding a dashpot. The following steps are intended
to help, but are not mandatory.
450 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

(a) Represent the system (without the dashpot) with a bond graph.
can invent a symbol,such as Z, to represent the "spring."
(b) Characterize the "spring" by its impedanceas a function of frequency;
choose some reasonable assumption to represent the small added phase
lag.
(c) Transformthe result of part (b) into a function of
(d) Write the differential equation for the system in operational form,
using the result of part (c).
(e) Use the result of part (d) to find the characteristic values that deter-
minethe stability.
(f) Modifyyour modelto represent the addition of a dashpot betweenthe
mass and ground. Repeat step (d) and (e).
(g) Repeat part (f), instead placing the dashpot between the mass
the spring.

6.30 You are asked to determine the transmission of sound through a wall
comprisinga single sheet of plaster 3/8 inch thick, whichis very thin compared
with the acoustic wavelengthsof interest. Thespecific gravity of plaster is 1.8,
and its material dampingis virtually nil. The acoustic impedancefor plane
wavesentering a large space such as a roomis a resistance of magnitude2.67
lb.s/ft 3, whichrepresents a ratio of pressure changeto velocity change.

(a) Modelthe wall so as to permit estimation of the ratio of the trans-

mitted to incident sound pressure, Pt/Pi. Neglect the effect of motion of
the plaster on the incident soundpressure, and neglect the effect of any
mechanicalsupports for the plaster.
(b) Evaluate the ratio for (i) 100 Hz (deep bass) (ii) 2000Hz (soprano).
Express the answersin decibels (db), whichare defined as 20 loglo(Pt/Pi
).
(Note that humanscan detect loud sounds despite attenuations of 50 db
and occasionally even 100 db.) Whatwouldrock music sound like on the
quiet side?
(c) A double wall is constructed with the same plaster sheets and a
inch air space in between. Repeat pa~ts (a) and (b) above, assuming
mechanicalconnection betweenthe two layers. Do your results suggest the
acoustic significance of the mechanicalconnections conventionally used to
strengthen the wall?
(d) Design problem. Designa practical non-load-bearinginterior wall for
sound isolation, using plaster sheets and steel supports. Defendyour de-
sign in terms of strength and other practical considerations as well as its
acoustic properties.
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQ UE‘NCY RESPONSE, 451

6.31 Sketch the Bodediagramfor the modeldescribed by the following transfer

function:
S2 + 20S
G(s) = $3 4S2 + 104S + 200

6.32 Sketch Bode plots for the models described by the following minimum-
phase and nonminimum-phasetransfer functions. Find and plot their responses
to a unit step input.

1
G~(S)= ~(I+ TS); G2(S) = ~(1-TS)

6.33 Find the transfer functions for the two systems characterized with Bode
plots in Example6.16 (p. 435). Note that magnitudeasymptotes and straight-
line phase approximations have been drawn already.

6.34 Estimate the transfer function for the system that produces the Bodeplot
below.

100

magnitude
ratio

10

0.1 1.0 10 100

frequency, rad/s
452 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

6.35 Answerthe previous question for the Bodeplot below.

1.0 I0 ~, rad/s I00 I000

I00 ° ........
_ .
°:
_-100 .:
~"~ ~
-2000 : ............. I . ~

6.36 Answerthe previous question for the Bodeplot below.

0ilO0

o-150

01 I I I IIIll I I I Illlll\ I I I lllll

01 1 0 ea rad/s 10~, 100

o-250
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCYRESPONSE 453

6.37 A simple untuned viscous damper replaces the spring of the tuned
vibration absorbers above with a dashpot, as shownbelow.

(a) Showthat the ratio of the force on the support to the force F
Fosinwt applied to the mass Mhas the amplitude

~ + 4~2/r
2~kxo[
= fl(1 - ~)2 + ~’4~’- (1 +r)f~] ]1/2
where ~ = (w/wn)2; n2 = k/M; ;= b/2v~(kM); and =r m/M.

(b) The best design maybe the one that minimizesthe peak value of the
force ratio found in part (a). For this, the derivatives of the force ratio
with respect to fl and with respect to ¢ should vanish. Showthat the
latter requirement gives the following frequency at the minimumpeak:
tip = 2/(2 + r). Also, showthat the minimum value of the peak is 1 + 2/r,
showingthe need for a heavy mass m.
(c) Employthe first derivative condition noted aboveto establish the fol-
lowingrelation for the associated dampingratio: ¢ = v/r/2(1 + r)(2 +

6.38 A tall building sways excessively in the wind. It is proposed to place a

heavy mass on the roof that can moveback and forth on rollers, and which is
constrained by a hydraulic damperas shown:

~per

A soft spring (not shown)tends to center the mass, without materially af-
fecting the dynamics, so the dampernever gets over or under-extended. The
building swaysin its first modeof vibration, whichhas a period of ten seconds;
the wind force produces a synchronouscomponent.The stiffness of the building
referencedto the lateral motionat the roof is 4.0 x 10s lb/ft.
(a) Model the system with no internal dampingand no added mass and
damper, and evaluate the effective mass.
(b) Addthe inherent internal dampingwhich gives a dampingratio
0.01, and find the ratio of the maximum displacementat the roof level to
the amplitudeof an effective sinusoidal force applied at that level.
454 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

(c) Introduce the added mass and damper, and write the corresponding
differential equations. Solve for the ratio of the displacement amplitude
of the top of the building to the amplitude of the applied force.

6.39 Design problem. Specify the parameters of a damping system for the
building of the previous problem. Tuned and untuned damper designs are pos-
sible. An equivalent damping ratio (for a building with no damping system)
0.02 is desired (doubling the inherent damping), and 0.03 is excellent. There
is concern that the added mass not be too heavy for the structure to support,
and that the motion of the mass relative to the building not be too great. Use
the information given and whatever judgements you can defend. Describe the
behavior of your solution quantitatively, and report the method by which it was
chosen.

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 6.2

1-2. I Don’t confuse q with qc = q- ql.

0 --~ C dqc 1

I~=qoeacos
d--~ = O(t) - ~p.

s~

d2p ldqc 1 [ 1 ]
dt ~ = C dt - C (l(t) -

In operator form, S 2 + ~ p(t) = -~q

( 1)
4. ql =q-qc=q-CSp

q~=q-CSsz:Cl/1Cq= 1 8~¢T/1C q= S~-~-~-IC,]q

IG(Jw)l [ ’ ]
= 1 - (w/u,): q; ~ = --~
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQ UENCY RESPONSE 455

0"1.~
0
o.o~

(i) For the amplitude ratio to be within ten percent of 1, the frequency square
of the ratio, (w/wn)2, should be less than about 0.1. (The small range of
alternative possible values at slightly above 1.0 is likely of no practical use.)
2.
Therefore, k > lOmw
(ii) For the amplitude ratio to be less than 0.1, (w/w,~)2 must be greater than
about 3.3. Therefore, k < 2.
0.3row

Guided Problem 6.3

1. l~rom the solution to part (a) of GuidedProblem4.1 (p. 203):

rx~ i-~x2 1~ = tn I = 1 kg CI = 1/k~ = 1/25 m/N

12 = rth = 2 kg C2= 1/k2 = 1/100 m/N
F ~
R = 0.25 N s/m
ez) = R(p~/ll-p2/1

q~/C~
2/C2 +e~/It-pz/12x
F 1.~
~
~ .o ~ 1.~
~
c~ ~
meshreducti°~-"/~[L~°l/I’
0 ,--’~~. 1 ~-~-~C2
x(x~
P2/~.I
I, ~ I2 I, P~p2 /I2
R
dq~ 1 1

d~ 1

dp~ 1 1 1 1 R R

0
d ~ = ~ 0 0 1/I~
~ ~
[ql] [ -~/c~ o -RH~ R/h ~ +
p~ L 1/C~ -1/C2 1/11-1/I~]
R/I~ -R/h [ql]
456 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

0 0 .
Therefore, A= 0
-25 0 -.25 0.125 | and B --
25 -100 .25 -.125J
Lety=pl--[0010]x, sothat C--[0010]andD=0.
With these values, the MATLAB
command[z,p] =ss2tf (,~,B,C,D) gives the
response

0 1.0000 0.1250 62.5000 0

p = 1.0e+003 *
0.0010 0.0004 0.0875 0.0125 1.2500
The accuracy of the second coefficient in the last line above can be increased b:
typing p(2), whichgives the response 0. 375.
1 1

Sx2 =
1 R R

1 1 R R

1 (1 1 ) 1 RS RS

or, combining terms,

( $2+ 12 +~+ S+
= (5

6. Since it is desired to keep pl, solve the second equation above for p2 = p2(pl):
(R/11)5"-}- 1/I~CI 0.255’ + 25
p2 -- S2 + (R/I2)S + 1/I~C1 + 1/I2C~pl : S2 p~
+ 0.125S + 62.5
Substituting this into the first equation above gives
(0.1255’÷ 12.5)(0.255’25).J Pl __-- 5"f
S2 ÷.25S ÷ 25 -
I S~ ÷0.125S + 62.5

7. x_~: p__L~: S2 +0.125S+62.5

F SF S’~ ÷ 0.375S a ÷ 12.5S ÷ 1250
(jw)2 ÷ 0.125jw-t- 62.5
8. G(jw) = (jw),~ 0. 375(jw)3 ÷ 87.5(jw) 2 ÷ 12.5jw ÷ 1250
6.2. SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCY RESPONSE 457

The MATLAB commands

hum=J1 .125 62.5];

den=It .375 87.46875 12.5 1250];
bode(num,den
produce the screen display below, which shows two modestly damped resonant
frequencies:

IIII I I I I I IIII~
10-~ 0
10 ~
10 10
Frequency
(rod/sec)

Guided Problem 6.4

1. 1

20",\ 80\

0.1 : 50 "\~

0.001

°
°90
2 straight-line approximations

°180
10 ~, rad/s 100 400
458 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

The magnitude plot clearly indicates the presence of a first-order pole at

roughly 5 rad/s and an underdampedsecond-order pole pair at approximately
80 rad/s. Attempting this combinationby itself produces an asymptote for the
high freqencies whichis far belowthe data, however.A closer look also reveals
that the asymptote for the upper frequency range has a slope of -2, not the
-3 associated with three poles and no zero. These facts identify the presence
of a first-order zero. A goodapproachto locating all the poles and zeros starts
with approximating the asymptotes immediately after the first pole and after
the complexpole pair. Then, a horizontal asymptote is drawn to locate the
resonance at about 80 rad/s. The intersection of this asymptote with the first
asymptote locates the zero at about 20 rad/s. Finally, the peak of the res-
onace is at a factor of roughly 4 above the intersection of the corresponding
asymptotes. This gives a dampingratio of ~ = 1/(2 x 4) = 1/8.
2.-4. The horizontal asymptotes for the phase drop down90° at the first pole (5
rad/s.), rise back to ° at t he zero ( 20 tad/s), a nd drop t o -180° at t he complex
pole pair (80 tad/s). The straight-line approximationsfor the first-order pole
and zero, shownin dashed lines, spreads each rise or fall over two decades.
The sumof these approximations is given by solid straight-line segments. The
actual phase curve nowcan be estimated, as shownby a curved straight line.
The behavior near the second-order pole pair is estimated with the help of Fig.
6.19, recognizing the value of ¢.
1600(S + 20)
5. The transfer function is very close to G(S) = (S -I- 5)(S2 + 20S ÷ 6400)

Note that the number6400 is w~, the number1600 is chosen to give G(jO) =
and the coei~icient 20 for the damping equals 2¢w,. The substitution S
jw can be used to check the magnitude plot and possibly refine the transfer
function, and to refine the phase plot.

Guided Problem 6.5

1. Five features of the given magnituderatio are evident. First, the asymptote
for low frequencies has a slope of -1, which meansghat G(S) has a factor of
1IS. Second, there is a second-order zero at 10 rad/s, which meansthat the
numerator of G(S) has a factor of S~ + 2~10S + (10) 2. The corresponding
asymptote in the region immediately above 10 rad/s has a slope of 1. Third,
the value of 1/2¢ is 5, since this is the ratio of the asymptotesat w -- 10 to the
actual magnitudeat that frequency. Therefore, ¢ -- 0.1. Fourth, the asymptote
for high frequency is horizontal at the magnitudeof 0.5. The intersection of
this asymptote with the asymptote in the region immediately above the zero
gives a pole with break frequency 50 rad/s. Fifth, the value of [G(S)[ at w =
is 1.0. Putting these five conclusions together gives
82 ± 2S + 100 100 - w2 + j2w
G(S) = 2S(S+ 50) so that G(jw) = 2jw(jw 50)

The ± in the numerator recognizes the possibility that the zero could lie in
the right-half plane. The pole, on the other hand, must lie in the left-half
plane; otherwise, the system would be unstable and the frequency transfer
function never could have been measured. This transfer function overlooks the
possibility of pole-zero combinations for which the magnitudescancel, but the
phase angles do not.
6.3. TRANSFER FUNCTION EXPANSION 459

( ±2w
/ G(ju~) = tan-l \ ~-~--~ ] - tan-l ( 5_--Ow
Note that a negative denominatorfor the argumentof an inverse tangent places
the angle in the second or third quadrant, whereasa negative numerator places
the angle in the third or fourth quadrant. A check of a few values shows that
the plus sign in the numerator gives the proper phase for case (a), and the
minussign gives the proper phase for case (b).
The phase for case (c) is virtually identical to that for case (a) for low
quencies, but a gradual discrepancy apprears shortly above the notch or anti-
resonance which appears to accelerate for higher frequencies. Apparently some
magnitude-cancellingpole-zero pairs exist. If the phase difference betweenthe
two cases is examinedas a function of linear frequency, on the other hand,
it can be seen to increase at a steady rate of 0.9 degrees per radian/second,
reaching 90° at 100 rad/s and 360° at 400 rad/s. This reveals a pure delay of
T = 2~/400 seconds, so the transfer function becomes

S2 + 2S + 100 -(~/2oo)s
G(S)
2s(s + 50)

6.3 Transfer Function Expansion

The direct method for finding the response of a high-order model to an impulse
or step requires tedious application of the initial conditions. This awkwardness
can be circumvented by decomposing the model into a sum of first and second-
order models, each of which has a relatively simple response. The decomposition
is called a partial fraction expansion.
A complex excitation signal usually can be considered to be the response
of a special system to an impulse excitation. The response of a model to this
excitation then can be found by multiplying the transfer functions of the special
system and the model, applying the partial fraction expansion to the product,
finding the impulse response of the simple component models, and summingthe
results. Almost all time responses to transient inputs of linear models can be
found this way. Details follow.
The partial fraction expansion also is a tool in the application of Laplace
transforms, a powerful formalism closely related to the present techniques.
Laplace transforms are treated in Section 7.2.

6.3.1 Impulse Responses

You have seen that the MATLAB commands ±repulse and step produce plots
and/or data files for the impulse and step responses of linear models. The
commandls±m extends this capability to more general disturbances. In this
subsection, analytic functions of time are found for the impulse response, and
in the following subsection analytic responses are found for the step and other
excitations. The algebraic details that establish the coefficients can be found
with the aid of MATLAB,reducing drudgery.
460 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

The partial fraction expansion of a transfer function G(S) with distinct poles
is

G(S)- rl t- r2 ÷’"+~+rnkiS).l (6.59)

S - pl ~ S - p,~
I
A pole pj of multiplicity m expands as follows:

Is -
rj ÷ rj+l ÷ ...
(s- p )2
÷ rj+m-1 ~ (6.60)

Analytical methods for carrying out this expansion are given in Section 6.3.3.
You alternatively can use the MATLAB command residue, which requires
that you have previously defined the numerator and denominator polynomials
of G(S), hum and den, in the standard way.

EXAMPLE 6.18
Use MATLAB to find the partial-fraction expansion of the fifth-order trans-
fer function of Example 6.14 (pp. 431,433), for which

200,000
G(S) = $5 26sa + 2225S3 + 4900S: + 240,500S + 200,000

Solution: The coding

hum = 200000;
den = [1 26 2225 42700 240500 200000] ; ’
[r,p,k] = residue(num,den)
produces
the response
r =
0.0234 + 0.00721
0.0234 - 0.0072i
-1.2838
-10.8401
1.2370

-2.5000 + 44.6514i
-2.5000 - 44.6514i
-10.0000
-i0.0000
-1.0000
=
k

[]
6.3. TRANSFER FUNCTION EXPANSION 461

The term k is blank; there is no remainder. Thus,

0.0234 + 0.0072j 0.0234 - 0.0072j

G(S) -S ÷ 2.5 - 44.6514j + S + 2.5 + 44.6514j

1.2838 10.8401
1.2370
2
S ÷ I0 (S ÷ 10) S ÷ 1

Eachtermin a partial-fraction expansion contributes separatelyto theim-

pulseresponse.Thepossible termsarelistedin the left-hand columnof Table
6.2,andthe corresponding impulse responses arelistedin the right-hand col-
umn.Entry#I represents an identity. The mostusefulentryis #4,r/(S-pl).
As notedin Section
6.1.7(p. 400),thisgivesthe impulse response
rep’t;the
polePl equalsminusthereciprocal of thetimeconstant, T, asgivenin equation
(6.28).Entry#2 is merelythe special caseof Pl = 0. Entry#7 represents
complex-conjugate
pairof polesin theformthatresults physically,
thatis the
formwhichhas onlyre~ltermsin the impulse response. Itsimpulseresponse
canbe found,again,as a special caseof entry#4. It is helpful to notethe
identity
S: - 2prS + (P~r + P~) =- (S - pr) 2 + p~. (6.61)
A pure imaginary pair of poles is represented by the special case with Pr = 0.
Entries #3, #5 and #6 represent multiple real poles. They can be verified by
direct substitution into the differential equations that they represent.

Table 6.2 Transfer Functions and Associated Impulse Responses

G(S) ImpulseResponses, g(t), t >_ 0

r rS(t)
r

r rtm-1

(m - 1)!
r
S
trteP~
~
(S - pl)
r
trn_lePl
t
m
(S - pl) (m - 1)!
rr + rij rr -
S - Pr - Pij +S - Pr + p~j
_ 2rr(S - Pr) - 2ripi
2ep’t [r~ cos(pit) - ri sin(pit)]
(s - p~)2+
462 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

EXAMPLE 6.19
Find the impulse response of the fifth-order model of Examples 6.14 (pp.
431, 433) and 6.18 using the results of the latter and Table 6.2. Check to
see if it agrees with the plot in Example6.14.
Solution: The respective terms in the impulse response are given by entries
#7, #4, #5 and #4 in the table:

g(t) =2e-2’st [0.0234 cos(44.6514 t) - 0.0072 sin(44.6514

- 1.2838e-l°t - 10.8401 te -l°~ + -~.
1.2370e
Nearly all the terms in expansions of any order are addressed in the example
above, so very few situations require additional information or calculation.

6.3.2 Step and Other Transient Responses

The unit impulse is the time derivative of the Unit step, as noted in Section
6.1.2. In operator notation,
1
~(t) = S u,(t) or us(t) = -~ 5(t). (6.62)

The step response, designated h(t), is therefore the time integral of the impulse
response, designated g(t), as noted in Section 6.1.8 (p 401). As a result,

h(t) = G(S)us(t) = -~ 5(t). (6.63)

If you want to find h(t), therefore, you can first find g(t) and then integrate
over time. More simply, you can replace G(S) with G(S)/S and carry out the
process for finding the impulse response as detailed above. The replacement is
accomplished by multiplying the denominator polynomial in G(S) by S. This
increases the order of each term in the polynomial by one, and adds a zero as
the new zeroth-order coefficient.
EXAMPLE 6.20
Find the step response for the model of Examples 6.14, 6.18 and 6.19.
Solution: First, a zero is added to the end of the list of polynomial coeffi-
cients in the denominator, as follows:
den = [i 26 2225 42700 42500 200000 0];
The resulting poles are unchanged, except for the addition of p -- 0. There
is again no remainder. The numerator coefficients change, however:

0.0001 - 0.0005±
0.0001 + 0.0005±
O. 2368
i. 0840
-1. 2370
1.0000
6.3. TRANSFER FUNCTION EXPANSION 463

The complete step response nowcan be asssembled as

h(t) =2e-2’5~ [0.0001cos(4.6514t) - 0.0005 sin(4.6514t)]

÷ 0.2368e-l°t ÷ 1.0840re-mr - 1.2370e-~ ÷ 1.

The sine and cosine terms happento be essentially negligible.

Excitations other than steps also can be related to an impulse by transfer

functions. The excitation u(t) is related to the impulse ~(t) in Fig. 6.21 by the
transfer function G~(S),and in turn is related to the output variable x(t) by the
transfer function G(S). The two transfer functions are cascaded. Their product
then becomesan overall transfer function G~(S) between(~(t) x(t)
EXAMPLE 6.21
Find the transfer function G~(S)that gives the same response whenexcited
by a unit impulse ~(t) as a modelwith transfer function G(S) gives when
excited by u(t) = Uoe-~/~, ~ > O.
Solution: Accordingto entry #4 in Table 6.2, the given input is the unit
impulse response of a systemwith transfer function
u0
=
The relation between the impulse and the response becomes

z(~) = ~(S)~(~) = C~(S)C(S)~(~)

S ÷ I/T
Tocompute theresponse,
therefore,
youintroduce
a factor
(S+ 1/~)tothe
denominator
ofthetransfer
function
andproceed
asifsolvingforanimpulse
response.

This procedureis developedfurther through the use of the Laplace transform

in Section 7.2. It has broad utility in the consideration of control systems, as
presented in Chapter 8. In particular, a table of "Laplace transform pairs,"
given in AppendixC, relates transfer functions G~(S) or G~(S) to a considerably
greater variety of signals u(t) or x(t), respectively, than those given in Table

or

Figure 6.21: Cascading two transfer functions to relate .the response of the
second to an input impulse rather than its actual input
464 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

6.2. (The operator S is written as a lower case s.) Youmayuse this table now,
without formal study of the transforms.

6.3.3 Determination of Partial Fraction Expansions

Partial fraction expansions can be found through the use of the MATLAB func-
tion residue, as described above. They also can be found analytically, as
described presently.
A transfer function G(S) that is a ratio of polynomials in S, i.e. G(S)
N(S)/D(S), with the order of N(S) being no higher than that of D(S), can
be expanded with no remainder. In the unusual cases where the order of N(S)
exceeds that of D(S), D(S) can be divided into N(S) to give a new N(S) with
the same order as D(S) plus a remainder polynomial in S. This first step, if
necessary, is presumedbelow to have been executed already.
’ In the simplest cases the polynomial D(S) has distinct real roots, as in
equations (6.59) (p 460), and the remainderk(S) is zero. Thecoefficients ri are
called residues. They can be determinedby multiplying both sides of equation
(6.59) by S - Si and then setting S equal to S~.
EXAMPLE 6.22
Evaluate the residues rl, r2 and r3 of the transfer function

G(S)= S(S+21)(S 5)= rl~+ ~ +

r2
S +~’ r3
which has the impulse response

g(t) = rl + r2e-t -5t.

+ r3e

Solution: To find r~, for whichS~ = 0, multiply both sides of the equation
by S and then set S -- 0:
2
lim SG(s) = lim (r r2S r3S "~
s-~o s-~o(S+ 1)(S+-5)-s-~olim\1
-~- ~--~ ~-S -[- 5,] ’

This gives
2
rl- (0+1)(0+5) - 0.4.

To find r~, for which $2 = -1, multiply G(S) by S + 1 and set S = -1:

s]i_,m_~(S
+ 1)G(S)= sli_,m_~
S(S+ 5)
r~. r~(s+ 1)]
-"
--+-~+ s+5 J"
This gives
2
r2 - (-1)(-1+

The same procedure gives ra = 0.1.

6.3. TRANSFER FUNCTION EXPANSION 465

Whena pair of distinct roots are complex conjugate, the same procedure can
be applied to get the real and imaginary terms rr and ri of entry #7 in Table
6.2 (p. 463). It is simpler to get these coefficients, however, by leaving the sum
of the complex conjugate terms of the transfer function in the alternative real
form. A compromise strategy starts by evaluating the residues for any distinct
real poles using the method above. Then, multiply both sides of the equation
by the denominator of the transfer function (so the left side of the equation
becomes the original numerator) and proceed to evaluate the coefficients. This
procedure will provide one redundant check on the results for each real root
previously evaluated.

EXAMPLE 6.23
Find the partial fraction expansion and the unit impulse response for the
model with the transfer function

5S2 + 22S + 39
G(S) = 2 + 2S+ 5)( S + 2

Solution: Expand G(S) as follows:

5S2 + 22S+ 39 - aS + b + c
(S + 2S+ 5)(S + 2) (S 2 + 4 S + 2
2

Next, find c by multiplying both sides by S + 2 and then setting S -- -2:

2O - 44 + 39
c- -3.
4-4+5
Then, multiply both sides of G(S) by the denominator:

5S2 + 22S+ 39 = (aS + b)(S 2) + 3 (S2 + 2 s + 5 )

= (3 + a)S2 + (2a + b + 6)S + (25 + 15).

A comparison of the coefficients of the polynomials in S gives a = 2 and

b -- 12, plus a check. (Had c not been found first, this comparison would
have given three equations with three unknowns, permitting c to be found
anyway, without the check.)
The part of the impulse response corresponding to the second-order pole
is found using entry #7 in Table 6.2 (p. 461), which gives

-b - 2rrPr
2rr--a--2; 2ri- - 5.
Pi
The complete impulse response becomes

g(t) = -2t + (2cos2t

-t. + 5si n2t)e
466 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

The same methodcan be used in the case of multiple roots, except table
entries #5 and #6 are used instead of #7.

EXAMPLE 6.24
Find the partial fraction expansion and the unit impulse response for a
modelwith the transfer function

3G(S)= $2+2S+3
(S+1)

Solution: First, G(S) is expandedacdording to equation (6.60) (p. 460):

S2 + 2S + 3 a3 a2
(S + 1)3 = (S + 1)----~ + (S + 1)----~ + (~ + 1----~;
Multiplying by the denominator,

(S + 1)3G(S) 2 + 2S + 3= a3+ (S + 1)a2 + (S ÷ 1)2 al

= aiS2 + (2a~ + a2)S + (a~ + a2 a3).

Therefore,

a~ = 1; 2a~ + a2 = 2; al + a2 + a3 = 3,

from which a~ = 1, a~ = 0, a3 = 2. The impulse response (entries #4 and

#6 in Table 6.2, p. 461) is

g(t) = t2e -t + O + e-t -t

= ,(l+t~)e t >_O.

6.3.4 Summary
The transfer function of most high-order models can be represented as a sum
of transfer functions of first-order and second-order modelsthrough a partial-
fraction expansion. (The only exceptions are models with more than one re-
peated real root or a repeated complexpair.) Thus the step and impulse re-
sponses of most high-order models can be found without having to determine
the coefficients of the respective terms by the relatively laborious procedureof
substituting the initial conditions into the general solution and its several deriva-
tives. The work is expedited through the use of Table 6.2, or a corresponding
table of Laplace transforms such as given in AppendixC. The formalismof these
transforms, along with a broader class of applications, is given in Section 7.2.
Systeminputs other than impulses often can be treated as the output of a
second system with an impulse input. The product of the associated transfer
function with the transfer function of the systemitself transforms the problem
into one with an impulse input.
The cascading of transfer functions can be generalized to address a variety
6.3. TRANSFER FUNCTION EXPANSION 467

of problems regarding the control of engineering and physical systems, as is

introduced in Chapter 8.

Guided Problem 6.6

This is a basic problemin which the temporal response of a linear modelto a
disturbance is found using operators and a partial fraction expansion.
A modeldefined by the differential equation

d2 x 2 dx
dt "-~ + dt + 8x = u(t)
is excited by the disturbance

u(t) = 3(1 - e-t/2).

Find an analytic expression for x(t).

Suggested Steps:

1. Write the differential equation in operator form, and deduceG(S).

2. Notethat the first term in u(t) is a constant, so its contributionto x(t) is
that of a step response. Find the correspondingoperator Gul (S) by which
G(S) is multiplied in treating the problemlike an impulse response.
3. Note that the other term in u(t) is a decaying exponential. Find the
corresponding operator Gu2(S) by which G(s) is multiplied to give an
equivalent transfer function for an impulseinput, using Table6.2 (p. 461).
4. Sumthe operators from steps 2 and 3 to get G~(S).
5. Multiply G~(S) by G(s) to get the equivalent transfer function G~(S)
which treats the problemlike an impulse response. Determineits numer-
ator and denominator polynomials.
6. Use the MATLAB commandresidue to implement a partial fraction ex-
pansion of the modifiedtransfer function, or
7. Determinethe partial fraction expansionanalytically.
8. Assemblex(t) from the information given by steps 6 or 7, again using
Table6.2.

PROBLEMS

6.40 Verify the equality of the complexand real expressions for G(S) given in
entry #7 of Table 6.2 (p. 461).

6.41 Find partial fraction expansions for the following:

468 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

1
(a) G(S) = (S 1)(S + 2)(S +~

S+ 1
(b) G(S) = S(S 2)(S+3)

(c) ¢(s)=
(S+1)2(S+2)
2S2 + 6S + 7
(d) G(S)=
(S + 2)(S2 + 2S + 2)

6.42 For the model, input, and initial conditions

d3x d2x "3 dx

dt 3 + 3-~y + -~ + 2x = 6(t), x(O) = O, ~c(O) = O, Y;(O)

(a) Identify G(S).

(b) Factor G(S).

(c) Performa partial fraction expansion of G(S).

(d) Find x(t).

6.43 Find the transfer function G~(S) that relates an impulse input 6(t)
the function u(t) c(1 - e-t/T). Hints: This u(t) is proportional to thetime
integral of e-t/T , whichis treated in Example6.21. Alternatively, the procedure
used in Guided Problem6.6 can be used.

6.44 Find the solution to the second-order problem

d2z 2dz x(0)= 0; ~(0)

dt "-T + dt + 5x = 3(1- e-2t);
using the techniques Of the present section. Compareyour solution to the clas-
sical methodapplied to this problem in Example6.3 (pp. 398-399). Hint: See
the preceding problemfor help in finding Gu(S).

6.45 Revisit Guided Problem 6.1 (p. 403), substituting the methods of the
present section. The following steps are suggested:

(a) Theinput signal, u(t) = sin(0.95wnt)for t > 0 but u(t) = 0 for t < 0,
can be considered to result from an impulse exciting an undampedsecond-
order model. Determinethe transfer function Gu (S) for that model.
6.3. TRANSFER FUNCTION EXPANSION 469

(b) Find the transfer function G(S) for the given system, and multiply it
by Gu(S) to get the equivalent transfer function G~(S).

(c) Employa partial-fraction expansion on G~(S).

(d) Use the result of part (c) to find the response, x(t).

6.46 Determine the response of the system with the transfer function below to
the given input excitation. You may use MATLAB.

12
G(S) = (S 1)(S 2 + S + 4) u(t) te -3t.

SOLUTION TO GUIDED PROBLEM

Guided Problem 6.6
1
1. (S~ + 2S + 8)x = u(t). Therefore, G(S) ~ + 2S + 8"
S
2. The step response is the time integral of the impulse response,
so G~I(S) = 3/S.
3. u~(t) -3e-t/~, soent ry #4 in Table 6.2 (p. 461)appli es with r = - 3 an
p = -0.5. Therefore, G~(S) = -3/(S 0. 5).
3 3 1.5
4. au(s)=GuI(S)-I-Gu2(S)= S+0.5 - S( S+0.5)

1 1.5 1.5
5. G~= ~+2S+8
S S~+0.5S 4+
= 2.5S3+9S2+4S+0"
S
6. The MATLABprogramming
n = 1.5;
d=[1 2.5 9 4 0];
[r,p,k]=residue (n,d)
produces
theresponse

0.0194+ 0.0318i
0. 0194- 0.0318i
-0.4138
0.3750
p=
-I.0000+ 2.6458i
-I.0000- 2.6458i
-0.5000
0
k=
[]
470 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

~ 1.5 1.5
7. (S 2q_2S_bs)S(S.b0.5) = S2q-2Sq-8 + (0q-0-bS)(0q-0.5)
aS+b[ ]1

+ [(-.05)~ + 2(-0.5)+ 8](-.05) o.5

- aS ÷ b 3/8 12/29
S~+2S+8 S S+0.5
Multiplying both sides by (S2 + 2S q- 8)S(S ÷ 0.5) gives

1.5= (aS +5)(S ~_(S

~+0.5s)+ ~+28+8)(s+0.5)-~(s 12 3 ~+88)
+28
= (a - 0.0388)Sa q- (0.5a -b b q- 0.1099)S~ ÷ (0.55 q- 0.0647)S-b 1.5
Setting the coefficient of the S3 term equal to zero gives a = 0.0388, and setting
the coefficient of the S term equal to zero gives b -- -0.1293. These values satisfy
setting the coefficient of the S~ term equal to zero, whichserves as a check. The
values of p~ = 1 and pl = 2.6458 come from the factoring S2 + 2S + 8 = (S
1)~ + (2.6458)2. The values of rr and ri are rr = a/2 = 0.0194 and ri = (-b/2
rrp~)/pi = 0.0318. These values agree with the results of MATLAB found in step
7.
8. From entries #2, #4 and #7 in Table 6.2,
x(t) 2e-~[0.0194 cos(2.6458t) - 0.0318 sin(2.6458t)] - 0.4138e-°’St ÷ 0.375

6.4 Convolution*
The property of superposition has been emphasized repeatedly, most notably in
Sections 3.5.2 (pp. 148-149), 5.3.1 (pp. 341-343) and 6.1, as a meansto determine
the response of a linear system to an arbitrary input. If you understand this
concept, the present section becomes an optional development that leads to
both formal methods of analytical solution and numerical approximations that
are readily implemented using MATLAB.If, rather, you would merely like a
more thorough grounding in superposition, without the detailed analytical and
numerical methods that usually can be replaced by other means, you can restrict
study to Sections 6.4.1 and 6.4.2.
Convolution is a process of applying superposition, in which the input
signal to a linear system is decomposed into a sum of steps or a sum of square
pulses or impulses equally spaced over time. If a limited number of steps or
pulses are used, the decomposition may be approximate; if an infinite number
of steps or pulses is used, the decomposition becomes exact. The response
to a unit step or pulse is then determined, from which the responses to each
individual input step or pulse is found. Finally, these responses are summedto
give the response to the original input.

6.4.1 Decomposing Signals into a Sum of Steps

An arbitrary function of time f(t) can be approximated by either a sum of
pulses or a sum of steps. Steps may be preferred, since fewer are required to
form a decent approximation, as suggested in Fig. 6.22. If the successive steps
6.4. CONVOLUTION* 471

~_~(t)
~ ~ df~ ~ ~, Af~ (negative)
,,
~

Figure 6.22: Approximation

of a continuousfunction by a series of step functions

are distinguished by a subscript, k, their various amplitudesare designated by

Ark and the times at which the jumps occur are designated by Tk, the entire
step-function approximationfor t > to can be written

f(t) ~_ f(to) ~-~A fkus(t -- Tk) (6.64)

k

The steps in the figure are placed at varying intervals of time, as appropriate
considering the varying slope of f(t).
Alternatively, the steps could be uniformly spaced with a constant interval
AT. In this case, multiplying and dividing the summationterm by AT(so as
not to change the equation) gives

Ark . Tk)AT.
f(t) ~- f(to) + ~ -~--~us~t (6.65)
k

Nowas AT -+ dT (i.e. becomesinfinitesimally small), the ratio A flAT be-

comes the slope df/dT and the summationbecomesan exact integration:

](t) = ](to) ft? rt df

~ u,(t T)dT. (6.66)

The interval t < T < ~x~ contributes nothing to the integral (since
#l(t - T) = 0 for T > t), so the upper limit of integration can be reduced
from ~ to t if desired.

6.4.2 Discrete Convolution

Anarbitrary input or disturbance u(t) is to be imposedonto a general stationary
linear system as represented by its operator G(S). Either a crude step-wise
approximationor an exact respresentation of u(t) can be used. In both cases,
it is assumedthat u(t) is zero for t < 0. In the case of the approximation,

u(t) ~ Au(Tk) us(t -- Tk) (6.67)

k
472 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

Table 6.3 Equation (6.68) Applied to Example 6.25

unit step at origin time Au(Tk)h(t -- Zk) for TI~IAu(Tk) 8tim

t, sec h(t) ~ sea .02/.20 .06/.80 .10/.16 .14/-.14 .18/-.02
0.02 0.04 0.04 0.008 0.008
0.06 0.16 0.08 0.032 0.032 0.064
0.10 0.40 0.12 0.080 0.128 0.006 0.214
0.14 0.60 0.16 0.120 0.320 0.026 -0.006 0.460
0.18 0.74 0.20 0.148 0.480 0.064 -0.022 -0.001 0.669
0,22 0.82 0.24 0.164 0.592 0.098 -0.056 -0.003 0.793
0.26 0.88 0.28 0.176 0.656 0.118 -0.084 -0.008 0.858
0.30 0.94 0.32 0.118 0.704 0.131 -0.104 -0.012 0.907
0.34 0.96 0.36 0.192 0.752 0.141 -0.115 -0.015 0.955
0.38 0.98 0.40 0.196 0.768 0.150 -0.123 -0.016 0.975
0.42 1.00 0.44 0.200 0.784 0.154 -0.132 -0.018 0.988
0.46 1.00 0.48 0.200 0.800 0.157 -0.134 -0.019 1.004
0.50 1.00 0.52 0.200 0.800 0.160 -0.137 -0.019 1.004
0.54 1.00 0.56 0.200 0.800 0.160 -0.140 -0.020 1.000
0.58 1.00 0.60 0.200 0.800 0.160 -0.140 -0.020 1.000

The key idea is that the linear operator G(S) satisfies superposition. The re-
sponse to the sum of steps is simply the sum of the responses to the individual
steps:

x(t) ~_ Ek Au(Tk) h(t

I - Tk). (6.6s)

EXAMPLE 6.25
Consider the system with the response to a unit step, h(t), as measured
experimentally (perhaps by throwing a switch) and plotted in part (a)of
Fig. 6.23. The system is excited by the signal u(t) as also plotted. Use step
decompostion of the input with At = 0.04 seconds and discrete convolution
to approximate the response.
Solution: The first step is to approximate u(t) by a sum of steps. This is
done graphically in part (a) of the figure. The times T~ and amplitudes
the steps Au. Tk) also are given in the first numerical row of Table 6.3. The
use of only five steps may seem rather crude, but in view of the sluggishness
of the step response its approximateness is not bad for most purposes.
The next step is to find the responses to the five componentsteps. These
are shown by dashed lines in part (b) of the figure, and are given in the
five associated columns in Table 6.3. The sum of these responses is the
approximate system response, x(t), plotted as a solid line and tabulated in
the right-most column of the table.

An alternative discrete convolution is based on decomposing the excitation

signal into a sum or sequence of square pulses of amplitude u(Tk)AT, which is
the product of the height and the width of the kth pulse. Therefore,

u(t) ~- u(Tk)AT JT(t -- Tk) (6.69)

k
6.4. CONVOLUTION* 473

1.2
citation and stepwiseapproximation,u(t)
1.0

0.8
~
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
time, seconds
(a) informationgiven

1.2
systemresponse, x(t)
1.0
shed curves)

0.6
0.8

0.4
~
¢ //The dashedcurves represent the responses

0.2 /~~/// of the five componentsteps.

0
0 0.1 -OT:2"-S ]] 0?3 074 075 0.6
time, seconds --
(b) response

Figure 6.23: Example6.25

474 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

Table 6.4 Equation (6.70) Applied to Example 6.26

for unit pulse centered at t = 0
t,sec .02 .06 .10 .14 .18 .22 .26 .30 .34 .38 .42 .46 .50 .54 .58
g(t) 2.5 4.5 5.5 4.25 2.75 1.75 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 .25 0 0 0 0

center of pulse T~, sec (ls_t line); pulse area (2nd line)
.04 .08 .12 .16 .20 .24 .28 .32 .36 .40 .44 .48 .52 .56 .60
.008 .04 .0464 .0408 .04 .04 .04 .04 .04 .04 .04 .04 .04 .04 .04
- T~)
Au(T~)g(t
.06 .O20 0.0200
.10 .036 .10 0.1360
.14 .044 .18 .1160 0.3400
.18 .034 .22 .2088 .1020 values sum (horizontally) to give 0.5648
.22 .022 .17 .2552 .1836 .10 0.7308
.26 .014 .11 .1972 .2244 .18 .10 0.8256
.30 .012 .07 .1276 .1734 .22 .18 .10 0.8830
.34 .008 .06 .0812 .1122 .17 .22 .18 .10 0.9314
.38 .004 .04 .0696 .0714 .11 .17 .22 .18 .10 0.9650
.42 .004 .02 .0464 .0612 .07 .11 .17 .22 .18 .10 0.9816
.46 .002 .02 .0232 .0408 .06 .07 .11 .17 .22 .18 .10 0.9960
.50 0 .01 .0232 .0204 .04 .06 .07 .11 .17 .22 .18 .10 1.0036
.54 0 0 .0116 .0204 .02 .04 .06 .07 .11 .17 .22 .18 .10 1.0020
.58 0 0 0 .0102 .02 .02 .04 .06 .07 .11 .17 .22 .18 .10 1.0002
.62 0 0 0 0 .01 .02 .02 .04 .{)6 .07 .11 .17 .22 .18 .10 1.0000

The response to a single pulse of unit amplitude, centered at time Tk, is defined
as gT(t -- Tk). Therefore, the overall responseis

x(t) ~_ Z gT(t - Tk)U(Tk)AT. (6.70)

k

EXAMPLE 6.26
Applypulse convolution to the signals of Example6.25, using the unit im-
pulse response g(t) plotted in part (a) of Fig. 6.24 and the sameexcitation
u(t) as repeated in the figure. Use the sametime intervals.
Solution: Fifteen square pulses as represented in the figure serve to approx-
imate u(t). Their times and areas are listed in the first two numericalrows
of the maintable given in Table6.4. Valuesof g(t) are listed just underthe
figure title. The responses to the individual pulses are plotted with dashed
lines in part (b) of the figure, and listed in columnsin the table. Thesums
the responses at a given time t represent the completeresponse x(t) at that
time; these are shownin the plot by dots and in the table by the right-most
column.

6.4.3 Discrete Convolution by MATLAB

The MATLAB commandcony(p, q) carries out discrete convolution of the sig-
nals p and q, which must be vectors of equal length. For time convolutionbased
on steps, p represents the vector of values of Au, and q represents the vector
of values of h. For time convolutionbased on pulses, p represents the vector of
6.4. CONVOLUTION* 475

0.4 ~ ~ I "~lx°ne-tenth the response to a unit impulse, g(t)/lO ~

0.2 ~

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
time, seconds
(a) informationgiven

1.2

systemresponse, x(t)
1.0

ed from
0.8
dashedcurves;solid line is a
smoothedinterpolation)
0.6

0.4

0.2
~ ~_,_

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
time, seconds
(b) response
Figure 6.24: Example6.26
476 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

values of the pulse areas uAt, and q represents the vector of values of g. The
order of p and q can be reversed.
The computation produces a vector for the output that is twice the length
of the procribed vectors. For purposes here, the second half of this vector is
spurious, and should be discarded.

EXAMPLE 6.27
Carry out the step-wise convolution of Example 6.25 using MATLAB.
Solution: The MATLABcoding

du = [.2 .8 .16 -.14 -.02 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];

h = [.04 .16 .4 .6 .74 .82 .88 .94 .96 .98 1 1 1 1 1];
x = conv(du,h)

in which du is really Au, produces the response

=
X

Columns 1 through 7
0.0080 0.0640 0.2144 0.4600 0.6688 0.7928 0.8584
Columns 8 through 14
0.9076 0.9552 0.9748 0.9884 1.0036 1.0036 1.0004
Columns 15 through21
1.0000 0.8000 0 -0.1600 -0.0200 0 0
Columns 22 through28
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Columnn 29
0

The first 15 numbers are correct; all the remaining numbers should equal
1.0000, but do not. This is because the vector h is truncated at 15 numbers,
whereas the real function continues at unity. The vector can be truncated to
exclude the spurious tail by entering x = x(l:lS), and plotted by entering
plot (x).

EXAMPLE 6.28
Carry out the pulse-wise convolution of Example 6.26 using MATLAB.
Solution: The coding
udt=[.2 1 1.16 1.02 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1]*.04;
g=[2.5 4.5 5.5 4.25 2.75 1.75 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.25 0 0 0 0];
x=conv (udt, g)
gives virtually the same response as the previous step-wise case.
6.4. CONVOLUTION* 477

6.4.4 Convolution Integrals

For an exact analysis you can let Au -~ du and let T becomecontinuous, so

equation (6.68) (p. 472) gives the pair of equivalent equations

x(t) = h(t - T) i~(T) dT = h(v) i~(t (6.71)

The dots over the u’s in these expressions imply differentiation with respect to
T and r -- t - T, respectively. These key equations are knownas the super-
position or convolution integrals of the time functions h(t) and u(t), often
written h(t) fi (t), wh ich means th at the output equals th e convolution ofthe
step responsewith the time rate of changeof the input.
Equations (6.71) can be integrated by parts to give an alternative pair
convolution integrals that are morewidely used. Recall the formula

f u dv = uv -Iv du, (6.72)

and let

du = -h(t - T) dT = -g(t - T) (6.73a)

dv = u(T) dT. (6.73b)

The first term on the right side of equation (6.72) becomes

h(t - T) u(T)Itto =h(O)u(t) - h(t - to) = 0, (6.75)

whichvanishes becauseu(to) was given as zero, and, for a causal system, gs(O)
0. Thusequation (6.72) gives

x(t)
~og(t T) u(T) dT-f_t-to g(~)u(t~) dT. (6.76)

These express the convolution g(t) u(t), which re presents th at th e output

equals the time convolutionof the impulse responsewith the excitation signal.
The discrete convolutionbased on square pulses, as given by equation (6.76),
can be seen to be the approximationof equation (6.70) for uniformly separated
discrete times.
478 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

EXAMPLE 6.29
A simple system is described by its impulse response:

g(t) =-at, t >O.

Use a convolution integral to computeits response to the input signal

u(t) = 1 - -bt, t > 0.

Thesesignals are plotted in parts (a) and (b) of Fig. 6.25.

Solution: Fromequation (6.76), the response

= -ot e(~_b)r~ t= 1
X--7] a(a-b)
The meaningof convolutionis presented visually in part (.c) of the figure.
The functions g(t-T) and u(T) are plotted vs. the commondummytime T;
their product also is shown. The shaded area of the product is the value of
x(t). Thefirst function g(t-T) can be movedright or left to give any desired
time t. It can be perceived as a function whichweights the contributions to
the present state of the various parts of the excitation signal as a function of
the age of those parts, that is howlong before the present time they occured.
In the example,the older the segmentof excitation u(T) considered, the less
it contributes to the response x(t) (regardless of the function u(T)), since
g(t - T) decays monatonically as T is reduced backwardin time from the
current time t. (The other three convolution integrals can be interpreted
similarly.)

6.4.5 Summary

The superposition property dictates that the response to a signal comprising

a sum of componentsignals equals the sum of the responses to the individual
componentsignals. Approximateimplementationof this property can be carried
out by decomposinga disturbance into a sum of discrete steps, and summing
the responses to each of these steps, in a process knownas discrete convolution.
An alternative discrete convolution employs the impulse response instead of
the step response, and the input signal directly in place of the changesin the
input signal. In both cases the result approachesthe exact solution as the steps
are made smaller and smaller; the summationsbecomeintegrations knownas
convolutionintegrals.
6.4. CONVOLUTION* 479

u(t)

1/b t 1/a t
(a) input signal (b) impulse response

(c) computation
1~ .... -)~
u(T)

I/b T
product of abovefunctions: 0 area = x(t)

g(t-T)u(T)l~=fg(t-T)u(T)dT
T
Figure 6.25: Exampleof a convolution integral
480 CHAPTER6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

I I I

t, sec l.O 0 0.5 t, sec

Figure 6.26: Excitation signal for GuidedProblem6.7

1.0~
_~.F~
i ~ul t~2.0

t, sec.

Figure 6.27: Excitation signal for Guided Problem6.8

Guided Problem 6.7

This is a mandatoryproblem involving superposition which can be done graph-
ically, without mathematics.
A system G(s) responds to a unit impulse with a square pulse of amplitude
2.0 and duration 1.0 seconds. The system is excited with a double-step signal
as shownin Fig. 6.26. Find and plot the response of the system.

Suggested Steps:

1. Since the excitation comprises steps, it is most convenient to work with

the response of the system to steps. Integrate the unit impulse response
to give the unit step response.
2. Find the responseof the systemto the individual steps of the input signal.
3. Superimposethe responses of step 2 to give the complete response.

Guided Problem 6.8

The system in the previous guided problem is excited by the signal shownin
Fig. 6.27. Find its response. Analytical convolutionis intended.

Suggested Steps:

1. Since the excitation is not a finite sumof steps, the superposition must
be carried out either by representing the excitation approximately by a
6.4. CONVOLUTION* 481

sum of small steps or or square pulses, or by carrying out a convolution

integration. Choosethe integration so as to get an exact answer to the
problem as posed. You have the choice of computing the convolution
g(t) * u(t) or h(t) * i~(t). If youopt for the latter, find ~(t) and h(t).
Set up one of the fourconvolution integrals as given in equations (6.71)
and (6.76) (p. 477). Sketchthe factors in the integrand versus the variable
of integration, Takespecial care of the limits of integration.
Completethe integration and sketch the result. Doesit makesense?

PROBLEMS

6.47 The response of a particular linear systemto a unit impulse is 2 sin 3t.

00 T
t

(a) Find the response of the system to unit st ep, assuming zero in itial
conditions.
(b) The system is excited by the square pulse shown below. Find the
smallest value of T for whichthe response of the systembecomeszero for
t>T.

6.48 Carry out suggested step 9 of GuidedProblem5.7 (pp. 353-354) using the
MATLAB commandcony rather than isim.

6.49 Find and plot the solution to Problem6.46 (p. 469) numerically, using the
MATLAB commandcony. Let 0 < t < 10.

8.50 Do part (b) of Problem 5.40 (p. 355) using the MATLAB
command
rather than lsim.

6.51 Use MATLAB to plot an approximate response x(t), t _< 8 seconds~

the modelwhich has the step response h(t) and the time derivative/~(t) of the
input disturbance u(t), as given below.

it(t)l
0 I I
0 2 4 t, sec
482 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 1

{}.52 Find the exact analytic solution to the preceeding problem.

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 6.7

1. h(t)= f g(t) at= 2t, O<t<l

/ 2,
0, t_<0
0, t_<0
2. Response to step att--0: x~=0.5h(t)= t, O<t<l
1,
t<0.5
Responseto step att = 0.5 s:x2 = 0.5 h(t - 0.5) t - 0.5, 0.5 <t < 1.5

0, t_<0
{°, 1, t_>l.5

t, 0 < t < 0.5

3. x(t)=xl(t)+x2(t)= 2t-0.5, 0.5<t<l
t ÷ 0.5, l<t<l.5
2, t _>1.5

x2I y
O00.5 1 1L’~ "~ ’ )5t,s ~

Guided Problem 6.8

1. As in the previous problem, g(t) 2[us(t) - ur(t - 1)] an d h(t) = 2Jut(t) -
ur(t-1)] where ur(t) is a ramp with slope 1 whichstarts at t = 0. The function

,~(t) = t
l (t - i sin~rt) t < 2 is given, from which
;1 ’ t_>2
-

~2(t) J"½(1- cos~t) t <2

0 t>2

2. For the choice x(t) = g(t - T) ~(T)

u(T)
case shown: l<t<2

¯ t-1 1 t 2 ~ r ~
6.4. CONVOLUTION* 483

t 1 (T- ~sin~rT)dT 2 1co sa-t]

fort _<1, x(t) = 2. = +
1 2 ~(_~ +cos~t)
=~-t +

forl<t<2, x(t)= 2.~ T--sin~t dT= ~T + cos~t

~ ~
1 2
=t- 5 + ~cosrt

for2<t<a, ~(t)= 2.1dT

l 2.~ T--sin~ dT+
5 t2
= -~ +3t- ~ + [1+cos

for ¢ ~ a, ~(t) = 2. ldT = 2

1
Plot of ~he resulg:
Chapter 7

Analysis of Linear Models,

Part 2

Excitations other than sinusoids are treated in Chapter 6 as discrete or contin-

uous sums of impulses or steps. This is awkward for many signals. Periodic
signals are more conveniently represented in Section 7.1 by a discrete sum of
sinusoids, called a Fourier series. Then, pulse-like signals are treated as a con-
tinuous sum of sinusoids, called a Fourier transform. A twist on this latter
transform produces the Laplace transform, which is developed in Section 7.2.
The Laplace transform is ideal for finding analytic expressions for the responses
of linear models to transient excitations, disturbances that are zero for t < 0.
Matrix methods for addressing linear inodels are extended in Section 7.3 by
the decomposition of complex total behavior into modal components, each of
which behaves very simply, with a single time constant or combination of natural
frequency and damping ratio. Certain matrix-based computational methods
also are developed, including the basis of the MATLAB commandls±m.
A method to convert bond graphs directly to transfer functions is given in
Section 7.4. Th.is method is a considerable convenience for those who use bond
graphs extensively, but is logically an optional topic. The section starts by
presenting signal-flow graphs, which are closely related to block diagrams; both
are widely used by control engineers.

7.1 Fourier Analysis

An arbitrary signal is decomposedinto a sum of steps or impulses in the time-
domain analysis emphasized in Sections 6.3 and 6.4. The response of a linear
model to such a signal is reconstructed by summingthe individual responses to
the individual steps or impulses. A different approach is now introduced, which
often is called frequency-domain analysis. Instead of steps or impulses, the
signal is decomposed into a sum of sine and cosine waves. The superposition
property is invoked, as before: the response of the linear model equals the sum

485
486 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

-T -T/2 0 T/2 T 3T/2 2T

time, t

Figure 7.1: Periodic signal with period T

of the responses to the individual sine and cosine waves.

A signal which is periodic in time comprises a sum of sinusoidal wavesat
discrete frequencies, called a Fourier series. A non-periodic signal comprises
a sumof sinusoidal wavesat all frequencies, called a Fourier transform.

7.1.1 Fourier Series

Consider a periodic function of time u(t) with period T, such as that shownin
Fig. 7.1. The frequencyof the periodic function is

= (7.1)
Anysuch function can be represented by a sumof sine and cosine waves, or by
an equivalent sumof phase-shifted cosine waves:

u(t)= ao + ~ [2a~ cos(nwot) + 2b,~ sin(nw0t)],

u(t)= ao + ~ 2c~ cos(nwot + On),

n----1

-1
+ 0n =- tan ¯ (7.2)
These sums are knownas Fourier series.
The exampleof a particular square waveis plotted in Fig. 7.2. This is an
even function of time, that is symmetricabout time t = 0. As a result, only the
Fourier cosine series coefficients are non-zero. (All cosine wavesare even, and
all sine wavesare odd, or anti-symmetricfunctions of time.) Thesecoefficients
are plotted in part (b) of the figure, and the first three harmonicsare plotted
in part (c). Their sum, plus the time-average term, is comparedto the actual
square wavein part (d). The sumof the first seven harmonicsalso is shown. The
more harmonics that are added, the closer the sum approaches the square-wave
function.
Youneed to evaluate the Fourier coefficients an and b,~ in order to use a
Fourier series. The general formula for computingthe coefficients an results
7.1. FOURIERANALYSIS 487

4~ time average

I
3T/2
time, t
(a) time function

a,

1 2 3 ,~ : t ’ ~ 910 1~ "1~1 "

/’1

(b) Fourier coefficients (for r T/4, ti me av

erage =1)

2 ~..¢ ¢’~/~time...., av~rage~,x ~’/~"~ (- first h~rmonic

-T/2 0 T/2 T 3T/2 2T

time, t
(c) the first three harmonics

-sumof ~lrst
4 ~ , three harmonics,~.,sum
~seven
plus
harmonics,
of the
first
time
plus the time..,
average j average
2 exact signal

-T/2 0 T/2 T 3T/2 2T

time, t
(d) sumsof harmonics

Figure 7.2: A particular square-waveperiodic signal

488 CHAPTER7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

from changing the index n in equation (7.2a) to k, multiplying both sides

cos(nwot), and integrating over one period. To computethe coefficients bn, you
replace the cosine with a sine. The respective integrations are

The period chosen here is the symmetricinterval -T/2 < t < T/2. All terms on
the right-hand side of these equations equal zero, except for those that integrate
the square of a cosine or sine function, which exist only whenk = n. The terms
that vanish are all sinusoids with zero meanvalue integrated over an integral
numberof cycles. The multiplied functions are said to be orthogonal over the
time interval. The functions

1
cos2(nw0t) = 311 + cos(2nw0t)], (7.4a)

sin2 (nwot) " "~ [1 - cos(2nwot) (7.4b)

on the other hand, have an average value of 1/2; their integrals over the time
interval T equal T/2. As a result, equations (7.3) give

(7.~)

Equations (7.2) and (7.5) comprise the Fourier series pair.

7.1. FOURIER ANALYSIS 489

EXAMPLE 7.1
Find the Fourier series expression for the square-wavesignal addressed in
Fig. 7.2.
Solution: Equations (7.5) give

a,~= T--!J-r~2
4cos dr- 4T 2~rn
T sln~-~--)

4~" sin(~rnT/T)
=-- ¯ n>l
T ~rnv/T ’ -

bn =0.
Substituting T = T/4 gives the Fourier series

u(t) : 1 + ~ sin(Trn/4) cos(27cnt/T).

~n/4

An alternative expression for the Fourier series pair employscomplexnum-

bers:

jn~°t,
u(t)= ~ Vne
1 fT/2
Un=~ J-T~2 u(t) e-J’~°tdt. (7.6)

Since u(t) is a real function, it is necessarythat U_, be the complexconjugate

of Un. In particular,

Un=an -jb,~, n >_1;

U-n= an + jbn, n >_1. (7.7)

whichgives the explicit relationship betweenthe coefficients Unand an, bn. This
morecompactrepresentation of the Fourier series pair is used belowto generate
the Fourier transform, and in Section 7.2 to generate the Laplace transform.

7.1.2 Response of a Linear System to a Periodic Excita-

tion
Recall that the response of a linear systemwith the transfer function G(S) to an
input signal u(t) = cos(wt + 8) is x(t) = IG(jw)l cos(wt + ~), where~ /G(jw)
is the angle of the phasor G(jw). Eachterm in a Fourier serier is of this form,
with w = nwo. The property of superposition, then, requires the response to
the Fourier series of equation (7.2b) to
490 CHAPTER7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS,PART 2

¯ (t) = Xo(O)
+ ~ ~ IX,dcos(nwot + a~),
nmO

IX~] = IG(jnwo)lc~; am = O~ +/G(jnwo). (7.8)

Note that the constant time term is treated as a cosine of zero frequency. For
the morecompactnotation of equation (7.6), the equivalent result

~ XneJn~’°t;
x(t) =n=-~z Xn = a(jnwo)Un. (7.9)

EXAMPLE 7.2
Find the steady-state response of a linear systemwith the transfer function
2
G(S) - $2+6S+5

to the square-waveexcitation of Fig. 7.2 and Example7.1.

Solution: The response, from equation (7.8),

x(t) = G(0) x 1 + 2 si n(~rn/4)

n=l ~rn/4 IG(2~rjn/T)lcos(2~rnt/T an);

am = /G(2~rjnt/T).
The magnitudesand phase angles of the transfer function contained in these
equations are, from the given G(S),
2
IG(2~rjn/T) l
V/[5 - (27cn/T)2]2 ~’
+ [12:rn/T]

127cn/T ]
/G21(2~rjn/T) = - tan -~ 5- (27rn/T) ~ "

The response x(t) is plotted below for the case T = 5 minutes. Its mean
value is G(0) × 1 = 0.4. Eachof the first three harmonicsalso are shown,
and it can be seen that their sum plus the meanvalue comprises the bulk
of the completesolution.
7.1. FOURIERANALYSIS 491

response

sumof first three harmonicsplus mean

meanvalue

second harmonic

o
third harmonic
-0.2

-0.4
0 1 2 3 4 5
time; min
Care must be taken to insure that the phase angles of the individual har-
monicsare identified in their proper quadrants. Use of a standard inverse
tangent routine to evaluate the phase angle might place the angle for n = 1
in the fourth quadrant and all the other angles in the first quadrant. The
angles should be in the third quadrantfor n >_ 2, however,so it is necessary
to add (or subtract) rr to the calculated angles in these cases.

7.1.3 Fourier Transform

Anon-periodicsignal can be viewedas part or all of a single cycle of a periodic
signal with an extremely long period, T. If you let T ~ ~, any signal can be
so represented. In this case,
27r
~o = -~- = A~ --~ 0, (7.10a)

nwo ~ ~. (7.10b)
The discrete frequencies nwo becomethe continuous frequency w. Equation
(7.2) becomes

u(t) = lim ~
~ U~e~’~
492 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

or

u(t) = (7.12a)
2~ J_~ ]

U(jw)=
~olim f U, ~ .
l = ~li~o(U.T)
t, A~/2~ (7.12b)
Here U,, is known as the frequency or spectral density I , which is the content
per Hz (per cycle per second). The formula for U(jw) as a function of u(t) is
found from equation (7.6b):

U(j~) (t) dr. 0".~3)

This computation of U(fi¢) is known as the Fourier transform of u(t), and the
computation of u(t) using equation (7.12a) is known as the inverse Fourier
transform of U(jw). Indicating the Fourier transform with the symbol ~’,

u(j~)= ~:[u(~)];
u(t) = Y--~[u(j~)]. (7.~)
The response x(t) of the linear system G to the input u(t) can be found by
~
modifying equation (7.9) after the fashion of equation (8.12):

x(t) = ~’-~[X(j~)];

X(j~) = G(jw)U(j~).

Although the Fourier transform is very powerful in addressing manysignals

and the responses of linear systems to these signals, it has a serious limitation
because it is not defined (becomes infinite) if f_~]u(t)ldt = oc. Thus, for
example, the method fails for step functions and the responses of most systems
to steps, and for oscillatory functions that do not decay. The transform applies
only to "pulse-like" signalv. This limitation will be remedied, in Section 7.2,
by employing a modification of the Fourier transform known as the Laplace
transform. This text does not ask you to solve problems analytically using the
Fourier transform. Should you ever wish to do so, however, you should know
that many commontime functions have transforms that are given in widely
available tables, relieving the analyst of analytical drudgery.

1Energy or power is usually proportional to a signal squared, and thus ]U(jw)] 2 is known
as the energy density spectrum.
2This result also can be proven by applying the convolution integral, noting that G(jw)
~[g(t)], where g(t) is the impulse response. A similar proof is given in Section 7.2.2 for the
Laplace transform.
7.1. FOURIER ANALYSIS 493

7.1.4 Digital Spectral Analysis*

The availability of an extremely powerful experimental tool known as the dy-

namic analyzer or spectrum analyzer is sufficient to justify learning the con-
cepts of the Fourier transform, and partly justifies the development above. In its
basic form, one voltage represents an excitation signal u(t), and a second volt-
age represents a system response x(t), as measured by instrument transducers.
These voltages are connected to the input terminals of an analog-to-digital
converter ("A/D converter"), which generates N digital values to represent
each of these voltages at equally spaced times over an interval of time, T. In a
basic analyzer, N = 2l° = 1024 or N -- 211 = 2048. The Fourier series for each
signal is then computed, using an algorithm called a fast Fourier transform
(FFT), which is much more efficient than a direct approximation of equation
(7.3). By using a dedicated computer chip these calculations are completed
a small fraction of a second. A sampling theorem limits the number of possible
frequencies fn = ~n/2~ = niT for which Un and Xn can be estimated to N/2,
or 512 for N = 1024 or 1024 for N = 2048. In practice only perhaps the first 400
for N -- 1024 and 800 for N -- 2048 are found, since the remaining harmonics
are increasingly susceptable to error.
The work of a dynamic analyzer can be performed on a general purpose
computer cot~pled to an A/D converter, also, particularly when high speed is
not critical. Software is widely available. MATLAB, as described below, can
compute the fast Fourier transform and its inverse for data provided to it.
The computation is more generally called a discrete Fourier transform (DFT).
The signal need not have any periodicity. On the other hand, the duration of
the measurementsis finite, so this duration also can be viewed as the period, T,
of a periodic signal; the transform then becomes an approximate Fourier series,
with the fundamental harmonic frequency lIT. This fact is exploited below to
allow the FFT statements in MATLAB to closely estimate the results plotted
in Figs. 7.2 part (b) and 7.3. In practice, most dynamic analyzers offer a choice
of special automatic "windowing" modifications to minimize errors that result
when a non-periodic signal overlaps the time boundaries of accepted data, ap-
pearing to give it an abrupt start and stop. The details are beyond the scope
of current interest.
The analyzer can display the real and imaginary parts of U(2~rjfn) and
X(2~rjf,~), or alternatively their magnitudes and phase angles, as a function of
the frequency ],~ = nit Hz. With its typically 400 or 800 points or steps per
signal, the displays resemble continuous functions. Numerical values also can
be displayed and digitally read out.
As an example, assume that the square-wave signal of Fig. 7:2 and Examples
7.1 and 7.2 has a period of 5 minutes and is sampled over a time of T = 200
minutes. 3 The true Fourier transform would show peaks at the fundamental
frequency of 1/5 cpm and multiples thereof, as given by equation (8.7). The

3Commercially available dynamicanalyzers do not usually take data at such a slow rate.
At the upper end, a rate of 256,000data points per secondand a maximum display frequency
of 100,000 Hz is common.
494 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

0.8
ReU
0.6

0.4

0.2

-0.2

1:2,:4
frequency, cycles/minute

Figure 7.3: Display on the dynamic analyzer for the square-wave signal

values between the peaks would be zero~ The actual screen display for N = 1024
and lIT = 0.005 cpm, as shown in Fig. 7.3, is different from the ideal shown
in part (b) of Fig. 7.2, however. The first ten harmonics appear properly,
to the maximumfrequency of 400/T = 2 cpm; twenty would appear (up to
cpm) if N = 2048. The principal difference is the appearance of much smaller
components at many other frequencies. These result from the discretization of
the signals. Note that in the case shown, the signal is an even function of time
so that the imaginary part of the transform is zero.

On the other hand, a non-periodic signal with a single peak, such as shown
in Fig. 7.4 part (a), gives a transform that is essentially continuous, such
shown in part (b) of the figure. A very important special case is the impulse (of
zero width).
7.1. FOURIERANAL~rSIS 495

0.4/

0.2
0.1
0.3~
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time, seconds
(a) pulse in time domain

0.8 ~
0.6
0.4
0.2

°o ’ ~ ’ ,;, ’ ~, ’ 10
0 ,

-45 ~
-90

-135
-18o ° , ~ ’ ~ ’ ; ’
frequency, rad/s
(b) pulse in frequencydomain

Figure 7.4: Exampleof a pulse and its Fourier transform

496 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

EXAMPLE 7.3
Find and plot the Fourier transform of the unit impulse

(a) time domain ~impulse~(t)

Solution: Equation (7.13) gives

U(jw) = e-~tS(t)

Since the integrand is non-zeroonly for the instant at whicht = 0, the factor
ej~t -~ e° = 1. Further, the integral of a unit impulseis identically 1, so the
result is
V(jw) =

(b) frequency domain-716(t~]

note:(
_7is positivePhase
anglereal)is
zero
%
Thus, an impulse contains all frequencies equally, and a hammerblow, which
approximatesan impulse, excites all frequencies belowsomelimit associated
with its actual non-zero duration. This makesthe combinationof a dynamic
analyzer and a hammer,instrumented with an accelerometer to give an elec-
trical pulse whenit strikes an object, a powerfulmeansfor testing mechanical
vibration.

Equation (7.15b) gives the frequency transfer function

X(jw)
G(jw)- V(jw)" (7.16)

If the analyzer is used to measure x(t) and u(t) synchronously, it also can
computethis ratio. In practice, for each of the 400 or 800 frequencies, the
computations
[X(27rjfn)l"
IG(27rjfn)l =[U(27rj
f,~)[ (7.17a)

/ G(27rj fn) = (~z (2rj fn) - (2r jf~). (7.175)

are madeand displayed. The results are meaningfulfor each frequency fn that
has an experimentally significant content U(2rcjf~). For a hammerblow, for
7.1. FOURIERANALYSIS 497

example, this means all frequencies, showing its special virtue (aside from ease
ofuse).
Digital spectral analysis, then, is a powerful tool for examining the frequency
content of time-based signals, and determining experimentally the transfer func-
tion of a linear system or process by monitoring its input and output. It can
predict the responses of systems. The discussion above serves merely as an
introduction to the possibilities, techniques and limitations.

7.1.5 Fourier Analysis Using MATLAB*

The commandsU-fft (u) and U=f~t (u,ra) return the discrete Fourier transform
(DFT) of the vector u, with a complex conjugate pair of numbers for each
frequency. It is theoretically impossible to compute more than half as many
frequency components as there are data points, so if the integer m exceeds the
length of the vector u, U is padded up to the length m with zeros. If m is less
than the length of the vector u, U is simply truncated at m elements. If ra is
a power of two, a radixol fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm is employed.
This choice is recommended, for otherwise a much slower mixed-radix algorithm
is used. The commands±fft(U) and lfft(U,m) return the inverse transform.
The discrete Fourier transform is the same as an approximate Fourier series
for a periodic signal of period equal to the duration of the data vector u. One
cycle of the square wave of Fig. 7.2 and Examples 7.1 and 7.2, for example,
could be entered as 1024 data points evenly distributed over the T = 5 minutes
as follows:
ul=4*ones(i, 128)
u2=zeros(I ,768)
u=[ul u2 ul];
The commandU=fft (u) returns the Fourier series, with each element ~nul-
tiplied by 1024. The first element in U is for zero frequency and therefore is
real. The second element in U is for the frequency lIT cyles per second or 2~r/T
radians per second, the third is for the frequency 2IT Hz, and so on up to the
513th which is for the frequency 512/T Hz. The remainder of the numbers up
to the 1024th are redundant: the complex conjugates of the 2nd through the
512th numbers. They are in inverse order; the 514th is the complex conjugate
of the 512th, and the 1024th is the complex conjugate of the 2nd, which means
the fundamental frequency lIT Hz. The instruction U(I: 16)/1024 displays the
first sixteen elements as follows:

1.0000 0.9003 + 0.00281 0.6366 + 0.00391 0.3001 + 0.0028i

0 -0.1800 - 0.0028± -0.2122 - 0.0039i -0.1286 - 0.0028i
0 0.1000 + 0.00281 0.1273 + 0.00391 0.0818 - 0.00281
0 -0.0692 - 0.00281 -0.0909 - 0.00391 -0.0600 - 0.00281

The small imaginary components correspond to a time shift of one-half a sam-

pling interval, and are of little significance. Nevertheless, they can be eliminated
498 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

with the instruction U=real (U). The result agrees with that of Example 7.1 and
part (b) of Fig. 7.2, up to at least four significant digits for the first several
Fourier harmonics.
The Fourier series can be multiplied by the frequency transfer function G(jw)
to get the Fourier series of the ouput signal, x(t). The function G(jw) must have
1024 elements corresponding to the same sequence of frequencies as U, however.
Therefore, you can construct a frequency vector w:

w0=2*pi/5;
for i=1:513
w(i)=(i-l)*w0;
end

The 512 values of G(jw) for the case addressed in Example 7.2 are found as
follows:

hum=[2];
den=If 6 5];
Gl=freqs(num,den,w)

Thecomplexconjugates
of the secondthrough
the lastvalues,
in inverse
order,
areneededto complete
thevectorG:

for i=1:511
G2 (i) =conj (G1 (513-i))
end
G=[GIG23 ;

The theoretical limit of 1024 + 2 -- 512 frequencies means that there can be
511 complex values of U (the second through the512th, and the 514th through
the 1024th) plus two real values (the first and the 513th). To be completely
consistent, therefore, you should eliminate the imaginary part of the 513th value
of G:

G(513)=real G(513)

Nowyou are ready to compute the Fourier series for the output signal:

X=U. *G;

Fina/ly, a plot consistent with the complete response as plotted in Example7.2

results from the inverse Fourier transform command

Pl0t(real(ifft(V))

The inverseFourierroutineproduces
verysmallspurious imaginarypartsdue
to round-offerrors.
Theplottingroutine
requiresrealnumbers,explaining
the
use of the sub-command
real.Shouldyou ever find a non-trivial
imaginary
partof an inverse
transform,
lookfora mistake.
7.1. FOURIER ANALYSIS 499

7.1.6 Summary

A periodic signal can be represented by a Fourier series comprising a sum of

sine and cosine waves. The frequency of each component is an integral multiple
of the frequency of periodicity. The response of a linear system to a periodic
signal is the sum of the responses to the individual sine and cosine waves. The
different frequencies are apt to be filtered quite differently, so that the ouput
signal might look quite different from the input signal. High-frequency noise
often is purposely stripped from a measured signal, for example, by passing
it through a "low-pass filter"; what emerges is the lower-frequency signal of
interest.
A broad class of aperiodic signals, such as pulses, can be represented by a
Fourier transform. The criterion for its existence is that the time integral of
the absolute value of the signal over its entire duration be finite, ruling out
step-like functions and oscillations that do not decay. The Fourier transform
is the same as the Fourier series except it includes a continuous distribution of
all frequencies rather than the multiples of a base frequency. The response of a
linear system to such a signal is therefore the sum (or actually the integral)
the responses to the individual frequency components.
Digital spectral analysis may be carried out by a special instrument called a
frequency or spectral analyzer, or on a general-purpose computer. MATLAB has
a capability in this regard. A discrete Fourier transform is computed for a train
of numbers that represents a signal measured over a period of time. The result
approximates the Fourier transform for a non-periodic signal, and a Fourier
series for a periodic signal with period equal to the duration of the data train.
The analyzer can process both excitation and response signals simultaneously.
It then can compute and display the ratio of the two, expressed as a function
of frequency. This is the frequency transfer function, G(jw).

Guided Problem 7.1

This problem provides a basic experience in computing a Fourier series for a
periodic signal, and then finding the periodic response whenthis signal is applied
as the excitation to a linear first-order system.
The saw-tooth disturbance plotted in Fig. 7.5 acts on a system modeled as

dq
T-~ +q = Ce

(which corresponds to the RC system of Guided Problem 3.9, p 142). Find the
responseq( t ).

Suggested Steps:

1. Find the average value of the disturb~ce e(t) and the consequent constant
term in the response of qc(t).
500 CHA’PTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

0 T 2T 3T
time t

Figure 7.5: Disturbance for Guided Problem 7.1

2. Find an analytic expression for e(t) valid for at least one complete period
of the disturbance.

3. Evaluate the Fourier coefficients an and bn for the disturbance using the
function e(t). Write the Fourier series using the cosine form with its
coefficients cn and phase angles fl,~.

4. Find the response of the system to a cosine wave of arbitrary phase angle.

5. Assemble the response of the system to the complete disturbance by com-

bining the results of steps 3 and 4.

Guided Problem 7.2

This problem both illustrates basic concepts regarding the use of Fourier series
and transforms and explores a very practical appliction of the dynamic analyzer.
Should you have access to a dynamic analyzer with an instrumented hammer,
you would likely benefit from carrying out a similar experiment.
The spectrum of the response of a linear system to a perfect impulse is
proportional to its transfer function G(jw), as described in the text. Experi:
mentally one attempts to generate the impulse with an instrument6d hammer.
The acceleration or force signal from this hammer and the signal from an ac-
celerometer or other motion transducer attached to the object under test are
sent to a dynamic analyzer. The analyzer displays the Fourier transforms of
these two signals as shown in Fig. 7.6. Describe qualitatively in what way the
actual excitation pulse differs from a perfect impulse. Also, sketch-plot the
transfer function (which the analyzer would do for you if asked). Discuss briefly
where the analyzer with this excitation is prone to give large errors in G(jw).

Suggested Steps:

1. A perfect impulse would have a constant magnitude spectrum. The actual

signal decays with frequency and goes negative at a particular frequency.
Show that a square pulse of duration T seconds could produce a hammer
signal similar to that given; evaluate T. (The actual pulse likely would
be rounded, but the difference is not significant for the low frequencies
shown.)
7.1. FOURIERANALYSIS 501

accelerometersignal
o0
phase
°180 I
instrumented
log
unOer/ amplitude
test k,, ~
~
hammers~gnal:
acce1 rom~eter
eome analyzer
dynamic
phase0°1
°180

,og
amplitude

0 200 400
frequency, Hz

Figure 7.6: Guided Problem7.2

2. There are no scales given for the magnitudeplots, so the best you can do
is sketch-plot G(S) to the same scale with no absolute amplitude speci-
fied. The interest presumablyis in the dynamiccharacter of the response,
that is the natural frequencies and relative magnitudesof the various reso-
nances. Notethat the log of a ratio of twoquantities equals the difference
betweenthe logs of the quantities, and sketch-plot the magnituderatio.

3. The phase of G(j~) equals the difference between the phases of the nu-
merator and the denominator. Sketch.

4. Note that large errors in a computedratio occur whenboth the measured

numerator and denominator are small.
502 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

PROBLEMS

7.1 A linear system is excited by the signal u(t) and responds with the output
variable x(t). The system is described by

a~ x dx
dt ~ + -~ + 81x = u(t),

and the excitation, plotted below, is the periodic signal (valid for all t)

u(t) = 2 cos(3t) + cos(9t).

0 1 2 3 t 4 5

(a) Find G(jw) for the system.

(b) Evaluate IG(Jw)lfor the frequency(ies) appropriate to this problem.

(c) State which frequency component predominates in the response x(t).

(d) Evaluate /G(jw) for the frequencies appropriate to this problem.

(e) Assemble the response x(t).

7.2 A linear system responds to a unit step excitation with the output 2(1
e-t/T). Find the response of the system to the symmetric square wave shown
below. Let T = 2T.

(a) Evaluate the first three non-zero Fourier series components of u(t).

(b) Find the transfer function of the system, or the corresponding differ-
ential equation.
7.1. FOURIER ANALYSIS 503

(c) Find the response of the system to a sinusoidal excitation.

(d) Find the first three Fourier series components of x(t). Plot these emd
their sum; either sketch-plots or the use of MATLAB are acceptable.
(e) Since the signal comprises repeated upward and downward steps
equal amplitude, the exact solution to this problem can be solved by as-
suming an undetermined initial state, using the given step response to find
the consequent state at the end of one cycle, and setting the two states
equal to one another in order to evaluate the actual state at the beginning
and end of each cycle. Carry out this procedure, and compare the result
to that of part (d).

7.3 Find the response of the problem above using the fast Fourier transform
capability of MATLAB.

7.4 Find the steady-state response of the second-order system

1 d2x 2~ dx
w~dt ~- +~,~-- -~ + x = u(t)
to the square-wave disturbance u(t) shown in Fig. 7.2 (p. 487) and described
with the Fourier coefficients found in Example 7.1 (p. 489). AssumeT =
and ~ = 0.2.
(a) Note the time-average value of the disturbance, and find the response
to this zero-frequency component.

(b) Write expressions for the magnitude and phase angle of the nth har-
monic component of the response.
(c) Plot the first five harmonic components for one cycle. Which compo-
nent is the largest, and why? (The use of MATLAB is suggested.)
(d) Plot the sum of a least the first five harmonics to approximate the
overall response.

7.5 Find the response of the problem above using the fast Fourier transform
capability of MATLAB.

7.6 A mass-dashpot system is excited by a triangular periodic force, as shown

below. Find the consequent velocity as a function of time, neglecting any tran-
sient behavior associated with the initiation of the force.

%, A /’
,/ VtV"V,
504 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

(a) Write the differential equation with 2(t) as the state variable; deter-
mine A and B, which in this case are scalars.

(b) Deduce G(S).

(c) Find the Fourier series representation for the applied force F(t). The
calcuation can be simplified by noting that F(t) is an even function, so the
interval of integration can be limited to positive values of time, and only
the cosine terms are non-zero. You may wish to use a table of integrals;
otherwise, integration by parts can be used. Note finally that the even
numbered harmonics vanish.

(d) Find the response of the system to the nth harmonic. Represent this
terms of a phase-shifted cosine or sine wave rather than separate sine and
cosine waves, since this reduces the number of summations if you intend
to make a sketch-plot. Sum these responses to get an expression for the
overall response.

(e) For T = 1 s, m = 1 kg, a = 1 N and b = 10 N s/m, evaluate the

magnitude and phase of the first harmonic of 2 and all others that are as
large or larger than one percent of the first harmonic. Sketch these terms
and their sum. Note that very few terms contribute significantly.

7.7 Plot the velocity ~ of the problem above, for the values given in part (e),
using the fast Fourier transform capability of MATLAB.

7.8 An instrumented hammer strikes two specimens which are freely suspended
and instrumented with accelerometers. With one of the specimens the phase
angle between the excitation and the response is 0° or +180° at virtually all
frequencies, with abrupt jumps in between. With the other the corresponding
phase angle varies continuously with frequency.

(a) Characterize the difference between the two transfer functions, assum-
ing both can be represented by ratios of polynomials.

(b) What causes the difference?

(c) What categorical difference would you anticipate between the two mag-
nitude Bode plots?
7.1. FOURIER ANALYSIS 505

7.9 An accelerometer placed on the rim of an axisymmetric disk-and-rim vi-

bration absorber, shown below left in cross-section, produces the display shown
below right on a spectrum analyzer when shaken with a purely sinusoidal force
at frequency w0. Both vertical and horizontal axes have linear scales.

accelerometer
rim hub

~sk ~F=Fos~ ~

(a) State if and why the data indicates linear or nonlinear behavior.

(b) If damping is neglected there are two time functions which the data
could be describing. Find and sketch-plot these accelerations, and state
why the ambiguity exists.

(c) (extra credit) Explain, qualitatively, the cause of the non-fundamental

harmonic revealed in the display. Also, suggest any practical implications
this might have for the absorber. [Hint: Consider the nature of the spring
characteristic between the hub and the rim, and particularly the effect
of radial as well as bending stresses. Does the natural frequency of the
absorber vary with the amplitude of its motion?]

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 7.1

0 T 2T 3T
time~
Theaverage value of the disturbance is seen from the plot to be eo/2.
eo eo
2. e(t)=
~-t+eo, -T<t<0; e(t) = -~t, O< t <
’°
3. l~rom equation (7.5),

~ ~ tcos dt+~ cos ~ dt

T2 ~-T/2
506 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

= T-
~ cos -- + sin
~ -T/2
"0
q_.~ [2~_~sin (2_~_~t)] -T/2

=eo(~[cosQrn)--cos(--Trn)]+4~n[Si~(Trn)--sin(--Trn)])

+ 2~n[Sin(0)-- sin(--Trn)]----
This answer can be anticipated since e(t) is an odd function of time and a~
represents only the cosine or even parts of the signal.

~oi ~’~(~_~)+~oo (~)

b. = ~ ¢-~/e tsin dt ~ ~T/esin -- dt

.=T~ ~ -~cos -- -T/~ T ~cos

=eo(~[sin(~n)-sin(-wn)]-~[cos(O)-cos(-~n)])

= {-eo/wn nodd
0 n even
Therefore,
eo
e(t) = ~ ~ 7rn (~)
2e~osin 2 t
--
e0
= -~ +
~ 2eo
--zrn
(~)
2 t
cos --+90 ° .

dqc Ceo
v-~- + qc = Ce. The steady-state is qc = ~.

If e = e~ cos(wt + ~ - tan-r(T~), then

c cos[~+ ~ - ta~-~(~)].
qc= ~+1

qc = ~ +~=~ ~1 + (2wriT/T) e cos + 90° + ¢~ ,

Result for r/T = 1:

1 2 tiT 3
7.2. THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 507

Guided Problem 7.2

1. Crude model of pulse:

U(jw) e-J’l dt = 2 ] cos wt dt = - sin

~t)
d --T/2
This resembles the given spectrumfor the hammerif wt/2 = ~r for w = 2~r x 300,
or T = 1/300see.

0 100 200 300 400

frequency, Hz

7.2 The Laplace Transform

The Laplace transform is a formal extension of the operator methods that have
been used, starting in Section 5.3 and continuing most particularly in Section
6.3. It is used to aid the solution of ordinary linear differential equations, which
it converts to algebraic equations. Problems with non-zero initial conditions
are treated, as well as the class of excited systems with zero initial conditions
addressed in Section 6.3. The Laplace transform is used in Chapter 11 to aid
the solution of partial differential equations, which it converts to ordinary dif-
ferential equations.
The Laplace transform can be addressed at different levels. You will satisfy
the mini~numrequirement for practical use by starting with Section 7.2,3. If
rather you start with Sections 7.2.1 and 7.2.2, you should gain a deeper appre-
ciation of the transform and its relation to other methods; it is shown to be
adaptations of the Fourier transform and the convolution integral.

7.2.1 Development from the Fourier Transform*

The integral f_~lu(t)ldt often doesn’t exist, as you saw in the last section,
precluding the use of the Fourier transform of u(t). If, however, the function
u(t) is multiplied by e -~t, the Fourier transform of the product more likely
does exist, at least for some range of a; that is, ~_~lu(t)e-~tldt < ~. This is
virtually always true for signals that are zero for t < 0, which is the traditional
508 CHAPTER7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

transient signal; it is merely necessary that a be greater than somefinite

positive number.Therefore, the function

U(a + jw) = :~ [u(t)e -~t] = (t)e-~te-J~tdt, (7.18)

or

U(s) t)e-Stdt =_£[u(t)]; s = e + j~, (Z.19)

is defined. This is knownas the two-sided Laplace transform of u(t). The
inverse formula is
u(t)e -~t = ~-~[C(a + jw)], (7.20)
or, from equation (7.12a),

u(t) = ~_~(e + j~)e~t~ = U(~ + j~)e(~+~td(j~), (7.21)

2~j ~
or

~(t)
2~ J~_~
This is integration in the comple~plane, usually involving residue theory,
~hich is included in the study of f~nctio~s of a complex wri~ble. Although
some readers mayknow about this subject, it is beyond the scope of your
present need. There is a great deal that can be done without this knowledge.
This book employsthe simple expedient of a library of commonly occuring pairs
of functions of time and their Laplacetransforms, in table form. Partial fraction
expansions also help.
Two-sidedLaplace transforms are used infrequently because of convergence
problemsthat often arise whenu(t)¢ 0 for t < 0. ~or the cases of usual interest
in which ~(t) = 0 for ~ < 0, however, they reduce to the commonone-slded
Laplace transform, which is the only Laplace transform referred to in most
textbooks:

The inverse formula, equation (7.22), unfortunately is not simplified.

The response of the linear process G(~) to the input u(t) nowCanbe gener-
alized from equation (7.1g):

This is a key result that you will employto computethe response of linear sys-
tems to explicit excitations. The Laplace G(~), like the Heavisideoperator G(S)
used repeatedly before, and the special G(S) used for exponential functions st
e
(including sinusoidal signals whenS = j~), is knownas the transfer function
of the system. They are related intimately.
7.2. THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 509

~region of
d( J $ integration
.L--Z.. J ..... \

t
Figure 7.7: Changingthe order of integration in equation (7.28)

7.2.2 Development from the Convolution Integral*

Equation(7.24) (and its counterpart for Fourier transforms) also can be derived
from a convolution integral. Presuminga causal process, that is excluding
outputs that occur before their causal inputs, the convolutionintegral for the
response of a system with impulse response g(t) to the excitation u(t) can be
written as
x(t) = u(t - 4) g(~) (7.25)

Note that ~ is a dummyvariable; any symbol could be used. The one-sided

Laplace transforms of the excitation u(t) and the response to a unit impulse
g(t) are, respectively,

The objective is to derive the Secondof equations (7.24), with the addedobser-
vation that G(s) is the Laplace transform of the impulse response. Therefore,
the product

is computed,taking care to use dummytimes, ~ and ~. The definition t ~ ~ + ~

gives

The key idea nowis to changethe order of integration, as suggested in Fig. 7.7.
This gives
510 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

G(s)U(s) = fo~ ( fote-Stu(t - ()g(()d~)

The integral in the brackets { } above equals x(t), as indicated by equation

(7.25). Therefore,

G(s)U(s) = fo~e-St x(t)dt = (7.30)

establishing the objective.

7.2.3 Definition and Inverse

The Laplace transform F(s) of a function of time f(t) usually is defined as

F(s) =- £[f(t)] = f(t)e-Stdt, s = a + jw. (7.31)

This transformexists (does not becomeinfinite) for all physically possible (fi-
nite) signals if a has a real value larger than some minimumnumber. Note
that the transform is unaffected by the history of f(t) for t < 0. Either you
restrict its use to functions that are zero for all t < 0, or you represent that
history solely by its effect on f(0) and the time derivatives f’(0), f"(0),
The inverse Laplace transform is written as

f(t) = ~1I ~+~F(s)e+~tds. (7.32)

27r3 J~_j~
Its direct evaluation is a majortopic in the study of the functions of a complex
variable, whichis not addressed here since you need to knowonly a restricted
set of easily computedtransforms. A set of transform pairs sufficient to ham
die linear differential equations with constant coefficients is given in Table7.1;
several of these are derived below. A moreextensive set of Laplace trangform
4pairs, given in AppendixC, reduces the need for partial fraction expansions.

7.2.4 The Derivative Relations

The Laplace transform of the time derivative of a function is related to the
Laplace transform of the function itself in a special way that can be found by
an integration by parts:

4The pairs given on the last page of Appendix C apply to distributed-parameter models
such as in Chapter 11.
7.2. THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 511

Table 7.1 A Short Table of Laplace Transform Pairs

time function, t _> 0 Laplace transform

af(t) aF(s)
f(t) +g(t) F(s)
~
d ~,
dt,~f(t) s’~F(s) s" -lf(0) _ s’ -2f(O) - ¯. ¯ J~ Jt=O

f_t~f(t)dt ~F(s) +1 0
~
d
tnf(t) (-1)n d-~F(s)
e-~t f(t) F(s + a)
f(t - T) e-T~g(s)

unit impulse (f(t) 1

unit step us(t) 1/s

ltn (n = 1,2,3,..) " n+l

1/8
n!
-at
e 1/(s + a)
1 n at
1/(s + "+~
a)
~.~t e- (n = 1, 2, 3,...)
ne -~ cos(~t - ¢)
= Ae-at sin(wt + ¢) (bs + c)/[(s + ~ +

A = ~/b 2 + [(c - 2ab)/w] ¢ --- tan-][(c - ab)/bw] ~b ---- tan -1 [bw/(c -- ab)]
512 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

=~
Sfo~e-stf(t)dt + e-Stf(t)
0
= sF(s) - f(O). (7.33)

As a result, s often is called the time derivative operator, a description which

is most apt in the most commonapplication for which f(0) = 0. It can be viewed
as a ibr~nalization of the operator S used in Chapters 5, 6 and 8. Applying this
property again to find the Laplace transform of the second derivative,

d2 f(t)
L:[--d~] = s£[~]-f(O)=sg"F(s)-sf(O)-](O). (7.34)

Thus, for the nth derivative,

~[~] = snF(s) - sn-l f(O) - sn-2 f(O) - ... - (dn-l f /dtn-1)t= o. (7.35)

The inverse of s can be considered to be the time integral operator:

- ~ )dr. (7.36)
8

The lower limit of integration in equations (8.31) and the transform pair
(7.36) is given as t = 0; there also is f(0),f’(0) ,fn-l (O) in th e g eneral
pairs for first and higher-order derivatives as given in the table. This time is
ambiguous in cases in which the function jumps from one value to another at
precisely t -- 0. The two values can be distinguished by referring to the one
approached from negative time as occuring at time 0-, and the one approached
from positive time as occuring at time 0 +. In practice one may choose to use
either O- or 0+ in a given equation, but it is essential that all terms in the
equation be interpreted consistently. Whenone deals with functions f(t) that
equal zero for t < 0, it is simplest to employthe 0- option, since then the values
f(0-), if(0-),..., fn-l(0-) are all

7.2.5 Singularity Functions and Discontinuities

It is also important to have at your disposal the Laplace transforms of a handful

of key functions. The transform of the unit step us(t) is

£[us (t)] = fore -st dt = -8 1e-St ~=8"1 (7.37)

0

The unit impulse 5(t) is the time derivative of the unit step, as you have seen.
Thus, equation (7.33) gives

£[5(t)]= £[dus,!t)] = 1-us(O). (7.38)

[ a~ j
7.2. THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 513

But what is u~(0)? At time t = 0 the function jumps from 0 to 1; u~(0-)

and us(0+) -- 1. Whichdo you use? The answer, again, is that either is correct,
as long as you choosethe sameO- or 0+ in the Laplace transform of all terms.
In a particular case, one maybe more useful than the other, however. In the
present case the use of 0+ gives £[(~(t)] = 0, whichisn’t very useful. Examination
of the defining integral reveals that the impulsethen resides entirely outside of
the integration interval. To include the impulse in that interval you use the 0-
option, whichgives/:[5(t)] = 1. This result maybe checkedby direct calculation:
+
0
(7.39)

Theuse of the 0+ option in effect transfers the role of an excitation to that of

an initial condition, whichin somecases maybe helpful.

7.2.6 Other Key Relations

The Laplace transforms of other key functions given in Table 7.1 are computed
-a~,
here. For the exponential decay e
-at
~.. e
[ ]= e -ate - stdt= e-(a+~)tdt

_ _e_(~+~)~ oo_ (7.40)

For a product of the exponential decay and a function f(t),

Z; [e-~t:(t)] e-(~+"~tI(t)dt = F(s + (7.41)

For the product

~
d
=
Finally, for a function shifted in time by the delay T,

£[f(t - T)] = foo°~e-~tf(t - T)dt

---- e-TSF(s)¢ where f(t) = if t < 0. (7.43)

514 CHAPTER7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS,PART 2

The function e -Ts is knownas the time delay operator, since whenmultiplied
by the Laplace transform of a function of time it gives the Laplace transform
of the same function delayed in time by T. Note that the switch in the lower
limit of integration from -T to 0 requires that the function be zero-valued
for t < 0. The time delay operator maybe viewed as a generalization of the
frequency pure-delay operator presented in Section 6.2.8 (pp. 439-441). The
Pade approximantsintroduced there apply here, also, with S = s.

7.2.7 Finding Laplace Transformsof Output Variables

Thefirst of twosteps in solving a differential equation using Laplacetransforms
is to find the Laplace transforms of the desired output variables. The second
step, evaluating the ouput variables themselvesfrom the transforms, is addressed
subsequently.
The Laplace transform of the response of an initially quiescent system to
a transient excitation is especially simple to find, because all of the initial-
value terms x(0), ~(0),..., (dU-lx/dt~-l)t=o are zero. Therefore, the Laplace
transformof the scalar differential equation
nd d’-lx dx
an ~--~ + an-~ ~ +"" + a~-~ + aox : f(t) (7.44)

becomes
(ans’~ + a,~_ls n-~ +... + als + ao)X(s) = F(s), (7.45)
from which
X(s)- F(s) (7.46)
p(s)
wherep(s) is the familiar characteristic polynomial.
The other major situation is the initial-value problemin whichf(t) = for
t > 0. In this case, the Laplace transform of equation (7.44) gives
1 [ +a~-~s~-2
X(s) =~~L(a’~sn-~ +""+a~)x(O)+(ansn-~- -~
- a n-3
8

+... + a~)~(0)(artsn-3+’" +a~)~(0) +.

+ (a~s + an - 1) + a,~ (7.47)
\dt ]t=o \ dt-~-~Y-~ ] t=0J
In almost all cases of interest, very few of the terms within the square brackets
above are non-zero; usually the terms are best found by direct application of
the third entry in Table 7.1.
To address the linear state-variable formulation, recall the matrix notation:

(7.48)
[ dx(t)~ : Ax(t)+ Bu(t). ]
Takingthe Laplace transform of both sides gives
sX(s) - x(0) = AX(s) + (7.49)
7.2. THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 515

Solving for X(s),

X(s)= G(s)U(s) + (sI - A)-Ix(O)

G(s)= (sI - A)-~B. (7.50)

Setting B = 0 or u(t) = 0 leaves an initial value problem, and setting x(0) =

leaves a forced response problem.
A more general case traditionally is cited in the literature. The output
variable is defined as

y(t) = Cx(t) + Du(t). (7.5~)

In this case,

Y(s)= H(s)U(s) + C(sI - A)-Xx(0),

H(s)_ = C(sI - A)-IB + (7.52)

The matrix H(s) is simply a more generalized transfer function which allows
output, y(t), to be different from the state vector, x(t).
The elements of the matrices G(s) and H(s) scal ar tran sfer func tions
or, in the language of most elementary textbooks in automatic control which do
not employ matrices, just "transfer functions". Note that the expressions for
G(s), G(s) and H(s) are identical to the operators first introduced in Section
5.3.3 (p 345) merely to represent differential equations, except for the use of
in place of S. The scalar G(s) also is noted in Section 6.1.5 (p 397) to represent
the ratio of the response x(t) to the excitation est. The subsequent development
extended this result to frequency response, using s = jw. These facts are closely
related.

EXAMPLE 7.4
Find the response of a system with the scalar transfer function

2
a(~) (s + 1)(s+
(which is the factored version of the transfer function used in Example7.2,
p. 490) to an input unit Step, using the Laplace transform table in Appendix
C.
Solution: The Laplace transform of the unit step is

1
u(~)= 8
516 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

The Laplace transform of the response x(t) is the product of G(s) and U(s),
or
2
X(s) = s(s 1)(s + 5)
This is proportional to transform #15 in the table of Laplace transforms in
Appendix C, with the coefficient values a -- 1 and b = 5. The corresponding
time function therefore is

x(t) 0. 4 - 0. Se-t + -5t.

0. 1e

EXAMPLE 7.5
Use Laplace transforms to find the response x(t) of the general underdamped
second-order model to an impulse cS(t), in the presence of general initial
conditions x(0) and 2(0) (same case as in Example 6.4, pp. 400-401).
Solution: The Laplace transform of the differential equation gives

[(s + a)"~+ ~]X(s)- ~x(0)- 2(0)- 2a~,(0) a = ~,~.

Solving for X(s),

1
x(~)- (~ + ~)2~ [(~ + ~)x(0) +c + ~(0) +~(
which from items #18 and #19 in Appendix C (p. 608) gives

c+ ~(0)+ax(0)sin~dt] -at
.
:~(t) = x(O)cos~t
[

EXAMPLE7.6 ~
Find the behavior of the state vector of a third-order autonomous linear
system described by its matrix A and initial conditions x(0):

A= -2 2 ; ~(o) .
1 -4 1

Solution: From equation (7.50),

x(s) = (~ - A)-~x(0).
Carrying out the indicated operations,

s/2+2
1 [ s2 +6s+6 2
X(s)=~[ 2s+8 (s+4) 2s+8 ;
lg~a) s:+6s+7 1
2 s+4

p(s) =-- [sI - AI = s ~ + 10s~ + 29s + 20 = (s + 1)(s + 4)(s

7.2. THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 517

Carrying out the indicated matrix product,

+6s+5
1
X(~) = 0 ~(0)
~+6~+5)
-(s

1
(s+l)o(S+5)
_(s+l)(s+5)l
(s+l)(s+4)(s+5)

- s+4
z(o).

The inverse transform, from either the tenth item in Table 7.1 or item #5
in the table of Appendix C, is

x(t)=x(0)

From the present perspective the cancellation of so many nu~nerator and

denominator factors to give so simple an answer seems rather an incredible
coincidence. Later, in Section 7.3.4, this problem will be shown to corre-
spond to an excitation of a "mode of motion" of a particular system. One
rarely chooses initial conditions corresponding to a mode of motion acciden-
tally; they are very special.
The MATLAB co~nmand [num,den]=ss2tf(~.,B,C,D,±) gives the nu-
merator and denominator polynomials of the matrix H(s) = C(xI-A)-IB+
D given in equation (7.52). Thus, the coefficients of the nine polynomials
in p(s) above are given (as well as the denominator coefficients) by setting
C equal to the unit diagonal matrix and D equal to the null matrix. The
coefficients of X(s) above result from setting B equal to the vector x(0) and
D equal to the null vector.

7.2.8 Partial l~raction Expansions

Laplace transforms comprising ratios of polynomials so as to represent ordinary
linear differential equations with constant coefficients can be expandedin partial
fraction expansions to reduce the complexity of the individual terms. The usual
result comprises terms of first and second order only, a great simplification.
Partial fraction expansions are presented in Section 6.3 (pp. 459-470). Al-
though that discussion preceeds the formal introduction of Laplace transforms,
it applies directly to them; the Heaviside S merely is replaced by the Laplace s.
You are urged to review the material at this time. Table 6.1 (p. 461) of transfer
functions and their associated impulse responses should be recognized also as a
table of functions of time and their Laplace transforms. All but the final entry
in that table can be found in Table 7.1 and on the first page of the table in
518 CHAPTER7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS,PART 2

Appendix C.
The final entry in Table 6.1 (entry #7) relates the residues and poles of
general second-order transfer function or Laplace transform to a simple analytic
expression of the correspondingimpulse response or function of time. It relates
nicely to the output of the residue operation of MATLAB. It suffers from
one practical complication, however:there are two sinusoidal functions of time
where only one is needed. A slightly different approach to the same problem
is taken in the final entry in Table7.1, resulting in a single equivalent phase-
shifted sinusoidal function. To see the contrast, the following examplehas the
same transfer function or Laplace transform as Example6.23 (p. 465).

EXAMPLE 7.7
Find the inverse Laplace transform of

5s2 + 22s + 39 2s + 12 3
G(S) -~ F(s) ~ + 2s+ 5)( s + 2) (s -~ + 4+ --’s+ 2

Thefinal entry in Table 7.1 gives

f(t) = 3e-2~ + v~-~e-t cos(2t - 68.2°);

f(t) = -2t + x/-~e-t si n(2t + 21.8°).

The approachin Example6.23 (Section 6.3, p. 465) finds the values 2rr =
and 2ri = -5, from which

f(t) = 3e-2t + (2cos2t + -t.

5sin2t)e

Althoughall three answers are equal, the versions with a single sinusoidal
term reveal their meaningmoreconcisely.
The same problemof a second-order Laplace transform, or subsets of it,
are treated in yet slightly different waysin items #8, 9, 18, 19, 20 and 21
of Appendix C, which are the most commonlypublished forms. You have
choices.

7.2.9 Initial and Final Value Theorems

Sometimesyou maybe satisfied with a quick calculation for an initial value,
y(0), and a final value, y(o~), rather than the moredifficult determination
the entire function, y(t). Thesevalues also can be used as a partial check on
the complete response. The initial value theorem is

lim y(t) = ~li~m~[sY

(s)], (7.53)
t~o

in whicht = 0- or 0+ according to the choice employedin the original Laplace

7.2. THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 519

transform. The final value theorem, which assumes stable behavior (no poles
outside the left-half plane), is

EXAMPLE 7.8
Apply the initial and final value theorems to the X(s) of Example 7.4:

2
X(s) = s(s 1) (s + 5)

Solution:

x(0): lim[( 2 )] :0,

s-~ s+l)(s+5
2
x(~x~)=lim
s-~0 (.s+l)(s+5) ] =0"4’
which agree with the x(t) found in the example.

7.2.10 Summary

Laplace transforms reduce ordinary differential equations to algebraic equations.

In particular, the Laplace transform of the response of a linear system with zero
initial conditions equals the product of the transfer function and the Laplace
transform of the excitation. The inverse Laplace transform of the transfer func-
tion itself is the impulse response of the model. Both problems with excitations
and with non-zero initial values are treated by finding the Laplace transform of
the desired output and then computing its inverse.
The Laplace transfer functions for lumped models are ratios of polynomials
in s. The same is true for the Laplace transforms of most of the simple exci-
tations signals considered herein, such as impulses, steps, ramps and sinusoidai
signals that commenceat time t = 0. (Signals involving pure delays are ex-
ceptions, as noted in Section 7.2.6. Another class of exceptions, illustrated in
Guided Problem 7.4, is developed for distributed-parameter models in Chapters
11.) In these cases the defining integrals for the transform and its inverse can
be avoided by the expedient of table look-up, using a partial fraction expansion
if necessary.
Multiplying a Laplace transform by s is equivalent to taking the time deriva-
tive of the corresponding time function. This fact permits simple determination
of the Laplace transformof a differential equation. A transfer function G(s) is
algebraically equal to the function G(s) found earlier for the ratio of the response
of the system to the exponential excitation est . Initial and final value theorems
permit rapid evaluation of a time function at t = 0 and t = ~c, respectively,
from examination of its Laplace transform.
Software packages such as MATLAB dispatch most analytical drudgery.
520 CHAPTER7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS,PART 2

The Laplace transform can be viewed as a Fourier transform modified so

that it can treat nearly any transient signal. The fact that G(s) is the Laplace
transform of the impulse response of the system also follows directly from the
superposition property.

Guided Problem 7.3

Find the Laplace transform of the function a(1 - e-bt), whichis one of the most
com~nonlyencountered in engineering and science.
Suggested Step:
1. Substitute this function for u(t) in equation (7.31) (p 510) and integrate.

Guided Problem 7.4

The purpose for this optional problem is to suggest that Laplace transforms
apply to a muchbroader class of signals than is considered in this chapter.
Find the Laplace transform of the function av~.

Suggested Steps:

1. Lookup the integral that defines the transform in a table of definite inte-
grals.
2. Notethat the result is not a ratio of polynomials,unlike the other Laplace
transforms considered in this volumeof the text (except for the pure-delay
operator).

Guided Problem 7.5

This problemillustrates the application of the transform of a pure delay.
Find the Laplace transform of the truncated ramp:

f(t)l

Suggested Steps:

1. Represent the function as the sum of an upward sloping ramp and a de-
layed downwardsloping ramp.
2. Computethe Laplace transform of a single ramp.
3. Use the delay operator e -Ts to assemble the Laplace transform for the
sum of the two ramps.
7.2. THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 521

Guided Problem 7.6

You are urged to start your experience solving differential equations by the
Laplace transform method with a straight-forward scalar initial-value problem.
Consider the example

d3 x d’) x 8 dx
dt 3 + 5-~ + -~ + 4x = F(t).

Find the Laplace transform of x(t) given the values x(0) = 1, x(0) = 2
x(0) = -3. Then, for F(t) being a unit impulse, find x(t). Do not refer to the
Laplace transform table in Appendix C.

Suggested Steps:

1. Take the Laplace transform of the differential equation using the formula
for dnx(t)/dt n given in Table 7.1.

2. Substitute the function for £[F(t)] and the initial values as given above.

3. Solve for ~:[x(t)]

4. Use a partial fraction expansion to find terms in the forms given in Table
7.1. Note the existence of a repeated root.

5. Use the table to evaluate x(t).

Guided Problem 7.7

This problem uses the matrix formulation, and compares the procedure for a
forced response with that for an equivalent initial-value problem.
Solve the third-order system example of equations (7.89) and (7.90) (in
following section, p. 536) for the responses of the three state variables to an
impulse of force F(t) of magnitude I. Set this up in two ways: as a forced
response, and as an initial value problem.

Suggested Steps:

1. Define the matrices B, C and D, and note A from equation (7.90).

2. For the forced response, find U(s) and compute Y(s) from equations (7.52)
(p.515).
3. For the initial value problem, find x(0) by integrating the differential equa-
tion over the infinitesimal time interval 0- to 0+. Showthat the first of
equations (7.52) gives the same result as it does for the forced response.

4. Find the inverse transform of Y(s) using one of the tables. A partial
fraction expansion allows the use of simpler tables.
522 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

Guided Problem 7.8

This problem offers a comparison between the response of a simple system to a
transient sinusoidal excitation and the response of the system to a steady-state
sinusoidal excitation (or frequency response). The system is identified by its
response to a step excitation.
A linear system gives the response 3(1 - e-2t) when excited by a step signal
at t -- 0 of amplitude 2.0. Find the response of the syste~n to the sine wave
4sin(3t) which starts abruptly at t = 0. Compare the result for t -+ ~
that found from a steady frequency excitation using the frequency response
techniques.

Suggested Steps:

1. Find the Laplace transforms of the step and its response using the table
in Appendix C. Find the transfer function G(s) which is their ratio.

2. Find the Laplace transform of the sine wave. Multiply this by G(s) to get
the Laplace transform of the desired response.

3. Find the desired response from its transform. A partial fraction expansion
may help.

4. The response cannot suffer a discontinuity at t = 0, and therefore must be

zero there. Verify this with the initial value theorem. Note that the final
value theorem fails, however, since the response has no asymptotic value
as t --~ ~x~.

5. Find the result for t -+ ~x~, and interpret its magnitude and phase angle
relative to the excitation. Compare these to the IG(jw)l and /G(jw)
the frequency response technique.

PROBLEMS

7.10 Find x(t) given ~ + 4k + 3x = h + 2u and u(t) = ~(t).

7.11 Repeat the above problem given u(t) = us(t).

7.12 The system ~ + 2k + 5x = 0 has initial conditions x(0) = 2, k(0)

Find x(t), t >_

2s"~ + 8s ~- 10
7.13 Find the inverse transform of X(s) - (s 2) 3

7.14 Find the Laplace transform of F(t) defined by

7.2. THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 523

~(t) = o, t <
= tsinwt, t>_O

7.15 Find the Laplace transform of F(t) for a single sinusoidal pulse defined
by

f(t) = O, t < 0
= sinwt, O<wt<~r
= 0 wt, > ~

7.16 Find the solution of the differential equation

k+ax=bsinwt, x(0)

7.17 A secoffd-order system with damped natural frequency w and time con-
stant 7 is excited by a transient signal f(t) = -at. Find t he r esponse.

7.18 Estimate the impulse response in analytical form for the system charac-
terized in Bode form in Guided Problem 6.4 (p. 444).

7.19 Estimate the step responses in analytical form for the three systems char-
acterized by Bode plots in Guided Problem 6.5 (p. 445).

7,20 Find the Laplace transform of the square pulse plotted below.

7.21 The square pulse of the above problem excites a system with the transfer
function G(s) b/ (s + a) . Fi nd and pl ot th e re sponse.

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 7.3

U(s) = ~o °°a(1 - e-~t)e-~tdt(~s 1= a l_~_~_~t~e_st[

+ s +b ] Io =~a (1 1
s s~-b
524 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

Guided Problem 7.4

a ~r
U(s) avffe-~tdt = ~s
(This result is given in AppendixC as transform pair #36.)

Guided Problem 7.5

1. f(t) = (a/T)[u,(t)- ur(t T)
a/T
2. For the first ramp, Fl(s) =
3. F(s) = -~-(1 - -T~)
e

Guided Problem 7.6

d3 x 5 d2 x 8 dx
1. ~ + dt 2 + -~ -= 5(t)
[dx(s)- 82x(0)- s~(0)- ~,(0)]+ 5 [dx(8)- ~x(0)
+s[sx(~)- ~(0)]+~ [.¥(8)][~(~)]
2-3. (x 3 + 582 + 8s + 4)X(s) (s 2 + 5s+ 8)x(0) + ( s + 5)~(0) + ~

"X(s)(s~ +58+ 8)1 + (s + 5)2+ (-3) 2 + 78 + 16

X3 "~- 582 "~- 88 ~- 4 -+-2
(s+ l)(s
a b c
s+l (s+2) 2 8+2
4. Can use the MATLAB’command
[c ,p, r] =residue (aura,den), or solve by hand
as follows:
Is2 +7s+ 16]
L [ ~;2"~ .j =a=10

s2 + 78 + 16= 10(s + 2)2 + b(s + 1) + c(s + 1)(s +

= (10 + c)s 2 + (40 +b + 3c)s + (40 +b + 2c)
Therefore, c = -9, b = -6 and check: 40 - 6 - 18 = 16
x(~) s+l10 (s+2)6 ~ s+29
5. x(t) = lOe-t - (6t + -2t
9)e

Guided Problem 7.7

1. Equation (7.90) gives A -2 1 . Fromequation (7.89),

Presumingall three state variables are of interest,

C= 1 ,D=0
0
7.2. THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 525

u(s)= ,[u(t)] --
Y(s) = H(s)U(s) -~
s 0 - -~ 0
1
H(s)= s+2 = s~ +3s+8 ;
6 s 3 P-~ 8
p(s) = ~ +5s~ + 20s + 16

~(0) ; Y(~) = e(sI - ~)-~x(0) = same ~

¯ he denominatorof the Laplace ~ransforms for p~ and pb can be facgored into

ghe product of a first-order ~ermand a second-order term. Transformpair
in the ~able of AppendixC ~hen gives p~(~) directly. ~inding p~(t) the same
wayis more awkward,because of ~he numerator term s~; a summagionof terms
from pair ~a2, pair ~aa ~d the time derivative of pair ~g ~e necess~y.
Alter~mtively, ~he use of the MATLAB commandIt,p, r] ~re~id~ (~,
c~ries out a p~gial fr~tion exp~sion, after which the ~sociated time func-
gion can be found more readily. ~he developmentbelow c~ries ou~ ~he p~tial
fraction expansions by hand (which is relatively uneconomicalin engineering
practice):

sa + Ss~ + 20s +16 ~+

~-~ s ~ + 4~ + 16 la

6= ~(s~ +4s+16)+(s+ l)(bs+c)

6 24 6 18 96 18 78
Therefore, b=-~;
c=-~+ 13 13 check: 13 13 13 =6
Thus:p~(t)=~_~ [ 6s+18 ]
s~l (s+2)2 +12

16. ~
s~+as+18= ~(s +4s+160= (s+l)(bs+c)

:
3 22
Therefore, b = - ~; c : - ~

16 _~ 9~ -2~
sin [2v~t - tan-l(3v~/16)]
526 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

Finally, q(t) = -~p, (t) e-t - e-st sin(2vf~t + tan-1 2x/~)

Guided Problem 7.8

4x3 36
2. U(s) = s~ + 3~ ; X(s) = G(s)U(s) 3~)(s +

3. ~ansform pair ~32 can be used directly, with a = 0, c = 2 and w = 3.

Alternatively, the following p~tiM ~action exp~sion (which could be found
using MATLAB) can be used:
k bs+c
X(s) = ~ + s~ +

36 72 324 2 x 72 468 (check)

Therefore, b=-~; c= ~; 36= ~+ 1~= 1~
~om Table 7.1 (p 511),
-) 36 -2t 12
x(t)=~-~e. ÷~sin(3t÷¢), ¢=tan-l( ~)=-tan-l(~
x(O) = Ls-~ [sX(s)] = 0 Note that the time function above agrees.
Ls~o [sX(s)] -- 0 This is not x(oc), however, since there are two poles on
the origin.

As t -~ ~, x(t) -~ 12
-~ sin
" [3t-tan-l(~-)]
The frequency response method gives
12
= ~+22 = ~; 12¢= AG(j3) =-tan-l(
~0 uo]G(j3)~ = 4 ~ ~
x(~) = xo sin(3t + ¢), whicha~ees with the result above.

7.3 Matrix Representation of Dynamic Behav-

ior*
The previous chapters and sections have made a restricted use of matrix con-
cepts, despite frequent use of matrix notation and MATLAB commands. In this
section, matrix exponential solutions to linear models and the modal behavior
of these models will be developed. The result is an enhanced understanding of
the behavior of linear models as well as the development of certain practical
computational methods.
The linear state differential equations are, as before,
7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAIqOR* 527

dx
-~= Ax(t) + Bu(t),
y(t)= Cx(t) + Du(t). .. (7.55)
The special case of the stationary model, for which A, B, C and D are con-
stants, is assumed. The autonomouscase, for which u(t) = 0, is treated first.

7.3.1 The Matrix Exponential

The general solution of equation (7.55) for the homogeneouscase u = 0 can
written as
x(t) = eAtx(0), (7.56)
in which eAt is known as a matrix exponential. It has the same series expan-
sion as a scalar exponential:

e At = I + At +9~A2t 2 + IA3t3 + .... (7.57)

2. 3!
This equation can be used to evaluate the matrix exponential, but there are
much better approaches that do not require evaluating many terms and do not
suffer a truncation error. Mathematics texts give various ways for evaluating
functions of matrices in general and the matrix exponential in particular. A
particular method for finding the matrix exponential is developed below that
also elucidates the behavior of the system.
First, however, it is important to recognize two uses of the matrix exponen-
tial. The obvious use is to give analytic functions of time for the various states
in x(t). The second use employs a fixed time interval, At, which can be chosen
arbitrarily:
x(t + At) = eA~x(t). (7.5S)
In this application, the matrix exponential eAAt is evaluated numerically. Then,
x(At) is found from equation (7.58). After this, x(2At) is found ~he same
that is by premultiplying x(At) by the same numerical matrix exponential.
Again, x(3At) equals x(2At) premultiplied by the matrix exponential, which
can be called a state transition matrix. This process may be repeated in-
definitely, to evaluate x(nAt) for n = 1, 2,3,... It is important to note that
regardless of the magnitude of At, this process entails no inherent error (be-
yond round-off error), assuming the matrix exponential is evaluated properly.
By contrast, general simulation routines such as the Runge-Kutta method pre-
sented in Section 3.7 suffer an error that grows rapidly as the time increment is
increased. The general simulation schemes, on the other hand, have the advan-
tages of handling arbitrary forcing functions as well as nonlinearities.

7.3.2 Response to a Linearly Varying Excitation

Equation (7.55) with a linearly varying excitation
U -~ 110 -}- Ult, (7.59)
528 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

freqnently is employed to represent linear interpotation of an excitation between

known data points u(tk). This is the basis of the MATLAB function ls±m,
the use of which is described in Section 5.3.7 (pp. 349-352). Note that the
assumption of a zero-order hold corresponds to ul = 0.
The Laplace transform of equation (7.59)

U(s) uo + (7.60)
= --s ~T"
The Laplace transform of the equation (7.55a) (same as equation (7.48), p.
is given by equation (7.49), and its solution for X(s) is given by equation (7.50).
Substitution of equation (7.60) into this result gives the transform that has
its inverse transform

x(t)
/o /0’//
e At Buo dt ’ + eAt’’ Bul dt" + eatx(0), (7.61)

in which t’ and t" are dummyvariables of integration. The desired result follows
from carrying out the integrations:

x(t) =A-l(e At-I)Buo+A-2(eAt-I)Bul-A-xBult+eAtx(0). (7.62)

The accuracy of :~s±m can be seen to depend on the fidelity of the linear in-
terpolation of the excitation between the beginning and end of each time step.
Whenthe excitation is constant or varies precisely linearly, there is virtually no
error. The command:~s±m also has a feature that is not well documented: it
attempts to identify inputs that involve zero-order holds (step-wise excitations),
and to represent them accordingly. This can be useful in treating systems that
have sample-and-hold control signals, for example, but also is a potential source
of error. For more information, see the Help instructions that accompany MAT-
LAB.

7.3.3 Eigenvalues, Eigenvectors and Modes

Rather than giving the solution to the autonomous or homogeneous problem in
the form of equation (7.56), the inverse transform of equation (7.50) (p.
gives in general

[x(t)----~ixi(t)=~ieS~txi(O), (7.63)
assuming that the roots si of the characteristic polynomial are distinct. Each
term in this summation, called a mode of motion, satisfies the equation

[(siI - A)xi = 0, ] (7.64)

in which si is an eigenvalue that satisifies the characteristic equation

Ip(s) = det(sI - A) = 0,
/ (7.65)
7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR* 529

and has its corresponding eigenvector, x~. Equation (7.63) reveals that the in-
dividual modes of motion can be superimposed in any proportion, depending on
the initial conditions, without interaction with one another. It can be very in-
structive to grasp the significance of the individual eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
The eigenvalues customarily are assembled in a square diagonal eigenvalue
matrix, S:

(7.66)

If one or more of the roots of the polynomial are repeated, equation (7.63)
produces fewer than the requisite number of terms. For a double root s~ the
associated terms are
eSt[x~(O) v/ t], (7.67)
where v~(0) is a vector of constants. For a root repeated m times, this generalizes
to
est [x~(0) + V~lt + v~.~t2 +... + Vimt’~]. (7.68)
The other terms in equation (7.63) are unchanged.

7.3.4 Case Study: Three Fluid Tanks

As a case study, consider the system shown in Fig. 7.8, which has three inde-
pendent energy storage elements and thus is of third order. Applying integral
causality in the usual manner, as shown, gives the state equations

d V2 =A V2 +
, (7.69a)
dt V3
V3 LQuJ
An = --~ + ; A~ = -- A~3 = O,
R~C~

" Rb¢ C~

Aa~ = O; Aa~ = R~C~ . (7.69b)

-~
To make equation (7.69) correspond to equation (7.~) (p. ~27), the
Q = [Q~, Q~, Q~]r somehowmust be removed. This is accomplished by defining
constant values ~o = [Qm, Q~o, Qao]r and Vo = [I%, ~o, ~o] r such that

~hus all changes in time reside in the & terms. The volumes ~o, ~o, Vao
can be chosen such that they represent equal levels of water in the three tanks,
530 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

a3-~

Rc I
water: pg = 62.4 ~
lb/fi

A~ = 0.312 ft 3 3Ab = 1.248 ft 3Ac = 0.624 ft

A~
Co = ~-ff-= 0.0050 frS/lb Cb = 0.0200 ftS/lb Cc = 0.0100 ftS/lb

~
R~ = R~ = Ra~ = 100.0 lb min/ft Rc = R~c ~
= 50.0 lb min/ft

(a) system and parameters

l Vl/C 0 Co
S~2

R~ Ra, R~ R~ Rc

(b) bond graph with causal strokes

Figure 7.8: Three-tank system

7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR* 531

1 [~.~V.
op-.2-..-.,--_,-.,--
.......

_~l ,v/vl’ , , I I I I I
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
time, minutes
(c) response,first experimentandmode

5 ~%
4
3
2 .,... V~/V,

O0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0

time, minutes

(d) response, secondexperimentand mode

2 ~ V.2/Vii

1
0
-1
~"
-2 I I I I I I I I I
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
time, minutes
(e) response, third experimentand mode
532 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

as indicated in part (a) of the figure. The corresponding depth of the water
is V,o/Aa = V~o/Ab = V~o/Ac, which is proportional to ~’~o/Ca = V2o/Cb =
}~o/Cc. Thus,
Q,oRa = Q~oRb= Q3oRc,
or
1
Q10---- Q2o= ~Q3o. (7.71)

The equilibrium equation

0 = AVo + Q0 (7.72)
5nowcan be subtracted from equation (7.69) to give the desired result

dAV
- h AV + AQ. (7.73)
dt
The immediateinterest is the special case of AQ= 0. In particular, howdo the
three levels approachtheir equilibrium with its equal depths if they start with
different depths?
The numerical parameter~sin the figure give the matrix A and characteristic
polynomialalready used in Example7.5 (p. 516). The roots of the characteristic
polynomial therefore are

81 : -4; s2 = -1; s3 = -5 min-’. (7.74)

The order of these roots is arbitrary.

The solution can be found from equation (7.63):

I-1,",,1
+ .
LtS()J LV LSJ.
Theessential characterof the dyn~icscanbe seento be representedpartly by
three different exponentialdecayrates. Decayrates of linear models,as noted
before, traditionally are expressed by e-~/~, wherev hasthe dimensions of time
and is called a time constant. In the present, systemthe three time const~ts
~e 0.25, 1.0 and0.20 minutes,respectively.
Thesolution to equation(7.75) also is characterizedby three eigenvectors
given in the squarebracketson the right side. Eacheigenvectorcan be fac-
tored into a product of a scalar and a normalizedeigenvector.For simplicity
it is assumed herethat the first elementin the normalizedeigenvectoris unity.
(Later it will be seenthat MATLAB makesa different choiceto get aroundthe
possibility that the first elementis zero.) Thenormalizedsecondeigenvectorof
SThe approach is consistent with linearization, ~ discussed in Section 5.4. Equatio~ (7.69)
is "linear bi~ed," however, and ~ a result the model of equation (7.73) introduces no addi-
tional error.
7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR* 533

the three-tank problem, for example, can be found by substituting the second
eigenvalue, s2 = -1, into equation (7.64) (p. 528), as follows:

= 0. (7.76)

The first of the three equations imbeddedhere requires V22(O)/V,2(O)

The third then gives V32(O)/Vl~(O)= 2. The second is redundant, but affords
an opportunity to check the results. Repeating the sameprocedure for the two
other normalizedeigenvectors and assemblingthe results into a modalmatrix,
P, gives

P-- V21/VI~ V22/VI2 V231V~a = 6 -2 . (7.77)

L v31/v~l va2/vl~. Va3/VIa 1 2 2

Withthis result equation (7.75) can be written

V~(t) = V,~e-4t + V,~e -~ + --2 V~3e-SL (7.78)

V3(t) 1

Imaginethe following experiment. Initially, the three tanks are at equilib-

rium, all at the samelevel with the rate of flow out of each equal to the rate of
flow in. Suddenly, you removea bucket of water of volumeVll from the third
tank and dumpit into the first tank. This establishes the initial condition

y2(0)/ = yl~, (7.79)

v3(0) 1
which, whencomparedwith equation (7.78), showsthat V12and V13equal zero.
The subsequent behavior must be

vdt)/ = e-4t
,Vll (7.80)
Va(t) 1
whichis plotted in Fig. 7.8 part (c). Note that the entire responseinvolves only
the first time constant, and the ratios of the three excess volumesalwaysretain
the proportions [1, 0, -1], respectively. This is the behavior of the first mode;
the vector [V1(t.), V2(t), V3(t)]T rema.insparallel to its initial direction in state
space, and decays at the rate e-4~ dictated by the first eigenvalue.
This same initial condition was given in Example7.5 (p. 516). The can-
cellation of the numerator and denominatorfactors of X(s) is nowexplained,
leading to the simple result for the x(/) of that problem.
534 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

If as a second experiment you suddenly dump one unit of water of arbitrary

volume V~2into tank 1, six units into tank 2, and two units into tank 3, the
resulting behavior would be

-~,
v.2(t)= v,12e (7.81)

which is plotted in part (d) of the figure. This is behavior of the second mode;
the vector [t~ (t), V2(t), l/~(t)] T remains parallel to its initial direction in state
space, and behaves as directed by the second eigenvalue, 82, that is the decay
rate e-t.
The f~test decay would result from a third experiment thut estnblished
conditions for the third modeof behavior, which is plotted in part (e) of the
figure.
Equation (7.78) can be generalized

(7.82)

z(t) = Es,z(0); (7.83)

s2t
e ... ~
Est = ¯ ... (7.84)
.: ¯
0 ... e t

Equation (7.82) represents tr ans]ormation of variables bet ween z(t ) and x(t)
The variables z(t) are very special, as revealed by equations (7.83) and (7.84):
each component zi(t), i 1, ..-, n, act s independently of the other components,
employing only its unique time constant, ~-i -- -1/si. Thus z(t) is the set
modal variables. Inverting equation (7.82) and setting t =

z(0) = P-ix(0). (7.85)

Substituting this result into equation (7.83) and the resulting z(t) into equation
(7.82), gives the final general result

x(t) = PEstP-~x(0). (7.86)

A comparison of this result to equation (7.56) (p. 527) reveals that the matrix
exponential can be computed by evaluating

l e*’ = PEstP-’. ] (7.87)

For the three-tank problem, equation (7.85) gives

[ V~ ~ ’1 16 0
.. . ]v~:~ = y(0) a ~:(0)/
[ ~]~j -3 t~(0),j
7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR* 535

Ra Se
C= 1

(L~ ~"=1/8
Ia~’:~-’~
p~/l~ 0 "--’--~ 1 I~ = 1/6
y~ T pb/l~
q/C~ Ra=Rb=I/3
~
C R~
(a) bond graph

2.0

(b) responseto impulseor initial condition

Figure 7.9: Third-order system example

[ 16V1(0) +0- SV3(0)

= 1/2v1(0
) + 3v2(0)2V3(0) , (7.88)
24 L 6v1(0) - 3v2(0) + 6v3

whichcan be substituted into equation (7.78) to give the general result for that
problem.

7.3.5 Case Study With Complex Roots

The three-tank problem is rather special in that its roots are all real. The
methodabove is applied next to a problem with complexroots.
Consider the system shownin Fig. 7.9, which has three independent energy
storage elements and is thus of third order. Applyingintegral causality in the
536 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

usual manner, as shown, gives the state equations

-- = yRb/I~ 1/C (7.89)

dt
-1/Ia --1lib -1/RaC
The numerical parameters in the figure give

A= 0 -2 (7.90)
[oo
-8 -6

so the characteristic equation (7.65) becomes

0 -1
p(s)
i s + 2 -1
6 s+3
= 0, (7.91a)

or
p(s) =_ 3 +5s~ + 20s + 16= (s + 1)( -~ + 4s+ 16)= 0. (7.91b)
The roots of the characteristic polynomial are

s~ = -1; s2,3 = -2 ¯ 2jv~, (7.92)

where j is the unit imaginary number,

Even if you don’t continue the analysis further, these eigenvalues tell you the
essential character of the dynamics of the system, as represented by the decay
rates e-t and e--~t with their time constants of 1.0 and 0.5 seconds, respectively,
and the damped natural frequency, Wd = 2v~ rad/sec.
Youfind the first normalized eigenvector by substituting the first eigenvalue,
-1, into equation (7.64), and setting xl~ equal to unity:

0 1 -1 x12 = 0. (7.93)
8 6 2 LX~3
The first of the three equations imbedded here requires x~3 = -1. The second
then gives x~2 = -1. The third equation is redundant, but affords an oppor-
tunity to check the results. Repeating the same procedure for the two other
normalized eigenvectors and assembling the results into the modal matrix gives

P= -1 l + j/v~ 1- j/v~ . (7.94)

-1 -2 + 2jv~ -2- 2jx/~

The determinant IPI is -2jx/-~, and the inverse of P is

p_~ _ Adj(P) _ 1 -jv/-~ 6- jv/-~ -1- 2jv~ (7.95)

det(P) 26 +jx/~ 6+jx/~ -l+2jv~J
7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR* 537

As an example, consider as the initial condition the result of an impulse of

the force F(t) whichoccurs at the time t = 0. The force is designated as ZS(t),
where Z is the magnitudeof the impulse or time integral Z = fF dr. This time
integral is a step of amplitudeZ and can be designated as Zus(t).
The immediate effect of the impulse excitation appears only on the state
variable p2, as can be seen by integrating the differential equation (7.73) over
the infinitesimal time interval from t -- 0 to t = 0+, whichby definition includes
the entire impulse. The result is

p~(0+) = 0; pb(0+) = Z; q(0+) = 0. (7.96)

Equation (7.85) nowgives

z(0) = p-1 - jx/’~ ¯ (7.97)

= ~o + jx/SJ
(Note that if you knew in advance that only pb(O+) would be non-zero, you
could forgo computingthe first and third columnsof p-l, saving significant
effort if hand calculation is used. For most practical situations above the or-
der two, however, the calling of the MATLAB inversion command,±nv(P),
recommended.)
Next, you find the matrix PEst, the separate columnsof which represent
the separate modesat time t:

eSlt eS2t es3t

*’t
PEst = -e (1 + j/v~)e ~ (1 - j/v~)e ~3t . (7.98)
s’t
e (-2 + 2jv~)e *~t (-2 - s~t
2jvr~)e

Multiplying the vector of modalamplitudes, y(0), given by equation (7.97),

this matrix gives
x(t) = PEstP-~x(O)

[ -12e-t
-t +
+(7
(6 +- jv/-~)e (-2+~jv%t + (6 + jv~)e(-2-2jv~)t
jx/-~)e (-2+eiv%t (-2-~jv%t ]
= Z__ ] 12e + (7 - jx/~)e [
26 L 12e-~ - (6 - 14jx/~)e(-~+’~jv~)t - (6 + 14jx/~)e(-2-~jv%t J

z ~ -~e-t + e-*t[~ cos(~t/+

= i~ 6e-t-t + e-~t[Tc°s(2~/~t) v~sin(2~/gt)] . (7.99)
6e - e-2t[6 cos(2v~t) - 14~/~sin(2v~)]
These results are plotted in part (b) of Fig. 7.9. As a partial check, you can
verify that they satisfy the initial conditions given by equations (7.96).
Whennumerical as opposed to analytical results are satisfactory, MATLAB
can relieve the analyst of most of the drudgery above. Whenanalytical results
such as eqtiation (7.99) are desired, it is possible to avoid having to deal with
the complication of complexnumbers. An optional methodis presented next.
538 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS~ PART 2

7.3.6 Modified Method for Complex Eigenvalues*

The complex conjugate nature of the terms in the modal matrix permits them to
be coded with real numbers, saving effort. For example, the modified modal
matrix for the third-order system above is

Pm = -1 1 1/ . (7.100)
-1 -2 2~/~ J

The first eigenvector or column is real, so it is reproduced without change from

equation (7.100). The second and third eigenvalues are complex conjugates
one another; their commonreal parts are placed in the second column and the
imaginary parts, with the signs of the second eigenvector, are placed in the third
column. In general, complex eigenvectors are paired off, the real parts being
placed in one column and the imaginary parts being placed in the adjacent
column to the right. This modified modal matrix is readily inverted to give

p~l 13118
=-- 5 -66 ~ -11 .
1 3vcg (7.101)

The key result of equation (7.86) (p ~a4) can be modified to apply to these
matrices as follows:

x(t) = P,~EsmtP~lx(0), (7.102)

where, for the present problem, the matrix Esmt is

Es,~t = e -2t cos(2~/~t) e -2t sin(2v~t) (7.103)

-e -2t sin(2x/-~t) e-2t cOs(2V~t)

In general, the exponential terms for the real roots appear on the diagonal, and
the terms for each complex conjugate pair appear as a 2 × 2 array, centered on
the diagonal, and given in the form

e-st coswt e -st sinwt

-e -at sinwt e-c~t coswt

where a is the real part and w is the imaginary part of the associated eigenvalue.
Application of equation (7.102) to the third-order system now gives the modal
decomposition and the function x(t) relatively simply.
Somesoftware automatically reports eigenvectors in this modified form, and
computes only the inverses of real matrices, further motivating its use. MAT-
LAB, on the other hand, handles complex eigenvectors and modal and other
matrices directly. The modified form has the advantage of giving analytic solu-
tions directly in terms of real functions.
7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR* 539

(a)system

(b) pitch mode

¯ 4.843 m ¯
(c) heave mode

Figure 7.10: Undampedvehicle modes

7.3.7 Case Study: Vehicle Dynamics

As a final problemregarding autonomousmotion, consider the vehicle dynamics

of Figs. 5.15 and 5.16 (pp. 322, 324), which has a fourth-order modelwith two
degrees of freedom. The excitation (the toad bumps) is removedto make
autonomous,and the dampingis removedto clearly reveal the modalbehavior.
(The dampingis reinstated in Section 7.3.11 below.) The reduced model
shownin Fig. 7.10. The equation of motion becomes

d y2 = ~ 0 1/m L2/J I y2
(7.1o4)
pc Llk~ -L2k~ 0 pc
540 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

The parameters are given as m= 1250 kg, L1 = 1.4 tn, L.2 = 1.6 m, J = 2mr
with r 2 = 1.6 m2, kt = 30 kN/mand k2 = 32 kN/m. Therefore,
s o -o.ooo80.0007]
0 s -0.0008 -0.0008[
sI-A=
30000 32000 s (7.1o5)
-42000 51200 0 s0J’
and

p(s) =
I ]sI- A
= s4 + --1 1+k2+ L~kl --2+L~_k2~s +
m2r2 (L~ + L2)2 = 0,
m 2 r

(7.106)
or

p(s) = s4 + 119.96s2 + 3456= (s 2 - 71.88)(s2 - 48.08) = 0, (7.107)

si,2 = ±6.934j; s3,4 = ±8.478j. (7.108)
Theith normalizedeigenvector[1, P2i, P3i, P4~]T satisfies

0 si -0.0008 -0. 008 P2i (7.109)

30000 32000 s~ /p3,/ = O.
-42000 51200 0 si J LP4iJ
The fourth scalar equatio.n embeddedabove gives

P2~= (42 000 - s~m4i)/51 200, (7.110)

which, whensubstituted into the third equation, yields

P4i = -(1250s~ + 56 250)/(0.25s{). (7.111)

The first equation gives
P3i 1250si + 7~m4i.
= (7.112)
Equation (7.111) can be used to find the fourth element in all four eigenval-
ues, whereuponequation (7.110) gives the second element and (7.112) gives
third. It is simpler to computeonly the first and third eigenvectors this way,
however, and note that the second and fourth eigenvectors must be the com-
plex conjugatesof the first and third, respectively. Werethis not true the state
variables themselves wouldbecomenon-real; whichis impossible. The resulting
modalmatrix is

I1

P = | 6724j
1
0.5195 0.5195
-6724j
1
-1.8047
-3274j
1 "
-1.8047
.3274j ’ (7.113)
L-2221j 2221j -]5853j 15853j
7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR* 541

and the corresponding modified modal matrix is

pm
=
O. 95 0 -1.8047
(7.114)
6724 0 -3274 "
-2221 0 -15853J
These matrices reveal that the first complex conjugate pair of roots combine
to give a mode of motion in which the amplitude of y2(t) is 1.8047 times the
amplitude of y~ (t), with a 180° phase difference. This requires that a node
(point with zero velocity)be located between the two points, as shown in Fig.
7.10 part (b), suggesting the designation pitch mode. Similarly, the second
complex conjugate pair of roots combine to give a mode of motion in which
the amplitude of y~_(t) is 0.5195 times the amplitude of y~(t), with a 0° phase
difference. This requires that a node be located at some distance from the
vehicle, as shown in part (c) of the figure, suggesting the designation heave

The eigenvalue matrix is

jw~ 0 0 0 ]
S =
0
0
0
[ -jw~
0
0
0
jw2
0
0
0 ’ (7.115a)

6.934 tad/s, w2=8.478 rad/s, (7.115b

from which
ejwlt 0 0 0 ]

Est -:
[i -j~lt
e
0
0
0
j~2t
e
0
0
0
e-j°~2t
(7.116a

0
-sinw~t cosw~t 0 O0
Esmt = (7.116b
0 0 cosw2t sinw_~t "
]
[ coswlt
0 sinw~t
0 - sinw~t cosw~tJ
The inverses of the modal matrices are
-5
~0.11176 -0.21513 0.9753j x 10 2.9526j x 10-5 ]
-5
0.11176 -0.21513 -0.9753j x 10 -5
-2.9526jx 10
-5
0.3882 0.21513 -6.961j × 10 -5
1.4376j × 10 ; (7.117a)
-~
0.3882 0.21513 6.961j × 10 -5
-1.4376j × 10
-0.22352 -0.43026 0
0 0 -0.1951×10 -4 -4 -0.5905x10
0
P~I = 0.77648 0.43026 0 ’ 0 . (7.117b)
0 0 1.3922× 10 -6 -0.2875 x 10-~J
The matrix exponential caa be found ~om either equation (7.87) (p. 534)
(7.102) (p. 538):
e ~t = PEstP -~ = P,~E~tP~ ~. (7.118)
542 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

time,seconds

Figure 7.11: Motion of undamped vehicle

This square matrix can be used either to find analytic functions of time in
responses to given analyti c excitations, or it can be used as a state transition
matrix to compute the responses at times nat numerically. As an example of
the latter, consider At ---- 0.1 sec. This gives
0.74506 0.04623 -4
0.7436x 10 -4
-0.6265x 10
eo.~A
= I0.04333
-2788.3
L 1104.9
0.68565
-2905.4
605.66
0.7263 x -4

-4
10
0.7622
-0.0332x10
-0.7037 x -4/
-0.0208
0.6685
10

J
/"
(7.119)

Further, consider as an initial condition yl(0) = 1, y2(O) = O, pro(O)

pc (0) = 0. This gives the analytic, solution

y2, =/-°.4°338c°swlt + 0.40338cosw2t[

(7.120)
Pm
pc i)
/
731.8sinwlt-
J L 3543.5sinwlt
5221sinw2t
+ 1724.6sinw2t
/’
J
which is plotted in Fig. 7.11. Successive .pre-multiplication .of the state vector
by the constant matrix exponential above gives the highlighted points. The.
coarseness of the time interval itself produces no error in the calculation.
7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR* 543

7.3.8 Application of MATLAB

Eigenvalue problems are simply treated with MATLAB.The procedures are
illustrated here by application to the three problems above.
Once the matrix A is entered, the commande±g(A) then gives the eigen-
values. To get the modal matrix as well as the eigenvalues, you enter [P,S] =
e£g(A). The response is the modal matrix

0.7071 -0.3333 -0.1562

-0.0000 0.6667 -0.9370
-0.7071 -0.6667 -0.3123

and the diagonal eigenvalue matrix

-4.0000 0 0
0 -5.0000 0
0 0 -1.0000

The three eigenvectors are normalized to unity length; that is, the sum of the
squares of their elements is 1. This is different from the modal matrix of equation
(7.78) (p. 533), in which the elements in the top row were arbitrarily chosen
1. It accomodates the use of a zero value in this row, amongother advantages,
but would have entailed extra calculation if done manually.
The diagonal matrix es~ can be found for the specified value of t = 0.1 by
entering ES = ex!0ra(. 1.S). The corresponding matrix exponential of equation
(7.87) can be found by entering P*ES*£nv(P). It is simpler, however, merely
to enter expm(, l*~). Note that expm(X) returns the matrix exponential x,
whereas exp (X) returns with = f or e ach of t he e lements i n X.
Equation (7.86),(p. 534) allows the determination of the analytic response
as a function of t. Finding this result is expedited by determining the vector
z(0) from equation (7.85) by invoking z0=±nv(~i)*x0. The initial state
x(0) = x0 must have been defined first.
MATLAB treats systems with imaginary or complex eigenvalues and eigen-
vectors the same way; standard notation is used. For example, the modal matrix
corresponding to equation (7.105) (p. 540) but normalized to give real unit
tors is given as

0.5774 -0.1666 + 0.1637£ -0.1666 - 0.1637i

-0.5774 -0.2611 + 0.0675± -0.2611 - 0.0675i
-0.5774 -0.2339 - 0.9044± -0.2339 + 0.9044i

The normalized vector z(0) of equation (7.108) is found by typing

z0=£nv(P)* [0;1 ;0]. Construction of the analytic solution of equation (7.99)
(p 537) would be directly in the first or complex form of the equation.
544 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

The use of the modified modal matrices with real elements is not necessary,
but might be preferred as a meansof finding analytic results directly in the form
of real functions. This is an advantage for finding the motion of the vehicle as
expressed in equation (7.120), for example.
The highlighted points in the plot of Fig. 7.11 can be computed through the
repeated use of the numeric matrix exponential of equation (7.119). The points
and plot can be programmed in MATLAB as follows:

A = [0 0 .0008 -.0007;0 0 .0008 .0008;-30000 -32000 0 O;

42000 -51200 0 0];

ES = expm(O.l* A);

x(:,l) = [1;0;0;0];
t(1) =

for k = 2:51
x(:,k) = ES * x(:,k-l);
t(k) = 0.1 * k;
end

xlabel (’time, seconds’)

ylabel (’yl (blue) and y2 (green)’)
plo’6(t,x(l:2,:), ’*’)

Notethatonlythefirsttwoof thefourelements in x arechosenforplotting.

The studentversionof MATLABpermitsindividualmatricesto have up to 8192
elements.Thispermitsthe timeintervalfor the five-secondrun aboveto be
reducedto 0.005seconds,
morethanenoughto givevirtually continuouscurves.
In thiscase,ofcourse,theasterisk
shouldbe leftoutof theplotstatement.

7.3.9 Response to Exponential and Frequency Excitations

The response of scalar differential equations to exponential and to frequency
excitations was addressed in Sections 6.1 and 6.2. For exponential excitations
of the form uoes~, the response, taken from equation (6.25) (p. 397),
st.
x(t) ~ G(s)uoe (7.121)

For frequency excitations of the form uo cos(wt +/~), the response, taken from
equation (6.39) (p. 410),

x(t) = uoIG(jw)l cos(~t +/~ + ¢) (7.122a)

¢(w) = tan-l ~[G(jw)]}~(G[jw]" (7.122b)

These results can be generalized to the A, B~ C, D matrix formulation of equa-

tion (7.55) (p. 527), with the only changes being that the scalar transfer fuction
7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR* 545

or Laplace transform G(s) is replaced by the array of transfer functions H(s)

of equation (7.52) (p. 515), and s becomeseither the coefficient of the
exponentor the frequencyjw of the excitation.

Example 7.9
The undampedVehicle discussed in Section 7.3.7, with parameters given by
equations (7.104) and (7.105) (pp. 539, 540), is excited by the force
the forward axle and the force F2 on the rear axle, where

F1= Flocos(~t), F2= F2ocos(~t+ ~).

Find the matrix transfer function H(s) that relates the state variables
yl, y2, Pmand pc to these forces. Further, plot the magnitude of the
transfer functions betweenthese forces and the two displacements.
Solution: The equation of motion is the same as equation (7.104) except
for the addedforcing terms:

d y2 =A Y2
PC PC
whereA is given by equations (7.104) and (7.105),

o1 = o .
-/51 /52 -1.4
(You might wish to verify the added terms by placing bonds

Se F1 and Se F2

on the respective lojunctions for ~ and ~2, and carrying out the standard
procedure.) Since all four state variables are considered to be the output
variables of interest, C -- I, D = 0 and H(s) = G(s).
The matrix transferfunction H(s) becomes, using equation (7.52) (p.
1 [Adj(sI- A)]B
H(s) = G(s) (s I - A)-IB = p~

0 -0.0008 0.0007 -
s -0.0008 -0.0008
= ~1 Adj
p(s) [ 30,i 00 32,000 s 0 1 "
~. L-42,000 51,200 0 s -1.4 1
546 CHAPTER7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

The first two columnsof (sI - A)-1 or Adj(sI - A) do not affect the result,
because of the zeros in the matrix B, and need not be found. The result is
the 2 × 4 matrix

F0.0017882+ 0.1152 -0.000328 ’~ ]

1 | -0.0003282 0.0020882+ 0.108|
H(s) = p-~
s3 +76.88 + 638 / ’
L -1.483 - 76.88 1.6s3 + 728 J
’ p(s) = 4 +119.968~ + 3456.
The resulting displacements are

y2(t) = IH~IF~ocos(wt + Oe~)IH~.IFzo cos(wt + ~ + 01e),

Hij = Hij (jw), Oij =/ Hij (jw).

Only even powers of s appear in the numerator and the denominator poly-
nomials of each Hij, resulting in a real number.If this numberis positive,
the phaseangle ¢~j is zero; if negative, ¢~j is :1:180°. (Thereis no difference
between +180° and -180°.)
The magnitudesof IHI~I and IHell are plotted in Bodecoordinates below:

-100

.0 10 frequency, rad/s 100

The two natural frequencies, w = 8.478 and 6.934rad/s, which were found in
equations (7.108) (p. 540) as the imaginary eigenvalues, appear as resonant
frequencies with infinite amplituderesponses. The eigenvalues or poles are
s = +6.934j and s = =t:8.478j. The zeros of GI~ are at w = 8.045 rad/s
(s = +8.045j) and of G2_~are at co = 7.206 rad/s (s = =t:7.206j). A phase
angle jumps by 180° wheneverthe frequency passes through either a pole
or a zero, since there is no damping.
7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR* 547

Example 7.10
Introduce the damping resistances R1 and R.o into the model of the vehi-
cle above, to make it more respectible. Determine the modified matrix of
transfer functions for the special case R1 = R2 = 4000 N s2/m, and make
Bodeplots of the positional responses to the force on the first axle.
Solution: The matrix A is modified to become
0 0 1/m -L1/mr’2
0 1/m 2L2/mr |
A = 0
-kl -k2 -(R1 + R.2)/m -(L2R~ - L1R~)/mr 2 | "
Llkl -L.2k2 -(L2R2 - L1R1)/m - (L~.R2 + L~R1)/mr 2 J

With the given values of the parameters, this becomes

’ s -0.0008 -0.0008
sI - A = 30 000 32 000 s + 6.4 0.4 ’
[_-42 000 51200 0.64 s ÷ 9.04

from which the values of HI~, H~_~, Hmand H22 are

1 [ 0.00178s~ + 0.0144s + 0.1152 - 0.00032s~ ]

H(s) = ~ L -0.00032s2 o.o020ss2 + 0.0144s + 0.1082 J ’

p(s) = 4 +15.44s 3 + 177.56s ~ + 892.8s + 3456.0.

The Bode plots comprising the new magnitude ratios IHij[ and phase angles
¢ij for i = 1, 2 and j = 1 are as follows:

-5O

gain, db l

-150
1.0 10 100
frequency, rad/s

phase

1.0 10 100
frequency,rad/s
548 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

Theseresponses are clearly preferable from the viewpointsof comfort and

safety. The resonances are sufficiently dampedto be almost unnoticeable.
The transfer functions still have poles, whichcorrespondto the eigenvalues

sl,2 = -3.161=t: 6.179j, s3,4 = -4.559 -1- 7.139j.

Thevarious scalar transfer functions still have zeros, also, whichare either
real or complex. For example, the numeratorof Hll vanishes for s = zl,2 =
-4.045=t: 6.954j.

7.3.10 Representation in the s-Plane

It is customaryto plot the poles and zeros of a transfer function in the s-plane,
whichhas the real part of s as its abcissas and the imaginary part of s as its
ordinate. Such a plot is given in Fig. 7.12 for the H~ of the exampleabove.
Poles are indicated by x’s and zeros by O’s, which is the convention for such
plots.
Oneapplication for an srplane plot is to visualize the response to an expo-
nential disturbance u = uoe"~. This is illustrated in the plot for the special
case of frequency reponse, i.e. s -- jw. Solid arrows are drawnfrom the poles
to the point on the imaginary axis, whichrepresents the particular sinusoidal
disturbance of interest. Dashedlines are drawn, also, fromthe zeros to the same
point. Now,the polynomials in the numerator and in the denominator of the
transfer function can be factored into products of first-order polynomials:

-jl0
Im,

IRes, s

--jlO

Figure 7.12: Pole zero plot for H~(s) for the dampedvehicle
7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR* 549

(8 - zl)(s z2)
Hll (8) = (8 - 81)(8 - 82)(8 - 83)(8 (7.122)

The solid arrows, then, represent the denominator factors, and the dashed lines
represent the numerator factors, both with s = jw. Considering the arrows
as vectors 1.~, I/~,...,lt as shown, the magnitude and phase angle of Gu (jw)
becomes

ZHu(jw) = Z~ + Z~ - AV~ - Z5 - AV3 - AS. (7.123b)

It is possible, then, to determine the magnitude ratio by measuring the lengths
of the vectors and multiplying and dividing as indicated, and to determine the
phase angle by measuring the angles of the vectors and adding ~d subtracting
as indicated. The frequency w c~ be changed and the process repeated.
It is more efficient to compute the transfer function algebraically, and MAT-
LABdoes it automatically. It can be very instructive, nevertheless, to be able
to look at an s-plane display of poles and zeros and visualize the form of the
frequency transfer function.

7.3.11 Summary
An unexcited linear system with nonequilibrium initial conditions exhibits be-
havior that can be decomposed into a sum of simple modal behaviors. The
dynamics of each mode is represented by its eigenvalue. The shape of each
mode, that is the proportions of its component variables as represented by its
eigenvector, remains fixed in time. Thus the contributions of each mode to the
total behavior depends on the initial conditions. Standard matrix methods for
treating the details have been presented and illustrated. Whencomplex roots
are present, you can choose to use either real or complex matrices. MATLAB
accomodates complex matrices, whereas certain other software packages use real
matrices only.
Initial value problems can be addressed in a more routine if somewhat less
insightful way using Laplace transforms, as presented in the previous section.
Cases with repeated roots are best handled this way, so details of their modal
behavior have been omitted here.
The simplest approach for finding the autonomous or forced behavior of a
linear system employs the numeric matrix exponential. These solutions obscure
modal behavior, but particularly in heavily damped systems the modal decom-
postions may be of minor interest. MATLAB allows the matrix exponential to
be requested directly, or indirectly through the use of the commandlsim which
treats excitations that vary linearly in time over each time interval.
Exponential and frequency responses for a model represented by a matrix
transfer function are found in essentially the sa~ne way as a model represented
by a scalar transfer function. The matrix transfer function is simply treated as
an array of scalar transfer functions.
550 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

R= I0~
I = 200 ~h
C = 50/~f
E= 5.0V

Figure 7.13: Guided Problem7.9

Guided Problem 7.9

The first guided problemdeals with a second-order system, and can be treated
analytically without unduedifficulty so as to reinforce the key concepts.
The two-wayswitch in the circuit in Fig. 7.13 replaces the battery at t = 0
with a conductor. Find the subsequent voltage e(t).

Suggested Steps:

1. Represent the after-switch circuit with a bond graph. Applyintegral

causality and define state variables in the usual way.
2. Write the state differential equation; find the matrix A.
3. Solve IsI- AI = 0 to get the characteristic polynomial.Solvefor its roots.
4. Writethe general solution for the charge, q(t), of the capacitor.
5. This problem is simple enoughthat you can avoid having to evaluate the
eigenvectors and modalmatrix, etc. Instead, specialize the result of step
4 by applying the knownboundary conditions q(0) = q(~)
6. Find the remainingConstant by noting that the initial current through the
inductor is E/R and p(O)/I, and p(0) is related to q(t).
7. Sketch-plot the resulting e(t) = q(t)/C to see if it makessense.

Guided Problem 7.10

This probleminvolves a fourth-order, ~wo-degree-of-freedomvibration model.
It is treated analytically, and therefore maybe too ambitious for your needs.
The beating phenomenon that occurs is highly instructive, however,So at least
you ought to examinethe given solution. As an alternative, you could apply
somereasonable set of parameters, makingsure the spring is weak, and find the
behavior using MATLAB.
Twootherwise simple oscillators are not infrequently weaklyinterconnected
by a compliance. One exampleof this is two identical pendulumsconnected by
a weakspring, as shownin Fig. 7.14. Considering small motions only, examine
the modalbehavior of this systemfollowing arbitrary initial conditions.
7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR* 551

Figure 7.14: Guided Problem7.10

Suggested Steps:

1. Drawa bondgraph, label variables, and find the consequentdifferential

equations. Evaluate any inertances and compliances. If you write a dif-
ferential equation for the energy storage associated with the spring, note
that it is not independentof the other differential equations and does not
introducea fifth state variable.
2. Convert the result of step 1 to give the matrix A.
3. Find the characteristic polynomial,using IsI - A1 = 0.
4. Solve for the four characteristic values, whichcan be written as j~l, -jwl,
Jw2, -jw2.
5. Find the four eigenvectors, letting mli -- 1. Assembleinto either the
standard complexmodal matrix or the modified real modal matrix.
6. Find the eigenvalue matrix Est or Es,nt.
7. Compute the matrix product PEst or PmEsmt. Each column of this
matrix represents the behavior of its respective mode.Therefore, the gen-
eral solution can be written as the sumof an unspecified coefficient times
the content of each column. If you used the complexmatrices to get the
general solution, the sum of the first two columns and the sum of the
other two columnsmust be real; this meansthat the unspecified coeffi-
cients must be complexconjugate pairs. Combinethese pairs of columns
to get the functions in real terms (sines and cosines). This awkwardstep
is unnecessaryif youuse the real matrices from the start.
8. Interpret the results. Describea motionfor whichonly the wl terms exist.
Repeatfor the w2terms. Now,note that if the spring coupling is weak, wl
and w2are almost the same. The sumof two sine or cosine wavesof nearly
equal frequency can be represented by a sine or cosine waveof frequency
equal to the average of the two frequencies modulated in amplitude by
an envelope that is a sine or cosine wavewith a frequency equal to the
difference betweenthe two frequencies. This is sometimesdescribed as a
beating phenomenon.
552 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

m=l kg
k=400 N/m
b=40 Ns/m
F0=10 N

Figure 7.15: Guided Problem 7.11

Guided Problem 7.11

This frequency response problememploysa familiar simple model, but asks you
to treat it by starting with the matrix format.
The prototypical vibration problemwith a single degree of freedomcomprises
a mass, spring and dashpot excited with a force F(t) = Fo sin wt, as shownin
Fig. 7.15. Find the responseof this systemin the form x(t) = Xo(W)sin[wt+¢(w)]
and sketch the correspondingBodeplot for the parameterslisted in the figure.
Suggested Steps:

Drawa bond graph, write the state differential equations and place in
standard matrix form. Find the matrices A and B, using symbols rather
than numbers.

Extract the scalar transfer function G(s) that relates the force of amplitude
F0 to the displacementof amplitude xo from the moregeneral matrix G (s)
given by equation (7.50) (p. 515).

3. Substitute jw for s in G(s), and find the magnitude IG(jw)l and phase
angle /G(jw) as functions of the frequency w and the parameters.

4. Substitute the values of the parametersand employthe value of Fo to find

the functions xo(w) and ¢(jw).

5. Evaluate these functions for several values of w in the range of 1.0 to 100
rad/s. Plot in Bode coordinates. You may prefer to use MATLAB.

Guided Problem 7.12

The modelneeded for this second freqency response problemis of higher order;
as a result, the use of the state-space matrix methodsis more efficient than
scalar methods.
Consider again the two weakly interconnected pendulumsof Guided Problem
7.10. A small horizontal excitation force F(t) = Fo sinwt is applied to the left
mass. Find the response of this mass (¢1) and represent it by a Bodeplot for
the parameters L = 0.5m, a = 0.15m, rn = 1.0kg, k = 8.0N/m and Fo = 1.0N.
7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR* 553

Suggested Steps:

You already have the matrix [sI-A] and its determinant, and B is a vector
with a single non-zero element. Thus only one element in the inverse of
the matrix [sI - A] needs to be found to determine the transfer function
G(s). Determine which element this is.

2. One possibility is to solve this problem using MATLAB.

Otherwise, follow
the steps below.

3. Find G(s) using the determinant p(s) = IsI - AI and the adjoint matrix
Adj(sI - A).

4. Substitute the values of the parameters and substitute jw for s; evaluate

the magnitude and the phase angle of G(jw).

Plot FoG(j~) in Bode coordinates, including a frequency band starting

at least one decade below the natural frequencies and ending at least one
decade above.

PROBLEMS

7.22 The mass-spring system shown on the left in Problem 7.23, known as a
Wilberforce spring, exhibits both translational and rotational motion. The
parameters include the radius of gyration, rg. The static equations for force and
torque include a weakcoupling coefficient, k~¢, which is typical of coil springs:

M = k¢¢ + kxcx ; F = kx¢¢ + k~x

(a) Model the system in standard matrix form.

(b) Find a modal matrix and describe the individual modal motions.

(c) Find analytical expressions for the response given initial deviations
from equilibrium of x = 0.1 m, ¢ = 0, ~ = 0, ~ = 0, and the values of the
parameters assigned in Problem 7.23 below.

7.23 Address the problem above using MATLAB with the initial conditions
given in part (c) and the parameter values given at the top of_the next page.

(a) Do parts (a) and (b) numerically.

(b) Find the numerical state transition matrix for a time step of 0.1 second.

(c) Plot x(t) and ¢(t) for several cycles.

554 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

kx = 400 N/m
k¢ = 0.400 N m/rad
kx¢ = 1.00 N/rad
rn -- 1.00 kg
rg = 0.031 m

7.24 The double pendulum shown above right can be modeled as two point-
masses of weight 1 lb at the ends of two massless wires each of length 10 inches.
The angles ¢1 and ¢2 should be assumed to be small, permitting a linear analy-
sis. Answerthe same questions as stated in the preceding problem, substituting
~1 and ~b2 for the displacements x and ~b, respectively.

7.25 A five-story building is assumed to rest on a rigid foundation, but each

floor can movelaterally with a relative deflection per floor proportional to the
shear force. Model the system with a bond graph, define state variables, find
the matrix A, compute the natural frequencies of vibration, and describe the
positional modal shapes. Use of MATLAB is suggested. The stiffness per floor
is 1 × 10s N/mfor all five floors. The mass is concentrated in the floors, and
equals 5 × 105 kg per floor. Damping may be neglected.

7.26 The building of the above problem is subject to a sinusoidal lateral force
of amplitude 2 × 106 N at various frequencies, uniformly distributed over the
height. Youare to investigate the deflection of the top floor.

(a) Evaluate the matrices A, B, C and

(b) Give a magnitude Bode plot of the response. (Getting reasonable

scales for this plot may require special attention.)

7.27 Repeat the above problem if, instead of a wind force, an earthquake shakes
the ground laterally with a sinusoidal amplitude of 0.2 meters.
7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR* 555

7.28 The building of the above problems has a damping coefficient per floor
of 1 x 106 N.s.m. Find the decay rates and damped natural frequencies of the
individual modes.

7.29 Repeat Problem 7.26 assuming the damping added in Problem 7.28.

7.30 Repeat Problem 7.27 assuming the damping added in Problem 7.28.

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 7.9

1. q/C
R ",I-.--:-r~-~
O-,~-~--~.I
aq/~c T.~.P
q/C~)
C
dq 1 1
2. dp 1 therefore, ~ = A ,

A=[ llC [_ooo

_:oo1
= 20000

3. s_20000 +2000 5000s =0, ors 2+2000s+1 s=0

x 10

Therefore, s = -1000 5= V/(10O0)e- s = -1000 4-j9950 s-1

4. q = qoe-l°°°t sin(9950t

5. q(0) = 0 = qo sin c~; therefore, (~ °

6. p~ -- --~---~q-1 ’~dq -1°°°~

_- [-(2000 ÷ 1000)sin 9950t - 9950cos 9950t] qoe

p(0)= ~ = -9950qo; therefore, qo = -50.25 x 10-6 amps

I
7. e(t)= ~ q(t)- 50.25
50 e-lOOOt sin 9950t
556 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

Guided Problem 7.10

spring: ~ k(deflection)’ = 1
1
therefore, C~e = ka
~
gravity:
1
therefore, C~ = C~ -

inergia: ~mv- =
1

dp~ 1

dp~ 1
at - ~ + (~ ~)
2. The state v~iables p~ and p~ ~e replaced below with ~ = p~/I~ ~d ~ =
p~/I~ since this helps cl~ify the results.

d 4~ = 0 0 0

0 0 a~ =
Therefore, ~ =
-al a2 0 ’ a 2 mL~
a2 --a~ 0 a2 ~ mn
2
0 -1 0
~ s 0 ~+(
-1 a~-a~)=O
=sa+2a~s
3. lsI- Al = -a: s 0
a~
-ae a~ 0 s

g ~
2ka g
therefore, w

0 jwi 0 --1 m2i

5. = 0
al --a2 jcai 0
] m3i
--a2 al 0 jwi k m4i
7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR* 557

Fromthe first equation represented in this matrix relation, P3~ = jwi. From
the third equation, P2i = (al/a~.) - (wi2/a.~). Thesecond equation then gives
P4i = (jwi/a~)(al + ~). The fourth equation serves ~ a check. Substitution
of ~ and ~w2simplifies the result to

P= j~ -jw~ j~ -j~ ~ P~ = ~1 0 ~2

k-J~ jw~ jw~ -j~ -w~ 0 ~

jwtt
e 0 0 0
Est =
[ 0
0
0
-y~t
e
0
0
e
0
j’‘et
0
0
0
e-~t ]
cosiest sinw~t 0 0
Esmt -=
[ - sinwlt
0
0
cosw~t
0
0
0 0
cos w2t sin ¢v2t
- sincv2t cos¢a2t
ej~l
t
te-JWl eJw2t e-Jwo.t
’t --e-J~o’t eJ~°~t
PESt = ]I --e3~
j~e3~t _jw~e-J~t jw~eJ~t _jw2e_j~t
[-jw~C~ ~ jw~e-~ ~ jw~e~ t t-jw~e-J~

- cosw~t -sinw~t coswet sinw~t

PmEsmt = -wl sinwlt Wl COSWlt --w2 sinw2t w2 cosw2t
wi sinwlt --Wl coswlt --w2 sinw2t w2cosw2t
The result in either c~e can be written

¢~ = -b~ cosw~t- b~ sinw~t + ba cosw~t + b4 sinw~t

~ -b~w~sinw~t + b~w~cos w~t - baw~sinwet + b4w2cosw2t
~ b~w~sin w~t - b2w~cos w~t - haw2sin w2t+ b4w2cos w2t
in whichbt,.. ¯, b4 are coefficients determinedby the initial conditions. Specig
ically,

b~
= P;tx(O)=
0 ~/~ /¢~(0)
/ -~ ~
ba g 1 0
b~ o ~/~ ~/~ J L¢~(o)J
Note that the third and fourth rows above equal the derivatives of the first
two rows, respectively, which we anticipate anyway since ~ = de/dr and
~b~. = d¢.~/dt. Whenb3 = b4 = 0, only the first modewith wl exists. In
this case ~b~ = -4~, indicating motion that is symmetric about the vertical
centerline, as shownbelowleft. This implies that the center of the spring does
not move, so each pendulumsees an effective spring rate of 2k, whichexplains
the natural frequency ¢v~ = g/L +.2ka’Z/mL~. Whenb~ = b~ = 0, on the other
hand, only the second modewith w~ exists. In this case ¢~ = ¢%indicating
558 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

no deflection or force whateverexists in the spring; as shownbelowright. The

natural frequency of the motion therefore is the same as a single free pendu-
lum, or w.~ = g/L. The general solution is of course the sumof both modes.
The beating phenomenonreferred to in the suggested steps is particularly in-
teresting.

motion of /-~] motionof ~’]

firstmode second mode_ / . _/
I I . .

Guided Problem 7.11

/
dp
= F(t) -
dt
d~ 1

<,[:] [:]
d~ .= A + BF(t); therefore, A
r-.,-,
l 1/1
, B= [1o]
2. G(s)= (sI-A)-’B rLs+ r/I
1/sC]-~ [10] =p-~ [1;i]

p(s)= ~ +(R/Z)s +
x = GF; G(S) = 1/.~_I
p(s)

1/I
3. G(jw) = 1/IC - w2 + (R/I)jw

Ia(jw)l
1/I za(j~) = - tan-~ \ 1/IC - w2]
~/(1/IC - w2)’)- + (Rw/I)~ ’

4. x = xo sin[cot + ¢(w)]
10
’ ~o = FolG(jw)l=~/(--’400 - we)~ "~’
+ ( )’40w
( 4~
¢(w) = - tan -1 \400
7.3. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR* 559

5. The following plots are given by MATLAB:

~ ~
"8010o 10 10
Frequency
(rad/sec)

10o ~
10
Frequency
(rad/sec)
Guided Problem 7.12
1. The third differential equation has a forcing term added:

dt - C1¢1 - (¢1 - ¢~) LF(t)

Therefore, B = L~I = 1/--L first state variable, so you need

to find

2. After the matrices A~ B, C, D are entered into MATLAB, the command

bode(h,B,C,D,1) produces plots like those below. Alternatively, the actual
plots were produced using the results of steps 3 and 4 below with the commands
u=[1:.05:4 4.01:.01:4.42 4.429 4.4297 4.43:.01:4.58J;
~=[~ 4.588 4.5889 4.59:.01:5 5.1:.1:10];
num=[’2/3 0 40.68/3] ;
den =[1 0 40.68 0 413.2J;
bode(hum, den, w)

Frequency
(rad/sec)
560 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

3. Fromstep 3 of the solution to Guided Problem 8.5, 2-a~2

p(s) )= s4+2als.)+(al

G(s) = (sI - A)-IB = p--~s) Adj(sI -

Youneed only the element of Adj(sI - A) in the first row and the third column,
whichis the cofactor of the element in the third row and first column. Since
-1 0
0 s 0 -1
(sI- A) this is 0 -1 = (al + 2)
al -a2 s
0 s
-a2 al 0
(S 2 +al)/mL
Therefore, G~3(s) = s4 + 2als. ~ + (a~ - a~)

ka2 .)
8.0 x (.15) s_
4. a2- mL~ -- lx (0.5) 2 --0.720 2
g _~ -2 1 1 2
al--a2+~=0.720+--,.o =20’34s mL- 1 ×1.5- 3
0.6667(-w2 + 20.34)
G~3(jw) = w4 40.68w2 + 413.2
This is a real numberfor all w; its phase angle is 0 whenthe numberis postive
and 2=180° whenit is negative.
5. See plots given above. The poles and zero were pinpointed for better plot-
ting by the MATLAB commandsr=roots (den) and r=roots (num). The zero

occurs at the frequency w = ~ = ~

ka2
+
~--~-. It means that the forced
pendulumis immobile at that frequency; the spring and second pendulumres-
onate, and therefore appear to the forced pendulumas an infinite impedance.

7.4 The Loop Rule*

You have employed the causal stokes on bond graphs tO direct the writing of
state differential equations, and e~nployed matrix methods to extract differen-
tial equations with a single dependent variable. This procedure is sufficient
to address any linear lumped-parameter model. An optional graph method for
deducing transfer functions is available, however, which can facilitate the deduc-
tion of transfer functions without the use of matrices, and lend greater insight
into the structures of particular and general system models. It also can be used
to expedite the basic method of finding the ~tate differential equations.
This method is based on the loop rule. As originally presented by Shannon
and elucidated by Lorens, ~ this method applies directly to signal flow graphs.
Bond graphs can be converted to signal flow graphs readily, although no general
inverse procedure is known. The author has extended the loop rule to apply
directly to bond graphs, ~ wiih con~sequent simplifications. The description below
6c. Lorens, Flowgraphsfor the Modelingand Analysis of Linear Systems, McGraw Hill,
1964. ¯
7F.T. Brown,"Application of the LoopRule to BondGraphs," ASMETransactions, J. of
DynamicSystems, Measurement and Control, v. 94 n. 3 (Sept. 1972) pp. 253-261.This work
is used as a basis for the LorenzSimulationsoftwarepackageMS1(seefootnote p. 136).
7.4. THE LOOP RULE* 561

starts with the definition of the signal flow graphand proceedsto the conversion
of a bond graph to this form. The loop rule is then presented. Application of
the loop rule to find transfer fuctions directly from bondgraphs follows. The
procedure is particularly siinple to apply for the determination of the state
differential equations, whichis the final subject.

7.4.1 Signal Flow Graphs

A signal flow graph represents a set of linear differential and algebraic equa-
tions, s None of the power and energy constraints assumed with bond graphs
are required. The graphs comprise variables, represented by nodes drawn as
conspicuousdots which are labeled alongside by the algebraic symbolsfor tile
variables, and relations betweentile variables, represented by directed lines be-
tween the nodes. The relation each such line represents is labeled next to an
arrowheaddrawnnear the center of the line.
One or more directed lines emerging from a node carry the value of the
variable represented by that node:

The linear algebraic relation x = ul + u2 + ... + un is represented by a node

with incident lines that represent each of the componentterms:

21~ U

U ~~’~ U3

The linear algebraic relation z = au is represented by the arrow itself on the

associated line; the symbola, or whateversymbolrepresents the coefficient, is
labeled next to the arrow. Minussigns can be used where appropriate. If the
line conveysa variable directly, without any modifyingcoefficient a, the symbol
1 is substituted:

a
~t : ~c=au
Finally, the differential operation z = a du/dt is represented by placing the
notation as (or aD) next to the associated arrow, and the integration operation
z = afudt is represented by placing the notation a/s (or a/D) next to the
arrow:

as a/s
~ =- du
~=a ~ " J=afu dt
dt

SNonlinear algebraic functions also can be incorporated, but are avoided in this text.
562 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

Example 7.11
Drawa signal flow graph for the following set of linear algebraic, differen-
tial and integro-differential equations, in which the coefficients a... k are
constants:
dxa
xl = ax3 dt + b -~- + cu2;

x’2 =-~d --~

dx6 ;

dx6
x,~ = ex5- f ~-;
x4 = gx5 + hUl;
x5 = ixo. +jue;

X6 = kXl + X2.

Solution: These equations are assembled in the signal flow diagram below.
Each variable is represented by a node, and the constant coefficients appear
next to the arrows, along with the operator s to represent differentiation and
1Is to represent integration. You ought to identify the individual equations
embedded in the graph.

The signal flow graph is a very close relative to the block diagram, which may
be knownto the reader. The block diagram uses boxes in which the coefficients
and operators are placed, instead of writing them next to an arrowhead. It
uses circles instead of nodes or dots to indicate summation, and places plus or
minus signs next to these circles rather than incorporating negative signs into
the coefficients. Finally, it uses straight lines, most of which are horizontal or
vertical; the tradition in signal flow graphs is to use curved lines, so as to identify
loops visually more easily.
7.4. THE LOOP RULE* 563

7.4.2 The Loop Rule for Signal Flow Graphs

The loop rule gives the transfer function between any input and any output
in one sometimes simple and sometimes giant step. If the input in question is
labeled as uj, and the output of interest as xi, the loop rule can be expressed

(7.124)

The symbol Lijk represents the path gain for the kth directed path from the
input to the output. This is the product of all the coefficients and operators on
the path. Paths are distinct if any one segment is distinct; separate paths may
traverse some commonsegments. One entire path does not qualify as part of
another path, however. Identifying all the paths and writing a list of their path
gains is a major part of the procedure for implementing the loop rule.
The symbol A in equation (7.124) is called the graph determinant. The
graph determinant is in general a complicated function of the gains of loops
inside the signal flow graph:

= - + Ly - +...). (7.125)

A loop is a closed directed path from one node back to itself; the gain of the
lth loop is L~. Therefore, the term ~L~ represents the sum of the gains of all
the loops in the graph, where separate loops are identified the same way as are
separate paths. The superscript 2 means the products of loop gains for pairs of
non-touching loops. Loops are said to touch if they share one or more common
nodes. Loops so often touch one another that, even if there are several loops in
a graph, there may be few pairs of non-touching loops. The superscript 3 means
the it products of loop gains for sets-of-three non-touching loops. Different sets-
of-three loops may share two loops but have distinct third loops; nevertheless,
these combinations are usually few, if any. The subscripts continue, representing
set-of-four and more nontouching loops, although in practice such combinations
are rare. Finding the graph determinant is apt to be the hardest and therefore
most critical part of the application of the loop rule, and must be done with
care.

The final symbol in equation (7.124), Aijk, is called a path dete77ninant.

This represents the determinant of the graph in which the kth path from the
input node uj to the output node xi is expunged. Erasing this path usually
eliminates most of the terms in the overall graph determinant, particularly those
for products of loop gains. If there are no loops left at all, the unity first term
in the series survives, nevertheless.
564 CHAPTER 7. ANAL}SIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

Example 7.12
Find the transfer function between the input u2 and the output x3 of the
graph of Example7.11 (p. 562).
Solution: First, you identify the three loops and their gains:

Loop1: (-ds)ig = -dig

Loop2: k(-fs)(a/s) = -kfas;
Loop 3: ~.
k(-fs)(bs) = -kfbs

Loops 2 and 3 touch (share one or more commonnodes); loop pairs 1-2
and 1-3 are not touching, and no set-of-three nontouchingloops exists. The
system determinant becomes

A = 1 + dig s + kfa + kfb s~ 3.

+ digkfa s + digkfb s

The first path from the input u2 to the output x3 has the gain -ckfs.
This path touches loops 2 and 3, so whenit is erased it leaves the path
determinant A1= 1 + dig s. The only other path has the gain je. It touches
all of the loops, so A~= 1. Theresulting transfer function therefore is
je- ckf s(1 + digs)
(1 + kfa) + (dig + digkfa)s + kfbs 2 3"
+ digkfbs

The value of x3 responds to input Ul also, of course. Its transfer function

G31shares the same graph determinant, however, and both of its paths
(with gains -hdies and hdfs 2) touch all three loops. Thus both path
determinants are unity, and
2-hdie s + hdf s
631 :
(1 + kfa) + (dig + digkfa)s + kfbs ~ 3"
+ digkfbs
The overall behavior of the system becomes

X3 : G31Ul -b G32u2.

7.4.3 Converting Bond Graphs to Signal Flow Graphs

Each non-activated bond in a bond graph represents a bilateral pair of signal
flows:

Anactivated bondcuts one of the signal flows:

eI e2 e~= 1 = e2
lq q~
7.4. THE LOOP RULE* 565

A transformer Ti simply represents a coefficient T~:

el _ e~ el:
q~ q2 t~:

A gyrator is very similar:

e~ e2 e~.,,.~e2
q* q2

The 0-junction has a common effort, whichis represented in the signal flow
graph by a node with a single input and two or more outputs, as dictated by
the causal strokes on the bonds. There are, on the other hand, two or more
input flows and one output flow; the latter is representedby a nodewith a single
output. The result is

el
lel!

The 1-junction is the dual of the 0-junction. Its signal flow graph is the same
as for a 0-junction, therefore, except the roles of effort and flow are inverted:

e~
566 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

Example 7.13
Consider a two-tank system such as in Guided Problem5.1 (p. 299), but
with the inertance of the tube that interconnects the two tanks included in
the model,as well as the resistance. Find the transfer function that relates
the input flow, Qi, to the volumeof the second tank, ~.

Qi.~ A ~ A2

density,o

I~ porouspiugdrain
",----L -~ "
Solution: A linear bond-graph model is drawn below left, and integral
causality is applied. The correspondingsignal-flow graph is drawnbeside it

S Oi

P 1 1/C,
PIo ~ C~
9, ~/s
-1
p ’
I@I [ ~--’--~ R~
P 1/I 1/C

P21 v~/G -1/~2

R2
This graph contains four loops, but only two non-touching pairs and no
set-of-three nontouchingloops. The gains of the loops and the system de-
terminant are

gains of loops: -1 -1 -R1 -1

~ ; ~ : "-~: Csls ¯

non-touchingpairs
graph
determinant: A = 1 1+R--~
+R~+Is 1~
CI1S 2+ ~ 1RzCIs
+ 1~+
~ -~ R1
R2CICIs

There is only one path from the single input, Q~, to the output 12.2; this
touches all .loops, so the corresponding path determinant, A2, is unity.
There also is only one path from Qi to the output ~], but this path touches
only one of the four loops; as a consequence,its path determinant, A1, is the
7.4. THE LOOP RULE* 567

same as the determinant A except for the deletion of the two terms that
involve the gain of that loop (-1/ICls2):

path determinants: dI = 1 + ~s RI
÷7~- ÷
~ 1 .
÷ R2---~’
,42= 1

The resulting transfer functions are

V1(s) fq (s)
Qi(s) sOi(s)

= s’~ + (-fi +tt.,c’)s +(y~+R~Ic)

v:2(s)
O~(~)
--1

7.4.4 Direct Application of the Loop Rule to Bond Graphs

without Meshes
Before the loop rule can be applied, all multiport fields must be purged. Mutual
elements can be handled by the full method, but to simplify the presentation
they also will be assumed to be replaced by bond graph equivalences having only
one-port I, C and R elements. Next, causal strokes are applied to the graph.
Impedance or admittance causalities may be chosen in any compatible combi-
nation. If you prefer to find polynomials in s directly, rather than polynomials
in 1Is as were first found in the example above, employ differential causality
for the C and I elements.
You wish to forego the drawing of the signal flow graph. The principal task
is the determination of the system determinant. Five ~teps can be distinguished:
(i) locating each loop; (ii) determining which loops touch; (iii) ’determining
magnitudes of the gains of the loops; (iv) determining the signs of the gains of
the loops; and (v) accounting for the effect of any bond activation that may
present. In practice these steps can be carried out virtually simultaneously.
Bond graphs without meshes, which are tree-like, produce only what are
called flat loops. A flat loop includes both signal-flow paths for each involved
bond. Thus, these bonds form a simple cascade with one-port non-source el-
ements at each end, as illustrated in Fig. 7.16. The signal flow paths in this
figure and the next two figures are shown as dashed lines superimposed on the
bond graph. This practice is not customary, but occasionally is instructive. The
causality of bonds in the chain must be directed unilaterally through each 0 and
1-junction. Reversals in causality, in fact, occur only at gyrators. Each R, C
and I element can be singled out as a potential termination for a cascade of
568 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

bondgraph:

loop gain:-R/Is
signal flowgraph:

bondgraph:
ZI~{<
/ 0 ~----T~----~-0
signal flow graph: Z~TT~=i ~t~Z~i~ t~-~ lOOPl ,gain:. T~Z~

Figure 7.16: Examplesof flat loops

bonds corresponding to a flat loop. Proper causal paths to other R, C and I

elements are sought. Anybondactivation in a cascade voids the loop. If carried
out to completion,this process will identify each flat loop twice.
Flat loops touch if and only if they involve a common0 or 1-junction. The
loop gains include the impedance (R, 1/Cs or Is) or the admittance (l/R,
Cs or l/Is) of the terminal R, C and I members,according to the indicated
causalities. Theyalso include either T/2 or 1/Ti2 for each transformer Ti in the
cascade, and G~ or 1/G~ for each gyrator Gi in the cascade, again according
to their causalities. Finally, the gains of all fiat loops are negative, presuming
only that the powerconvention directions on each of the two one-port elements
is directed into the element.
Inspection of the bondgraph in Example7.12 reveals directly the existence
of fiat loops between CI and I, I and R1, I. and C2, and C2 and R2. Only two
pairs of these four loops do not use a common junction, and therefore do not
touch. I and R2 have admittance causality; the others have impedancecausality.
There are no transformers or gyrators. The system determinant follows directly
fromthese facts.
Paths from an input to an output variable can be seen directly from the
causal consistency of their cascaded bonds. In Example7.12, the path from
Qi to ’(’1 simply passes through the upper zero junction; the powerconvention
arrows on the two bonds are aligne.d similarly, so there is no sign changeand
the gain is 1. Thepath fromQi to V2is shownin part (c) of the figure. It starts
the same way, but passes through C1 (impedance causality) and back through
the upper zero junction. Since this second pass is on the effort sides of the
7.4. THE LOOP RULE* 569

_R
-’~, ,~" meshstub

c
",//¢ t ~ CCWopen (gain
loop= RT/G)
--i’~._~_~’O._~S_~.~_~j___~I
2
]1

Figure 7.17: Anopen loop with a mesh stub

bonds, there is again no sign change. The path then proceeds downthrough
the 1-junction to the I element; the causal strokes aroundthe 1-junction allow
no choice. The path continues through the I element, which has admittance
causality. It returns through the 1-junction on the flow side; again there is no
change in sign. The path then passes through the lower 0-junction, remaining
on the flow side of the bonds, and emergesas the desired V2. There is no sign
change again, this time because the powerconvention arrows of both bonds have
the same orientation. The path gain becomes (1/Cls)(1/Is). This path and
gain can also be seen in the signal flow graph.
To generalize, there is no sign changefor a path traversing a 0-junction on
the effort side or a 1-junction on the flow side. Similarly, there is no sign change
if the two powerconvention arrows are aligned the same way. Since these two
conditions are independent,on average one in four traverses of junctions produce
a sign change.
Note that the path to ~’1 clearly touches only one loop, whereasthe path to
~r2 clearly touches all four loops. Thus the path determinants A1 and A~2can
be found and the transfer functions completed.

7.4.5 Bond Graphs with Meshes

The presence of one or more meshesin the bond graph considerably complicates
the application of the loop rule. As a result, youusually are well advisedto apply
any conversion that would eliminate such meshes. Otherwise, the following
procedure can be used.
Each mesh produces a pair of counter-directed open loops. Someopen
loops involve a mesh stub, such as shown in Fig. 7.17. Other open loops
do not; a stub is involved if and only if the meshbonds on either side of the
associated junction have opposite causalities in the clockwise-counterclockwise
sense. The magnitudeof an open loop equals the product of the moduli of each
meshtransformer or gyrator, or its inverse as determinedby the causalities, and
the impedance or admittance of each meshstub. Both counter-directed loops
o] a mesh without gyrators have the samegain, whichis positive if the meshis
even and negative i] it is odd. (Recall that an even meshhas an even number
570 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

activated bond

(a) bondgraph showingnon-touchingopen loops (dashed lines)

1/R
e -1

-1
el
~11
1/Cls
1

1/C2s
(b) signal flow graph

Figure 7.18: Mesheswith two non-touching open loops

of branches betweensuccessive junctions with a clockwise or counterclockwise

causality; evenness and oddness are immutible properties of a mesh.) Loop
gains must be dimensionless, a fact whichhelps identify mistakes.
A gyrator inserted into a branch of an otherwise even or odd meshforces
a mixed causality for that branch. The result is called a neutral mesh, for
which the two gains o] the open loops have the same magnitude but opposite
sign. The loop with the positive gain is directed similarly as are the power
convention arrows of those non-gyrator branches which are odd in number. A
second gyrator inserted into the meshconverts it back to even or odd status,
and a third gyrator reconverts it to neutral status, and so on. Neutrality is als0
a property of a mesh; it cannot be changed without changing the meaning of
the model.
The two open loops of a meshtouch each other if and only if one or more
mesh stubs are present. Twoopen loops of different meshes might not touch
one another even if they share a commonbond, however. An example is shown
in Fig. 7.18.
This examplealso illustrates the fact that activation of a meshbondcuts out
one of its-two open loops. (Activation of bondsis not considered until Section
9.2, but reference is madehere for efficiency and because Chapter 9 can be
addressed before the present chapter.)
7.4. THE LOOP RULE* 571

Example 7.14
Reconsiderthe heaving and pitching vehicle presented in Fig. 5.15 (p. 322),
Substituting an exciting force F(t) on the left axle for the original positional
disturbances. Determinethe transfer functions from this force to the ele-
vation of the center of mass, Ycm, and to the pitch angle, ¢. To get you
started, a bondgraph of the situation in given at the top of the next page,
with integral causality applied. The associated signal flow graph is drawn
next to it, for reference. It maybe tempting to employthis graph for the
analysis, but at this point you are urged to work directly from the bond
graph instead. Onceyou are used to identifying paths and loops directly
from the bond graph augmentedwith causal strokes, your process becomes
quicker and less proneto error.

l),, 21/1.#
2.0__ F(t) llT, A 1~,.

C -’*--~/ "1 ~--~-C ~/1/T, ""....~...k~-l/C~s

1/Ics~,..J
Solution: All four mesh branches have the same clockwise or
counterclockwise causalities, so the mesh is even and involves no
mesh stubs. The rules above tell you that the gains of both
mesh loops are -T~/T1, and that these loops do not touch
one another. The bond graph also has eight flat loops, with
~, -RI/T~~m~,-T~/ C~T~T~
gains- t / C~T~~m, ~,~,-n~T~/T~~,
-1/C2T~I~s2, -R2/T~I~s, -1/C~T~2Ims~ and -R~/T~Ims; only the firs~
~nd second do no~ ~ouch~he fifth and sixth, and all eight touch both open
loops. As a result, the systemdeterminan~is

~ =~ + ~ ~ ~/c~ + n~ (~/c~ + n~)~

T~ + ~ + T;~Z,~, + T~T~,
~/~ + ~ ~/C~s + ~ (~/C~ + n~)(~/C~+
+ T~, + Ti~, + ~T~Z~,~
572 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

The path from the input force; F, to the velocity of the center of mass,
Sin, passes through the transformer T1 and the inertance L,. Its gain is
therefore 1/TlI,~s. This path touches the clockwise mesh loop, but not the
counterclockwise loop. It also touches all of the flat loops except those that
pass between C_~ and I¢ and between. R2 and I¢. Its path determinant is
therefore
T~. I/C~.s+ R~
Aura = 1 + ~ + T~2Ics ,

and the transfer function becomes

~_ 1 A~m
F A T~I~s

The path from F to the angular velocity, ~, passes through T~, T2, T3
and finally the inertance I,. The gain changes sign at the right-most 1-
junction, since the path is on the effort side of a common-flowjunction and
the power convention arrows reverse direction relative to the path. The
p~th gain, therefore, is -T2/T~T3I~s. This p~th also does not touch the
counterclockwise mesh loop, but does touch all eight of the flat loops. Thus
its path determinant is
A¢=1+~,

and the transfer function becomes

F A TITaI~s

7.4.6 Determination of State Differential Equations

Finding state differential equations usually is considerably easier than finding

transfer functions. The reason is that most if not all of the loops in the full
signal flow graph are excised.

The procedure presumes integral causality has been applied to the bond
graph, unlike above where integral causality is ~nerely one option. The appli-
cation of standard state-variable notation also is presumed. Next, all I and C
elements are removed. This can be indicated by crossing out these elements
with X’s. The flow pi on the ith inertance and the effort qi/Ci on the ith
compliance are treated as inputs to the system. The corresponding dpi/dt for
the inertances and dqi/dt for the compliances are treated as outputs. The ex-
pression for each output in terms of all the inputs becomes the associated state
differential equation.
7.4. THE LOOP RULE* 573

Example 7.15
Write the state differential equations for the two-tank system of Example
7.13(p. 566).
Solution: The causal bond graph with the I’s and C’s removed is

Removal of the elements C1, C2 and I eliminates all three loops, so the
system determinant as well as all path determinants equals unity. The path
gains from the five causal inputs to the three outputs are assembled in a
table given below left. These directly give the differential equations given
to the right.

input
dV~ = Qi - ~ P
output Q, eo V/C, V2/C2 p/I

1 o 0 0 -1 dV2 1 1
’87 = Tp- ~c%
V:
0 0 0 -1/R: 1
dp 1 1 1
0 1 1 -1 -R, ~[ = C~ v,- ~V2- .T p- Po

Example 7.16
Write the state differential equations for the heaving and pitching vehicle of
Example 7.14 (p. 571).
Solution: The causal bond graph with the energy-storage elements crossed
out is given at the top of the next page, with identification of the loops.
Removalof the four energy-storage elements eliminates all eight fiat loops,
but leaves the pair of mesh loops intact. These loops do not touch one
another, so the system determinant becomes

A = 1+2T~ T~.~-’
T, + T?
" (2 TxJ
= 1+
574 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

flat loops: none

gains of meshloops: -T2/Tt

F(t)~ .i.T~ "T~\
..~.y,/C,~ ~./ (non-touching pair; negative
gain since mesh is odd)

R, R
z
~
T~

The path gains and path determinants are given in the table below. Some
paths touch both loops ~d therefore have a path determinant equal to 1.
Others touch only one path, ~d therefore have a path determinant equal
to 1 + T~/T~.

input
output y~/Cl y~/C~ p.,/l., p ~/I ¢, F(t

9, 0 0 1/T~ -Tz/TI 0
At-= 1 + T2/T~
dI =d A=A
l
92 0 0 1/T~ 1/T
3 0
d=d
t A=Ai

-l/T, -1/T~ -R,/Tt ~ -R2/T3T~ -1/T

1
d=At d=d~ A=I A=I A=dt

A=At A=A~ d=l d=l d=At

The resulting differential equations axe

~
A = (1 + T:/TO

dpm 1t [_ T~_.~..~ly~ + A R~ Rz
dt - A -~F(t]
~lC~ y2 - ~I~ p’’- T~p* +
A R~T~ R
-~"~ = -~1 [[ T,ArT
2 TaCI l
~3Y2 + TI"~3 P,.-
z _ A~T2]
T3Zl’~ pC TtT3J
7.4. THE LOOP RULE* 575

7.4.7 Summary

The loop rule facilitates the writing of state differential equations for linear
systems. It also is efficient in finding one or two transfer functions for a complex
system, precluding the need to deal with the matrix~equations. Should one wish
to find several transfer functions for a particular system, however, the basic
matrix approach may be preferred, particularly if a program such as MATLAB
is available.
The rules for applying the loop rule to causal bond graphs are based on
the special energy constraints implied by the graphs. They aid in finding paths
and loops, determining which loops touch, and finding the loop gains without
laborious examination of the corresponding signal flow paths.

Guided Problem 7.13

Consider the drain tube placed through an ear drum as described in Problem
4.7 (pp. 202-203), including the given simple model that neglects damping and
other effects. Find the transfer function relating the input pressure to the
displacement of the eardrum. Find and plot the magnitude ratio for frequencies
between 20 Hz and 10,000 Hz, and compare this to the case with no drain
rtube. Does the tube impair hearing significantly? The following paramete
values may be used: Ce = 0.5 x 10-6 ft5/lb, Ie = 1.5 lb.s2/ft 5, Cm= 1.2 ×
10-s ft~/lb, and It = ~.
5.8 lb.s2/ft

Suggested Steps:

Since the mesh is even, it is appropriate to find the equivalent tree-like

bond graph.

Apply causal strokes in any consistent fashion. Differential causality actu-

ally simplifies the intermediate expressions somewhat. Identify and label
the input and output variables.

Find the loops (which are all fiat), write their loop gains and identify pairs
of non-touching loops, etc.

Find the graph and path determinants.

Write the transfer functions with and without the tube in place.

Substitute s = jw or use MATLAB to plot the frequency response. Plot

the magnitude Bode asymptotes to the two cases, and draw conclusions.
576 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

Guided Problem 7.14

This problem offers a fairly general and complex bond graph; it is appropriate
only if you have already studied Section 9.2 on activated bonds.
Repeat Guided Problem 9.5 using the loop rule method as applied to bond
graphs.

Suggested Steps:

1. Copy the causal bond graph from part (d) of Fig. 9.11, or spread it out
shown in the solution to Guided Problem 9.5. Annotate the appropriate
bonds with the time derivatives of the state variables and the conjugate
variables, as also shown in the solution. Cross out or erase the energy
storage elements.

2. Identify the flat loops, if any. Note that any potential flat loop must
involve two of the three resistances, since the graph has no other hon-
source stubs.

3..Identify the open loops, if any. Note that a mesh stub with a deleted
energy storage element will preclude any open loop that would use that
stub. Also, pay attention to the activated bonds, which eliminate one of
an otherwise pair of open loops.

4. Find the graph determinant using the results of steps 2 and 3.

5. Makea table of the various path gains from the six graph inputs to the five
graph outputs. This is the most difficult part of the solution, and this is a
complexcircuit. First, locate the various paths starting at each input and
following those bonds which have compatible causal strokes. Hint: there
are a total of twenty paths, including more than one from certain inputs to
certain outputs. Second, find the magnitudes of the path gains, and enter
these into the table. Only the resistances and the transformers cause the
magnitudes to be different from unity. Third, find the signs of each path,
and enter minus signs where appropriate in the table. In this endeavor
it is helpful to note that signs change only when a path goes through a
junction, and then only if an effort path passes through a 1-junction or a
flow path passes through an effort junction and the power sign arrows of
the bonds on either side of the junction are oppositely directed.

6. Find the path determinant for each path, and enter these into the table
above. Path determinants are the graph determinants of the graph with
the path deleted; since the determinant of the full graph is quite simple,
these path determinants are simple also, a majority equaling unity.

7. Write the desired differential equations directly by assembling the infor-

’ mation found in steps 4, 5 and 6. This should be the simplest part of the
job. It is suggested that you check your answers.
7.4. THE LOOP RULE* 577

PROBLEMS

7.31 A permanent-magnet DC motor drives a gear pump through a reduc-

tion gear, forcing a virtually incompressible fluid from a vented sump, past a
hydraulic accululator, through a long rigid tube, into a piston-cylinder load
connected in parallel to an effective mass, spring, and dashpot, and from the
other side of the piston back to the sump. The elements can be assumed to act
linearly.

(a) Identify the meanings of the various elements in the bond graph model
above. Also, identify on the graph the flow that emerges from the gear
pump as Q1, the flow through the rigid tube as Q.,, and the velocity of
the load as 2.

(b) Simplify the bond graph by changing the definitions of some of the
one-port elements so as to eliminate the need for transformers.

(c) Draw a signal-flow graph for the bond graph of part (b), considering
the voltage e as the input and the velocity 2 as the output.

(d) Find the transfer function between the input and the output.

(e) Repeat (d) using the bond graph directly.

(f) Is oscillatory behavior still possible if all compliances are removed?

Why?

7.32 The device shown near the top of the next page is designed to insert high-
frequency sinusoidal pulses into a very long pipe which is shownin cross-section.
These pulses generate waves which propagate downthe pipe. If the pipe is long
enough and the frequency high enough, the apparent impedance of the pipe,
as seen locally, is a pure resistance Rs known the the surge or characteristic
impedance. (This phenomenon is addressed in Chapter 11.)
The mean pressure in the pipe for a real device was as high as 800 psi, so
that a single bellows would extendaxially and burst unless it were overly stiff
and massive. An adequate back-up spring would be too massive. Thus, a highly
compliant air-filled metal bellows with an equalized steady-state pressure was
used. The compliance of the air kept the pressure in the bellows from fluctuating
widely, reducing the surges in the small equalizing tube and allowing the bulk
of the input power to be transmitted downthe pipe as desired.
578 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

cross-sectionof
verylong pipe separationplate~

driven by
electromagnetic
shaker

metal bellows ~

Q2 air

mean _ __ _
pressure __ m
equalizing water
tube

Twobond graph models are given below. The first is a direct model, and
contains an even bond graph mesh. The second is equivalent to the fir’st, but
employsthe bond-graphequivalence of Fig. 4.18 (p. 248) to eliminate the mesh.
Intermediate steps are shownwhichdeal particularly with the problemof align-
ing the powerconvention half-arrows so that the standard meshreduction can
be applied.
7.4. THE LOOP RULE* 579

(a) Find the transfer function P(s)/F(s) directly from both graphs. They
should be the same.

(b) Draw the signal-flow graphs which correspond to the application

differential causality to both bond graphs. Check your answers to (a)
from these new graphs.

(c) Find a set of state variable equations. (Work directly from one of your
bond graphs, but use integral causality in the standard fashion.)

7.33 The sound movie camera of Problem 4.33 (p. 238) could be modeled
shown below.

pulley ratio pulley ratio

_ force, F
t,--,-~-~ rs--~--- o -.--- 1 -~---- 0 -~---- Tc~ 1.ea~----

flywheel inertia,
etc. Cs I,,
c C Ic
belt motor belt claw-shaft &
compliance inertia compliance flywheel inertia

(a) Applydifferential causality, in so far as possible, and find the transfer

function between the input force, F, and the output fluctuations in the
angular velocity of the sound shaft,

(b) The force perturbations presumably are well above both natural fre-
quencies. Does the analysis suggest good performance under this assump-
tion?

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 7.13

---~ 1 --’--~C. C, notedifferentialcausality

0 .~--.-.~ 1 i~--~. T xl~.-~

l,

3. loop gains: ~-ItC~s~ ; -ItC,~s2; -IeCes

The first loop above touches each of the others, but the other two do not touch
one another.
580 CHAPTER 7. ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MODELS, PART 2

4. A = 1 + I~C¢s2 + ItC,~s ~ + IeCes2 4+ ItC,~IeC~s

3
path from P to ~: (+C,,,s)(+I~s)(+C~s)T = C,~ItC~Ts
The path touches all three loops, so the path determinant is 1.
if(s) ~
C,,,I,C~Ts
5. ~(s) = 1 + (I,C, + ItC,,~ + I, Ce)s~ 4+ (I,C,~I,C,)s
33.48 x 10-14Ts
= 5.22 x 10-14s4 + 3.6568 x 10-682 + 1
Absenceof the tube gives I, -~ c%resulting in
~C(s) C,~C~Ts 0.6 x lO-l~Ts
P(s) = (C, + C,~) + C,,I,C,s 2 = 8.64 x 10-1~s2 -B
+ 0.501172 x 10

6. No tube present: double-pole at ~ = 5.801 x 107 = 1212.2 Hz

tube present: double poles at
~= 3.6568x10-B " 7( 3.6568x10-~ ’~2 1
w 2 × 5.22 × 10-14 4- 2~ 5.--~ ~( 1--~14/] -14
5.22 × 10
or ~ = 83.4 Hz, 1329.5 Hz

1212Hz
. ,,. .... ~withoutmbe[
IoglP(jw)
~x(~°~ I "w~ asymptotes

log frequency

The response is greatest in the mid-range; the inner ear must compensatefor this.
The tube has no effect at high frequencies (> 1330Hz), causes a small loss at lower
frequencies (a factor of 1.2 whichimplies 1.6 db) and a severe loss at extremely
low frequencies (< 80 Hz).
Guided Problem 7.14
7.4. THE LOOP RULE* 581

2. There are no sequences of bonds with unilateral causality interconnecting any

of the three pairs of resistances, and therefore no fiat loops exist.
3. Loops for the left-hand mesh are blocked causally at both the upper 0 and
1-junctions. The right-hand meshhas a clockwise loop with gain -1/T1T2; the
counterclockwiseloop is blocked by the bond activation.
4. The graph determinant is Ag = 1 + 1]T1T2
5-6. In each entry below the path determinant is given below the path gain

outputs

1 -1
R1 R,
A~; Ag -

- 1
- A
9
1 -

-R2 -R2
151 1 1; -1 -R3;
T~ T~
1 A~; 1 1; 1 1

R3 -Re -R~
~2
TI T~ ’ T~ T~
1; 1 1
Chapter 8

Introduction to Automatic
Control

The purposeful managementof the state of an engineering system over time is

called system control or, to emphasize that the details are carried out by ma-
chine rather than by a person, automatic control. In one scenario, the state is
varied in some desired manner: a. vehicle is accelerated or.turned automatically,
a machine tool is directed to follow a prescribed path, or a metal casting is
cooled in such a manner that its properties achieve a desired standard. In the
other most commonscenario, the state is held constant despite buffeting from
the environment: a boat is prevented from rolling in the waves, a rolling mill
for sheet steel produces uniform thickness product despite thermal expansion
and contraction of the rollers, or the temperature in your house is held at 72°F
despite outside temperature fluctuations. These two scenarios often coexist.
Although ancient examples of automatic control exist, the modern discipline
of control system science can be dated to the WorldWar II with its special impe-.
tus for gunnery and vehicle control. The science comprises many mathematical
and computer techniques. Its application to engineering systems requires the
development of mathematical or computer models of these systems. This is an
important application of the modeling that is the primary subject of this book.
Often, the control science that needs to be added to the model!ng is relatively
modest. This single chapter, which focuses on continuous as opposed to discrete
control, can be adequate for manysituations, despite its presentation of only a
fraction of the discipline of system control. Should you wish to learn more, you
can elect a course or series of courses devoted exclusively to it, or study any of
a score of textbooks.

8.1 Open and Closed-Loop Control

The major components of an automatic control system are the the system to be
controlled, the controller, which is the brains, the actuator, which is the muscle,

583
584 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

power disturbances
command 1I ~----I response
input ~ error I ~ _1 system being[I or output

~~)-’~ c°ntr°ller ~1]1. a~tuat~lant~’] c°ntr°lled II

I

Figure 8.1: Basic feedback control system

and signal transducers, which are the senses. The actuator together with the
system being controlled is known as the plant. A block digram showing the
basic interconnections is given in Fig. 8.1. This is classic feedback control: the
behavior of the system as observed by a signal transducer or sensor is compared
with the desired or commandvalue of that variable, and the difference or error
is sent to a controller, which in turn directs the actuator such that it reduces
the error. In complex systems the actuators themselves are imbedded control
subsystems, with their own brains, sensors and muscle.

8.1.1 Example Plant

An example plant is used repeatedly in this chapter to help develop the basic
concepts of control systems. In this example, shown in Fig. 8.2, the position of
a rotational load with inertia I is to be controlled. The muscle or actuator of
the system is a DC motor with gyrator modulus G = a and armature resistance
R coupled to a gear drive with reduction ratio T = r. The mechanical friction
in the motor and the gear drive will be neglected in order to give a linear model.
The plant is the combination of the actuator and the inertial load. The transfer
function from the input to this plant, which is the armature voltage v, to the
angular velocity ~, is shown to be 1
r / a r2 RI
GI(S)- (1 + ~=-~-"
"a’~ (8.1)
This transfer function is represented in the block diagram in part (c) of the
figur e. The angular velocity ~(t) is then integrated in time, as indicated by the
block with transfer function 1/S, to give the angle ¢(t). The overall transfer
function of the plant relates the input v(t) to the output ¢(t):
~/a
¢(t) v(
_~t) = Gg.(S)v(t), G~ (S) - S( 1 + rS (8.2)

8.1.2 Open-Loop and Optimal Control

To movethe load from rest in one position to rest in another position in mini-
mumtime, maximumallowable voltage of the appropriate sign is applied for a
1Thereader maysubstitute for the operator S the Laplace s, throughoutthis chapter.
8.1. OPEN AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL 585

(a) schem~~/

v Gp/TI G(v-Gp/TI)/R
(b) bond graph ~ !i~=. __ I
~
.¢v_Go/TI)/R
G p~l ~ ~ T1-’-
|
v-Gp/TI~ G=a T=r
R
a 2 ~; a
dP-T~(V:-~p); Sincep=/~, thisgives (S+ ~-~]~p=~-~v
dt
1/r r/ra

(c) block diagram --~G 1(S) = r/va

rrv/a
(d) optimal control
(particular example)
-1

¢, degrees 20
I I I
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
t/r
(e) hypothetical removal
(cancelation) of pole ~ Im S~L
origin ~
-~r z~’r Re S
cancelation /

(f) behavior 30~-

hypothetical system degrees

0 0.5 1.0 1.5

t/r
controller motor
(g) nominal implementation
of hypothetical system

Figure 8.2: Open-Loop position control system

586 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

certain period of time, followed by maximumallowable voltage of the opposite

sign for a second period of time. The result for a particular maximumvoltage
and angle shift is plotted in part (d) of the figure. The minimization of some
performance index, in this case the total time for the movefrom the first state
to the second, is called optimal control. It is relatively difficult to compute
the periods of maximumeffort, even in the present simple case; suboptimal
control strategies are more commonlyadopted because they typically require
much less on-line computation and are otherwise easier to implement. Never-
theless, the optimal control serves as a benchmarkagainst which simpler control
schemes can be judged.
Most practical control schemes involve one or more feedback loops. The
more primitive scheme without any feedback loop is called open loop control.
This schemeis addressed first.
The steady-state response of the motor-load combination to a constant volt-
age input is an output with constant angular velocity. This fact is associated
directly with the pole at the origin in the transfer function Go.(S). If this pole
somehowwere eliminated, to give the transfer function kG1 (S) (with k being
a constant), as shownin part (e) of Fig. 8.2, a single real pole with
would be left, and the desired constant angular position would result instead.
The remaining pole would impose an exponential approach to the final position,
with time constant T, as shown in part.(f) of the figure. (The rate of change
of the commandsignal ¢c(t) is limited in the plot, producing the initial ramp,
to prevent the armature voltage from exceeding the limit imposed in the earlier
optimal control. This allows a meaningful comparison of the results. Without
the limit, the initial voltage would be infinite.) Could this desirable situation
be achieved?
The open-loop approach achieves the goal, at least theoretically, by superim-
posing a zero directly on top of the undesired pole, canceling it. The controller,
therefore, comprises a differentiator; its transfer function can be written kS.
This controller operates on the commandsignal to produce the armature volt-
age, as suggested in the block diagram of part (g) of the figure. The resulting
overall transfer function between the commandsignal and the output signal
therefore is the desired kG~ (S). If the commandsignal is taken to be the de-
sired dimensionless angular position of the load (¢c), the ratio kr/a equals 1,
so that
1
¢(t) = 1 + ~¢~(t). (8.3)

As a practical matter, however, this control scheme is virtually unworkable.

The controller in reality would not be a perfect differentiator, and the pole at
the origin would not be perfectly cancelled. It is likely that the load either would
not come to a perfect stop following an extended zero value of the command
signaL(that is would "drift" unacceptably), or that friction would cause it
stick prematurely at the wrong angle. Errors would accumulate. The idea of
open-loop control itself allows no correction for the inevitable errors that exist
because no controller is matched perfectly to its system.
Most systems also are susceptable to disturbances from the environment,
8.1. OPEN AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL 587

Controller . . Motor and load

signal T
measured output signal
(a) system arrangement

(b) example with proportional control

r(t) G(S) r(t)

" c~t) =1"~-~
,~
(c) generalized unity-feedback loop

Figure 8.3: Position control system with feedback

against which an open-loop control system is impotent. For example, the rotary
output member in the example might interact with its environment such that a
small torque is placed on it. Some means to compare the actual output of the
system (the angular position of the load) with the commandinput is needed
to address both this problem of disturbances and the problem of imperfect
controllers. This means is called feedback control.

8.1.3 Feedback Control

Measurementof the actual position of the load, by a rotary potentiometer, a dig-

ital resolver or some other means, makes knownthe difference e(t) =- Cr(t)-¢(t)
between the input or desired position and the actual position: Since minimiza-
tion of this error is the objective, it makessense to use e(t) as the input signal
to the controller. This scheme is represented by the block diagram given in part
(a) of Fig. 8.3. The choice of the controller is left to the design engineer. The
class of linear controllers, the simplest and most common,is assumed here.
The simplest linear controller is a constant coefficient, here given as k. With
this proportional controller, shown in part (b) of the figure, the transfer
function between the error e = ¢~ - ¢ and the output angle ¢ is kG~(S).
This block diagram is generalized in part (c) of the figure as the universal
single-loop system with an input or reference variable r(t) = Cr(t), output
or controlled variable c(t) = ¢, an error signal e(t) = r(t) - c(t) and unity
588 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

feedback. Since
c(t) =a(s)e(t) a(S)[r(t) - c(t)], (8.4)
the universal transfer function relation between the input and output signals is

c(t) = G(~!_.. r(t) (8.5)

1 + G(S)
For the particular case at hand, substitution G(S) = kG9.(S) gives

1
¢(t) = 1 (a/rk)S + (Ta/rk)S "~ Cr(t) (8.6)

You should recognize this as a classical linear second-order inodel with two
poles and no zeros. Most important, there is no steady-state error; when
Cr is constant, the output angle ¢ is equal to it. The transient behavior is
represented by the two poles. For small values of k these poles are real, so the
response to a step change contains only exponential time-constant terms, and
is smooth with no overshoot of the final value. For large values of k these
poles are complex conjugate, and can be represented by a natural frequency
and a damping ratio. The response to a step oscillates and exhibits overshoot.
In general, one can say that too small a value of k renders the response too
sluggish, and too high a value of k renders it too oscillatory. What is the best
value of k?
Creating a root locus plot helps answer this question in general for scalar
unity~feedback loops. The locations of the poles of the closed-loop system G/(I+
G) in the complexS-plane are plotted as functions of the gain k. The fixed poles
of the open-loop system G also are plotted. The root-locus plot for the present
case is shown in Fig. 8.4. The two closed-loop poles emerge from the open-
loop locations as k grows from zero, at first approaching one another along the
real axis. After they meet, further increases in k drive these poles apart into
complex territory, symmetrically, along a vertical line that will be shown is the
perpendicular bisector of the line segment connecting the two open-loop poles.
Thus the envelope decay coefficient ~Wnremains constant, while the damping
ratio decreases and the natural frequency increases. As k ~ ~x~, ff -+ 0 and

Responses generally are dominated by the pole nearest the origin, which con-
tributes the slowest transient term. Usually this means that you seek to keep
the closed-loop poles as far from the origin as possible, particularly with regard
to their real parts. For the example, therefore, the value of k ought to be chosen
such that the real parts of the two closed-loop poles lie on the vertical part of
the locus, which has the real part --1/2T. It is less clear how large the imag-
inary parts of the poles should be; different practitioners could disagree. The
high natural frequency that follows from large imaginary parts is attractive, but
the envelope function e -;~"t that bounds the decaying oscillation and largely
establishes the settling time is a function only of the fixed real parts. Many
engineers would choose a damping ratio of about 0.7 as a compromise between
fast initial response, modest overshoot and rapid settling time. The settling
8.1. OPEN AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL 589

Im S

arrows show
increasingk

" Re S -l/z- -l~2r- ~k

l
j~od

Re S
-l/z"

-j/2r t

(a) open-looppoles and loci (b) suggestedclosed-looppoles

for the closed-looppoles (for k = a/2 rr)

10°I/.,
~" optimal control (from Fig. 8.2)
3°°Ioo
0
- ’
2 4 6 8 t/r 16 12
(c) responseto particular step command

Figure 8.4: Root loci and behavior of position control system with feedback
590 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO A UTOMATIC CONTROL

time is defined as the last moment at which the error of the step response is
larger than some percentage, perhaps 2% or 5%, of the step size.
The cosine of the angle between the real axis and a radial line from the origin
of the S-plane equals the damping ratio of the pole pair. Therefore, the value
~ = 1/v~ = 0.707 makes the angle 8, shown in part (b) of Fig. 8.4, equal °.
With this value, 02d = 1/27 and k = a/2~-r. The associated step response of
this suboptimal strategy is plotted in part (c) of the figure.
The response for the sample step is quite inferior to that of the optimal re-
sponse. The most important contributing reason for the inferiority is that never
more than one-quarter of the armature voltage allowed in the optimal control
is in fact used. Since the system is linear, the control effort (and the armature
voltage) is proportional to the size of the commandsignal. For example, were
the commandsignal four times larger (116.9 ° instead of 29.2°), the initial arma-
ture voltage would equal the maximumallowed for the optimal control, and the
response curve would simply be four times larger but no slower. The settling
time for the optimal control, on the other hand, would increase markedly rela-
tive to its given plot, although the response would remain somewhat superior
to that for the proportional control. Since the optimal control exerts maximum
effort regardless of the size of the commandstep, it completes small excursions
muchfaster than large excursions. The linear controller will exceed the allow-
able voltage for yet larger commandsignals; some kind of nonlinear limit must
be imposed either naturally or by design to prevent damage.
The summation employed in a feedback control system sometimes is carried
out mechanically or with a pneumatic/mechanical system, but more often is
carried out electrically. The same is true of the proportional controller action
discussed above, and the other types of controller actions discussed below. The
various actions can be carried out with continuous electrical signals using circuits
based on operational amplifiers; see for example Ogata. 2 Some can be carried
out with passive electrical circuits. Alternatively, the use of analog-to-digit~],
and digital-to-analog converters allows the use of digital controllers. ~.

EXAMPLE 8.1
A plant with the transfer function G(S) = 1/(S ~ + 2S - 3) is unstable by
itself, since its homogeneoussolution or unforced response to non-zero initial
conditions includes a term aet that grows exponentially. Place this plant in
a unity-feedback loop with an adjustable proportional gain k, and find the
transfer function of the overall system. Also, find the value of k above which
this sytem is stable. Then, plot the root locus for the system as k varies
from 0 to ~, using the example given in Fig. 8.4 as a guide. Finally, choose
a value of k that gives responses that are relatively fast yet not excessively
oscillatory, and sketch-plot the response of the system with this value to a
unit step excitation.

2K. Ogata, ModernControlEngineering,Third Edition, Prentice Halt, 1997, especially p.

270.
8.1. OPEN AND CLOSED-LOOPCONTROL 591

Solution." The closed-loop transfer function Gc(S) is, from equation (8.6),

G(S) k
Go(S) - 1 + G(S) - ~"- + 2S + (k

Oneof the roots of this equation is negative for k < 3, but both are positive
fbr all k > 3. The open-loop ploes are at the zeros of S2+2S-3 =
(S + 3)(S - 1), namelyS = 5:1,-3:

/mS

X ’ ’ ’~Re S
-3 -2 -1 0

This is the samepattern as the open-looppoles in Pig. 8.4, except they are
shifted to the right, movingone of theminto the right-half plane. The root
locus therefore has the samepattern:

locations of poles
proposed Im S] 1
closed-loop I

-3 -2 0 "~Re S

Whenk = 4, both roots equal -1, which is close to the best response but
slower than can be achieved with a larger value. As k becomesvery large,
its behavior becomescncreasingly oscillatory. A good compromisewouldbe
k = 5, for whichthe roots are S + -1 + j. This gives

Gc(S) = S" + 2S +
whichdictates the sameresponse to a unit step as the examplein Fig. 8.4 if
-1/2~- is interpreted as -1 s-1, that is "r = 0.5 seconds, and if the steady-
state is replaced by 5/2:

0 , ’~ t, seconds
0 2
592 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

"~-~]i~=(v-Gp/TI)/R~ p/TI I T=r

p--~-~M~
i
v-Gp/Tl~
R Se (torque disturbance)
dp_G G 2+ a "_ a 1

(a) motor-load system r/ra 11r

G(S)
c(t) =1 +G(S)H(S)
(c) generalized non-unity
feedback loop

Figure 8.5: Position Control System With Disturbances

8.1.4 Response to Disturbances

Unpredictable disturbances in the form of torques on the load may produce
undesired errors. These disturbances are labeled as Md in the bond graph and
the block diagram of Fig. 8.5. If these disturbances are considered to be the
input to the system, rather than Cr, the system can be viewed as having a
forward path transfer function or gain (from the summation point to the output
¢) G(S) G2(S), an d a fe edback ga in (f rom th e ou tput to the summation
with the input) H(S) = k. Such non-unity feedback loops occur frequently,
and are generalized in part (c) of the figure. Equation (8.5) for the simpler
unity-feedback system is modified to become

c(t) = G(S)[r(t) - H(S)c(t)], (8.7)

which whensolved for r(t) gives the general result

forward path gain = G(S) r(t) ]

(8.8)
1 + loop gain 1 + G(S)H(S)
For the particular system under consideration this gives

rR/ak
¢(t) = 1 ~"
(a/rk)S + (Ta/rk)S MD(t). (8.9)
8.1. OPEN AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL 593

The poles of this transfer function, and therefore the dynamics of the behavior,
are identical to those fbr the response to ¢~. On the other hand, the output ¢(t)
of equation (8.9) can be considered to be an error, and increasing k decreases
this error. If the error is critical to the success of the system, you could justify
using a larger value of k than that chosen previously, despite the.reduction in
damping.

8.1.5 Root Locus Basics

Control engineers tend to becomeexperts at sketching root locus plots, following

several detailed rules that are given in virtually any text on automatic control.
The discussion below, in contrast, gives only the basics. Instead, emphasis is
placed on the use of the MATLAB command rlocus, which does the detailed
work for you.
The root locus is a plot of the values of S which satisfy

knum(S)
1 + den(S~ = (8.10)

for values of k ranging from zero to infinity. For the general single-input single-
output feedback system with a proportional controller with gain k, comparison
to the denominator of equation (8.8) gives

k num(S) = G(S)H(S),
(8.11a)
den(S)

num(S) = (S - Zl)(S z2 )... (S - Z m) (S.llb)

den(S) = (S - p~)(S - P2) " " (S - (8.11c)

Other controllers are considered later.

The locus as a whole therefore is defined by the phase condition

/[num(S)/den(S)] = (1 5= 2n)180 °. n = 1, 2,... (8.12)

Points on the locus corresponding to a particular value of k have the additional

magnitude restriction

nmn(S) I 1
(8.13)
den(S)I
594 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

EXAMPLE 8.2
Showthat both the horizontal and vertical segments of the root locus of
the postion control exampleof Figs. 8.3 and 8.4 satisfy the defining rela-
tion of equation (8.12). Then, use equation (8.13) to find the values
corresponding to the points $1 - 1/47 and $2 = (-1 + j)/27- on the locus.
Solution The segment of the real axis between the two open-loop poles is
part of the root locus, since num(S)= 1 and, as shownon the left below
for any point thereon, den(S1) equals the product of the vector $1 - p.~
positive real number)and the vector $1 -pl (a negative real number),
therefore satisfies equation (8.13). The perpendicular bisector of this line
segmentalso is on the locus, since for any of those values of S., the sumof
the angle of the vector $2 - p~ and the angle of the vector S~ - p~ equals
either 180° °or. -180

Im S lmS
i

S2-~ -1/2r
, "137o
-1/r $1 Re S -l/z- -1/2r Re S

pole on real segmentof locus pole on perpendicularbisector

of real segmentof locus
The value of k in equations (8.10)-(8.13) equals the product of the magni-
tudes of the twovectors. For the particular point $1 = -!/47-, the resulting
value of k is 3/167’~; for S.9 = (-1 + j)/2T it is 1/27 -2. This k incorporates
the factor r/Ta included in G~ (S) and Gz(S); the respective values of the
of equations (7.10) and beforeare 3a/16rT and a/2rT.

Certain general rules are especially helpful in anticipating the migrations

of the closed-loop roots as k progresses from zero to infinity. The locus for a
closed-loop pole emerges from each open-loop pole as k grows from zero. One
of the loci is terminated, as k ~ 0%at each finite open-loop zero. Let the
numberm represent the number of opemlooppoles minus the number of open-
loop zeros; mis normally assumedto be zero or positive. The mloci which do
not terminate at a finite zero terminate at infinity. Specifically, they become
asymptotic to radial lines focused at a particular point on the real axis, and
they are arrayed uniformly about the full 360° of arc and sy~nmetrically with
respect to the real axis. If mis odd, one asymptotelies on the negative real
axis, and if it is even, none lie on the real axis. For cases with ra > 2, the
centroid of all closed-loop poles remains fixed, independentof k. The focus of
the asymptotesis at the centroid of all open-loop poles and zeros, with zeros
treated as negative poles.
8.1. OPEN AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL 595

-4 -2 o 2
RealAxis RealAxis
m=O

dashed lines represent the asymptotes

/ /

’,,
0 2 4

rn =3 RealAxi: RealAxis
m =4

Figure 8.6: Root loci for systems with various numbers of the pole-zero excess

The position-control system has two poles and no finite zeros, so rn = 2.

Examples of root loci with m = 0, 1, 3 and 4 are offered in Fig. 8.6.

8.1.6 Use of MATLAB

The command rlocus is included in the Student Version of MATLAB,and

resides in the Controls Toolbox of the professional version. It has the following
forms:
rlocus(num,den)
rlocus(num,den,k)
rlocus(A,B,C,D)
rlocus(A,B,C,D,k)
[r,k] =rlocus(num,den)
It,k] =rlocus(num,den,k)
Jr,k]=rlocus(A,B,C,D)
[r,k]=rlocus(A,B,C,D,k)
596 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

Wheninvoked, the vector k is user-defined; otherwise, a default vector is used.

Whenthe left-hand arguments are not specified, the root loci are plotted di-
rectly; otherwise, the values of the complex closed-loop poles and the associated
values of gain are stored in the vcctors r and k, and are displayed in response
to typing r or k. The command

plot(r,’’i

plots the root loci. The alternative forms

plot(r,’o’) or plot(r,’x’)

marks each pole with a small circle or cross. In regions where the pole locations
change slowly with increasing k, these markings will be densely spaced; where
the pole locations change rapidly, they will be sparsely spaced.

EXAMPLE 8.3
Plot the root loci for the transfer function G(S) = (S 2)/(S 2 + 4) , us ing
MATLAB. Make sure that the entire region of interest is included. Then~
mark the locations of the closed loop poles for several values of the gain, k.
Solution: The MATLABcommands

>> num=[1 2];

>> den=[l 0 4];
>> rlocus(num,den)

produce the plot

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Real Axis
8.1. OPEN AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL 597

The axes happen not to include the entire region of interest. This problem
can be remedied by the axis command, which allows the extent of the
axes to be specified. Then, specific closed-loop poles for specific values
of the gain k can be added to the plot through the use of the command
r=rlocus (hum,den,k). The coding

>> v=[-8 2 -4 4];

>> axis(v)
>> hold
Currentplot held
>> grid
>> rlocus(num,den)
>> k=[2:2:12];
>> rlocus(num,den,k);
>> plot(r,’o’)
>> title(’Root-locus
plot of k(S+2)/(S\^{}~+4)’)p

produces the result

Root-locusplot of k(S+2)/S^2+4)

2
RealAxis

Perhaps the best behavior is that associated with the poles for k = 8, namel#
r = -4 =i= 2j.
598 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

EXAMPLE 8.4
Repeat the above example for the case G(S) = S/(S 3 + 3S2 + S + 3).
Solution: The codings on the left produce the plots on the right below.

>> num=[1 0];

>> den=J1 3 1 3];
>>rlocus (hum,den)

RealAxis

>> v=[-4 1 -4 4];

>> axis(v) ~............... = : : , . , :: : ................
>> hold

>> rlocus(hum,den)
>> grid -2 -
k=[l:6]; pl°t
Current
>> held-
s i
>>r=rlocus (hum,den,
>>plot
(r,’ o ’ 44 -3.5 -3 -2.5 0.5
-2Re~,1
>> r(4,:)
a!qs =

-i.0000 -1.0000+ 1.4142i -i.0000~ 1.4142i

The pole-zero
excessis rn. = 2, producing two lociapproaching inanity
vertically
withthe asymptote passingthroughthecentroida] location
S
-].5.(Thezerois treated as a negativeentityin the calculation
of this
centroid.)
Theexplicit closed-looplocations
pinpointed in thesecondplot
suggestthatk = 4~ r = -i, -I 4- 1.414jwouldbe a goodchoice.
8.1. OPEN AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL 599

EXAMPLE 8.5
Repeat the above example for the case G(S) = (S 0. 4)/(S 4 + 6S3 + 8S2).
Solution." The codings on the left below produce the plots on the right.

>> num=[l.4] ;
>> den=[i 6 8 0 0];
>>rlocus(num,den)

4
RealAxis

>> v=[-5 1 -3 3];

>> axis(v) ~
>> hold ~
Current plot held
>> grid
>> rlocus(num,den)
>> k=[2:2:12]; -2
>> r=rlocus(num,den,k)
>> plot(r,’o’) -3
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 ~ 1
>> r=rlocus(num,den,7) RealAxis %

r = -4.5502 -0.3746 + 0.8590i

-0.3746 - 0.8590i -0.7006
This example has a double pole at the origin, from which two root loci
emerge vertically. The pole-zero excess is m = 3, so three loci extend to
infinity at uniformly separated angles. The zero near the origin acts as
an attractor to the complex-conjugate loci. The larger-scale drawing with
explicit pole locations shownfor k = 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 suggests that the
optimal value is about k = 7, giving r = -5.55, -0.701, -.375 + 0.859i.
600 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

8.1.7 Criteria for Stability .~

Feedback control can make an unstable plant stable, and can make a stable
plant unstable. A root locus clearly reveals whether or not all the poles of
the closed-loop transfer function are in the left-half plane, as they must be for
stability. Alternatively, with less effort, you can determine qualitative stability
by examining the characteristic equation directly. Use of the root commandof
MATLAB will determine the poles readily, as noted before, if you have numerical
values for the coefficients of the characteristic equation. If on the other hand
one or more of the coefficients is to be chosen, or if you don’t have a computer
handy, use of the RouthoHurwitz algorithm will determine the number of
poles in each half-plane. This algorithm is given in virtually any textbook that
goes beyond an introduction to automatic control. Rather than reproduce the
full algorithm here, certain special results are given.
The characteristic equation for linear lumped models can be written in the
form
anS ’~ + an-~S n-1 + "" + alS + ao = O. (8.14)
A necessary condition for stability is that all coefficients an,an-1,’",ao have
the same sign. This condition suffices for the first order system, in which it
is tantamout to requiring the time constant to be positive, and for the second
order system, in which it either requires the two time constants be positive or the
natural frequency be real and the damping ratio be positive. For higher-order
systems, however, the condition is not sufficient for stability.
Stability is assured for a third:order system if and only if an additional
condition is satisfied:

{a2a~ - a3ao >_ O. I (8.15)

Stability is assured for a fourth-order system if and only if two additional con-
ditions are satisfied:

[ a3a2 - a4a~ >_ 0; a3a~.a~ - a4a~l - a]ao _> 0. ] (8.16)

EXAMPLE 8.6
A fourth-order system satisfies the characteristic equation

S4 + 5S3 + 10S2 + (k + 5)8 + k =

in which k is to be chosen. Find the range of k for which the system is

stable.
Solution: The requirement that the fifth coefficient have the same sign
as the others demands k ~ 0. This automatically satisfies the requirement
that the fourth coefficient also be non-negative. The first of equations (8.16)
gives the additional requirement 5 x 10 - 1 x (k + 5) ~ 0; combining these
requirements, 0 < k < 45. The second of equations (8.16) gives the further
requirement 5 x 10(k + 5) - l(k + 2 -52k ~ 0, which giv es k ~ 20.9 6. The
complete result therefore is 0 < k < 29.63.
 CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL 601

amary
the key concept of automatic control. In a simple system, it is
~t someoutput variable match a reference signal, which either is a
point or a dynamicallyvaried input. The difference, or error, between
~ed and the measured and "fed back" output variable is used as the
j Jr actuation. This error becomesthe input to a controller. The output
/~,~tl~e controller commandsthe actuator to move,generally in the direction of
reduced error.
Outside disturbances can buffet, a system, causing undesired changes in its
output. The presence of a feedback loop acts to minimizethese changes. Control
systems without feedback can be designed, but cannot effect these corrections
(unless they directly sense the disturbances and act on this information.) The
controller of such an open-loopcontrol system also wouldbe ineffective unless
it is based on a precise modelof the system being controlled. By contrast, a
feedbacksystemis comparativelyforgiving, since the error itself is independent
of the modeluponwhichthe controller is designed.
Thelocation of the poles of the transfer function of a completeor closed-loop
linear systemis the most critical indicator of the quality of its behavior. The
zeros influence the relative contributions of the various poles, but not their es-
sential time constants, natural frequencies and dampingratios whichdependon
the poles. The pole locations dependon the constants chosenfor the controller,
as well as the parametersof the system being controlled. In deciding howlarge
to makea particular controller constant, it is helpful to plot the loci of these
poles as the constant is varied from zero to infinity. A few of the morebasic
rules for constructing these root loci havebeen given, but principal reliance has
been placed on use of the MATLAB commandrlocus. A few constraints on
the coefficients of the characteristic equation also havebeen given.
The assumptionof linearity leads to manyrelatively simple analytical meth-
ods. including those discussed above. The control engineer must keep his eye
out for gross errors that this assumption can produce. A common error is due
to the controller commanding the actuator to act faster than its capability.
The example of a DCmotor acting through a pair of gears on an inertive
load (such as a flywheel) has been most prominentlyused to illustrate the ideas
above.
Guided Problem 8.1
This first guided problemgives basic practice with proportional feedback con-
trol, using the MATLAB rlocu.~ as the major tool.
Three fluid gravity tanks, each of area A = 0.1 ms, are interconnected by
two flow restrictions, each with linear resistance R = 9.81 × 106 N s/m5, as
pictured in Fig. 8.11. The object is to control the level in the third tank by
controlling the flow Qin into or out from the first tank. The relation between
this flow and the level of the third tank is readily deducedto be
a~/AQin;)~.
y =S(S+a,,S+3a,
) a= Pg = 0.01 s.
R--~
602 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC 6

/ tank areas A ~

ai,, ~k ’fl fluid density p

tube resistances R

Figure 8.7: Guided Problem 6.8

You are asked to investigate the possibility of simple proportional feedback

control, based on measurement of the level in the third tank. The value of a
reasonable gain, k, is desired.

Suggested Steps:

Draw a block diagram of the system, including the feedback. Label all
variables, and pay particular attention to their signs. Determine the units
of the gain k (which is not a pure number).

Sketch-plot the three poles of the open-loop system on S-plane coordinates.

Since there are three poles and no finite zeros, the pole-zero excess m = 3.
Note what this says about the asymptotes of the closed-loop root loci as

Use MATLAB to plot the loci of the closed-loop poles. Note that too large
a value of k produces instability, whereas too small a value produces an
unnecessarily sluggish response.

The response, y, to changes in the desired level, Yr, is faster when two
of the poles are complex-conjugate, but the damping ratio should not be
so small that excessive oscillations result. A good compromiseis ff = 0.5,
which gives an angle between the real axis and a radial line drawn from
the origin to one of the poles equal to cos-1(0.5) = °, as suming th e
vertical and horizontal axes have the same scale. Enter an appropriate
vector of gains k into the MATLAB commm~dr:~ocus, and estimate the
desired value of k and the corresponding closed-loop transfer function.

5. Use the MATLAB command step to demonstate the step response of the
feedback system.

PROBLEMS

8.1 A closed-loop system has the characteristic equation $3+ 3S2+ kS + 6 = O.

Determine by the simplest method available the range of k for which the system
is stable.
8.1. OPEN AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL 603

8.2 The angular velocity of the motor-load system considered in this section
is to be controlled, rather than the angular position. Thus, the role previously
taken by G~ (S) is replaced by G1 (S). The parameters are a = 0.006 V s, ~- =
s and r = 0.2, and the maximummotor voltage is vm = 3.0 V.

(a) Determine the optimal open-loop control signal which produces

angular velocity of 2000 degrees per second, starting from rest, in as short
a time as possible.

(b) Draw a block diagram for linear proportional feedback control. Label
the variables.

(c) Draw the root locus for the closed-loop pole(s). What does this
say about the choice of the gain k?

(d) Find the closed-loop transfer function for the motor voltage, v(t).
Determine the maximumvalue of k for which this voltage does not exceed
the stated limit for the commandsignal of part (a).

(e) Find the closed-loop transfer function for the angular velocity. Plot
the step response for the value of k determined in part (e).

(f) Find the clbsed-loop error between the commandand response angular
velocities for the case considered in parts (d) and (e). Do you expect
error is acceptable, or should design changes be sought? If the largest
commandinputs were smaller, could the value of k be acceptably changed
to give a reduced error?

8.3 A proportional controller and unity feedback is applied to the system with
transfer function G(S) = S/(S ~ + 1).

(a) Determine whether the open-loop system is stable.

(b) Plot the root loci for the controller gain k increasing from zero
infinity.

(c) Determine the range of k for which the closed-loop system is stable.

(d) Choose a value of k which gives a good combination of speed of re-

sponse and relative stability. Determine the corresponding closed-loop
transfer function.

(e) Determine from the transfer function whether the response of the sys-
tem to a step input has a non-zero final value. If it does, report the
steady-state error between that value and the unity input value, if any.

(f) Plot the step response of the closed-loop system, using your value
k.
604 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

8.4 Answer the questions of Problem 8.2 for G(S) = 1/S(S 1) ~.

8.5 Answer the questions of Problem 8.2 for G(S) = (S + 1)/S’2(S 4)

8.6 Answer the questions of Problem 8.2 for G(S) = 2 + 1) /(S + 4)(S -

8.7 Answerthe questions of Problem 8.2 for G(S) = (S + 0.2)/S(S- 1)(S + "~.

SOLUTION TO GUIDED PROBLEM

Guided Problem 8.1

~] " I =-1S3 +0.04S2+0.0003S[ I unitsin’~/s

~W.~

X X lmS+ ~
-0.03 -0.01 Re S, s

Since m = 3, one asymptote is the negative real axisi and the other two have
angles of +60° relative to the positive real axis. (Whenthe scales of the real and
imaginary axes are not the same, as below, the slopes of the asymptotes remain
at V~). The intersection of these three asymptotes is at the centroid of the three
open loop poles, or -4a/3 = -0.0133 rad/s.

The MATLAB
coding is
hum = 0.001;
den = [1 0.04 0.0003 0];
rlocus(hUm,den)

The fbllowingMATLAB
commandsgives results for 13 values of k:
k = [0:.25:3]*1e-3;
[r,k] = rlocus(num,den,k);
plot(r,’x’)
r
8.2. DYNAMIC COMPENSATION 605

-3
Lines drawnat the slope :t:~/~ throughthe origin showthat the value k --- 1.5 x 10
m2/s gives virtually the desired ~ --- 0.5. The associated values of the closed-loop
roots are rl = -0.0325 s -1, r~.3 = -0.00377 + 0.00642j s -1. Therefore, the
closed-loop transfer function is

G(S) -6
1.8 x 10
1 + G(S) S3 -6.
+ 0.04S: + 0.003S + 1.8 x 10
0.01

0.008
line with slope equal to ~" --
0.006
4closed-loop pole for k= 1.8 x 10
0.004

0.002

xxx x x x

-0.004

°0.006 !5

-0.008

.o%o .o.o; -0.025 -0.0~ -0.01~5 -0.01 -0.00~5

The MATLABcommands

n = 1.8.1e-6;
d = [I .04 .003 1.8.Ie-6]; o.~
step (n, d)

give the step response shown here:

8.2 Dynamic Compensation

The proportional controller employed above is but the simplest in a pantheon
of possibilities. The most commonfamily of controllers in use today directly
sums integral or derivative actions (or both) to the proportional control. Phase
lead and phase lag compensators also are simple and popular. These examples
of compensators are introduced in this section and applied to the motor-driven
position control system of the previous section, along with other examples, to
illustrate the richness of the possibilities for improving over proportional control.
606 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

8.2.1 Proportional-Plus-Integral Control

The steady-state error in the output angle of the motor-drivenposition control
system caused by a constant disturbance torque (such as producedby friction)
has been investigated in Section 8.1.4. This error can be eliminated by inte-
grating it over time, which can be accomplishedusing an operational amplifier.
Should the error persist indefinitely, its integral wouldgrow towardinfinity.
This integral is then multiplied by a constant and summedwith the propor-
tional action of the controller to produce the control signal which drives the
system toward zero error. The transfer function relation of the PI controller
becomes
u(t) = k(1 + 1/T~S)e(t), (8.17)
in which T~ is knownas the integral time. A block diagram for the system
is given in part (a) of Fig. 8.8. The overall transfer function from the moment
disturbance to the angle of the output becomes
(rR/a)G2(S) ~tld(t)
¢(t) = 1 + k(1 1/ TiS)G2(S)

(rRT~/ka)S
(8.18)
= 1 + T~S + (aT~/rk)S~ + (TaT~/rk)S3 Md(t).
The derivative operator S in the numerator operates directly on the distur-
bance momentMd(t). If the momentis constant, this produces a zero value
ofthe steady-state response of ¢(t). Otherwise, the response is proportional
to the numerator coefficient rRT~/ka; increasing k and decreasing Ti reduces
its magnitu~le. Unfortunately, increasing k and decreasing T~ also reduces the
relative stability of the system, and can even produceinstability. A compromise
is necessary.
Let the particular value of k chosen earlier (k = a/2r-r) be assumed.It is
helpful to plot the locus of the poles of the closed loop systemas the inverse time
1/T~is increasedfrom zero towardinfinity. Sucha root locus can be plotted if the
characteristic equation (the denominatorof the closed-loop transfer function)
is placed in the form of equation (8.10), as always; the k of that equation
is nowr/Ti. The numerator coefficient 7 makes this ratio dimensionless; the
product ~-S also becomesa dimensionless derivative operator. The characteristic
equation can indeed be placed in this form by dividing the denominatorof the
transfer function in equation (8.18) by the operator S[1 (a/rk)S + (Ta/rk)S’~]:
~ /T~ ~ /T~
1+ =1 + = 0. (8.19).
S[1 + 2]
(a/rk)S + (Ta/rk)S 2(TS)3 + 2(TS)-~ + ~-S
The "open-loop"poles of this equation include one pole at the origin plus pre-
cisely the same ,two complex-conjugate poles of the closed-loop system with
proportional control only. They are plotted in part (b) of Fig. 8.8. The re-
sulting root locus showsthe pole at the origin migrating to the left, which is
desirable. It also shows the complexpair of poles movingtoward the right,
which reduces the damping. The sum of ,the three closed-loop poles remains
8.2. DYNAMIC COMPENSATION 607

(a) block diagram with PI controller [~

~ k(1 + 1 ) v(t) ~_+r/a

0.8

0.6

0.4
(b) root locus plot
0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 . 0.4 0.6 0.8
RealAxis

0.8

0.6
(c) closed-loop poles for
0.4
r/T~ = 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, best solution: r/T~=0.2’
0.7, 1.0 0.2 r = -0.3114+0.4100 i
= -0.3773

E -0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0,8

RealAxis

Figure 8.8: Motor-driven position system with proportional-plus-integral control

608 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

(a) responseto step change

of momentMa
1
2Rrer Ma / a

0
0 5’ 10
’ 1 ’5 20
t/r

(b) responseto step change

of command angle ¢c

00 5 10
15 20
t/r
Figure 8.9: Responsesof position system with PI control

constant (rememberthe rule for cases in whichthe pole-zero excess is 2 or more),

so the complexpoles cross the imaginary axis and the system becomesunstable
whenthe real pole hasmovedto the location 7-S = -1. The closed-loop poles
are replotted in part (c) of the figure for five specific values of the gain TITs:
0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.7 and 1.0. The MATLAB coding which produces this plot and
reports the values of the respective roots is as follows:
num= 1;
den = [2 2 1 0];
k = [.1 .2 .4 .7 1];
[r,k] = r:tocu.~(n,d,k)
rlocus (n,d,k)
Thus, r/Ti = 1.0 (or Ti = 7-) is the case of incipient instability. Thebest overall
behaviorresults with 7-/Ti ~- 0.2 (or Ti -~ 57-). The associated responsesof the
system to a step disturbance of momentand to a step commandare plotted in
Fig. 8.9.
Theseresponses are probably quite satisfactory, althoughthey are distinctly
inferior to optimal responses, largely because they do not utilize muchof the
available torque of the motor. Choosing a larger value of k would increase
the speed of response, but at a probably unacceptablecost of decreased relative
stability and potential for insensitivity to momentdisturbances. A muchsmaller
value of k wouldmakethe response more sluggish. If somemeansof increasing
the dampingof the system were introduced, on the other-hand, the values of
k and 1/Ti could be increased, giving significantly faster responses without
sacrificingstability.
8.2. DYNAMICCOMPENSATION 609

EXAMPLE 8.7
A first-order thermal plant satisfies the differential equation
dO 1¯
+ o = -ffQi,,+ oe; ~-= mc
7"-~ --h-’
where 0 is the temperature of the plant, 0e is the temperature of the en-
vironment, ~i,, is the heat input used to control 0, H is the heat-transfer
coefficient between the plant and the environment, mis the mass of the
plant and c is its specific heat. The plant is placed in a feedbackloop that
includes a measurementsystem with a simple lag and a proportional-plus-
integral controller, as shownbelow:

controller plant

mea..surementsystem l

Considerthe case in whichthe measurementlag time "Fmequals v. Find the

transfer functions betweenthe reference input 0r and 0, and between0e and
0. For the case of simple proportional control, i.e. T -~ ~, find the smallest
possible steady-state errors without the dampingratio of the system being
less than 0.5, and the associated value of k. Thenre-introduce the integral
control, showthat it eliminates the steady-state errors, and find acceptable
values of k and T.
Solution-" The transfer functions can be found using the basic equations
(8.5) and (8.8):

0 k(TS + 1)/(7S 1) TS
Or (1 + k(TS + 1)/(rS 1)TS(TmS +1)+ k(TS + 1)
k(TS + 1)(rS +
(TS + 1)TS(T,~S 1)+ k(TS + 1)’
0 1/(’rS + 1)
O~ 1 + k(TS + 1)/(TS + 1)TS(TmS 1)
TS(rS + 1)
(TS + 1)TS(~-mS 1)+ k(TS + 1)
WhenT ~ ~ and S = 0, the steady-state responses for simple proportional
control result:
610 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

steady-state = 1 + k =1 1 +k ; steady-state 1 +k"

(These result by dividing the numerators and denominators by T before

substituting T = 0.) Both error ratios are the same, and are reduced by
making k as large as possible. With Trn : T, the characteristic equation
becomes T2~q2q-27S+(l+k) = 0, which describes a second-order system with
a natural~ frequency w, = v~ + k/7 and damping ratio of ~ = 1/x/~ + k.
For ~.>_ 0.5 as required, k <_ 3. For k = 3, the steady-state error ratios are
0.25, which likely isn’t very satisfactory, and wn = 2/~-.
With the integral control reintroduced, both steady-state errors become
zero regardless of the values of k and T. The characteristic equation is third
order; it becomes (TS) 3 ~- 2(7S) 2 -~ (1 + k)(rS) + kr/T = This can be
factored as (TS + Tp)[TS):2 q- 2~TWn(TS)q- (Veda)2] ---- 0. A large value of
Wnrequires a small value of p; to maximize the distance of all poles from
the origin, set p = wn. Keeping ~ = 0.5, this gives (~-S) 3 + 27con(7S)2 +
2(TCOn)2(TS) (T~ dn) 3 = 0. Com
paring ter m by ter m, TO. ) n : 1, k =1 and
T = T. Thus, the elimination of the steady-state error without reducing the
effective damping comes at a cost of reducing the natural frequency by a
factor of two.

8.2.2 Proportional-Plus-Derivative Control

The addition of derivative action to the controller is one of the oldest, simplest
and most effective means of increasing the damping of a feedback control system.
This is considered first in the absence of integral action. The transfer function
relation of the PD controller is
u(t) k(1 + T~S) e( t), (S.20)
in which k is the coefficient for the proportional action of the controller, as
before, and Td is the derivative time. The term kToS e(t) =- kTd~(t) is pro-
portional to the instantaneous rate of change of e(t). (When implemented by
an analog integrator network, the transfer function of the derivative term is
actually TdS/(TdS+1), where Vd is set so small that its effect can be neglected.)
The transfer function equals zero for S = -1/Ta; this zero is represented in the
S-plane of the overall forward-path transfer function G(S) by a symbol o drawn
at this location on the negative real axis.
Application of the PD controller to the motor-driven position control system
gives the forward-path transfer function
kr(1 + TdS)/a
G(S) S( 1 + ~- S) ’ (8.21)

and the closed-loop transfer function relation

G(S) 1 + TdS
¢(t) - 1 G(S) 1 + (Td + a/ rk)S + (a r/rk)S 2 ¢r (t). (8.22)
8.2. DYNAMIC COMPENSATION 611

The introduction of the derivative control action has left the order of the system
unchanged at two. The natural frequency remains at V/-ff/a~ -. A positive value
of Td is seen to increase the damping ratio by increasing the middle coefficient
of the denominator quadratic. This equation shows that since the designer
can freely choose the values of both k and Td, he has carte blanche to achieve
any natural frequency and damping ratio he or she wishes. Design by pole
placement is frequently practiced by control engineers. So why not achieve an
almost instantaneous response by setting k at an enormous value?

Think for a moment. Whyshould this behavior be better than that of the
so-called optimal control presented in Section 8.1.2?

The answer is that a very large value of k would produce an impractically

large value of the armature voltage for any but the smallest commandstep. The
optimal system recognized a practical limit to this voltage, presumably imposed
by the regulated voltage of the electrical power supply. 3 The optimal system in
fact responds exceedingly fast for very small commandsteps.

What if the output voltage of the linear PD controller were similarly lim-
ited? Could an extremely large value of k then indeed be chosen, along with
an appropriate time Td? This scheme, shown in Fig. 8.10, features a nonlin-
ear saturation element. Responses are plotted for the same step as before
(29.2°), a smaller step (10°) and a much larger step (180°). These were found
by nonlinear simulation. The value of k used (1000) is so large that either the
positive or the negative saturation limit is imposed almost all the time, giving
almost the so-called bang-bang or switching control characteristic of the op-
timal scheme. The derivative time Td is chosen at Td = 0.226T, which gives
barely zero overshoot for the 29.2° step. The response to this step is virtually
indistinguishable from that of the optimal control as plotted in part (d) of Fig.
8.2. Larger steps produhe a modest transient overshoot of the final position,
whereas smaller steps produce a tail in which the response creeps up to its final
value more slowly than an optimal control.

Raising Td to T log(2) = 0.693~" (or higher) prevents overshoot for all

responses, but also increases the overdampedtails for small steps. The responses
are not critically dependent on the value Of Td, however. Note that time required
to approach the final angle increases markedly as the step size increases. This
nonlinear behavior has the distinct advantage over linear behavior of taking
advantage of the full motor torque, no matter how small the commandstep.

3Damage to the motor alternatively could be prevented by use of a powersupply and am-
plifier that limits the armaturecurrent rather than its voltage. Theresult wouldbe somewhat
better performance,at a higher cost.
612 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

D controller saturation element

(a) block diagram

180

150

¢, 120
degrees
90

60
J ~ 2,9.: (same as optimal control, Fig. 8.1)
3O

0
0 1 2 3 4 t/r 5 6
(b) responsesto step commands
of varioussizes

Figure 8.10: Position control system with a PDcontroller and saturation

8.2. DYNAMIC COMPENSATION 613

EXAMPLE 8.8
A controllable force, F, acts on a mass m = 1 kg of a simple mass-spring
system with spring rate K = 4 N/mso as to control its position, x:

(mS2 + K)x = F.

The postion x is monitored by a transducer, the ouput signal of which is

compared to a commandinput, x~, to produce an error signal. This signal
acts on a controller that produces the ibrce. Proportional control gives
imaginary roots, a virtually uncontrollable condition. A PD controller is
proposed:

S)
k(1 + rd
~

Select values of T and k, and discuss the resulting behavior.

Solution’~ The transfer function of the forward path is

x_..= k(TS + 1) _ kT(S + l/T)

F $2+4 $2+4 ’

and the closed-loop transfer function is

x kT(S + l/T)
xr S "2 + kTS + (k + 4)’

which has a steady-state value of k/(k + 4). Thus, a large value of k is

desired.
A root lous for the case of T = 0.5 seconds is given in Example 8.3 (pp
596-597). The value of kT suggested there is 8, or k = 16, giving a steady-
state error of 20%.The dynamic behavior is attractive: the transfer function
is 8(S + 2)/($2 + 8S + 20) which has the fast and well-dampedroots -4 :t:
s -1. This solution would be satisfactory if compensation can be provided
for the steady-state error. Otherwise, the steady-state error can be reduced
and the response made faster by increasing k. The value of T is reduced to
keep the response from becoming over-damped. For example, k -- 96 and
T = 1/8 second produces a 4% steady-state error with a natural frequency
of 10 rad/s. There is no limit to the apparent improvement available in
the response. There must be a catch, and it is this: the larger k, the more
powerful and expensive the controller must be. Further, as with the motor-
driven position control system, a rapid change in xr will saturate any real
controller; the linear model then gives a false prediction of the response.
The solution with T = 0.5 and k = 16 may be acceptable, however.
614 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

8.2.3 Proportional-Plus-Integral-Plus-Derivative Control

The elimination of the steady-state error produced by integral action is unaf-

fected by the presence of derivative action. The combination of proportional,
integral and derivative control actions is called PID control. Adjustable PID
controllers are available commercially, and represent by far the single largest
type of dynamic compensation in use today. They are particularly prevalent
in the field of process control, which largely refers to chemical processes, where
they are called process controllers or three-mode controllers.
The presence of the derivative action directly imparts an impulse to the out-
put of the controller whenever the commandsignal is given a step change. This
impulse inevitably saturates the plant being controlled, resulting in nonlinear
action. This saturation was utilized in the previous section on the PD controller
to give nearly optimal responses to input steps. Nevertheless, most users of PID
control do not consider nonlinearities. Applications usually are restricted to
systems for which the simple superposable behavior of linearity is favored over
the quickness of response of the near-optimal nonlinearity. In practice, steps
of enough amplitude to cause marked saturation ~ are rarely encountered any-
way; the consideration of step inputs, becomes more of a conceptual tool than
a physical reality. Certain rules-of-thumb are given in textbooks on control for
achieving satisfactory PID control of processess, based on approximate obser-
vations of the behavior of the plant being controlled. Part of the popularity of
these controllers stems from the simplicity of their application; it is not even
necessary to have a detailed model of the plant.
Designers of most control systems prefer linear behavior to the fastest behav-
ior possible, which typically is nonlinear. One of the reasons is that the life of
hardware would be reduced if it always exerted maximumeffort, no matter how
small the commandsor the disturbances. Saturation is normally reserved only
for the relatively infrequent occurances~ of the largest disturbances anticipated;
the power of the system is sized to accomodate these disturbances. Other rea-
sons for favoring linearity include the simplicity of analysis, and the consistency
of the behavior in terms of the classical measures of natural frequencies and
damping ratios.
Non-PIDcontrollers are often designed to avoid saturation and thereby val-
idate linear behavior. Thus, simple derivative actions are avoided. The motor
control system under consideration is in fact not a good candidate for PID con-
trol, unless saturation and the resulting nonlinearity is directly recognized and
utilized. A different kind of controller is introduced below, instead.

EXAMPLE 8.9
The steady-state error of the system addressed in Example 8.8 is eliminated
by adding an intergral action to the controller, which already has a propor-
tional gain k = 16 and derivative time Td = 0.5 second. Find the integral
time Ti that produces marginal stability, and show that a good response
results from a value three times larger.
8.2. DYNAMIC COMPENSATION 615

Solution: The controller has the transfer junction k(1 + TdS + 1/TiS), and
the plant has a transfer function 1/(S 2 ÷ 1), giving for the values indicated
above,
x 8T~S2 + T~S + 16
xc S + 8TiS 2 + (4 + 16Ti)S + 16"
3

Equation (8.15) gives the condition for marginal stability: 8Ti(4 + 16Ti)
16, or Ti = 0.25 second. For three times that, or Ti = 0.75 second, the roots
of the characteristic equation are S = -2,-2 4- 2j, which is reasonably
fast without significant oscillation (~ = 0.707). Increasing Ti to 1.0 second
gives S = -4,-2,-2 (double pole), which is slower and somewhat inferior.
Increasing Ti further continues to slow the response. The proposed solution
may be quite acceptable despite the saturation caused by the derivative
action when the commandedposition suffers an abrupt change.

8.2.4 Phase Lead Controllers

A phase lead controller possesses a single zero and a single pole, plus a gain,
for a total of three parameters. Its transfer function is

S+z
Gc = k--; a > 1. (8.23)
S+az
The pole and zero are plotted in part (a) of Fig. 8.11. The requirement a >
means that the phase angle of the transfer function of the controller for sinu-
soidal excitation is positive, that is a phase lead, giving the controller its name.
The response of a phase lead controller to a step input is rather like that of
a highly muted PD controller. Rather than an impulse followed by a constant
value, a constant value is preceded by a non-infinite but larger value of non-zero
duration, blended by an exponential decay. It is no surprise, then, that the
consequences of the two controllers are similar.
The phase lead control can be achieved by the simple passive RC circuit
shown in Fig. 8.12, explaining part of its historical popularity. The gain k must
be added through use of an amplifier.
A phase lead controller can improve the performance of the motor-driven
position control system. The transfer function for the DCmotor plant, taken
from equation (8.1),
r/aT
G2(S) - S(S l/ r) (8.24)

Its pair of poles is plotted in part (b) of Fig. 8.11. Whena phase lead controller
acts directly on this plant, the overall open-loop transfer function becomes

a(s)(~,./,~-)(s + (8.25)
(s + ~z)(S1/1-)
The simplest and most desirable application sets a = 1/1-, so that the zero of
the compensator cancels the non-zero pole of the motor. The result is a pair of
poles, one at the origin and the other at S = -az. The example with a = 2 is
616 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

(a) pole-zeroplot of phaselead controller

(b) pole-zeroplot for DCmotor (G2(S))

and its productwiththe proportional
controller (kG2(S)) -l/z- T Re S

(c) pole-zeroplot for product pole and zero cancel hn SI

of phaselead controller
and DCmotor, with X
z= 1/rand tr=2 -2/r -1/r Re S

j/r} ImS
(d) root loci and choicesfor
closed-looppoles
j/2v ~
proportionalcontrol (dashedlines):
k=a/2rr; tad=l/2r; (’=0.707 !

phaselead control(solid lines): -1/r -1/2r Re S

k=2a/rr; tad= l/r, (=0.707
:j/2r ¢
!
-J/r
I

(e) response 30°I - ---

particular step 20° l ~/¢~~se lead control
command
10o~ ~ --proportional control
" (from Fig. 8.4)
~]/ Xoptimal control (from Fig. 8.2)
0 2 4 6- 8 t/r 10 12

Figure 8.11: Phase lead compensation applied to the DCmotor system

8.2. DYNAMIC COMPENSATION 617

ein S+ a7 a’=-R~ q-R

2 R2
R2 e°ut

Figure 8.12: RCcircuit for phase lead compensator

shown in part (c) of the figure. Note that it is acceptable to ignore any slight
error in this cancellation, since the pole and zero lie in the left-half plane; should
they have been in the right-half plane such an error would directly represent an
instability.
The root loci for the closed-loop poles are shown in part (d) of the figure.
The loci for the original system with proportional control only are shown by
dashed lines, and the loci for the system with the lead compensator is shown by
solid lines, again for the special case of z = lit and a = 2. In both cases the
closed-loop poles are chosen to give damping ratios of 1/v~. The net effect of
the phase lead compensator can be seen to double the speed of the system, as
represented by the distance of the poles from the origin (the natural frequency).
The resulting responses for the 29.2 ° step considered earlier are compared
in part (e) of the figure. The fact that the response is somewhatmore sluggish
than the optimal indicates that saturation is not a problem. Were the value of
aa made much larger, however, or were the step made much bigger, saturation
would in fact occur, and the linear prediction would be in error.
The larger the value of a, the more closely the phase lead controller k(S
z)/(S + az) can resemble the PD controller kd(1 + Td$). The resemblance is
otherwise could be said to be closest when the responses of the two controllers
to a unit ramp disturbance approach each other as t -+ ~. This happens when
k = kd~ and z = (a - 1)/aTd. One result is equal steady-state errors.

EXAMPLE 8.10
Replace the PD controller employed in Example 8.8 (kd = 16, Td = 0.5 s)
with the phase lead controller giving the "closest" equivalence, as described
above, and compare the two step responses. Let a = 10.
Solution: The "closest" equivalence gives k = kda = 160 and z = (c~
1)/C~Td = 1.8 s -1. The two transfer functions become

X 8(S+2)
PDcontroller : -
Xr S~ + 8S + 20’

phase- lead controller :

X
-- =
k(S+z)
Xr mS3 + azmS2 + (K + k)S + z(aK +
160(S + 1.S)
S3 + 18S~ + 164S + 360"
618 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

The two step responses are

1.2
¢/¢r I ~2~,/PD control

0.4 t//lead control

~] I I I
0
0 1 t, seconds
Unless you already have designed a PDcontroller, however,it is better to
design a phase lead controller directly, for exampleby using a root locus.
The rough equivalence above deteriorates when a is small, mandating a
separate analysis.

8.2.5 Phase Lag Controllers

A phase lag controller resemblesa phase lead controller, but the pole is closer
to the origin rather than farther away:

Gc = kSS+p
+/3p. /3 > 1. (8.26)
’
Phaselag controllers are used to reduce steady-state errors; they are to integral
controllers what phase lead controllers are to PDcontrollers. They.canalso be
fabricated with a simple RCcircuit, apart from the amplifier neededto achieve
the gain k, as shownin Fig. 8.13.
A phase lag controller can be used with the motor-driven position control
system, substituting for the PDcontroller used in Section 8.2.1 (Fig. 8.8, p.
607). This is carried out in Fig. 8.14. The overall transfer function from the
momentdisturbance kid to the angle of output ¢ becomes

~ = Rr2z/ra2 . (8.27)
Md S3 + (p + 1/r)S 2 + (pit + rk/Ta)S + rkpfl/Ta
Substitution of S ~ 0 gives the steady-state response, or error due to the
disturbance, ofRr/ak~. This is the same as with proportional control alone, as
originally determined,reducedby the factor of ft. Phase lag controllers generally
do not eliminate steady-state error, unlike PI controllers.

R1 R
lei" C.-T:e°"GC=~
S+p
1 S+ZpP=-~c
fl= RI+R,

Figure 8.13: RCcircuit for lag compensator

8.2. DYNAMIC COMPENSATION 619

(a) block diagram with phase lag controller

Cr(t~ k S+~p v(t) ~_+ rr/a ¢(t)

-I S+p l

I
(b) root locus plot /
values of rS for 0.8
varying values of rp 0.8

0.4
rp=O01. ~ 003.
0.2 0.02

--0.2 rp=O.03 0.02 0.01

-0.,
-0.8 . poles for rp =
-0.8 rS~ =-0.35040.02..~~
rS23 =-0.3348 +0.4163j
-1 -0.5 ~ 0.5
RealAxis

(c) responseto unit step

change of moment M d

10 15 20
t/r

~PI controller
(d) response to unit step change
of commandangle -."N
lag controller
[~~oogn:~ornCt r o 11 e r

lb 1’5 20
t/r

Figure 8.14: Motor-driven position control system with phase lag controller
620 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

To be consistent with the analysis for the PI control, the value k = a/2r~- is
assumed. To make the lag control effective without an unreasonably large value
of ~, the value ~ = 10 will also be assumed, reducing the error to one-tenth of
its original value. The value of p remains to be determined. In order to plot a
root-locus for increasing values of the dimensionless ratio ~-p, the characteristic
equation is solved for Tp and then placed in the usual form of equation (8.10):
1 + Tpnum(S)/den(S)) = 0. This gives

num(S) (TS) ~" + (~’S) + ~/2

den(S) (TS) 3 + (rS) 2 +(1/2)(TS)
(8.2s)
The critical part of the resulting root locus plot near the origin is shown in part
(b) of Fig. 8.14. One pole migrates to the left along the real axis for increasing
values of Tp, while two other complex poles approach and eventually enter the
right-half plane. The value ~-p = 0.02 is close to the best compromise.
Use of this value gives the response of ¢ to a step change of the disturbance
2FZd plotted in part (c) of the figure. The corresponding responses of the system
with the proportional-plus-integral controller (from Fig. 8.9) and of the system
with the original proportional controller are plotted for comparison. The PI
controller has the advantage of reducing the steady-state response to zero, while
the lag controller has the advantage of a smaller maximumexcursion. The
system without dynamic compensation behaves relatively poorly.
The final set of plots in part (d) of the figure shows the comparative responses
of the three systems to a step change in the command angle, Cr. Neither
system with dynamic compensation behaves quite as well as the original system
without dynamic compensation. This is because the dynamic compensators
were designed explicitly to address the problem of sensitivity to disturbances
in Md. This is unlike most design situations, where dynamic compensation is
employed to improve the response to the commandsignal.

8.2.6 Phase Lead-Lag Controllers

Phase lead andlag actions often are used together, under the name of lead-lag
compensation; the combination is akin to the PID control:

kl+a7~S 1 + ~-2S
(8.29)

The simple RCcircuit shown in Fig. 8.15, plus an amplifier, serves as a simple
implementation for the case when fl = a. Note that the impedance of any
one element can be set independently, and the values of the other elements are
determined by the desired values of the time constants ~-~ and T2 and a. The
impedances cover an excessive range if a gets too large; the value 10 sometimes
is cited as a practical limit if passive analog components are used. Digital
and operational-amplifier implementations avoid this limitation. In practice,
the phase lag portion of the controller is used to reduce steady-state error; the
value of T2 normally is large, so the frequency range at which it acts is lower
8.2. DYNAMIC COMPENSATION 621

Gc= l+~zrtS l+r2S

¯ l+rlS 1 + ~r~-2S

out R2C2 = ~’2

G-T" R~G=
(u-1)(r2-

Figure 8.15: RCcircuit for lag-lead controller

reference, digital L_.J digital-to-analog ~ outotit

Imicroprocessorl q converter V-I v’~’" I
I -
l [ anal°g-t°-digital ~_~-~-n~’~’-L~
I converter I I I

~
signal input~

F sample-and-hold
~ output

time

Figure 8.16: Digital control system with sampleddata signals

than the principal frequencies associated with the plant dynamics. The value
of rl, on the other hand, is chosento be considerably larger, so the phase lead
action provides dampingat frequencies whereit is needed, permitting a larger
gain and increased bandwidth.

8.2.7 Digital Control Systems

A majority of control systems today employdigital processors that are coupled
to the actuators and systems being controlled by analog-to-digital and digital-
to-analog comverters,as suggested in the block diagramof Fig. 8.16. This allows
greater flexibility in the choice of control algorithms, and avoids the need for
analog circuits with their impedancelimitations, amongstother advantages.
Ananalog-to-digital converter producesa train of numbersat discrete inter-
vals of time. These sampled data signals normally are treated as though the
signal were step-wise in time, as illustrated by the plot given in the figure. The
signal sent by the digital-to-analog converter to the plant is also in the sample
622 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

and hold format. If the sample time is considerably shorter than any of the
significant time constants of the plant, the effective time delays producedin the
samplingprocess are insignificant, and the analysis results of this chapter can
be applied directly. This is often the case today, since processor speeds have
been increasing for manyyears.
Whenthe sampling interval is not greatly shorter than the smallest sig-
nificant time constant of the plant, the time delays, imposephase lags (non-
minimum phase-lag processes) that normally reduce the relative stability of
systemor cause outright instability. Thus, at the least you should allow an ex-
tra marginof stability if you are employingthe analog methodsof this chapter.
Better yet, you can roughlypredict the effects of sample-and-holdusing the fre-
quency response methodsof Section 8.3 below. Best of all, you can employan
analysis based on the z-plane, wherez = est with s being the Laplace operator.
The formal study of this methodologyincluding the design of digital compen-
sators involves the z-transform, a modified form of the Laplace transform.
This subject appears in manytextbooks on control.

8.2.8 Summary
Manytypes of dynamiccompensators or controllers are used in feedback sys-
tems. Introducing an additional integral action to a proportional controller
usually eliminates any steady-state error that results from an unwanteddis-
turbance. Large values of the gain and the coefficient of the integral action
desirably reduce the steady-state error. They also generally decrease the rela-
tive stability of the system, with the consequenceof undesirable resonancesand
overshoot and, for large enoughvalues, outright instability. The introduction
of an additional derivative action to the controller is one wayto increase the
dampingof the system.
Whether a control system is linear or nonlinear is the most fundamental
distinction. Since the powerof a systemis limited, the responses to small com-
mandsor disturbances potentially can be faster than the responses to larger
commands or disturbances. A system that implementsthis potential is nonlin-
ear. Theuse of derivative control also invokesnonlinearities in the responseto a
step command. Nevertheless, linearity is usually preferred by control engineers,
to save on wear and to give simple, consistent behavior.
A phaselead controller acts rather like the proportional-plus-derivative(PD)
controller, but has less tendency to saturate. The phase lead controller has a
gain, a zero, and a pole of larger value than the zero. The controller typically
is used to replace a real pole with a real pole of a larger value, increasing
the speed of response of the system without decreasing relative stability. A
phase lag controller serves to reduce steady-state error, acting partly like a
proportional-plus-integral (PI) controller, whichusually eliminates steady-state
error. A phase lead-lag controller combinesboth actions, somewhat-like a PID
controller.
All these controllers can be implemented.withdigital, operational amplifier :
or mechanical/pneumaticcircuits. The phase lead, lag and lead-lag functions
8.2. DYNAMIC COMPENSATION 623

Figure 8.17: Inverted pendulum for Guided Problem 8.2

also can be implemented by passive RC circuits.

Guided Problem 8.2

The first part of the final guided problem relates to the control system that
keeps a rocket vertical at launch despite the applied force being applied at the
lower end. Without control the rocket would fall over. The second part of the
problem relates to the position control of the rocket. In both cases proportional-
plus-derivative control is central to success. It is not necessary to carry out the
second part to benefit from the first. Both parts give practice with root loci as
implemented by MATLAB.
The inverted pendulum system shown in Fig. 8.17 comprises two equal
masses separated by a rigid massless rod, a constraint such that the lower mass
moves horizontally only, and a means of applying a control force to that mass.
The parameters are mg = 1 lb, g = 32.2 ft/s 2 and L = 0.644 ft.

(a) The relation between the force F and the angle ¢

assuming linearity (small angles). Proportional feedback control cannot

stabilize this system, but PD control can. You are asked to find appropri-
ate values of the gain k and derivative time Td, and the associated poles
of the closed-loop system.

(b) The relation between ¢ and x, again assuming small angles,

Unless an appropriate addional control is introduced, the position x can

wander widely in response to disturbances. Place the system resulting
624 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

from part (a) inside a second feedback loop. Again, apply PD compensa-
tion (proportional control again won’t work) so that x(t) stably follows a
commandinput, xT(t).

Part (b) of this problem is revisited in Guided Problem 8.3 at the end of the
chapter.

Suggested Steps:

Find the poles of the transfer function between -F and ¢, and sketch-
plot them in the S-plane. Sketch the simple root locus that would result
from the use of proportional feedback, showing that it fails to produce the
desired stability for any value of the gain k.

Draw a block diagram for a system with unity feedback. Include a refer-
ence signal Cr, even though your interest may be only for a zero value.
Also, include a block for the compensator, and label all variables. Does
the compensator relate the error to F or to -F?

A PD controller has the transfer function k(1 + TdS), which gives a single
zero in the left-half plane. It is tempting to superimpose this zero on one
of the poles of the system, canceling it to leave a very simple system. This
is acceptable, but somewhat misleading since perfect cancelation never
really happens; further, better results follow from the choice of a zero
somewhat to the left of this pole. Place the zero 50% further out on the
real axis, and plot the resulting root loci as the gain increases from zero
to infinity. Use MATLAB.

Choose points on the root loci Which are close to being the best. Use
MATLAB also to specify these points and the associated gain precisely.
You now have completed part (a).

Extend your block diagram to give the position x, and place the result
inside a second loop with unity feedback, a reference signal xr(t) and
second controller.

6° Use MATLAB to give the root loci for this complete system, using propor-
tional feedback. You should discover that no value of the second feedback
gain gives stable behavior.

Replace the proportional controller with a PD controller. Its zero will have
to be rather close to the origin (a large derivative time constant on the
order of one-quarter to one-half second) to be effective. Repeat the root
locus procedure, and note that a range of satifactory gain values exists.
Choose points on the loci and find the associated gain. Determine the
roots of the characteristic equation for the overall system.
8.2. DYNAMIC COMPENSATION 625

8. Write the resulting tranfer function between xr(t) and x(t), and use the
step commmandof MATLAB to plot the response to a unit step change.
Note that x starts by moving away from its final value, rather than toward
it, unlike most of the systems you have investigated. Does this make
physical sense?

PROBLEMS

8.8 Show that PI or PID control acting on any plant G(S) with unity feedback
produces zero steady-state error in response to an input and to a disturbance
acting directly on the plant, as long as G(0) ~

8.9 A motor-load system of the type featured in this chapter is reconfigured

to control angular velocity, rather than angular position. A feedback loop with
proportional-plus-integral control is proposed in order to reduce or eliminate the
steady-state error that proportional control alone gives (as found in Problem
8.2, p. 603). Let a = 0.006 V.s, r = 1.0 s and r = 0.2~ and restrict the motor
voltage to 3.0 V for commandedstep changes from zero to .2000 degrees/s (as
in Problem 8.2). The proportional gain k and the integral time Ti are to be
chosen to giv.e good performance.

(a) Draw a block diagram of the system. Include the motor voltage v(t)
as an internal variable.

(b) Find transfer functions from the commandinput @(t) to the output
velocity q~(t) and from the commmandinput to the voltage v(t).

(c) Is there a steady-state error in the output velocity for a step change
the commandvelocity? Hint: There is no such error if the transfer function
approaches 1.00 when S ~ 0, which corresponds to the frequency response
for zero frequency.

(d) Determine the natural frequency and the damping ratio in terms of
and

(e) Set the damping ratio equal to a reasonable value, such as 0.4. Deter-
mine the resulting relation between k and k/Ti.

(f) Note that the largest allowable value of the ratio k/Ti gives the fastest
response. Program in MATLAB the numerator and denominator poly-
nomials in the transfer function with v(t) as its output, substituting the
relation from part(e) for every k that appears alone, so the ratio is the only
unknown. Multiply the numerator by the command input corresponding
to 2000 degrees per second, and use the step commandto secure a trace
of the voltage as a function of time for various values of the ratio. Deter-
mine the value that gives the largest allowed voltage. Then determine the
values of k and Ti individually.
626 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

(g) Use MATLABto plot the output ~(t). If you have done part (a)
Problem8.2, comparethis response with the optimal.

8.10 Determine which of the closed-loop systems in Problems 8.3-8.7 have

steady-state errors in response to a step input. For each of these, specify the
gain and the integral time of an integral controller that eliminates the error
while giving acceptable dynamics.

8.11 Repeat part (a) of GuidedProblem8.2 (p. 622), substituting a lead

troller for the PDcontroller.

8.12 The system of Problem 8.7 (p. 604) exhibits either small damping
negative damping(instability) for all values of the gain k. Determinethe gain
and derivative time of a substitute PDcontroller that gives better responses.

8.13 Solve the previous problemusing a phase lead controller in place of the PD
controller. The ratio of the magnitudesof the pole to the zero of the controller
should not exceed3:1.

8.14 The steady-state error in the thermal system of Example8.7 (pp. 609-
610) was eliminated by the introduction of integral action, but at a cost of
reducing the natural frequency. Expand the controller by adding derivative
action (makinga PIDcontroller) so as to regain the original w,~ = 2/’r while
retaining ¢ = 0.5. Find the "best" values of the derivative time Td, integral
time Ti and the gain k.

8.15 A correspondance between a phase lag controller and a PI controller can

be defined in the sense that their responsesto a unit step agree for small values
of time. Find the correspondanceassuminga value of ~3 is chosen already: Apply
the result to the PI controller of the motor-drivenposition control system, as
carried out in Section 8.2.1 (pp. 606-608), finding the associated value of Tp
for the corresponding lag controller. Comparethe result to the lag controller
with ~3 = 10 for the sameplant but chosen by other meansin Section 8.25 (pp.
618-620), namelyTp = 0.020.

8.16 Derive the relations for the values of the following RCcircuits as given in
the respective figures. (Note: The simplest methodstarts with a bond graph,
and then finds the transfer function using the loop rule as developedin Section
7.4.2-7.4.4.)

(a) the circuit of Fig. 8.12 (p. 617) for the phase lead compensator.
(b) the circuit of Fig. 8.13 (p. 618) for the phase lag compensator.
(c) the circuit of Fig. 8.15 (p. 621) for the phase lag-lead compensator.
8.2. DYNAMIC COMPENSATION 627

SOLUTION TO GUIDED PROBLEM

Guided Problem 8.2

The open-loop poles are at S = 4-V/~/L =

4-10 rad/s. Thegain of the plant is 50/(S"~ -
100). For a small feedback gain, the closed-
loop poles lie on the real axis, with one in the
right-half plane indicating instability. For a
large gain, both closed-loop poles lie on the
imaginaryaxis, indicating oscillation without
necessary dampingor decay.

~ )

The output of the compensator is defined above as -F.

3O
Go(S)= k(1 + TdS)
Td = 1/1.5V/’~/L = 1/15 s
The open-loop gain becomes
k50(S/15 + 1)
S~ - 100
The coding for the root locus plot is
nmn= 50*[1/1B 1]; -~o
den = [1 0 -100]
rlocus (r,k)

The following additional coding

gives the plot shownopposite, show-
ing the closed-looppoles for the val- selectedclosed-looppoles
ues k = 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, and
21. The value k = 15 is chosen, for
which r = -25 4- 5j rad/s.

k = [3:3:21]:
[k,r] = rlocus(n,d,k);
plot(r, ’x’)
628 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

The block diagram below gives the open-loop gain

-32.2k(S a + 15S~ - 50S - 750)
S4 + 50S3 2+ 650S

@-F, 50(S+15)I ~-0.644(S-’-50)

1s-’+5os+65o1
-I, s: (’
li

The root locus showstwo closed-loop poles in the right-half plane, producing
an instability, for all values of the gain, k.

2O

~S,
rad/s

-20-40’ Re S, rad/s

The zero of the PD controller is placed at S --- -a. This multiplies the
numerator of the open-loop transfer function by the factor (S ÷ a) to give
-32.2k[S4 ÷ (15 +a)S3 + (15a - 50)S~ - (50a ÷ 750)S - 750a]. The root-10cus
plot below is for a = 3 rad/s. Oneroot approaches -oo on the real axis be-
fore the critical pole pairs near the origin emergevery far along their paths in
complexterritory. The root reappears at +oo on the real axis, and ends at the
zero in the right-half plane. This pole must be confined to the left-half plane
to give stability. A reasonable solution is k -- 0.02, for whichr -- -87 tad/s,
-20.1 tad/s, and -0.39 ± 1.50j rad/s.

10
ImS,
rad/s f

-3’0 -io -;0 0 ;0 20

Re S, rad/s
X 0.644(-S 4 - 18S3 + 5S2 + 900S + 2250)
x~ 0.356S4 ÷ 38.41S3 ÷ 653.2S~ ÷ 579.6S ÷ 1449"

The step response is plotted on page 656.

8.3. FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS 629

8.3 Frequency Response Methods

The design of feedback controllers has been based thus far on the placement of
the zeros and especially the poles of the open and closed-loop transfer functions,
with emphasis on the root locus plot. The use of frequency response methods is
a valuable complement or alternative. You have been exposed already, through
the extensive material in Section 6.2, to the concept of frequency response and
its primary graphical tool, the Bode plot. In this section the Bode plot, and
its siblings the polar (Nyquist) and magnitude-vs.-phase (Nichols) plots, will
used to predict closed-loop performance from open:loop performance, and to aid
in the design of controllers. Should you wish a deeper exposition or illustration
of the methods, many standard textbooks are available.

8.3.1 Polar or Nyquist FrequencyResponse Plots

The Bode plots comprise separate representations for the magnitude and phase
angle as functions of frequency. Often it is desirable to combine magnitude and
phase angle into a single curve. Oneway to do this is the polar plot, also called
the Nyquist diagram. For a plot of G(jw), the x-axisrepresents Re[G(jw)] and
the y-axis represents Im[G(jw)]. Therefore, the magnitude IG(jw)l equals the
distance or radius from the origin, and the phase angle is the angle from the
real axis. Since frequency is not used as an axis, it is helpful to place tick marks
along the curve, labeled withthe corresponding values of w.

EXAMPLE 8.10
Draw polar or Nyquist plots for the functions Ga(S) = S + 1, G2(S)
1/(S + 1).
Solution: The function Ga(jw) can be plotted directly. The function
G2(jw) = 1/(jw 1) is its reci procal, that is ha s r ecip rocal magni tudes
and oppositely signed phase angles for corresponding values of w. The lat-
ter curve can be shown to be a semi-circle.

1
magnitude/
Im G~(S)=S+
of ~ ~.
0.5 .0=0.5 1
G2(S)= 1
/phase angle~
/ of ~,(]1) 6)=0

~ro=2G,.(j ~)~/0"5 Re
-02 - "~=0.5

MATLAB draws polar plots in response to the commandNyqu±st (nura, den)

or Nyquis~c(k,,B,C,D), where hum, den or /~,B, C,D are defined as before.
MATLAB includes the plot for negative values of frequency, which has the
630 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

same real part and minus the imaginary part of the corresponding values of fre-
quency; ~t is the same curve flipped about the real axis. The reason for including
negative frequencies will appear shortly.
EXAMPLE 8.11
Use MATLAB to plot the Nyquist diagram for the unstable open-loop trans-
fer function G(S)H(S) = k(S 2)/(S ~ + S + 1) (S - 0. 5) wi th k = 0. 2, 0.
and 0.6.
Solution: The following code produces the plots as given (except for the
annotations). See the "help" window for optional arguments of Nyqu±st,
including a frequency vector.

den=If .5 .5 -.5];
for i=1:3
k=.2*i ;
hUm=k*[i 2] ;
Nyquist(num,den)
hold on
end

0.6 .-"’<’, dashed lines: w<O

0.6 ,/ ~

0.2 :

~02

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

RealAxis

8.3.2 The Nyquist Stability Criterion

The objective is to determine the stability of a closed-loop system from knowl-
edge of its open-loop frequency response, without having to carry out computa-
tions. The open-loop frequency reponse could be from experimental data, with
no analytic model. In particular, it is desired to knowwhether any of the roots
or zeros of the closed-loop characteristic equation

F(S) = 1 + P(S) = 1 + G(S)H(S) = 0 (8.30)

8.3. FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS 631

segment
first segmen

~hird segment

Figure 8.18: Contour in the S-plane that encircles all potential unstable ,roots
(zeros) of the characteristic equation

lie in the right-half plane, and therefore represent an instability. A famous

theorem by Cauchy refers to a closed path or contour in the S-plane for a
function such as F(S], and the plot of the complex function F(S) for the same
path values of S. It states:
If a clockwise contour in the S-plane encircles Z zeros and P poles of the
complex function F(S) without directly passing through any of them, the
mapping of the contour in a plot ofF(S) encircles its origin Z-P times
in the clockwise direction.
An encirclement of the origin in a plot of F(S) becomes an encirclement of the
point S = -1 in a plot of the open-loop transfer function P(S) = F(S)
Since the stability test regards the entire right-half of the S-plane, the con-
tour of choice encircles the entire right-half of that plane, as shownin Fig. 8.18.
Part of the contour traverses the imaginary axis in two segments, as labeled.
The first segment is S = jw, with w ascending from zero to infinity. The third
segment is its complex conjugate, S -- -jw, with w proceeding from infinity
to zero. The mapping of this third segment in the P(S) plane is the complex
conjugate of the mapping of the first segment, which means it is the mirror
image about the real axis. This is why MATLAB includes both segments in
its Nyquist plots. A further simplification results whenever the second segment
of the contour gives zero values of P(S) for all such infinite values of S, which
happens whenever the denominator polynomial of P(S) is of higher order in S
than is its numerator polynomial.

EXAMPLE 8.12
Interpret the Nyquist plots for the three cases in Example8.11 to give the
stability of the closed-loop system. Also, plot a root locus that shows the
locations of the closed-loop poles for the three cases. Finally, use the Routh-
Hurwitz criteria for stability (p. 600) to determine the range of k for which
the system is stable.
632 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

Solution: There is one open-loop pole in the right-half plane of the open-
loop transfer function, so P = 1. For the case with k = 0.2, the -1 point is
not encirled by the Nyquist contour, so Z-P = 0. Thus, the numberof zeros
in the right-half plane for the characteristic equation is Z = 0+ 1 = 1, which
meansthat the closed-loop system has one pole in the right-half plane and
therefore is unstable. For the case with k = 0.4, the -1 point is encircled
once counterclockwise, so Z-P = -1 and Z = -1+1 = 0. There are
therefore no closed-loop ploes in the right-half plane, and the system is
stable. For k = 0.6, on the other hand, the -1 point is encircled once
clockwise, so Z-P= 1 and Z = 1+1 = 2. There are two poles in the
right-half plane of the closed-loop system, therefore, and the systemis again
unstable.
The root locus plot below shows howthe poles migrate in the S-plane
as k is increased. It showsthat all poles are in the left-half plane only for a
single band of values of k.

Z0.
k=0.2~’ff \ 0.5 (cros~ poin:)
O.5
0.25 0.4
0.3
\~’k- 0.2
-0.5 0.25 (cross, point)

"1’~2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

Real
Axis

The closed-loop transfer function is G(S)/(1 + G(S)H(S)), which gives

the characteristic equation

(S2 + S + 1)(S- 0.5) k(S + 2)= O

Comparingthis "to the standard form

a3S3 A- a2,-.q’2 -4- ai S +ao=0

gives

a3 = 1; a2 = 0.5; al = 0.5 +.k; a0 = 2k - 0.5.

The necessarycondition for stability that all coefficients havethe samesign

requires ao > 0 or k > 0.25. Equation(8.15) (p. 600) additionally requires

a2al - a3ao= 0.25 + 0.5k - (2k - 0.5) >

which is satisfied only for k < 0.75/1.5 = 0.50. Therefore, the system is
stable only between the crossover points at which k = 0.25 and k = 0.5.
8.3. FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS 633

ImS ite radius

~m
}infinitesimal "~
ent

imaginar)
axis ~’rsa~Re S
segments

Figure 8.19: Modified contour in the S-plane to avoid poles on the imaginary
axis

The Cauchy theorem requires that the contour in the S-plane not pass
through any of the poles of the open-loop transfer ruction. The contour must
be modified, therefore, if one or more poles lie on the imaginary axis. The
usual strategy employs a 180-degree arc of vanishingly small radius as a detour
around such poles, excluding them from the encompassed region and the num-
ber P, as illustrated in Fig. 8.19. The mappings of these counter-clockwise arcs
in the S-plane become clockwise arcs of infinite radius in the P(S) plane, as
the next three examples demonstrate. MATLAB does not display any segments
having infinite radius, however, so it is up to you to determine their effect on
the number of encirclements of the -1 point.

EXAMPLE 8.13
Plot the Nyquist diagram for the type 1 system having G(S) = k/S(S 2 +
S ÷ 1) and H(S) = 1 when k = 1. Determine from the plot what values of
k give stability.
Solution: The Nyquist plot at the top of the next page assembles a directly-
drawn pseudo-infinite arc with a MATLAB-createdplot. Since there is one
pole at the origin in the S-plane of a type-1 system, the infinite arc traverses
180° . It swings clockwise, as can be verified by checking the mid-point on
the real axis S = ~ -~ 0 and G(~)
The contour passes directly directly through the -1 point; for k > 1 it
would encircle the point clockwise once, indicating one unstable pole. The
criterion of stability, therefore, is k < 1.
634 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

"’-,..infinite radius
| /mG

-2 I-1 --12 1 ReG

EXAMPLE 8.14
Repeat the above example for the type 2 system G(S) -- k/S2(S 1) and
H(S) -- 1 with k = 1.
Solution: The presence of two poles at the origin produces an infinite arc
of 360° in the Nyquist plot, as shown below. It is critical that you attach
it correctly to the finite portion of the contour; placing clockwise arrows
on the infinite segment helps. There are two encirclements of the -1 point,
regardless of the value of k. This system is unstable regardless of the value
of k; it has two right-half-plane poles.

"’"’"" ""~’~’~..infinite
"¯ from infinitesimal
radius segment
¯ ¯
¯ ¯ arc on S-plane
ImG ¯
¯
"4 -,, ¯
8.3. FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS 635

EXAMPLE 8.15
Plot the Nyquist diagram for the system with

kS
G(S) = (S’; I)(S + 1)(S + H(S) =I; k = I.

Determine
therangeof k forstability
of theclosed-loop
system,
anddeter-
minetheanswerindependently
usingtheresultsof Section
8.1.7(p.600).
Solution:The MATLAB coding is

num=[1 0]; den=[1 4 4 4 3];

nyquist (hum, den)
axis(I-.3 .3 -.3 .3])
The resulting contour approaches infinity at each of the two open-loop poles
on the the imaginary axis. The arcs of infinitesimal radius around these
poles in the S-plane become180° clockwise arcs of infinite radius in the
plane, and are added below to the finite segments of the. locus produced by
MATLAB to complete the locus. The -1 point is not encircled for the value
k -- 1 of the locus, but would be encircled, twice, if the plot were expanded
by the factor k = 8 or more. The criterion for stability, therefore, is k < 8.

-"-"-’’-- circular arcs at

/ ",,~mfimteradii
," lm G .,

,/’~.2 .....
t, plot for. k= 1

-0.125

The characteristic equation 1 + G(S)H(S) = 0 can be written

S4 + 4S3 + 4S~ + (4 + k)S + 3 =

so that a4 = 1, a3 = 4, a.., = 4, al = 4 + k and a0 = 3. The first of

equations (8.16) gives 16 - 4 - k > 0 or k < 12. The second of equations
(8.16) gives 64 + 16k - (16 + 8k 2) - 48 > 0, fr om whichk < 8. The lat ter
is controlling, and agrees with the Nyquist conclusion.
636 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

1/gain margin
-1 ~

~0"+ 10°[ ’ Fmquency(mdlsec)10+

I I I I IIII ~ I I I IIII

~ ~ ~ i phase

Frequency
(md/sec)

(a) Nyquist plot (b) Bodeplot

Figure 8.20: Example system showing gain and phase margins

8.3.3 Measures of Relative Stability

A control system must not only be stable, it must also be reasonably robust,
which means insensitive to at least modest unplanned variations in its param-
eters. Further, the dynamics should not be excessively oscillatory: These re-
quirements can be addressed effectively from the perspective of the frequency
response.
Most type 0 and type 1 open-loop systems produce stable closed-loop systems
for small values of the proportional gain k, and becomeunstable for large values.
The gain margin for a particular design is defined as the factor that k could
be increased before the system becomes unstable. Most designers would like
to see a gain margin of 2 or larger, although they are willing to shave this in
special circumstances. The gain margin is readily apparent from the Nyquist
plot; it is the reciprocal of the magnitude of the contour at the point it crosses
°the negative real axis. The phase lag of the open-loop system traverses -180
at this point, so the gain margin also is readily determined from a Bode plot.
Its value often is given in decibels. An example is given in Fig. 8.20.
The phase margin is defined as the additional phase lag of G(jw), at the
frequency w where IG(jw)l 1, tha t wou ld bar ely pro duce ins tability. Thi s
also is shown in Fig. 8.20. A phase margin of 45° or more is desirable, although
sometimes it is reduced to as little as 30° . Phase margin also can be read from
the Bode plot, as shown.
A third and particularly meaningful measure of relative stability is the max-
imumvalue, Mm, of the magnitude ratio, M, of the closed-loop frequency re-
sponse. Assuming unity feedback (H(S) = 1) as before, the ideal value at all
frequencies is M = 1. The deviation for M from 1 at zero frequency is the
8.3. FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS 637

Figure 8.21: Mand N circles in the Nyquist plane, with an examplecontour

steady-state error. A value Mm -~ 2 may be tolerated, depending on the ap-

plication. The value of Mm can be determined upon inspection of the Nyquist
plot, although this is not as obvious as the gain and phase margins.
Let P(j~.,) = u + jv. Then, the square of the magnituderatio of the closed-
loop system is
2
M~ =I G(jw) - (8,31)
1 + G(jw) (1 + u)’) ~’
+v
which can be rearranged as
u~ 2+ v
(u 1 - M:) + v~ =1 _- ~_~ " (8.32)
For a fixed value of M, this is the equation for a circle in the Nyquist or. u,v
plane with radius M/(1-M 2) that is centered at v = 0 and u = M2/(1-M:).
resulting family of M-circles is plotted in Fig. 8.21. A sample Nyquist contour
also is plotted, which has the value Mm= 2.
A secondfamily of circles is plotted by dashedlines in Fig. 8.21. Theseare
lines of constant closed-loop phase angle, ¢, called N-circles whereN -- tan~b.
the relation
¢ = tan-~ (~) - tan-1 (l~u) (8.33)
638 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO A UTOMATIC CONTROL

Open-Loop
Phase(deg)

Figure 8.22: Nichols chart (MATLABversion 5.3, with annotations for the
closed7loop gain and phase added)

can be rearranged into the form

(u+.05) "°+ v-~ = a l+~g ,

(1) 2 1(1) (8.34)
which shows that the loci for constant values of N are indeed circles, centered
at u = 0.5, v = 1/2N and having radius 0.5V/1 + "1IN’2.

8.3.4 Nichols Charts

A particular set of coordinates is rnore helpful for design than either the Bode
or Nyquist coordinates. The MATLAB version of the Nichols chart is shown
in Fig. 8.22. ’A more detailed paper version also is available. The log of the
magnitude of G(S) is plotted vs. the linear phase of G(S). The M and N
"circles" for the closed-loop transfer function G(S)/(1 + G(S) are mapped into
this plane, ~vhere they no longer are circular. One advantage of the Nichols
coordinates is that the value of k can be changed merely by translating the
contour vertically. If done with a paper chart, the contour can be placed on an
overlay that is slid vertically. In MATLAB, you. start by requesting the Nichols
contour for G(jw), which appears without the M and N contours. You then
8.3. FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS 639

right-click on the figure and select "grid" to get these contours. Youlikely will
wish to change the boundaries of the plot using the axis command.
Thus, to achieve a particular value of Mmfor a particular system, you plot
the Nichols contour for k = 1 and translate it vertically until it is tangent
to the M-contour with the value of Mm. The distance translated, in db, is
the gain sought. You then can observe values of M and N (or ¢) at several
frequencies, thereby rapidly gaining an appreciation of the entire closed-loop
frequency response.

EXAMPLE 8.16
Use the Nichols chart to find the closed-loop gain k for the unity-feedback
system with open-loop transfer function G(S) = k/S(S 2 + S + 1). Let the
criterion be a maximumpeaking ratio M,~ = 1.5 (3 db).
Solution: The MATLABcoding

num=
1;
den=[1 i i 1 0];
nichols(hum,den)
produces the Nichols plot of the open-loop system, but does not directly
show the Mand N contours. Right-click on the figure, and select " grid."
Then, to expand the plot vertically, issue the commandaxis ( [-360 0 -45
40]), which gives the result below. (You may- need to refer to Fig. 8.22
identify the M and N contours, which MATLAB version 5.3 does not label.)

From:
U(1)

-350 -300
Open-Loop
Phase(deg)
640 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

The vertical translation of G(jw) needed to makethe contour tangent to

the locus for a maximum closed-loop magnitude of 3 db can be seen to be
about -6.5 db, giving k = 0.47. The plot of G(jw) corresponding to this
value is plotted as a dotted line; you can superimposethis plot by issuing
the commandho:td on, followed by a repeat of the n±cho:~s command.You
have nowmaximizedthe bandwidth of the closed-loop system, consistent
with the specifications.

8.3.5 Dynamic Compensation Using Nichols Charts

The Nichols chart allows you to design a dynamiccompensatorvisually. Infor-
mationis given belowto help you select phase lead, phase lag, phase lead-lag,
PD, PI and PIDcontrollers. The phase lead controller has the transfer function
(from equation (8.23))

. S+z
G~e~d= ~S---~-~az; ~ > 1, (8.35)

and the phase lag controller has the transfer function (from equation (8.23))

G~ag=kS +~3P,
--~--~-p" ~ > 1. (8.36)

Recall that values of a or ~3 muchlarger than 10 likely wouldbe impractical, due

to impedanceconsiderations, and values less than two wouldhave little effect.
Nicholsplots for three sizes of each of the controllers are plotted in Fig. 8.23.
Varyingk merelyshifts these plots vertically, so the value k = 1 is chosenin all
cases. Use of the dimensionless frequencies f~ = w/z and f~ = w/p allows these
curves to represent all values of z and p. The scale of this plot is the same as
the scale of Fig. 8.22
The transfer function G(S) is the product of the transfer function of the
controller and that of the plant. The magnitudeat a particular frequency is

phase lag compensator phase lead compensator

D= ~/ ~ D= a~/z
20
~"~-A b a =
magnitude, db fl= 1(~--~ b =
10 ~ b~ , =2.

0
Note: scale agrees Of 10b ~
wi~ MATLAB
Nichols cha~s
-I0 [a
~5 ~= 10

-1~* -50* 0~ °
50 100"
ph~e ~gle
Figure 8.23: Nichols plots for ph~elead and ph~elag controllers
8.3. FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS 641

[ without compensator~ ~with compensator

20 ,, .- ..... ~--;’-~’-" ~, ,’- "-,-",--, ...... - ’, I

....... ~_,_ ,,.o~ ,.~,~,s .... r ....... " , I
= , , ,, ;-- .... : ".,,,,, ,--~.* , ,;, ;.--...:.: ’, , 1
~ o " " "’" ">:" "" ’"*~"-"--~ "’-’" "’"" "" ",- "

o-’° r’ ;" ~--, ---7’- .... ’ ’ ’ ’, I~ ’, , _.---’r--" ,--’-

~-, .... ~___~ ...... , .........

Open-Loop
Phase(deg)

Figure 8.24: Nichols plots for a mass-sprxng system without and with a phase
lead controller

the product of the two magnitudes, and the phase angle is the sum of the two
phase angles. With the Nichols axes, therefore, both the vertical and horizontal
components of G(jw) are the sums of the vertical and horizontal components of
the controller and the plant.
This fact is illustrated in Fig. 8.24 for the system of Example8.10 (p. 617)
in which a lead compensator with a = 10 is applied to the mass-spring system
of Example 8.8 (p. 613). The gain k = 160 in this example is taken as part
of the original system transfer function. The branch of the frequency transfer
function shown represents frequencies above the 2 rad/s resonant frequency of
the system, for which the phase angle is a constant -180° and its Nichols plot
is a vertical line through the -1 point. The compensated open-loop frequency
function is pushed to the right, and can be seen to nicely wrap around the -1
point, keeping the closed-loop gain below 2 db for all frequencies. The frequency
transfer function of the controller is shown in two postions: the upper position
represents its effect at the "nose" frequency of 5.79 rad/s, and the lower position
represents its effect at ten times that frequency.
The phase lead controller exerts its maximumdesired rightward push for
the frequency at the nose of its Nichols contour. The contoller also changes
642 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO A UTOMATIC CONTROL

the magnitude of the contour, in a direction that usually is not helpful. As a

result, the controller is less useful when the slope of the plant contour is small.
Whensuccessful, the lead controller allows the gain k to be increased, making
the system faster.
EXAMPLE 8.17
A plant has the transfer function

1
GB= $3 Jr 2S 2 Jr 2S Jr 1

Whenunity feedback is employed with proportional feedback and gain k = 1,

the resulting steady-state error is 50%. It is not possible to reduce this
error muchby increasing k, without causing relative or absolute instability.
Investigate what can be done using a phase lag controller, with a < 10.
Solution: The commands

num=l; den=[1 2 2 1];

nichols(num,den)
axis([-360 0 -45 40])

produce the Nichols chart for the plant below, presuming you right-click on
the figure and select "grid" before issuing the axis command.

-2O

-3O

-350 -300
8.3. FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS 643

The largest allowed lag compensator should be chosen, which has ~3 = 10.
The "nose" frequency should be large from the perspective of the speed of
response of the system, and small from the perspective of stability. As a
compromise, the point having the open-loop phase angle of -150° is chosen
to have ten times the nose frequency.. This point is labeled on the chart as
"~u = 1.112 rad/s." This frequency value is found by entering

[m,p ,w]=nichols
(num,den)
[loglO(w),

and looking downthe resulting table to fin d the frequency "w" listed opposite
p = -150 °. (The use of the commonlogarithm precludes scaling problems
in the table; you raise 10 to the value of the log to get the frequency.) At
this frequency, w/p = 0.1b = 0.1x/~, from which p = 0.035 rad/s. The phase
lag controller therefore has the t~ansfer function (equation (8.36))

S + 0.35
S + O.O35’
and the overall open-loop transfer function is

S + .35
G(S) = kGcGp = $4 2. 035S3 + 2. 07S"- + 1. 07S + 0. 635"

Entering "hold on" and then setting these new polynomials gives the second
plot above labeled "phase lag compensator added." Leaving the present
value k = 1 seems a reasonable compromise between reducing steady-state
error and preserving relative stability. The closed-loop transfer function
becomes

G(S) S .3 5
1 + G(S) S4 + 2.035S 3 + 2.07S 2 + 2.07S + .385’

The step response, found using step in MATLAB,is plotted below. The
steady-state error is 9.1%, which is rather large but may be acceptable. If a
smaller error is needed, some other compensator is needed; a PID controller
would do admirably.

1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
10 20 30
time, seconds
644 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

left half: PI right half: PD

compensator 3o compensator
gainin db
20 whole curve: PID
compensator

°.45 45° 900

(a) Nichols chart PI compensator: ~o=~,
PD compensator: to=0
PID compensator: reo= 1

8o
degreesPhase
angle,40 ~/~ ~ ~
rT~,,~
0.05~
r= "*a,*, 0 "’
0.5

(b) ’_
phase angles for ~_~_~__C_~
PID compensator -80 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
o.ol o.1 1.o 1o lOO

Figure 8.25: Frequency characteristics of PD, PI and PID compensators

The transfer function for the PD, PI and PID compensators are

PD : Gc(S) = k(1 + TdS), (8.37a)

PI: Gc(S) = (1)

k 1+ ~(~S+
= k \ "~S (8.37b)

PID : Go(S) = k 1 + TdS; q- = k q- r TS

( T~-~) [1 (TS)2 + 1] (8.37c)

r=~; r = ~.. (S.37d)

Nichols plots for these compensators, with k = 1, are plotted in part (a)
Fig.8.25. Note that the contours for the PI and PD controllers are mirror
images of each other, and the PID contour traverses precisely their combined
contour. The mid-points in the phase angles of the PI and PD compensators,
at -45 ° and 45°, respectively, occur when the dimensionless frequencies Tdw
and Tiw equal 1. The gain and phase shifts for the PID controller are zero at
its central frequency rw -- 1, with T = Tv/~-~. Howrapidly this dimensionless
frequency changes with changes in the phase angle depends on the "strength"
of the controller, r = v~/Ti, as plotted in part (b) of the figure.
8.3. FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS 645

EXAMPLE 8.18
The open-loop plant

50(-S + 100)
Gp = $3 + 101S 2 + 150S + 5000

is particularly difficult to control because of its right-half-plane zero and the

small damping of its second-order pole pair. It is desired nevertheless to
eliminate steady-state error. Design a controller.
Solution: Following the procedure of the above examples to plot the Nichols
chart for the plant gives the result given by the solid line below:
Nichols Charts |
From:U(l)

, c, ompensat.e~ G(ja~), k=4.47 6)=7.036 rad/s

Integral action is needed to eliminate the steady-state error. Taken alone,

however, this would require a very small value of k, on the order of 0.1, to
give a reasonable relative stability. The system would becomevery sluggish.
To improve the response significantly, it is proposed to include derivative
action as well. The information needed to describe the resulting PID
controller is given in Fig. 8.25. The point at which TW= 1 is chosen to lie at
the maximumamplitude point, as labeled. The controller leaves the contour
unchanged at this point, assuming k = 1; to the right of this point, the
phase is shifted leftward, and to the left of this point it is shifted rightward.
The magnitude is shifted upward in both cases, slightly for modest phase
646 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

shifts and greatly for phase shifts in excess of 45°, as the plot in part (a)
the figure shows.
The choice of the controller shown was made in one pass, without it-
eration, by visual examination of the plant contour and the characteristics
given in Fig. 8.25. The point at which the contour passes through the -1
point (labelled as w = 10) was chosen for a 350-40° rightward phase shift.
This decision is implemented by proper selection of the "strength" param-
eter, r. It was first necessary to determine the frequencies of the -1 point
and the maximumamplitude point. This was done with the commands

[m,p,w]=nichols(num,den);
[loglO(w),20*loglO(m),p]

The resulting table shows that the peak occurs when lOglo(~ ) = 0.8477, or
~ = 10°s477 = 7.036 rad/s, and the -1 point occurs were the phase angle
is -180 °, which happens to be 10.00 rad/s. Since ~-w = 1 at the maximum
point, 7~ = 10.00/7.036 = 1.421 at the -1 point. The plot in part (b)
the Fig. 8.25 indicates that r = 1 to achieve the 35°-40° phase shift. Using
this value, then gives Td = T~ = 0.1421 seconds. The controller becomes,
from equation (8.34c),

Gc = k0"02019S2 + 0.1421S + 1
0.1421S ’
and its product with the plant transfer function becomes

G(S) k (0 ’02019Se +4 0. 1421S3 + 1) 50(-S + 10

0.1421(S + 101S + 150S2 + 5000S)

The new numerator and denominator polynomials, for k=l, are given to
MATLAB as

num2=50*[-.020191.877 13.215 i00];

den2=.01421*[l 101 150 5000 0];

with the result labeled as "compensated G(jw), k = 1" in the Nichols

chart. This contour now can be translated upward to give a reasonable
maximumvalue for the closed-loop frequency response. A 13-db shift, or
k : 1013/20 -~ 4.47, gives the final contour. The polynomial hum2 was
multiplied by 4.47 to get this curve.
The step command of MATLAB was used to verify the desirability of
the controller, with the result below. The overshoot is larger than might
be desired, but might be acceptable considering the challenge in finding a
reasonable solution. The steady-state error is zero, as specified. Note that
the response starts out in the negative direction, which is a result of the zero
in the right-half plane of the plant.
8.3. FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS 647

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
time, seconds

8.3.6 Approximate Correction for Digital Sampling

Digital control systems, as noted briefly in Section 8.2.7 (p. 621), normally
employ samplers with holds. A sinusoidal signal of relatively low frequency thus
treated becomes a series of steps that resembles a sine wave. The principal
effect is a phase lag in the output of the sampler relative to its input. The
phase lag equals 180° times the ratio of the sampling time to the period of
the sine wave. If ten samples are taken per cycle, for example, the phase
is 18°. If the open-loop frequency contour of a system closely passes the -1
point at this frequency, the sampler would have a significant deleterious effect
on the relative or absolute stability of the closed-loop system. The amplitude
of the signal emerging from the sampler is reduced from that of the input, but
only slightly if there are ten or more samples per cycle, so for most purposes
this effect may be neglected. If you have fewer than ten samples per cycle at
a frequency critical to stability, you n~ed to look more deeply into the subject,
including the role of digital filtering used to a~ldress problems of signal noise.
EXAMPLE 8.19
The controller in the system of Example 8.16 (p. 639) gives a sample-and-’
hold output, with a rate of two samples per second. Modify the Nichols
contour approximately to account for the effect of the sampler, and estimafe
the revised value of the gain k that gives the same maximumpeaking ratio
Mm= 1.5 (3db).
Solution: The phase lag introduced by th~ sampler would be 180° at a
frequency of w = 27r/T = 27r/0.5 = 47r rad/s, or Crag = 180~/47r degrees.
The phase angles of the v£kious frequencies along the Nichols contour can
be determined with the command[m,p,~] =nicho:~s (hum, den), as done for
example in Examples 8.17 and 8.18. Ad~ting the phase lag from the sampldr
for the critical region near -180° gives the contour indicated by thh leftward
shifted curve in the plot given on the next page. This curve has to be
translated downward by about 7.5 db to give the desired peaking, so k =
10-7.5/20 = 0.42.
648 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

From:
U(1)

-350 -300 -200 -150 - 1O0 -50 0

Open-LoopPhase (deg)

8.3.7 Summary

This section has added frequency response methods to your arsenal of tools avail-
able for the design of feedback controllers. Which method or combination of
methods works best for you depends on the particular situation. Frequency re-
sponse methods are especially attractive when all you have to describe your plant
is frequency-response data, for example found using an oscillator or a shaker ta-
ble. It would be possible the use the identification methods of Section 6.2 to
get an analytical model from such data, making the analytical pole-placeznent
methods such as root locus available, but that is not necessary. Design meth-
ods based on frequency response, particularly using the Nichols chart but also
using the more basic Bode diagrams, provide a powerful predictive insight that
warrants their use even when analytical models are known.
Polar or Nyquist plots of frequency response combine magnitude and phase
information into a single curve, an advantage over the Bode plot. Although
these plots can be used to predict quantitatively the behavior of closed-loop be-
havior, emphasis has been placed merely on the prediction of absolute stability
via the Nyquist criterion. For more refined design and prediction, the alter-
native mapping called the Nichols. chart is usually more convenient, and has
been emphasized. All these forms are readily available in the control toolbox
8.3. FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS 649

of MATLAB and in the student version of MATLAB.They all can be used to

determine the gain aud phase margins of a system from its open-loop transfer
function. These meassures, plus the inaximum peaking of the closed-10op fre-
quency response, often are cited by control engineers in describing the behavior
and the robustness of their designs.
PI, PD, PID, phase lead, phase lag and phase lead-lag controllers are char-
acterized in Figs. 8.23 and 8.25 (pp. 640, 644) in the form of Nichols contours.
Their application is given in several examples, including the Guided Problem
below. Small digital sampling delays introduce an effective phase delay equal
°to. the ratio of the frequency to the sampling frequency, times 180

Guided Problem 8.3

This problem involves the Nyquist stability criterion and the design use of
the Nichols chart in an interesting case for which a phase lead controller out-
performs a PD controller.
The control of an inverted pendulum in Guided Problem 8.2 (p. 623) has
two parts. The first is the quite successful use of a PD controller to keep the
pendulum upright. The second is the use of a feedback loop with another PD
controller to allow the position, x, of the pendulumto be controlled as well. The
second control involved a trade-off between the speed of response and the relative
stability, with a result that one would like to improve, if possible. Further, you
were guided rather strongly in the key suggested step 7; now that you have
further tools in your arsenal you can assume more initiative.
Leave the result of the first part of the contol unchanged. Youalso may retain
the block diagram of step 5 (p. 628), except replace the proportional controller
(which doesn’t work, as step 6 revealed) with a lead controller. Choose the
two parameters of this controller, find the resulting roots of the closed-loop
performance, and compare to the results of the PD controller.

Suggested Steps:

The plant of this system has the force -F as its input, the position x as
its output, and a transfer function equal to the product of the transfer
functions given in the two right-most blocks in the block diagram of the
original step 5. Verify the instability of proportional control on this plant
through the use of a Nyquist plot. Pay particular attention to the infinite
segments of the Nyquist contour, which are not given by MATLAB.

Examine the Nichols chart contour for the same transfer function, and
determine qualitatively how the controller must change this contour to
achieve stability. Does the phase lead controller potentially satisfy the
requireraent? (Note that sometimes the MATLAB program n±chols gives
phase angles that are 360° larger than desired, with the result that the
M and N contours are not available: You may therefore want to refer to
these contours as given in Fig. 8.22 (p. 638). This difficulty will vanish
when the contoller is inserted.)
650 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO A UTOMATIC CONTROL

Choose the size of the controller (the parameter a) and an approximate

value for the "nose" frequency of the controller, through examination of
the plant contour and the controller contour as given in Fig. 8.23 (p. 640).
You may wish to magnify the plot through the use of the axis command.

Deduce the value of the frequency parameter z that follows from your
choices, and then write the transfer function for the resulting controller.
At this point the value of the gain k is not yet determined; set it at 1.

Find the complete open loop transfer function, using you controller, and
plot its contour using n±chols. Repeat this step and the last if you are
not satisfied with the result.

Examine the contour to see how many decibels it should be raised or

lowered in order to give the smallest maximummagnitude to the closed-
loop frequency response. Adjust the gain, k, correspondingly, and repeat
the contour to verify your choice.

Find the characteristic equation for your closed-loop system, and use the
command roots to determine its dynamic behavior. Compare with the
results for the PD controller as given in step 7 on page 628.

Deduce the closed-loop transfer function, and plot the step response. Is
the result qualitatively consistent with your earlier findings?

PROBLEMS

8.17 The following Bode plots represent
with a proportional controller. A gain
the associated phase margins, the gains
errors. Work from the given Bode plots
experimental data.
the plants in unity-feedback systems
margin of 2.5 is specified. Estimate
of the controller and the steady-state
directly, as though they represented

(a) Bode plot of Example 6.11 (p. 428).

(b) Bode plot of Example 6.14 (p. 433).

(c) Bode plot for GI(S) in Example 6.16 (p. 435).

(d) Bode plot of part(c) in Fig. 6.20 (p. 445).

8.18 The following Bode plots represent the plants in unity-feedback systems
with a proportional controller. A phase margin of 30° is specified. Estimate the
gain of the controller and the steady-state error. Workdirectly from the plots,
as though they represent experimental data.

(a) Bode plot of Example 6.11 (p. 428).

8.3. FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS 651

(b) Bodeplot of Example6.14 (p. 433).

(c) Bodeplot for GI(S) in Example6.16 (p. 435).

(d) Bodeplot of Example6.17 (p. 437).

8.19 Hand sketch Nyquist plots for the systems represented by the following
Bodeplots. Indicate whetherthey wouldbe stable if placed as the forward path
in unity feedback systems.

(a) Bodeplot of Example6.12 (p. 429).

(b) Bodeplot of Example6.13 (p. 430).

(c) Bodeplots (both) of Example6.15 (p. 434).

(d) Bodeplot of Problem6.35 (p. 452).

(e) Bodeplot of Problem6.36 (p. 452).

(f) Bodeplot of part (c) of Fig. 6.20 (p. 445).

8.20 Consider the system represented by the block diagram

in which~(t) is a velocity and x(t) is its integral, a position.

(a) For the case with k = 0 (zero velocity feedback), plot the Nyquist
contour, including any infinite radius segments, and deduce from there
the numberof any destabilizing poles in the right-half plane.

(b) State the net numberof clockwiseor counterclockwiseencirclements

the -1 point that the contour modified by velocity (derivative) feedback
must exhibit in order to represent a stable system.

(c) Plot the Nichols contour for the systemwith k =

(d) Plot the Nichols contour for other values of k; determine what value
gives stability with an approximatepeaking of 3 db.

(e) Confirmthe stability with a Nyquist plot.

652 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

8.21 Use MATLAB

to plot the Nichols contour for the system

G(S)
(I+ S/IO)(I
+ S/50)(I
+ S/200)
with k = 1. If G(S) is the forward path in a unity-feedback system, estimate
the gain k for which the maximum peaking is 6 db. (Note: This is the G(S) of
Example6.11, pp. 427-428.)

8.22 Use MATLAB

to plot the Nichols contour for the plant
1
c(s) (1 + S/10)(1 + 0.0013SS2/lO, 000)
(which is the system of Example6.12, p. 429). Specify a lag controller with
~ = 10 that would allow the output to better track the input than would a
proportional controller. Reportthe resulting steady-state error.

8.23 Carry out the above problem, substituting a PI controller.

8.24 Carry out the above problem, substituting a PID controller.

8.25 A PIDcontroller is applied to a particular plant in Example8.18 (p. 645).

Lag-leadcontrol is not as effective, but substitute such a controller and at least
achieve a fairly small steady-state error and plausible dynamics.The following
steps are suggested:

(a) Securea Nichols contour of the plant.

(b) Examinethe contour with an eye toward finding an acceptable lead

controller. The nose of a lead controller works best where the contour is
most steeply sloped, so pay most attention in your selection of the nose
point to the region below and to the left of the -1 point. Youobviously
will need the maximum value of a available, which is assumedto be 10.
Note that the maximum phase shift of the controller is about 55°, so you
can’t go too far downthe contour.

(c) Determinethe frequency of your selected nose point, using MATLAB.

(d) Deducethe value of z, and write the transfer function for the lead
compensator, leaving k = 1. Multiply this by the transfer function of
the plant to get the transfer function of the combination. Secure a new
Nichols contour for the combination,and see if it looks promising.(Thelag
portion to comewill tend to push the contour back to the left somewhat,
so it is best to leave somemargin. Also, issue the "hold on" command so
you do not have to repeat the original plant contour.)
8.3. FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS 653

(e) The phase lag compensator comes next. Choose a nose frequency
that is at least ten times (and perhaps more) smaller than that for the
phase lead part of the controller, so as not to undo what already has been
accomplished. The largest value of ~ available (10) should be used.

(f) Determine p in essentially the same way you found z, write the transfer
function of the lag controller, and multiply it by the result of step (d)
get the overall open-loop transfer function. Plot its Nichols contour.

(g) The final design step is to increase the gain as high as relative stability
permits, in order to reduce the steady-state error. This also makes the
system as fast as practicable. Report the maximumvalue of the closed-
loop frequency response from examination of the final open-loop Nichols
contour.

(h) Write the closed-loop transfer function, and insert it into the step
commandto get a better comparison with the result of the PID controller
in Example 8.18.

8.26 In Fig. 8.24 (p. 641) (and Example 8.10, p. 617), a mass-spring system
is controlled with unity feedback and a phase lead controller. If the control
implementation is changed from continuous analog to digital sampling with a
zero-order hold signal sent to the plant, estimate from the plo~ the minimum
sampling rate necessary to keep the Nichols contour from causing a peaking
greater than 3 db. Ignore any digital filtering that might in fact require a
higher sampling rate.

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEM

Guided Problem 8.3

1. The following commands define the plant and give the Nyquist plot at the top
of the next page (except for the infinite-radius circles, the text and the dashed
lines):

num=32.2*[-1 -15 50 750];den=It50 650 0 0];

nyquist (num,den)
axis(I-5 5 -5 5])

The -1 point is encircled twice, clockwise. Since there are no poles of the plant
transfer function in the right-half plane, this meansthat a unity-feedback sys-
tem with this plant has two right-half-plane poles, and is unstable. If the
segment of the locus that is movingrightward toward the origin were pushed
downward,passing below instead of above the -1 point, there would be no
encirclements and the closed-loop system would be stable. This idea is sug-
gested by the dashed lines. Specifically, the contour would have to have its
phase angle reduced below -180° in the vicinity of the -1 point.
654 CHAPTER 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

[ [ ha_s zero net encirclements ]

The Nichols plot below (apart from ~he text and ~he d~hed line) follows from
~he subsequent commands

nichols (n~, den)

axis ( [90 270 -20 20]

NiChols arts

~o

need contour such as

s \this to achievestability
contour of ~
given system]

Phase
(deg)
8.3. FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS 655

Whena Nichols contour resides exclusively in the first and/or second quad-
rants, MATLAB (version 5.3) assigns positive values to the phase angles, which
unfortunately makes the Mand N contours unavailable. Youshould interpret
the phase angles as being 360° less than the reported values, so the -1 point is
at the center of the diagram. The type of contour needed to achieve stability
is indicated by the dashed line; the phase lead needed is small enoughto be
provided by a phase-lead controller, as long as the nose of the controller is
placed appropriately.
3. Thelarge size lead controller with a --- 10 is chosen. Withthis controller, the
nose point on the contour gets pushed downwardby 10 db as well to the right
by about 55°. This suggests choosing a point at about 5 db and -185° °. = 175
The commands
[mag,phase, w] =nichols (num,den)
[log10 (~), 20*logl0 (mag), phase]
produce a table of the plotted points, from which the value log~o w .... = 0.8
or w .... = 10°s = 6.3 rad/s can be inferred.
4. FromFig. 8.23, a = vr~ and ~ .... =_ w .... /z = a. Therefore, z = 6.3/~/~-~ =
2.0 rad/s. The transfer function of the controller becomes
Gc(S)=k 8+2
-~~6 "
5. The open-loop transfer function including the controller becomes
32.2k(-S 4 - 17Sz + 20S2 + 850S + 1500)
G(S) = $5 + 70S~ ~_ 1650S3 + 13,000S2 + 0S + 0"
With this G(S), MATLAB
gives the contour on the right below:
656 CHAPTER. 8. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL

The plant contour has been repeated from above, and the nose points on the
two contours are indicated..
Raising the contour would worsen the high-fequency peak where the contour
passes directly below the -1 point. Lowering the contour would worsen the
’low-frequency peaking where the contour also passes somewhat close to the 6
db closed-loop contour. The best compromise might be to lower the contour by
about 1 db, setting k -- 0.9. For present purposes, however, k -- 1 is retained,
so no new contour is found.

The characteristic equation of the closed-loop system becomes

S5 ÷ 37.8S 4 ÷ 1102.6S 3 ÷ 13,644S 2 + 27, 370S ÷ 48,300 -- 01
The roots command of MATLAB
gives the characteristic values
-9.84 :t: 24.75i
-16.1057
-1.01 :t: 1.79i
The PD controller, as reported on page 627, produced a somewhat slower and
significantly less damped low-frequency oscillation. The advantage of the lead
controller results from the limit it places on the magnitude of the controller
gain for high frequencies. The higher phase lead that the PD controller has at
these frequencies is wasted.
The denominator of the closed-loop system comprises the characteristic poly-
nomial above, and the numerator is the same as for the open-loop system. The
use of step gives the plot (solid line)

1.5 , ~--~..~.~ , , ,

0.5
0

-0.5
~ ~
phase lead controller
~
PDcontroller

-1.0
-1.5 starts at -1.81 with PDcontroller
_2.0 ~ , , , , ,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time, seconds

which represents the position of the bottom of the pendulum given a com-
manded step displacement. Notice that the bottom must start by moving in
the opposite direction from the commandedfinal change, which should be in-
tuitive (try it with a ruler or other stick). The slower oscillation can be seen
be likely more critical than the faster oscillation, even though it is somewhat
more damped, because of its effect on the settling time.
The dashed line represents the inferior control provided by the PD controller
(from Guided Problem 8.3). The instantaneous jump to -1.81 at t = 0 would
require an infinite force, and is not realistic.
Chapter 9

Models with Static

Couplers

Static couplers include the simple bonds and the transformers and gyrators with
constant moduli used throughout earlier chapters. The range of systems that
can be modeled expands dramatically when more complex couplers are allowed.
This chapter treats more general couplers that are static, exhibiting no energy
storage or dynamics. Dynamic couplers are treated in Chapter 10.
An ideal static coupler conserves energy; its output power equals its input
power instantaneously. Further, it must be reversible in the thermodynamic
sense: it generates no entropy. This is the definition of the ideal machine, which
you know as transformers and gyrators. The modulus of such an element can
vary, becoming a function of the displacement at either end of the element or a
function of some remote displacement.
Another useful class of couplers conserve energy but are not reversible. Irre-
versible couplers expedite the modeling of systems with heat conduction, includ-
ing the heat generated by friction and electrical resistance. The proper fiow or
generalized velocity for heat conduction is identified, and thermal machines and
thermal compliances are introduced. Models with mass transfer or convection,
on the other hand, are deferred to Chapter 12.
Modelers often wish to employ two-port elements that, like one-port re-
sistances, do not conserve energy. The activated bond is introduced as an
elemental non-conservative coupler. More general active or dissipative couplers
als0 are allowed, which can be either linear or nonlinear.
The effects of these various types of static couplers on the dynamics of sys-
tems also are considered.

9.1 Modulated Transformers

The definition of the ideal machine in Chapter 2 permits its modulus to be non-
constant, a function of one or more variables. The two most commoncases are a

657
658 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

fork

cone disk

hand wheel

sheave

Figure 9.1: Adjustable mechanical drives

transformer modulated by a remote displacement, and a transformer modulated

by a local displacement. Local displacements are the displacement variables on
the two sides of the transformer; any other displacement is called remote. The
distinction is very significant.

9.1.1 Remotely Modulated Transformers

The mechanical friction drives shown in Fig. 9.1 can be modeled as ideal trans-
formers with moduli that can be changed by adjusting the fork, the handwheel
or the axial postion of the wheel. (The disk-and-wheel drive may be familiar be-
cause of its commonusage on self-propelled lawn mowers.) The transmissions in
vehicles are in the same catagory, although the modulations usually are discrete
rather than continuous. The modulus of electrical transformers (or "variacs’)
can be changed by adjusting a slide-wire that varies the turns ratio. Simple
purely fluid transformers do not exist, but the moduli of many mechanical-to-
fluid pumps and motors are adjustable; one example is the variable swash-plate
pump/motor shown in Fig. 9.2. In all these cases the modulating variable is a
remote displacement, as contrasted to the rotational angle of one of the drive
shafts, the electrical charge on one side of the transformer, or the angle of the
pump/motor shaft or the integral of the volume flow. These later displacements
are local.
Somedevices mimic transformers but are not; they behave like transformers
only as long as the modulusis held constant, at any value, but require significant
9.1. MODULATED TRANSFORMERS 659

Figure 9.2: Pump/motorwith adjustable displacement~ swash-plate type

Reprinted with permission and courtesy o] Eaton Corporation

poweror energy to eIfect a change in modulus. An exampleis given in Chapter

10. For the present, you should simply recognize that a true transformer is
strictly a two-port device in terms of powerand energy. Anymodulationmust be
achieved without any powerand energy. There is no generalized force associated
with the modulation. A third port would be needed to represent a modulatiing
force and its associated powerand energy, which the transformer does not have.
Youshould carefully consider the examplesof Figs. 9.1 and 9.2. Is there any
essential force required to effect the modulation?A real device alwayspresents
somefrictional force to overcome,but this is theoretically infinitely reducible,
and can be modeledseparately (by an added junction with. appendedresistance
element) if it is deemedimportant, leaving a transformer ~s the core element.
The control of large powerflows from motors, IC engines, turbines and elec-
trical and fluid powersupplies dependsupon the existence of physical devices
that very closely approximate the ideal remotely modulatedtransformer. Such
devices are modeled,therefore, by transformers, with resistances added as ap-
propriate to account for the minorlosses.

9.1.2 Locally Modulated Transformers

The camdrive system shownin Fig. 9.3, whenidealized to neglect friction and
elasticity, is an exampleof a locally modulatedtransformer. The transformer
modulusis the ratio of ~ to ~, and this ratio is a function of the position (angle)
of the cam, or T = T(¢); ¢ is one of the two local displacements. Alternatively,
you could specify T = T(x); this is an unwise choice for most applications,
however, since there are two values of ¢ for most values of x. The following
exampleis similar.
660 CHAPTER 9. MODELS W’ITH STATIC COUPLERS

Figure 9.3: Drive with cam and roller follower

Example 9.1
Show that the slider-crank mechanism pictured below can be modeled as a
locally-modulated transformer, and express its modulus as a function of the
crank angle, ¢.

Solution: The output position x is a function of the input angle, ¢, and

therefore the output velocity } can be expressed as the product of a function
of ¢ and ~, qualifying the device as a locally modulated transformer. The
calculation of T(¢) is as follows. The geometry requires

sin ¢ = L2 sin ¢,
z = L1 cos ¢ + L2 cos ¢.

From the first equation,

cos2 ¢ -- 1 - sin 2 ¢ = 1 - (L1/L2)2 sin 2 ¢,

so that the second equation can be written in terms of ¢ as

x = x(¢) = L1 cos¢ + L2V/1 (L ~/L2) ~ si n2 ¢.

9.1. MODULATE, D TRANSFORMERS 661

The modulusof the transformer is the ratio of ~ to ~:

~ = T(¢)~.

This moduluscan be found by differentiating the expression for x above,

with the result

r(0)=- l+L2__l_

Thedrive with the circular camand roller follower pictured in Fig. 9.4 acts
just like the slider-crank mechanism.Asshownby the dashedlines, the effective
length of the crank, L1, is the eccentricity of the cam, and the effective length
of the connecting rod, L2, is the sum of the radii of the camand the follower.
This assumes the camfollower maintains contact with the cam.

9.1.3 Increase in the Order of a Model Due to Modulation

The order of a model with no modulated transformers or gyrators equals the

number of independent energy-storage elements. Whena transformer modulus
is modulated locally, however, the order often increases by one. This means
that an additional first-order differential equation is needed. Onecase of this
type is examinedbelow, followed by a counter case with no such increase and a
third case in whichthere is a choice. All employthe slider-crank mechanism.

Figure 9.4: Drive with circular camand roller follower

662 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

Example 9.2
A slider-crank mechanismis driven from a flywheel with significant inertia,
and drives a load comprising a series connection of a spring and a dashpot.
Other inertias are to be neglected.

Model the system with a bond graph, and find the state differential equa-
tions. Note the order of the system (the number of independent differential
equations).
Solution: The bond graph, annotated with the usual integral causality, is

M:,..t lq~l-~-~- TI~..Fo -------~R

Q~p/I ’=J C=l/k R=b

x/C~
I C
The effort of the 0-junction is labeled F, for convenience. The energy storage
state variables p and x produce in standard fashion the differential equations

dt
dx
= T¢¯- 1
=T - 1

The modulus T in the right sides of these equations is given by the result of
Example 9.1 as a function of the angle ¢. To make the equations solvable,
therefore, ¢ must be added to the list of state variables, which becomes p,
x and ¢. The associated state differentiM equation c~ be seen from the
annotations on the bond graph to be

de 1
~ P"

The model, then, is third order: one for each of the energy storage
elements, and one for the modulated transformer.

In general, a modulated transformer will add one order, unless the argument
on which it depends is already a state variable or a function of state variables.
This exception is exemplified in the following:
9.1. MODULATED TRANSFORMERS 663

Example 9.3
The slider-crank drive from the previous two examples is retained, but the
crank is attached to ground through a spring (and therefore cannot be ro-
tated indefinitely) and a substantive mass is placed at the right end:

L
M

coi~
Again, model the system with a bond graph, and find the state differential
equations. Note the order of the system.
Solution: The bond graph with the usual annotations is

C=l/k R=b
I=rn

The compliance (spring) renders the angle ¢ a state variable. Therefore, the
argument of the function T(~b) is calculable, and the second-order model

dt - T(¢) - ~-~P + RT’~(¢) M-

dt - T(¢) M-

is complete.

Sometimes there is a choice of the order of a model for a given system. The
minimum order of a model is the smallest order that can be achieved by
choosing amongalternative state variables. Consider the following variation on
the application of the slider-crank mechanism:

Example 9.4
Model the slider-crank system below considering ~ (rather than M) as the
causal input. Also, negelect inertia. Write the state differential equation(s)
and identify the order of your model.
664 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

Solution: The bondgraph reveals a single energy-basedstate variable:

C
Fc=x/C~
SyI M=T(.Fc+F4 T I Fc÷F~- -~=T~
¢
F,~=~-~
R
The differential equationfor this x is

dx = T~, T = T(¢).
dt
The modulation T = T(¢) introduces ¢ as the second state variable, with
the differential equation

de
d-~=,~(t).
This equation appears to be an identity, but since ~(t) is given, it must
integrated to get ¢. The simulation modeltherefore is secondorder.
The mimimum order of the model actually is one rather than two. This
is because it is possible to express T as a function of x rather than ¢,
eliminating the need to compute¢:

T =T(z).
In order to carry this out, the expression for x = x(¢) (found in Example
9.1, p. 661) must be inverted to give an equation of the form ¢ = ¢(x).
inversion is so awkwardalgebraically, however,that almost surely it is wiser
to stick with the second-order model.

9.1.4 Dependent Inertance with a Locally Modulated

Transformer

Anover-causal modelwith its dependentenergy-storage element and its differ-

ential causality can be treated either of two ways, as described in Sections 5.1
and 5.2. First, you mayimplementthe differential causality directly. Second,
you mayeliminate the dependencythrough the use of an equivalent bond graph
with one fewer inertance. Theseapproches can be applied to modelswith locally
modulatedtransformers, as the following pair of examplesillustrates.
9.1. MODULATED TRANSFORMERS 665

Example 9.5
Consider a slider-crank mechanismwith inertias at both ends:

Modelthe system with a bond graph, apply causal strokes in the usual
fashion, and write the state differential equations.
Solution: The bond graph reveals that one of the two inertances must
be assigned differential causality. The solution belowis based on choosing
integral causality for I1, forcingdifferential causality for I2:

S~’~:~’~1 ",1~"-"~" T ~ 1 J----:~’.- 0 ,~’-v-~-~R

"~x=l~ T q/~t~
Q;pll~
Il 12 C
Note particularly the annotations for ~ = T~ and h~, which are mandated
by the causal strokes. (5 and ~ are temporaryvariables used for algebraic
convenience.)The differential equations for the two energy storage elements
with integral causality becomedirectly
dq 1 T 1
= ic - -ff~q = T(p - -h-dq,
d-~

---
dp
dt
M- T )
q + I2~
"
Youneed to find 5~ as a function of the state variables p and/or q in order
to place the r.ight side of the secondequation in solvable form. Since 2 =
(T/I1)p and ¢ = p/I~, you can write
T dp dT d¢ 1 T dp dT 1 ~
~r~~t + ~¢-~ T~p = Y1-~+ ~ ~ "
Substituting this result, and collecting the two terms in dp/dt, gives
dp 1
dt - I + (I2/II)T ( ~" M-
T -~q
T I~ I’~
dTp.2
de ]"
Addingthe followingthird state differential equation to the first and fourth
equations abovegives a solvable set with the state variables q, p and ¢:
de 1
666 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

Example 9.6
Find a set of state differential equations for the example above, except
this time reduce the number of inertances so as to preclude any differen-
tial causality.
Solution: You have a choice of relating the inertance energies to either ~
or ~. Electing ~, the total kinetic energy becomes
~
I 1(i
1 .~ 1 ~ .~
= = + T I~)¢-, T = T(¢).

Were T a constant, you could simply define an equivalent inertance equal

to I1 + T219_. If you try this now, however, you get an inertance which is
a function of a displacement. The scheme for writing differential equations
does not permit this; all inertances must either be constants or (if nonlinear)
functions of the local generalized velocity. To accomodate this restriction,
you insert a new transformer indicated as TI:

Se-~--~ i~)~’- T~q/ OCI~)-’~R

7", c
@~P/Ix
I1
You could choose to use any constant inertance, but assume you keep the
original 11 as shown. The energy stored is ½T~Ix~b ’~. Setting this equal to
the proper value as given by the equation above for 7-, there results

T1 = v/1 + T216./I1, T = T(¢).

Upon examination of the annotated bond graph you now can write the
complete set of state differential equations:

dq 1 T 1
dt - I~ T~p- -~q’

dP- 1 (M--~Tq)
dt T1 ’
de 1
p"
dt - I1T1

The result of this method is somewhat simpler than that produced by the
method used in Example 9.5, particularly due to the absence of the derivative
dT/d¢. It also is easier to find, and provides a more concise perspective of the
essential dynamics of the system. The first method has one advantage, however:
it is less sophisticated.
9.1. MODULATED TRANSFORMERS 667

The general method, applied above to generalized kinetic energies or iner-

tances, also applies to generalized potential energies or complianceswith dif-
ferential causality, usually with less difficulty. Thereare the sametwochoices:
using differential causality on the original bondgraph where necessary, or re-
structuring the graph through an energy analysis to eliminate dependent com-
pliances.

9.1.5 Inertance Dependent on Local Displacement;

Case Study

The technique employedin Example9.6 above can be applied also to the broader
class of modelsin which an inertance dependson a local displacement. Specifi-
cally, the introduction of a modulatedtransformer into a bondfor an inertance
allows the generalized kinetic energy being represented to be a function of the
local displacement,while retaining the requirementthat the inertance itself not
be a function of any displacernent. The procedure is best understood through
a case study.
The rigid rocker shownin Fig. 9.5 rolls without slipping on a cylindrical
surface of radius R. Since the instantaneous center of the rocker changes with
the attitude ¢, the inertance of the rocker is not constant but dependson ¢.
The integral p = f Mdt, where Mis the momentacting on the rocker, is not
a function of the state of the system, so any attempt to define the inertance
I so that the velocity ~ equals p/I will fail. Instead, the insertion of a locally
modulatedtransformer allows the inertance to be kept constant.
The approach starts by writing the kinetic energy 7- as a function of the
generalized displacement(in the present case, the angle ~b) and the generalized
velocity (the angular velocity ~):

7- =½[y +m(b2 + (9.1)

J is the rotational inertia, of the rocker about its center of mass;the first term
on the right represents the rotational kinetic energy. The mass of the rocker
is m; the other term represents the translational kinetic energy. Note that the
displacement ¢ appears in this term. Uponexamination of equation (9.1)
might seem reasonable to define the inertance as I = J + m(b.2 + R2~2), but if
this is done the momentis not I~ and the angular velocity ¢ is not p/I with
/5 = M. Therefore, you should not makethis definition. Rather, you define a
new flow Oc and transformer modulusT such that the inertance is defined as a
constant:

This gives the bond graph of part (b) of the figure with the simple constant
inertance
I = J. (9.3)
668 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

note: equilibriumis at ¢=0

(a) geometry
~ enlarged
~" view

C
(b) bondgraph

80
¢, degrees
60

40

20

-20

-40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
time, seconds
(c) particularresults

Figure 9.5: Rigid memberwith planar surface rocking on a cylinder

9.1. MODULATED TRANSFORMERS 669

Since this inertance is a constant, the flow 0c equals p/I where p is the gen-
eralized momentum associated with 0c, and p is the generalized force acting
thereon.
Supposeequilibrium occurs whenthe planar surface of the rocker is horizon-
tal, that is ¢ = 0. The gravitational potential energyequals the masstimes the
elevation of the center of mass, or

V = mg[(R+ b)(cos~b- 1) + R~bsin ~b], (9.4)

so that the momentis

M = ¢ - d~ _ mg(R¢ cos ¢ - b sin ¢). (9.5)

c de
Causal strokes nowmaybe applied to this graph in standard fashion, giving
as the state differential equations

¢, (9.6a)
~-~ =
de 1
(9.6b)
d~ = ~--~P’
whereT is as given in equation (9.2). If you prefer to find a single differential
equation in terms of the angle ¢, the second derivative of ¢ can be found from
equation (9.6b) by substituting equation (9.6a) into the right side:

(9.7)
dt -~ = Tl dt IT 2 d¢ dt - , ,~¢- ~ d¢ \ dt

[
= j + m(b~ + R2¢~) g(R¢cos¢- bsin¢) + R2¢ ] .

Solutionsfor various initial conditions are plotted in part (c) of the figure.
Therocker is unstable if it is given too large an in[tiM displacementor velocity.

9.1.6 Summary
The powerin machineryand vehicles, etc., is largely controlled through the use
of remotely modulated transformers. By definition, these elements have only
two power ports and two bonds; the modulation is effected without any en-
ergy transfer through the modulatingvariable. Locally modulatedtransformers
model the way manyengineering devices, particularly mechanisms,transmit
generalized force and motion in a variable way depending on the generalized
position of the device. Also, the kinetic energy of manyengineering devices,
again particularly mechanisms,dependson their positional state. The standard
schemefor writing state variable differential equations requires that inertances
have constant moduli, or at most a dependenceon a local velocity. Use of the
modulatedtransformer therefore greatly extends the domainof devices you can
670 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

ou~u.t i~
position,
x, inches ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
1b ~ ~ ~ ~
I i i i i
01 I I I I
0 90 150 240 360
shah angle, ¢, degrees

Figure 9.6: The cam system of Guided Problem 9.1

model. Sometimes you start with knowledge of the constraint, and sometimes
you start with knowledge of the stored energy.
The modulation of a transformer usually adds one order, that is one first-
order differential equation, to the equaivalent model with no modulation. There
is no increase, however, if the variable that would be added already is a state
variable, or could be expressed as a function of these variables. Sometimes you
have a choice of which set of variables to use; a set with the minimumorder is
not necessarily the most practical.

Guided Problem 9.1

This first problem is intended to emphasize the primitive idea that locally mod-
ulated transformers display the same type of reciprocal behavior as transformers
with constant moduli.
The drive shaft of a cam systern pictured in Fig. 9.6 rotates at a constant
180 rpm, while the linear ouput displacement moves as plotted. The load force
is a constant 200 lb, and the forces of inertia and friction are to be neglected.
Sketch a plot of the torque on the drive shaft as a function of the angle of the
shaft, labeling the values ¢ = 45°, 120°, 180° °.
and 270

Suggested Steps:

1. Drawa bond graph, labeling the moment, angular velocity, force and linear
velocity.

2. Sketch a plot of ~ vs. ¢. Note that this plot comprises well defined
straight-line segments connected by short smooth curved segments that
are relatively poorly defined.

3. Write an expression for the conservation of energy, and solve for the mo-
ment. Alternatively, use your knowledge about ideal transformers.

4. Combinethe results of steps 2 and 3 to find the desired moment.

9.1. MODULATED TRANSFORMERS 671

deck pulley ~

arresting engine ~ ~"

~ [ //
(below deck; shown ~./ [ /
conceptually) "" W

Figure 9.7: Aircraft arresting system for Guided Problem 9.2

Guided Problem 9.2

It is important that you experience the determination of the modulus of the
transformer in this geometric.problem.
An aircraft landing on the deck of a carrier extends a hook that catches a
cable stretched across the deck between two pulleys, as shown in Fig. 9.7. The
cables extend below deck, where they are attached to an "arresting engine" that
for present purpuses can be modeled as a giant adjustable dashpot in parallel
with a giant (air) spring. (More refined details of such an engine are given
in Problem 4.49, p. 257, but are neglected here.) The motion of the cable
forces oil through an orifice, the area of which is continuously varied to shape
the deceleration profile of the aircraft appropriately. This gives the effective
dashpot. The displacement of the oil also compresses the air in a tank, providing
the effective spring. The aircraft lands under full throttle, just in Case the hook
doesn’t catch. Since the deceleration takes only a couple of seconds, the aircraft
engine isn’t shut downuntil afterward. You are asked to model the system, and
write a set of state differential equations.
The problem is continued in Problems 9.13 and 9.14 (pp. 679-680) with
simulations and design of a position-dependent damping profile to give desirable
performance.

Suggested Steps:

1. The geometry of the pulleys makesthe velocity of the cable below deck less
than the velocity of the aircraft. Represent the relationship by a locally
modulated transformer. To find its modulus, define the two displace-
ments at each end, express the geometric interrelationship algebraically,
and compute the derivative of this relation.

2. Draw a bond graph model for the system, including the inertia of the
aircraft, its thrust and drag, the cable transformer, the resistance of the
variable "dashpot" and the compliance of the "spring." Define whatever
parameters are needed.
672 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

3. Applycausal strokes, define state variables and apply the usual annota-
tions to the graph.

4. Write the differential equation(s), makingsure that the right side(s)

your equation(s) are in terms of the state variable(s).

Guided Problem 9.3

This problem shows the important fact that dependent compliances can be
treated in essentially the samewayas dependentinertances.
The familiar slider-crank mechanismwith series spring-dashpot load, this
time with negligible inertias, is driven by a significantly flexible shaft charac-
terizable by a complianceCs. This system therefore can be represented by the
bond graph

SS ¢1 0 ¢2 T ~ 0 R

Cs C

Use of one of the knownrelationships x = x(¢2) or T = T(¢2) is preferred

use of the moreawkwardinverse relationships. Define a set of state variabies
and write the state differential equations. Do this two ways: employdiffer-
ential causality as it results with the given bond graph, and combinethe two
compliancesinto a single compliance.

Suggested Steps:

Observe that both coInpliances cannot be given integral causality; one

of them must be considered a dependent energy storage. (This problem
wouldvanish, ironically, if the inertia of the load wasnot neglected.)

First, use the methodwhich carries out the instructions of the causal
strokes including the differential causality. Either compliancecan be given
integral causality; presumeyou chooseCs. Therefore, differential causal-
ity is applied to C in the process of completingthe casual assignments.
The state variables becomethe qs for the compliance.Cs and ¢2 for the
modulatedtransformer; their time derivatives can be written and circled
on the relevant bonds. Applythe usual notation for the effort on the bond
for Cs. Label all the remainingefforts and flows on the graph consistent
with the dictates of the causal strokes. Be especially careful with the flow
on the bond for C, which should equal C times the time derivative of
the effort. The terms T and dT/d¢2 maybe left as they are; in an ac-
tual simulation, of course, it wouldbe necessaryto substitute the detailed
functions of ¢2-
 MODULATED TRANSFORMERS 673

Write the differential equations for the two state variables, using the causal
strokes and the effort and flow notations in the usual way.

The differential equation for qs is integrable, simplifying the procedure.

Carry out the integration, and substitute the resulting expression for qs
into the differential equation for ¢2. Collect terms with the commonfactor
d¢2/dt. The result is a first-order differential, equation with dependent
variable ¢2 and independent variables ¢1 and ¢1.

Nowyou can proceed to the second method. Define the efforts of the two
0-junctions as es and e, respectively, and write an expression for the total
stored energy as a function of these efforts.

The total stored energy can be represented by a single compliance bonded

through a transformer to either of the two zero junctions. The following
steps assume the left-hand junction is chosen. Drawthis bond graph, label
I.
the new compliance as C’ and the new transformer as T

Equate the energy stored in CI to the sums of the energies stored in the
original Cs and C. (This is most easily accomplished through energy
expressions using efforts.) Any value of C’ can be chosen; ~ - - C is
acceptable. Evaluate the necessary consequent value of T~. Also, relate
dT’ / d¢2 to dT / d¢2.

Redraw the new bond graph, apply causal strokes and annotate the efforts
and flows using integral causality, in the usual way. Write the differential
equation in terms of the state variable q on the bond for C.

A differential equation for ~b2 is. needed, since the moduli of both trans-
formers are functions thereof. ¢2 equals none of the flows on the graph,
complicating the matter. The effort on the left side of the transformer
T equals the actual effort on the actual compliance Cs, however and the
difference q~ - ~2 is proportional to the time derivative of this effort.
Write the corresponding differential equation, and integrate it to get q as
a function of ¢1, ¢2 and T’.

10. Substitute the result of step 9 into the differential equation of step 8. The
result should be a first-order differential equation in ¢2.

11. The differential equation should contain derivative coefficients dT/d¢2 and
dT’/d¢2. Use the results of step 7 to express the latter in terms of the
former.

12. Rearrange the differential equation for comparison to the result of the first
method, as found in step 4. They should agree.
674 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

PROBLEMS

9.1 Sketch-plot the transformer modulus(i.e. speed ratio) for the adjustable
conefriction drive below,as a function of the position of the idler shaft or wheel.
(Get the end points and the shape about right.)

~r- ~"~..~one) 2
~ i.n
8..! ..................

...........
~-- 12 ~ lengths in mm

9.2 Identify which of the three devices below could be approximated as re-
motely modulated transformers, which have two powerports only. Justify your
conclusions.

(a) variable pulley drive.

(b) electrical transformer

with variable coil size
and fixed magneticcircuit.
9.1. MODULATED TRANSFORMERS 675

(c) electrical transformer with fixed

~----~ ~ top view
coils and variable magnetic cir-
cuit.

¯ variable shunt reluctance

"- ] ] front view

9.3 The hydraulic power supply on the left below provides a nearly constant
pressure source of hydraulicfluid to drive several loads. Oneof these, as shown,
comprises a "modulated hydrostatic transformer" (MHT)through which a load
is driven. The MHTcomprises two back-to-back hydraulic pump/motorswith
displacements D1 and D2 which are adustable by means of the control lever
labeled with the angle/9. In particular, D1 = Dosin 0 and D2 = Docos 0.

accumulatorf~r’~to other loads...t 0 (adjustment)

-/pump tank (same)

motor
" "tank

Define key variables and parameters and give a model structure. The ro-
tating memberwithin the MHT (not shown)has significant rotational inertia,
and there is someexternal leakage (to the reservoir) at both ends of the MHT.
Internal leakage maybe neglected.
676 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

9.4 The Scotch-yoke mechanismbelow has a crank arm 0.05 mlong, and drives
a load compressionforce of 500 N for the rightward stroke and a load tension
force of 100 N for the leftward or return stroke. Find the modulus of the
transformer which can model the system, and plot the momenton the crank as
a function of its angle. Neglectfriction.

~load

9.5 A motor with a torque-speed characteristic as plotted below drives a cam

with inertia Jc, whichin turn drives a follower systemwith inertia Jr, spring
constant K and dampingcoefficient B. The shape of the cam can be described
by a knownfunction ¢I = f/~(¢c). Other effects maybe neglected.

(a) Forma bond graph modelof the system, and relate the moduli of its
elements to the given information.

(b) Define state variables, and give the order of the system.

(c) Writea set of state differential equations in a formsuitable for simu-

lation.
9.1. MODULATED TRANSFORMERS 677

9.6 Consider the slider-crank mechanism with the series RC load as shown in
Example 9.2 (p. 662), but with all inertances neglected. Computeand plot the
driving momentand the displacements of both ends of the spring as functions
of time, assuraing the effective crank starts in the fully extended position, runs ¯
with ¢ = constant = 10 rad/s for 90°, and then stops dead. The parameters
are as follows: r -- 6 in, L = 10 in, k = 20 lb/in and b = 1.0 lb s/in. All masses
are negligible.

9.7 The effort el of the system represented by the bond graph below is specified,
the modulusof the transformer is a function of the displaceinent ql, and all other
parameters are invariant. Identify the order of the system, define state variables,
and write a complete set of first-order differential equations.

9.8 The bond graph of the preceding problem models a hydraulic positive-
displacement pump with shaft angular velocity ~1 and torque el, volumetric
displacement T = To ÷ T1 sin(6ql) that includes sinusoidal pulsations due
the individual pistons (To and T1 << To are constants), rotor inertance I1, fluid
inertance I~, a fluid compliance C due to an accumulator and a load resistance
R. Repeat the problem for the case in which the accumulator and its compliance
are eliminated.

9.9 A Scotch yoke is driven from a flywheel and in turn drives a mass, linear
spring and linear dashpot as shown.

cotch yok~

(a) Model the system with a bond graph, and express all moduli in terms
of the given parameters.

(b) Compare your model to that given for the system shown in Example
9.5 (p. 665). Commenton the applicability of the solutions deduced for
that system.
678 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

9.10 A cylindrical disk of mass md and radius r is mounted on a shaft with

eccentricity e tO form a cam drive with a fiat-faced follower, as shown below.
The follower system has total mass mf, and a linear spring with rate k and a
linear dashpot with coefficient b are attached.

(a) Model the system with a bond graph, and state the moduli of the
elements. Rotation of the drive shaft is resisted by a linear resistance, R,
but friction between the cam and the follower may be neglected.

(b) Apply causal strokes. Can. integral causality be employed on all of the
energy storage elements?

(c) Write a set of state differential equations. Warning: Special care must
be taken to adcount for differential causality in the face of a non-constant
transformer modulus. The results should be nonlinear. Also, make sure
the number of first-order differential equations equals the number of state
variables.

(d) Report the order of your model, and the minimumorder of the system.

9.11 Continue the preceding problem using the parameters md = 1 kg, R = 0.1
N.m-s, r = 0.1 m, e. = 0.03 m, rnl = 3 kg, k = 100 N/m and b = 5 N.s/m.
Carry out a simulation assuming that the applied moment is a constant M= 2.0
N.m. Find the minimumvalue of the spring precompression necessary for the
cam to remain in continuous contact with the follower. (You are not asked to
analyze the behavior for higher torques and speeds.) Plot the angular velocity
¢ and the normal contact force between the cam and the follower as functions
of time. Hint: Use of the MATLAB d±ff function can expedite the plotting of
the contact force.

9.12 A plastic disk of radius b, thickness w and density pp rolls back and forth
without slipping on a fiat horizontal surface. A steel cylinder of radius a, length
L and density Ps is pressed into a hole in the disk centered a distance c from its
center. The equilibrium position is shown.
To save you work, the mass of a solid plastic disk (without the hole)
defined as rap, and the excess mass for the steel cylinder is defined as ms:

mp= 7~wb’2pp; ms = ~ra2(Lps - wpp).

9.1. MODULATED TRANSFORMERS 679

The center of~mass of the system is defined to be at a distance r from the center
of the disk,
r = cms/(mp + ms),
and the mass momentof inertia of the system about the center of mass is, from
the parallel axis theorem,

~ = mp (~b~" + r~’) + ms [~a2 + (c- r)2]

(a) Express the gravity potential energy of the system as a function of the
angle of rotation from the equilibrium, ¢.
(b) Express the kinetic energy of the system as a function of q~ and

(c) Draw a bond graph for the system that employs a constant inertance,
and define this inertance and other moduli therein.
(d) Write state differential equations.
(e) Simulate the motions following release from rest at the angles of °,
60° and 120° (relative to equilibrium) for the parameters b = 3 in, w
a = 1 in, L = 2 in, c = 1.5 in, ppg = 0.0430 lb/in 3 and psg = 3.
0.283 lb/in
(f) Qualitatively identify any limitations of your model for very large an-
gles or large velocities.
(g) If you have access to a physical model of this system, verify the pre-
dicted cycle times experimentally.

9.13 Carry out a simulation for the aircraft landing on the deck of a carrier,
as described in Guided Problem 9.2. The aircraft weighs 35,000 lbs, the thrust
also is 35,000 lbs. The initial velocity is 180 ft/s, at which the drag is 5000
lbs. The drag is proportional to the square of the speed. The two deck pulleys
shown in Fig. 9.7 are 100 ft apart. The arresting engine essentially comprises
a set of pulleys to reduce the velocity of a large piston to which the cables are
attached, an orifice through which oil is forced due to the motion of the piston,
680 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

and an air tank that gets compressed by the displacement of the oil. Therefore,
the force of the dashpot on the cable can be approximated as a~2, where s is
the displacement of the cable where it is attached to the dashpot.
(a) Determine the coefficient a which brings the aircraft to a halt in
distance of 300 ft. Let the spring constant be fixed at 300 lb/ft. Plot
the velocity as a function of time. Does the result represent satisfactory
performance?
(b) Design problem. It is possible for the coefficient a to be varied as a
function of the cable position s (by continuously varying the area of the
orifice). Through trial-and-error or other means propose and demonstrate
a desirable function a = a(s). Hint: A solution with a good terminal
"flare" will require reducing the spring constant, k.

9.14 Repeat the above problem using the more refined model of the arresting
engine given in Problem 4.49 (p. 257). The diameter of the hydraulic piston
1 ft. and the initial volumeof the air in the tank can be set at 13 ft 3. You will
need to choose the charging (initial) pressure, Po, in the tank. The cross-head
assembly weighs 2000 lbs not including the pulleys, each pulley weighs 75 lbs,
and the hydraulic fluid weighs 50 lb/ft 3. Neglect the mass of the cable. For
part (a), find an acceptable combination of Po and the fixed effective fixed orifice
area for the fluid restriction, A0. For part (b), choose a reasonable, value for
(of necessity smaller than in part (a)) and plot the orifice area as a function
the cable displacment. A solution to Problem 4.49 should be provided to you.

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 9.1

1. M. .- F ~
CAM DRIVE
~ x
2.-%in/sl

~ 360xlS0×3=5424060x60
360
0~
0 90 150 \¢.de~
360 x 180 x(-3) =_27
60 x 120
Given:~=360x 180/60= 1080deg/s; F =200lbs; ,~ as plotted above.

I IIi I,~ 240 360

Ol d ’,
.0 90150 \¢,deg
9.1. MODULATED TRANSFORMERS 681

Guided Problem 9.2

1.
J/~~2 x~
~= -- =T~
8
X
Therefore, T = T(x) =
2-3. R S~ + L’~/4

RTp/I~ F~ Ft is the thrust of the engines

Fd is the air drag on the aircraft
I is the mass of the aircraft = m
R is the (variable) resistance of the dashpot
c ,%
C is the complianceof the spring

p + ~s
-~ = Ft - Fd -- T(x)

dx 1
pd--~=i

Guided Problem 9.3

d~, 1 [ q, C ( l dq, 1 dT d¢a ~

d--~- = ~ ~ +-~ T dt T~ d¢~

1 C dTd¢~ C dqs
- Te~IC, CsT3 d¢.~ dt) qs ÷ T’~Cs dt

4. qs = ¢1 - ¢~. Substituting this into the second equation,

1+ + ~---~-~-~¢~ =1---hil +¯
[ CsT----~d¢--~C
dT(¢I-¢2)+T--~Cs
CI d¢2-~z-nws1 T:RC8,- TC_~c~

1 2 1 2
5. V = ~Cse~ + 7Ce
682 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

6-7, v: 1c, (e~2= ~C~e~+ 1

C’ C
Therefore, ~ = Cs + ~-
1 C~ 1
or, lettingC r=C, Tr ~= C +T2’
Computingderivatives, this also
-2 dT ~ -2 dT
gives
Tt3d¢~ ~d¢~
- T
dT ~ T~3 dT
or --
dee Ta dee

e,=T’qTC e 21" d.__~’ = T’ ~)I T’2 q’

Sz~--,--0 --------,.~. T ~R
~! 2
T.2 e~/RT
e,/RT dt T2 RC
~ ¢1-es /RT
T’
q ’/C ~@

9.
~ ~-~2=C,~t~ =C~

Integrating, ¢~ - ¢~ = ---~---q, giving q = (¢~ - ¢~).

I0. dq~dt ~C~T’(~ - ~) ’eC dT’dt (¢~ - ¢~) = T’~ T~RC (¢~ - ¢e)
C~T ~

11. Substitution of the relations between T’ and T and between

dT’/d¢~ and dT/d¢~ found in step 7 into the above equation gives

+ + ~(e~ + ~ = ~6~ +
which, whenmultiplied by C/C~, is identical go ghe result from the firse
me~hod(step 4).

9.2 Activated Bonds

The bond graph models employed thus far have demanded the conservation of
energy, except for the one-port sources and sinks (resistances) where energy
is explicitly created or dissipated. The junction structures, including simple
bonds, junctions, transformers and gyrators, have been strictly conservative.
Occasionally one wishes to model a coupler that violates the conservation of
energy, however. This need may arise because the details of the actual system
are both too complex and too unimportant to justify faithful representation;
an overall simplification suits the purpose better. The activated bond is the
simplest non-conservative coupler.
9.2. ACTIVATED BONDS 683

SYSTEM signal INSTRUMENT -~

[~ CONTROLLER

Figure 9.8: Instrument with activated coupling

The use of such a coupler is illustrated in Fig. 9.8. An instrument measures

a pressure or a velocity, etc, and thereby stimulates an electromechanical or
hydraulic control system. The power drained from the system by the instru-
ment likely is trivial, but including it in the model would introduce unnecessary
complexity in the form of a much higher order model, etc. Yet, the measured
signal plays a major role in the behavior of the system; it cannot be ignored)
You want the system to power the instrument, but you do not want the instru-
ment to drain power from the system model. Activating the bond between the
system and the instrument accomplishes this objective. The activation and its
directivity is indicated by the arrow in the middle of the bond.

9.2.1 Definition and Application

The role of activated bonds can be grasped through their application to elec-
tronic amplifiers, which often are modeled as non-energy-conservative devices.
The power supply is ignored, so what is actually a three-port device is treated
as though it were a two-port device. The circuit symbol for an electrical ampli-
fier is a triangle, as shown in part (a) of Fig. 9.9. A model in the form of
equivalent circuit is given in part (b), showing a voltage gain, T, and input and
output resistive impedances R1 and R.~, respectively. In the model, the power
is produced by a dependent voltage source as if out of nothing. (The power
supply is not directly described.) Further, any effect of the output current on
the input is neglected. The bond graph for this voltage amplifier is shown in
part (c) of the figure. The bonds on both sides of the transformer (either side
alone will do) are activated, as indicated by the full arrows drawn near their
centers.
The meaning of the activation is suggested in part (d) of the figure.
activated bond is a partially broken power bond. On the upstream (left) side
of a bond emanating from a 0-junction the flow (current) is zero, and thus the
power is zero. On the downstream (right) side of the bond the flow (current)
is not zero, but equals whatever the downstream side of the system demands.
The efforts, on the other hand, are identical, as for a regular bond. Thus the
bond itself creates or annihilates power; it does not conserve energy.
1Theterm "signal" is used by systemsandcontrol engineersto focus on a single variable,
excluding its conjugatevariable andthe associated powerfrom immediateand possibly ul-
timate consideration. Arrowsare employedin block diagrams(see for exampleany of the
several examplesin Chapter 8) to indicate the directivity of signals. Thearrows in block
diagramsand signal flow graphs are closely related to the arrowson activated bonds. These
relationships are examinedin the Section7.4.
 684 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

(a) electric circuit symbol(b) electric circuit equivalent (c) bond graph

el el

1 e2
/-~ 1 ~ T-~-- 0 ,---re-
(d) activated bonds
i1~
(e) outputcurrentproportional
to inputcurrent

el e2
t’~’~’2
~ 0 "*’,-T’-’--- 11

R2
(~ ou~mcurrent propogional to inpm voltage (g) case (a)-(c) -oo

Figure 9.9: Activated bonds and electronic amplifiers

9.2. ACTIVATED BONDS 685

For an activated bond emanatingfrom a 1-junction, the flow is identical at

both ends; the effort is zero at the upstream end but not at the downstream
end. Oneapplication is to a current amplifier, as shownin part (e) of the figure.
Anamplifier in which the output current is proportional to the input voltage,
using an activated bondand a gyrator, is shownin part (f) of the figure.

If it is desired to neglect the effect of the input impedance,that is to assume

that the amplifier draws no powerat all from its input circuit, the resistance
R1 can be simply removed. Examplesare shownin part (g) of the figure. It
important to retain the upstream 0 or 1-junction in the bond graph; otherwise
there is ambiguity regarding whether the efforts or the flows at the two ends
of the activated bonds are equal. Sometimesone needs to insert a 0- or 1-
junction into a bondgraph purely to avoid this kind of ambiguity. If the effect
of the output impedanceof the amplifier is to be ignored, the resistance R~. and
its bond also maybe removed, and the junction there also maybe removedif
nothing but the load is attached.

Fluid flow with an irreversible jet can be modeledwith the help of activated
bonds, as the following exampledemonstrates.

Example 9.7
The water tank shownbelowis filled with water from a pipe whichdischarges
below the waterline. The system shownon the right differs by the removal
of the section of the pipe downstreamof the restriction, which becomesa
nozzle. Modelthe two systems with bond graphs.

p nozzlerestriction
1

¯~. :.:;

.~~restriction

Solution: The first system can be modeledby the bond graph on the left
at the top of the next page, in whichthe resistance to flow of the restriction
is represented by an R element, the gravity head pgh is represented by an Se
element, the gravity complianceof the tank is represented by a 6’ element
and the interconnection between the pipe and the tank is represented by a
0-junction and its attached bonds. Note that the pressure P1 is affected by
both the height z and the pressure P2 whichis proportional to the depth of
the water in the tank.
686 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

el

C R C

For the second system, the pressure P1 is no longer affected by either the
height z or the pressure P’z. Rather, P1 is affected only by the resistance, R.
On the other hand, the tank is still receiving the flow Q1. Energy is being
dissipated in the free fall of the water between the level of the nozzle and
the level of the water surface in the tank, and the tank is receiving power of
magnitude P2Q~. This power is referenced to the level of the bottom of the
tank.
The new situation is represented in the bond graph by removal of the
gravity head effort source and activation of the bond interconnecting the
two junctions, as indicated by the full arrow. This activation cuts off all
recognition by P1 of downstream effects; the effort on the upstream end of
an activated bond driven by a flow (i.e. emanating from a 1-junction) is
zero. It ~naintalns the flow interconnection of a regular bond, however, and
allows the effort on the downstream side to be whatever it needs to be to
satisfy conditions there. The power P2Q1is generated by the bond itself.

9.2.2 Causality

The causal stroke applied to an activated bond unambiguously shows whether

the equality of effort or of flow is being enforced:

flow equality: 1 ~ ~ ~ (zero effort on left side)

effort equality: 0 ~ ~ ~ (zero flow on left side)

The application of causal strokes and the writing of state differential equa-
tions follows in a normal manner, as illustrated by the following examples. In
general, the differential equations for a system with activated bonds are the
same as they would be without the bond activation, except for the deletion of
the effort or the flow at the upstream end of each activated bond.
9.2. ACTIVATEDBONDS 687

Example 9.8
Causal strokes have been applied to the bond graph of the first system in
Example9.7, assumingthe pressure P1 is the input variable and the pressure
P’2 is the output variable. Applycausal strokes to the bond graph for the
second system, assuming the same input and output variables, and write
and comparethe state differential equations for the two systems.
Solution: Note that integral causality is used for the complianceelement
in the first system. If the sameis done for the secondsystem, the causality
of the activated bond becomesas shownbelow:

P1 -~ 1 ~----~P20 -~-~

C
This is compatiblewith flow equality at both ends of the activated bond, as
given above, and zero effort on the left side of the bond. This is precisely
what is intended. Both systemsare first order and have a single differential
equation with state variable V. In both cases this equation can be written
initially as
dV Pn
d---~= Q~- Q~- R Q2, R=R(P~).
The difference lies in the pressure P~. In the case with the submergedpipe,
the bond graph reveals that P~ is the weighted sumof the efforts on three
bonds, as follows:

Pn = P~ + pgh - P2 = P~ + pgh - V/C.

In the case with the cut-off pipe, however,only one bonddetermines PR:

Pn = P~
The resulting differential equation is changedonly by the deletion of the
additional terms in the equation for Pn resulting from the forced setting to
zero of the effort at the left end of the activated bond.

The representation of gear friction is simplified throughthe use of activated

bonds, as the next exampledemonstrates.
688 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

Example 9.9
Agear pair often is assumedto have a constant efficiency, 7.

M~

Assumingthat the driving poweris from the left side,

M252
=
Thus, the relations between the two speeds and the two torques can be
expressed in terms of ~? and a transformer modulus,TV:

=
M~ = TC M2 = TMM~; TM= Tell.

Represent this model by a bond graph.

Solution: There are in effect two constant transformer moduli: T¢ is the
ratio of the speeds, and TM is the ratio of the moments.This leads to
either of the two alternative modelsbelow, dependingon whether the input
variables are ~ and M~or M~and ~2:

Note that should the direction of the powerbe reversed, the equations must
be inverted and the moduli of the transformers changed. Certain other
mechanical drives such as pulley and chain drives can be represented sim-
ilarly. When~? = 1, the two transformer moduli becomeidentical, so the
two activated transformers becomethe sameas a single ordinary or bilateral
transformer.
9.2. ACTIVATED BONDS 689

o roof
~tackpipe

Figure 9.10: Toilet for GuidedProblem9.4

9.2.3 Summary

Anactivated bondis like a simple bondexcept that the effort or the flow at one
end is definedas zero. Thepowerat this end therefore is zero; an arrowis placed
in the middle of the bonddirected awayfrom this end. Activated bonds permit
simple representation of modelsthat purposefully violate the conservation of
energy. Theyare particularly useful for modelingamplifiers, the attachment of
low-powertransducers to high-powersystems, free-falling liquids and the friction
in drive systemssuch as gear pairs.
The activation of a bond changes the differential equations simply by the
deletion of terms associated with the bondvariable that is forced to equal zero.

Guided Problem 9.4

This is an excellent problemto cut your teeth on. It can use all of the basic
elements including an activated bond, and deserves somenonlinearity; yet the
result should be fairly simple. It is continuedin Problem9.20 (p. 694).
Consider the traditional toilet system shownin Fig. 9.10. Modelthe ba-
sic system, neglecting any refill of the tank or the bowl. Define variables, and
identify any elements which ought to be nonlinear, showingthe functional de-
pendence. Write a set of state differential equations, defining parameters as
needed. The valve can be considered to open widely, but there are flow restric-
tions around the rim of the bowl. Swirl maybe neglected. The stack pipe is
so large that water never forms a plug in it. For simplicity it maybe assumed
that wheneverthe channel betweenthe bowland the stack pipe is flowing, it is
full of water.
690 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

Suggested Steps:

1. Note that the state of the bowl has no effect on the state of the tank.
Model the tank accordingly. Define needed parameters, and identify a key
nonlinearity.

2. Note that the flow out of the bowl is impeded by the restricted area of
the channel and possibly by the inertia of the flow. On the other hand,
there is a distinct siphoning action. Complete the model of the rest of the
system, defining parameters as needed, and note the key nonlinearities.

3. Apply causal strokes to your bond graph and write the differential equa-
tions. All that should be missing from your result are numbers for the fixed
parameters and specific functions for the nonlinear parameters, although
you ought to be able to give reasonable forms for the resistances.

Guided Problem 9.5

The electric circuit of Fig. 9.11 illustrates the use of a bond graph model of
some complexity, including meshes and activated bonds. The modeling and
the reduction is given; you are asked to write a set of state-variable differential
equations. Assume that node a is grounded.

Suggested Steps:

Copy the bond graph of part (d) of the figure. Apply integral causal-
ity. Temporarily, overlook the presence of the bond activization. Note
that the graph is undercausal. Apply the usual annotations on the bonds
with integral notation, which includes the definitions of state variables.
Annotate the input effort as ei, also.

Add a bond with a virtual compliance to the 0-junction on the left side of
the activated transformer, as befits an undercausal bond graph. Label its
flow with a circled zero and its effort as e, in the usual manner. Applying
integral causality to this compliance then dictates the causalities of all
remaining bonds. Note that the resulting causalities on the bonds for
the activated transformer are consistent with the bond activation, and
in fact are required by it. The use of the virtual compliance therefore
is not mandatory, but it resolves in routine fashion the usual difficulty
associated with undercausal bond graphs, which the graph retains despite
the activation.

Annotate all of the bonds with the proper symbols as dictated in the
usual manner by the causal strokes. The flow on the bond to the left of
the activated transformer should be designated as 0, as the consequence
9.2. ACTIVATED BONDS 691

(a) circuit

(b) bondgraph as first drawn

-~- 0 -~- 1 --~ 0

at0 - ~ 1 "-’~-0-~-TI’~-I’----’-~T2-----~0---~

1 --’-~R1 R,3 R
2 C~’~---1 "~"12

(c) eliminationof simplemeshes

0 -~"- 1 --~ 0 ~ 1 ------~ 0 -~"- 1

1 ----- 0-~--- 1 ----’- O-~-Tt-~-1-----R~

0
c,
(d) node (a) grounded (e) node(b) grounded

Figure 9.11: Guided Problem 9.5

 692 CHAPTER9. MODELSWITH STATIC COUPLERS

of the activation. Someof the annotations maybe too long to fit in the
confines of the graph, so you maywish to define one or more temporary
symbols.In particular, it is suggested that you define the effort on the
0-junction toward the lower-right part of the graph as

Writethe five first-order state differential equations in terms of variables

labeled in steps 2 and 3. The causal strokes identify the proper terms,
and the power convention arrows determine the proper signs, as always.
Note that these ec)uations are not solvable until the effort e on the virtual
complianceis defined in terms of the five state variables and the input
voltage.
Write the algebraic equation associated Withthe virtual compliance. This
equation should contain the unknowne in two places. Collect these two
terms, and solve for e as a function of the state and state variables. Sub-
stitution of this ~esult whereindicated in the state differential equations
renders these equations solvable.

PROBLEMS

9.15 Drawa bond graph for the electrical amplifier shownbelow, which has
voltage gain g and resistive input and output impedancesR1 and R2, respec-
tively.

9.16 A DCmotor with constant field, torque-to-current ratio G, constant ap-

plied voltage e0 and armature resistance R drives its load through a gear train
with speed reduction ratio T and efficiency ~. Drawa bond graph of the sys-
tem, and find a general relation between the output torque and speed of the
gear reducer in terms of the given parameters.

9.17 Showthat a bond graph model for the system of Problem9.16 can avoid
the use of activated bondsmerelyby changingthe effective value of R, presuming
that the i of the graph need not represent the actual electric current.

9.18 A stream with given flow Qi feeds a dammedreservoir. Someof the water
flows through a power-generatingturbine, and someoverflows a sluice gate at
¯ the top of the dam.Both of these flows exit to a bodyof water so large that its
level is invariant. Drawa bondgraph of the system, employingelements with as
simple characteristics as possible. (It is suggested that your resistance element
fox the sluice gate be defined so that its characteristic goes throughthe origin.)
The case with no flow over the sluice gate maybe omitted from consideration.
9.2. ACTIVATED BONDS 693

~ ~.~,uice gate with

~..~. _ _ ~_.__

reservoir
~erflow
dam~~

9.19 Manytypes of transistors used in amplifiers can be modeled by the bond

graph below. Find the associated transmission matrix.

9.20 A decorative water display comprises an upper pond fed by a water foun-
tain, a waterfall overflow into a lower pond, and a hidden recirculating pump,
as pictured below. You are asked to prepare for an analysis to determine how
quickly the system approaches steady-state when started from rest.

area A~--

(a) Define appropriate variables and parameters, and model the system
with a bond graph. Make appropriate simplifications, but do not ignore
key nonlinearities. Relate the parameters of the bond graph to the direct
physical parameters which are given or you have defined.

(b) Write a set of state differential equations that describes the dynamics.
694 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC ¢OUPLERS

9.21 Design problem. Carry out the simulation of the toilet given in Guided
Problem9.4. Chooseparameters by trial-and-error or any other meansuntil you
are satisfied with the response; report the physical dimensionsimplied by these
parameters. Then add a refill feature to your design and simulation. (Note
that conventional toilets have a separate refill flow.) Other features maybe
added, if desired. Considerations should include but not necessarily be limited
to the time required, the vigor of the flush and the water usage. Governmental
regulations have reduced water consumptionin stages from 5 gallons per flush
to 3.5 to 1.5 gallons per flush, requiring very careful design.

9.22 Design problem. A small passenger vehicle is to be poweredby an IC en-

gine connected through a 2:1 reduction spur gear pair to a variable displacement
pump.Hydraulic flow from a reservoir through the pumpgoes to hydraulic mo-
tor/pumps geared by other 2:1 reductions to the axles of the four drive wheels.
A hydraulic accumulator also is attached to the pressure line from the pump
in order to store excess energy from the pumpand energy from braking. This
allows the engine to be smaller than it wouldhave to be otherwise. The throttle
is adjusted automatically to keep the torque of the engine virtually constant,
which improves fuel efficiency. The volumetric displacement of the pumpis
varied automatically, within limits, to attempt to keep the pressure in the ac-
cumulator constant. The driver controls the volumetric displacement of the
hydraulic motors, effectively determining the thrust force on the vehicle. When
this displacement is madenegative, the motors becomepumps, and the result-
ing braking energy is stored in the accumulator rather than being dissipated.
A relief valve prevents the pressure in the accumulatorfrom exceeding 3500psi
for safety, although such a pressure should not be reached in normal operation
except during braking. The speed of the engine is limited automatically to 500
rad/s, and the torque of the engine is allowed to decrease in order to prevent
its speed from falling below100 rad/s.

throttle control
of torque , driver control
[ pressure control accummator .....
o~ a~sp~acement
~
gears~ , ~ relief ~ wheels
~__~va.lve ,I, ~ load
reservoir
Yourultimate task is the specification of the size of the accumulatorand the
maximumdisplacements of the pumpand the motors. Other parameters are
given. The performancespecifications are for you to choose, within the range of
possibilities. Youwill defend your design based on its predicted performance.
The vehicle complete with engine (but not the accumulator, the driver and
the payload) weighs 2500 ibs. The engine characteristics and fuel consumption
9.2. ACTIVATED BONDS 695

are as plotted in the statement for Problem4.53 (pp. 273-274). The air drag,
tire properties and accessory power are as given below that figure. (Other
parametersor features stated there, including the weightof the vehicle, the axle
gear ratio, drive train losses and the possibility of changingthe size of the engine
do not apply here.) The accumulatorwill weigh 20 poundsfor each gallon (231
in3) of total internal volume.
The gear pairs have an efficiency of 99%. The hydrualic pumpand motors
can be approximated as having a friction torque equal to a constant plus an
added torque proportional to speed; the constant equals aD and the linear
resistance equals bD, where D is the maximumvolumetric displacement and
a = 20 lb/in 2, b = 0.50 lb s/in 2. Theyalso suffer leakage Correspondingto a
constant leakage resistance of c/D, wherec = 400 lb s/in ~. Note that since one
side of each machineis at the pressure of the reservoir, or zero psig, there is no
operational difference betweeninternal and external leakage.
The work can proceed in the following phases. You maybe asked to work
in a small group.

(a) Modelthe system with a bond graph, neglecting the gear losses and
the auxiliary powerconsumption. Consider the accumulator to be a sim-
ple nonlinear compliance, and neglect minor inertances and compliances.
Evaluate all parameters or functions in your model except for the key
accumulator volumeand machine volumetric displacements.
(b) Choose an operating torque for the engine and nominal operating
pressure and charging pressure for the accumulator. Use this information,
plus other information given above, to choose tentatively the control of
the volumetric displacement of the pumpand its maximum value.
(c) The engine speed ~ is controlled by the fuel throttle. Whenthe
accumulator pressure is low, the engine should be .driven fast, and when
it is high, the engine should idle. Choosean automatic control function
that relates the engine speed to the pressure.
(d) Choosea maximum desired thrust on the vehicle, and with information
developed earlier choose a tentative maximum volumetric displacement of
the motors (or the sum of their displacements).
(e) Developa computersimulation of the vehicle, and demonstrate its
behavior starting from rest on a level road with maximum
thrust and a full
accumulator. Youwill have to assume somevolumefor the accumulator,
and mayprefer to keep it large enough so it doesn’t empty before the
vehicle reaches highwayspeeds. (This avoids your having to change the
model.)
(f) Simulate, as you think appropriate, various schedules of acceleration,
braking and hill climbing, in order to refine your tentative choices for the
volume of the accumulator and the maximumdisplacements of the pump
and motors.
696 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

(g) Repeat the steps above, including the consideration of the power loss
to the accessories and the friction in the gears.

(h) Report your results according to whatever instructions are given

you. Include a discussion on the merits and demerits of the basic scheme.

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 9.4

Vt is the volumeof the water in the tank.

~ !Q,----~Rt Qt is the volume flow rate out from the tank; Qt = -~t.
G -v~ Ct = At/pg, where At is the tank area.

F
to bowl
R is the nonlinear resistance to the flow, which occurs
largely in the small orificies aroundthe rim of the bowl.

The flow Qt enters the bowl, which has a c0m-

’pliance such that Pb = Pb(Vb) is not linear.
This pressure equals the pressure due to the re-
sistance of the outlet channel, Rb, plus the pres-
sure due to the inertance of the outlet channel,
I, minus the constant siphon head, pgh. Rb
I is likely close to a nonlinear resistance of the
Bernoulli type.

Guided Problem 9.5

1-2,
9.3. NONCONSERVATIVE COUPLERS 697

dql 1 1 dpl 1
d’-~ = R1C1ql + -~-[~ei dt - C~ q~ e
dq2 1 dp~ 1
d-~- = e~ -
dqa 1

Setting the flow on the virtual complianceequal to zero,

11 12 R~ -~ -ei + ~ + ~ -e
Solvingfor e,
T2 [ql dFq3 ( R2)pl "2p21

e = T,-~ T. 2 -~-~l - ei Ca+ R3+~’~2~ "~"~+~"~’~’~j

T~ R~ p~ R~
This givese~- T, + Tz -e~ + ql+ q~ ~ + R~ - ~ I~ T~Tz
~ ~
These terms ~e substituted into the differential equations ~bove.

9.3 Nonconservative Couplers

Engineers often wish to model highly complex two-port devices in an approxi-
mate summaryfashion, without reticulating them into a junction structure with
one-port elements attached. Dynamic hydraulic machinery such as the pumps
and turbines pictured in Fig. 9.12 are examples. One port is the mechanical
shaft; the other is the net fluid power with its commoninput and output flow
and its pressure rise or drop. This section considers general static rnodels of the
form
el el e2
~ STATIC 2-PORT e2. or --- Rs ~
ql q2 O~ ~2

in which Rf is called a two-port resistance field. The impeller pump will be

used as a case study.
698 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

Guidevanes

(a) radial-flow turbine (b) axial-flow turbine

(c) radial-flow (centrifugal) (d) bond graph

Fig~e 9.12: Examples of dynamic pumps and motors

Adapted from Engineering Applications of Fluid Mechanics
by J.C. Hunsaker and B.G. Ttightmire, copyright 1947,
with permission from The McGraw-Hill Companies
9.3. NONCONSERVATIVE COUPLERS 699

INDUCTION..~e~ ~P
i~ MI__M~_IMPELLER
PUMP LOAD
MOTOR

iQ~,-
~,,, ~o
Figure 9.13: Bond graph for impeller pump with dynamic source and load

9.3.1 Causal Relations

Four possible causal patterms are possible:

impedance e.b----~-Rf e.---~ el = e2

ql
(9.8a)
el ~Rf~ e2
admittance

(9.8b)
immittance : e.~---~-R 1 ~ el = el(ol,e~);
ql q2
(9.8c)
adpedance: e,-~-~---~Rs e,---~-~--I 01 = e2 =e2(e1,02)
ql q~
(9.8d)

The environment of the coupler determines which causal pattern to use. As an

example, consider an induction motor driving an impeller pump which in turn
forces water through a load:

M P
IND. MOTOR
~ - IMPELLER PUMP Q - HYD. LOAD
If transient behavior is of interest, the inertia of the motor and the attached
pump rotor, and the inertia of the fluid being pumpedis important. This gives
the bond graph shown in Fig. 9.13. Application of integral causality shows that
the pump should be represented by the impedance causality given in equations
(9.8a). The manufacturer of the pump almost surely provides information
graphical form only.

9.3.2 Equilibrium
The determination of equilibrium is considered, as a first step, using graphical
characteristics. Each of the relationships within equations (9.8) can be gen-
eralized to the form R(Xl,X2,X3) = 0, where R can be read as "relation of."
Represented graphicMly, this means a family of characteristics; one variable
is plotted on the abcissas, another on the ordinate, while the third becomes
a discrete parameter. Twosuch families of curves are needed to characterize
700 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

the pump. There are manychoices, any of which is acceptable for purposes
of finding equilibrium. Twochoices are particularly convenient, however,since
they match with the ways the characteristics of the motor and the load are
represented.
Youare accustomedto representing a hydraulic load with a pressure-flow
(P - Q) characteristic; presumethe load curve is as plotted in part (a) of
9.14. Similarly, you are accustomedto representing the motor with a torque-
speed (M- ~) characteristic; presumethe motorcharacteristic is as plotted
part (b) of the figure.
The same coordinates can be used to represent the pump. The first of
these therefore is either R1(P, Q, ~) = 0 or R1 (P, q, M)= 0; the formeris
-convent!onial, and is shownin part (a) of Fig. 9.14. The secondof these is either
R2(M,¢,Q) = 0 or R2(M,~b,P) = 0; the former is closer to most commonly
available information, and is shownin part (b) of the figure.
The resulting equilibrium state for the system can be found in two steps.
First, the intersections of the load characteristic with the various P - Q curves
are cross-plotted onto the M- ~ plot, as shownby the dashed line. Second,the
equilibriumis noted as the intersection of this line and the motorcharacteristic,
as noted by the cross. This result also is cross-plotted onto the P - Q plot, as
shownby the cross there. This is a general procedure, whichapplies to finding
the equilibriumof any two-port device that connectsa source to a resistive load.
Pumpmanufacturers rarely report characteristics in a form as complete as
those given in Fig. 9.14: unfortunately. Morelikely, they give a single P-Qcurve
for a particular speed ¢, and a single M- ~ curve for a particular flow Q. They
also maygive results on efficiency, althoughthis informationis redundant,as will
be shown.Althoughthis situation is not particularly defensible, at least without
further explanation, it results from the manufacturer’simplicit assumptionthat
the application engineer can very closely extrapolate the given information. How
can you rise to this challenge without using a more specialized approach than
necessary? As a systems engineer you cannot be expected to becomeexpert on
all types of engineeringdevices.

9.3.3 Dimensional Analysis

It will be assumedthat the inlet pressure ("suction head") is high enough

preclude cavitation, and that bearing friction is negligible. For a set of geomet-
rically similar pumpsof different sizes, any characteristic length (typically the
diameterof the impeller), the fluid density p and the viscosity # are dimensional
parameters that may need to be combined with the variables P, Q and ~ to
define the state. Thusthe impedancerelation of equation (9.8a) becomes

M=M(~,Q,L,p,#), (9.9a)

P = P(~, Q, L, p, #). (9.9b)

9.3. NONCONSERVATIVE COUPLERS 701

120

100
P, PS~o

60

40

20

0
0 I00 200 300 400
Q, in3/s
(a) pressure-flowcharacteristics

160
M,

120

80
k,,/foo
-
50
40

i I I
0 20z 40z 60z
~, rad/s
(b) torque-speedcharacteristics

Figure 9.14: Steady-state matching of motor, impeller pumpand load

702 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

Various nondimensional groups can be formed from the dimensional variables

and parameters. Perhaps the most useful is

M
(9.10a)
( Q pQ)
P pQ)
(LQ--~ (9.10b)

where f and g represent as yet unknownfunctions of their two arguments. With

this representation the results should apply regardless of the size of the pump
or the density or viscosity of the fluid.
The group pQ/L#is a Reynoldsnumber, which is proportional to .the ratio
of forces due to inertia to the forces due to viscosity. Mostfluid machineryis
operated at so large a Reynoldsnumber, that is so large a flow or so small a
viscosity, etc., that forces due ~o viscosity are virtually negligible. Assuming
this applies to the pump,equations (9.10) specialize to the case of Eulerian
similitude:

pLS~ ’

P , Q

Here, f~ and g~ represent Nnctions of a single variable or the group

which often is called the flow eoe~cient of the pump. The flow coe~cient
is proportional to the ratio of the velocity of the fluid at somelocation to the
velocity of the tip (for example)of the impeller.
The e~ciency of the pump,~, is the ratio of the output powerto the input
power, or
PQ-(Q/L~)g’(Q/L~) :h( Q ). (9.12)

Therefore, if a manufacturergives you just two curves or equations, each inter-

pretable in terms of any two of the three equations (9.11a), (9.11b) or (9.12),
you can deduce the third curve or equation directly, and go on to plot the two
families of curves in Fig. 9.14 and the equations in any of the forms above.
The relations used in the present case are given in Fig. 9.15. The characteristic
~.
length used in Fig. 9.14 is L = 1 ft, and the fluid density is p = 1.94 lb s~/ft

9.3.4 Dynamic Simulation

For the unsteady case of Fig. 9.13, the operating points on the motorcharacter-
istic and the pumpcharacteristic (in part (b) of Fig. 9.14) no longer coincide;
one is directly abovethe other, as required by the left-hand 1-junction, and the
difference is the momentthat accelerates or decelerates the motor. Similarly,
the operating points on the load characteristic and the pumpcharacteristic (in
part (a)) no longer coincide; one is directly above the other (because of
9.3. NONCONSERVATIVE COUPLERS 703

1.6

1.2

0.~

0.4
~ ~ ~,, 2lb s

0 I I I I I I
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Q/L3~b
Figure 9.15: Dimensionlessbehavior of impeller pumpassumingEulerian simil-
itude

right-hand 1-junction), and the difference is the pressure causing the fluid to
accelerate.
The assumptionof Eulerian similitude allows ~he state differential equations
to be written with the only nonlinear functions for the pumpbeing the f’ and
g’ of equation (9.11). The causMstrokes dictate

--= M= - pLS~)~_f,( O (9.13a)

dt

’( Q )-P~(Q). (9.13b)

The prominenceof Q and ~ on the right sides of these equations suggests their
use as the state v~riables in place of Pm= Im~ ~nd pQ = IQQ. Thus the
equations become
d~_dt I,,~I [Mm(~b)-pL5~b~f’(LQ-~o) ’ ] (9.14a)

dQ- I [pL2~bZ
g’ (L-~)-PR(Q)]dt
IQ . (9.14b)

This result is implemented for a starting transient in Fig. 9.16. The following
equations are used to represent the static characteristics of the motor, pumpand
load, whichconformclosely to the plotted characteristics in Figs. 9.14 and 9.15:
4 - Ms~
Mm~-~ -/~/o + ~¢1~- M4~ ~ - ~,
M~ (9.15a)
4
q ~ (Q/L3~) x 10 (9.15b)
 704 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

250

2OO

150

100

50

0 ~ I I I ~ I I | I
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
t, seconds
Figure 9.16: Simulation of start-up of impeller pumpsystem

.g’ = 0.174 - 0.000328q2 _ 0.0000281q3, (9.15c)

y = 0.2 - 0.0236q + 0.00158q2 _ 0.000053q4, (9.15d)
f’= qg-~’ -4
x 10 (9.15e)

PR=Po+P2Q2, Po=301b/in 2, P’2=Sx10 -41bs2/ins, (9.15f)

-61bins4,
M0=601bin, Ml=l.21bins, M4=1.453x10
MD=-1.82x10-slbins5, M6 =6.35x 10-111bins6. (9.15g)
Theother parametersare taken as L -- 1 ft, p = 1.94 lb.s2/ft 2, Im = 20.05 lb’ft’s
and IQ = 8310lb.s-~/ft ~. (The last numbercorresponds to a uniform channel of
cross-sectional area 0.007 ft 2 and length 30 ft, whichby itself producesa load
characteristic close to that given.)
The simulation assumesthat fluid is not allowedto flow in the reverse direc-
tion, presumablythrough the use of a check valve. Therefore the flow remains at
zero until the rotor has sufficient speedto overcomethe static back pressure of
60 psi. Thereafter, the flow accelerates very rapidly, and the equilbrium found
previously is reached in less than 1.5 secondsfrom the time the motoris started.

9.3.5 Linear Couplers

A linear static coupler, defined in terms of variables that are symmetricwith
respect to the coupler,
el R I e2.’-~’~--,
~1 q2
9.3. NONCONSERVATIVE COUPLERS 705

can be represented by an impedance matrix Z or an admittance matrix

Y:

This element also is known as a two-port resistance field, explaining the tra-
ditional subscript f.
In order to represent the linear static coupler by a more detailed bond graph,
it is convenient to introduce a special two-port resistance element called the
mutual resistance, which is designated here as R12:

e~ R12 ~ e2 el = R1~4~, e2 = R1241. (9.17)

This appears to be very similar to the gyrator:

e~ G ~ el = G~2, e2 = G4i. (9.18)

0~ q2

The gyrator, however, has anti-symmet~c power conventions on its two bonds,
whereas the mutuM resistance has symmetric power conventions. This is a
radical difference, since it makes the gyrator conserve energy and the mutual
resistance consume the power

P = e~ + e~2 = 2R~24~. (9.19)

The mutual resistance is strictly symmetric with respect to its two ports; the
gyrator is strictly anti-symmetric.
The linear static coupler now c~ be represented as shown in part (b) of Fig.
9.17, from which you can see that

el -~ Rill q- (R12 q- G)O2, (9.20a)

e~ -- R2~2+ (RI~. - G)~I, (9.205)

or

Z= R12 I R1
- G
RI~ + G]
R2 " (9.21)

Three special categories of this coupler deserve attention. The reciprocal

coupler, or coupler that satisfies reciprocity, has transfer impedances Z12
and Z~ that equal one another. This happens if and only if

G = 0, (9.22)

so the gyrator is absent. The mutual resistance is inherently reciprocal, whereas

the gyrator is not. Wholeclasses of systems, including ordinary electric circuits,
are reciprocal (which shows why gyrators never are needed to model ordinary
electric circuits).
706 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

(a) symbol for two-port

resistive field

G
(b) reticulation using mutual
resistance element

R
2

(c) reticulation using basic

elements only

Figure 9.17: Representations of the general linear static coupler

Symmetric Couplers are by definition unchanged if they are reversed end-

for-end. Thus, not only are their transfer impedances equal to one another, the
self-impedances Zll and Z22 also equal one another, or

G = 0, RI = Re. (9.23)
Symmetrytherefore imposes reciprocity, but not vice-versa.
The third category is the passive coupler, defined so that it never generates
energy. The power of the general linear static coupler is

79 ----- elO~q- e_9~_9---- [R1~1+ (R12q- G)~_9]~1

+ [/~2~2q- (~12--
= R~4~ 2 + 2R~z4102+ R.,4.~. (9.24)

This is never negative, regardless of the values of 41 and 42, if and only if 2

R~ _> 0, n2 _> O, R12 _< ~ (9.25)

Violating the third condition gives 79 < 0 for ~1 = -42- Note that the presence
of the gyrator has no effect on passivity, which is to be expected since the gyrator
is inherently conservative.
The bond graph of part (c) of Fig. 9.17 is equivalent to that of part (a),
avoids the use of the mutual resistance. The equivalence can be established and
the proper values of T and R1~ found by equating the power dissipation in the
two models:
2
R~O~+ 2R12~1~2+ R.~O~= RI’0~ + R.~(T(I1 02)
= (Ra’ + R.~T2)O~+ 2TR.~,~aO.~+ R~.(I~.. (9.26)
2Stated most succinctly, passivity applies if and only if the matrix Z is positive semi-
definite.
9.3. NONCONSERVATIVE COUPLERS 707

The result is
T = R12/R2, (9.27a)
RI’ = RI - Rift/R2. (9.27b)
Note that the conditions for passivity become simply

R~_> o, R2_> o, (9.28)

which should be apparent from the bond graph.

9.3.6 Summary
A general static coupler can be characterized by two relations, each of which
relates a different set of three of the four effort and flow variables. Each relation
can be represented graphically as a family of curves. There are four causal inter-
pretations, depending on which pair of variables is considered as independent,
leaving the other pair as dependent. The determination of equilibrium and the
unsteady behavior of models with static couplers has been illustrated.
The four causal interpretations can be represented by 2 × 2 matrices of con-
stants if the model is linear and unbiased. (There also are two acausal trans-
mission matrices, as developed in Guided Problem 9.6.) Many linear couplers
are reciprocal, which means that their two transfer impedances or two transfer
admittances are equal. Examples include all two-port electric circuits comprised
of linear components are examples. A linear coupler is symmetric, end-for-end,
if it is reciprocal and its two self-impedances or two self-admittances are equal.
A static coupler is passive if it cannot generate power. All these conditions can
be represented as special cases of the bond-graph models given in Fig. 9.17.
Dimensional analysis is a powerful tool for deducing what format or formats
can be used to characterize a couplex static coupler, depending on the knowledge
of what parameters and variables are relevant.

Guided Problem 9.6

This problem investigates the characteristics of a fairly general nonlinear cou-
pler, and its matching to a source and load.
A small boat is driven by a propeller attached directly to the drive shaft of
an IC engine. The characteristics of a family of geometrically similar propellers
are plotted in Fig. 9.18 part (a). Theefficiency of the propeller is ~/, its diameter
is d, the shaft has momentMand angular velocity ~, the boat travels at velocity
v and the water has density p = 1.94 lb s2/ft 4. The characteristic of the engine
at full throttle is given in part (b) of the figure; the torque may be assumed
be proportional to the percent throttle. The engine speed should not be allowed
to exceed 450 rad/s in order not to produce excessive wear. The drag of the
boat Fd, which includes a planing phenomenon,is given in part (c) of the figure.
(a) Estimate the diameter of the propeller within the given family which
gives maximumsteady speed of the boat, and determine this speed and
the angular velocity of the shaft.
708 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

1.1

~ ___ 100____9.0._M_~
0.9
(a) propeller
characteristics
0.7

0.5

0.3 I I I I I
0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18

120

(b) engine 80
characteristics M
ft-lb
40

0 I i I I I i I
0 100 200 300 400
~, rad/s

500
400
force, Fd
lbs. 300
(c) drag force 200
of boat
100
0
10 20 30 40 50
speed,v, ft/s

Figure 9.18: Guided Problem 9.6

9.3. NONCONSERVATIVE COUPLERS 709

(b) Superimpose on part (c) of the figure sketch-plots of the thrust force
Ft vs. velocity for both full and one-half throttle, assuming the diameter
found in part (a). (Identify three or four points for each curve.
purpose is to enable investigations of other loading conditions, such as
occur during acceleration.) Also, estimate the steady speed that results
for one-half throttle.

(c) Comment on whether the family of propellers described seems ap-

propriate for the particular boat. (Alternative shapes are available with
different ratios of the "pitch" to the diameter.) Also, might there be some
merit in choosing a larger or smaller diameter propeller within the given
family? Explain.

Suggested Steps:

If the family of propellers described is close to appropriate, the boat will

have maximumspeed when the engine produces maximumpower or some-
thing very close to it. Determine the associated torque and angular veloc-
ity. Also, the efficiency of the propeller should not deviate radically from
its maximum.

Get a rough idea of how fast the boat might go by assuming that the
efficiency is maximizedwhen the velocity is maximized. Do this by finding
the corresponding value of ¢ and #. From # you can get the tentative
diameter, and then from ¢ you can get the speed. Since you know the
power and the efficiency you also can find the thrust force. Plot this point
on the force-velocity diagram. Is the point near the actual drag-speed
characteristic? If so, you are close to a solution; if the deviation is very
great the proposed family of propellers likely is inappropriate.

Choose an additional two or three values of ¢, and tabulate the corre-

sponding values of #, d, v, r/and thereby the thrust force Ft. Plot these
forces on the force-speed diagram and find the desired solution at the
intersection with the drag curve. Use interpolation to find the diameter.

Choose three or four points on the each of the two engine characteristics.
For the chosen diameter, tabulate the consequent values of #, and thereby
the corresponding values of ¢ and z/. This should give the points to plot on
the force-speed diagram, and the steady-state speed for one-half throttle.
Do the results suggest that a hysteresis phenomenonexists for some range
of throttle positions?

To answer the second question in part (c), consider the fuel consump-
tion and the possible need to travel frequently at speeds slower than the
maximum.Does this suggest a different strategy for optimization?
710 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

e~ e2 e3 e4 e5
~ 1 ~ LINEAR COUPLER ~ G ~. 0 ~.

R2

Figure 9.19: Cascade of static elements for Guided Problem 9.7

Guided Problem 9.7

This problem applies the acausal transmission matrix, introduced in Chapter 2,
to the linear static coupler. It is particularly useful when one wishes to reduce
a cascade comprising a coupler and one or more other elements.
Recall that the transmission matrix is defined as follows; note in particular
that unlike the causal matrices above, the power conventions of the two bonds
are anti-symmetrical:

Find the four elements of the transmission matrix in terms of the four elements
of the impedance matrix. Also, find the criteria for reciprocity and for symmetry
in terms of the elements of the transmission matrix. Finally, find the overall
transmission matrix for the cascade shown in Fig. 9.19.

Suggested Steps:

Expand the matrix relations for the impedance matrix and the transmis-
sion matrix into scalar algebraic equations. Change the sign of ~.) on one
of these, so the equations refer to the same variables despite the different
directions of the power conventions on the right-hand bonds.

Compare the equations of step 1 to find the elements of the transmission

matrix in terms of the elements of the impedance matrix. (You also might
wish to do the inverse, and keep both results on file for future use.)

To find the criterion for reciprocity in terms of the elements of the trans-
mission matrix, define the determinant of the transmission matrix as A,
evaluate it in terms of the elements of the impedance matrix, and substi-
tute the condition for reciprocity.

To find the criterion for symmetry, note that reciprocity must apply and
that T~I --- T22. Alternatively, invert the transmission matrix, and change
the signs of the two flows in the result. Since a symmetric system looks
the same when inverted end-for-end, setting the new transmission matrix
equal to the original transmission matrix gives the criteria for symmetry.
9.3. NONCONSERVATIVE COUPLERS 711

5. Find the tranmission matrices of the combinations of elements on either

side of the coupler element in Fig. 9.19.

6. Multiply the three transmission matrices, in the same left-to-right order

in which they appear, to get the overall transmission matrix. (Note that
one could, if desired, convert the result back to impedance matrix form.)

PROBLEMS

9.23 Assume that the load of the system shown and analyzed in Fig. 9.14 (p.
701) and the associated text is a. nozzle located at some elevation above the
pump, as in our water sprinkler system. Assumethat the nozzle is lowered to
the same distance below the pump that originally it was above the pump. The
length of the piping, etc.~ is unchanged.

(a) Find the new equilibrium operation point, assuming no pulley drive,
using the induction motor.

(b) Write linearized equations for the characteristics of the motor, pump
and the load about the operating point.

9.24 A pulley drive is placed between the induction motor and the pump of
the system characterized in Fig. 9.14 (p. 701). Determine the pulley rati6 that
maximizes the flow, and plot the corresponding equilibrium state. Losses in the
pulley system may be neglected. Hint: Maximumflow means maximum power
into the pump.

9.25 A propulsion system for a boat comprises an IC engine, ducts and an

internal pump that takes water ingested in a forward-facing port and forces
it out, at a higher velocity, from a backward-facing port. (Thus, no external
propeller is needed, increasing safety and allowing operation in very shallow
water.) The system has been analyzed to give the characteristics plotted on the
next page. The engine is described, for the throttle position of interest, by the
indicated engine torque-speed characteristic. It is connected to the pmnpby a
gear pair, of undetermined ratio, that can be assumed to be frictionless. The
pumpand duct system is described by two families of curves, one relating the
pump-shaft torque, pump-shaft speed and craft speed, and the other relating
the propulsion force, craft speed and shaft speed. The drag of the boat is
represented by its own force-speed characteristic.

Determine the maximumspeed that the boat can go, and the corresponding
gear ratio. You might start by drawing a bond-graph model.
712 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

600 ~

500

200

thrust and drag vs. speed

7O

60
M
50
ft lbs
40

30

2O

10

400 500 600

~, rad/s
pumptorque vs. pumpspeed, and engine torque vs. engine speed
9.3. NONCONSERK&TIVE COUPLERS 713

9.26 The characteristics of the components of the system

e ~//r 2-PORT
#1~...~.~.
e1 [1~’"-.-~0 e~._..,~__~
~ 0 ~ 2-PORT #2 ~q~ q2

1-PORT

are plotted below. Find the characteristics for the overall system. (It is sug-
gested that you sketch with the aid of tracing paper.)

ec
. e2=O
0/l j;2 =2

/_.,-/-:7,
.~c for ~ ¢C
~,-~Jc for ------

9.27 A standard open-center symmetric hydraulic spool valve is connected to

a symmetric hydraulic ram as shown on the next page. The pressure from the
2.
power supply is fixed at 1500 psi, and the annular area of the ram is 2 in
The differential pressure across the two components is P, the flow is Q and
displacements of the spool and ram from their centered positions are y and x,
respectively. The position of the spool depends on the balance of an applied
force Fs and a spring-like flow-induced reaction force in the valve, which acts
like a spring with a stiffness of 379 lb/in. The pressure-flow characteristics of
the valve and the load are plotted below. (Note: The valve is shown at about
two-thirds of full scale, whereas the ram is shownat only one-third of full scale.)

(a) Draw a bond graph for the system, using the word element SPOOL
VALVEfor the valve. Include the fact that Fs depends only on y (and
vice-versa).
714 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

(b) Find the equilibrium velocity ~ and force F for the spool force F8
0.68 lb.
(c) Linearize the characteristics for small perturbations Fs* about the equi-
librium. Find the resulting motion of the load if its effective mass corre-
sponds to a weight of 1000 lbs and F~* = 0.1sin20t lbs, where t is in
seconds.

pump
,,
to sump
y=30×lO "~ in

~ ,-6
-1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500
P1-P2, psi

9.28 For the linear coupler represented by the three impedance matrices below,

(i) Z= [21 ~] (ii)Z= [20 ‘ (ii i)Z= [23 ~]

(a) Determine whether the systems are reciprocal, passive and/or sym-
metric.
(b) If the systems are electric circuits, state whether they could comprise
a network of resistors, or a network of resistors with a voltage amplifier or
power supply.
9.3, NONCONSERVATIVE COUPLERS 715

(c) Find the parameters of the equivalent bond graph with a mutual re-
sistance, as shownin part(b) of Fig. 9.17 (p. 706).

(d) Find the parameters of the equivalent bond graphs with basic elements,
as shown in part (c) of Fig. 9.17.

9.29 Linear two-port systems have been described in terms of the transmission
matrix T, the impedance matrix Z and the admittance matrix Y. Following
the causal definitions given in equation (9.8) (p. 699), an immitance matrix
and adpedance matrix L also can be defined.

(a) Relate the variables of a linear two-port element by means of (i)

immitance matrix, and (ii) the adpedance matrix.

(b) For each of the four combinations of two-port elements below, one
of the four types of causal matrix simply sum to give the overall causal
matrix of the same type. Determine which matrix applies in each case.

...,...4.2-PORT #1 ~
-~--- 1 ---.-- 0 ~ 2-PORT # 1 ~ 0 ~
(i) ~2-PORT #2 (ii) ~2-PORT #2

-----,.-- 1 .......~2-PORT #1 ~ ~ 0 ..,....~2-PORT #1

aii) ~2-PORT #2 ~ 0 ~ (iv) "~2-PORT #2

(c) Various transformations relate the transmission and causal matrices.

As an example, determine the elements of the immitance matrix in terms
of the elements of the transmission matrix. Assumeall power conventions
are directed from left to right.

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 9.6
1. The maximum en.gine power occurs at or very close to its maximum allowable
speed, at which ¢ = 450 rad/s, M= 88 ft-lb. The maximum efficiency of the
engine is about r/-- 0.708. (Numerical values in this solution were determined
by carefully scaling a blown-upcopy of the given plots.)
1000~1
2. ¢---- v-~=0.14; #_= 2 --0.688.
de pdS~
For the conditions of maximum engine power, therefore,

k,~" " ] = 0.688 x1.94 x (450) 2. =0.799ft=9.59in.

v = 0.14 x 0.799 x 450 = 50.3 ft/s.
716 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

0.708 x 450 x 88 = 557 lb.

50.3
This point is plotted below, and is seen to be close to the load curve but not
to lie onit.

pointsfromstep 3: *
~ full throttle
pointsfromstep 4:
,x 500 .......... point
x from step 2-~-~.~

400 half throttle

force,
e F
lbs. 300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
speed,v, ft/s
The case above is given as the first row in the table below:

¢ ~
# = 0.224/d
0.14 0.688 0.7990 50.34 0.708 557
0.12 0.835 0.7686 41.50 0.687 656
0.15 0.600 0.8211 55,42 0.685 490
0.16 0.505 0.8499 61,19 0.639 414

Connectingthe four points on the plot showsa solution at about v = 54.4 ft/s,
from whichFt ~_ 505 lb,d = 0.8166 ft, ¢ _~ 0.148, # ~ 0.617.

Using d = 0.8166 ft mad choosing three different engine speeds for the two
throttle conditions,

~, rad/s i M, ft-lb ¢ v, ~/s F~, lbs

450 88 0.6171 0.148 0.694 54.4 505.2
44 0.3085 0.1735 0.512 63.76 159.0
400 98 0.8698 0.1145 0.675 37.40 707.5
49 0.4349 0.1661 0.599 54.25 216.4
350 0.6202 0.1478 0.695 42.24 308.1
3OO 0.8970 0.1104 0.661 27.05 416.8

These points also are plotted on the force-speed diagram above to give thrust-
speed characteristics for the two throttle conditions. The equilibrium speed
for half-throttle is about 44.3 ft/s. It can be seen that a similar characteristic
for somewhatless than half throttle would give three equilibrium speeds; the
outer two are stable and the center is unstable. This indicates a distinct
hysteresis; no speed in the range betweenabout 25 to 35 feet per second could
be maintained in steady-state.
9.3. NONCONSERVATIVE COUPLERS 717

Thefuel efficiency of the engineis greatest at distinctly less than full throttle.
Whenthe consideration of miles per gallon of fuel is of considerable concern,
therefore, one might prefer to emphasizeperformance at less than full speed.
This implies shifting the speed at which the propeller has maximum efficiency
to distinctly less than full speed, whichcan be done by using a smaller diameter
propeller. Unfortunately, however, this can require the engine to exceed its
desirable maximumspeed, causing excessive wear. A compromise could be
sought, but it is hard to beat a propeller diameter for which maximum engine
speed produces maximum boat speed. The only very practical way to increase
et~iciency at the lower speeds would be to change the style of the propeller,
which largely meanschanging its pitch-to-diameter ratio. (The given family of
propellers has a nominalratio of 1:1.)

Guided Problem 9.7

1. Thetransmission matrix relation gives el = Tile~ + T12(1", (1)
~1 = Tzlee + T22~ (2)
The impedancerelation, using the same ~ as above, is
e~ = Z1~1+ Z~(-~) (3)
ee = Z~Q~+ Z~e(-~e) (4)
1 Zze .
2. Equation (4) can be rewritten ~ ~l = --e2Z~, + --Z~ q2 (5)
Comp~ing equations (2) and (5): T~ 1/ Z~; T~ = Z~/Z:~ (6)
Substitution of equation (5) into equation (3) gives
Z:~. ]
Z~ J
which when compared to equation (1) reveals Z~= Z~:
T~I = ~; T~ Z~ Z~z.

3. Reciprocity applies when 1 = Z~ = 1 (Z~Z~

z~ z~ ~ ~ T~
_ Z~ Z~ T~ = T~,T~ - T~T:~ = a. ¯
Z~ Z~ Z~,
4. For symmetry, A = 1 and T~l = Tz2.
This can be derived by inverting the transmission matrix to give

and changingthe signs of the two flows to give

The system is symmetricif ~d only if this transmission matrix relation, which

describes right-to-left behavior, equals the original transmission matrix rela-
tion, which describes left-to-right behavior. The criterion therefore is A = 1
and T22 = T~, ~ given above.
718 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

9.4 Irreversible Couplers and Thermal Systems

An energy bond is a reversible coupler; energy can flow is either direction with-
out degradation as well as loss. The same is true of transformers and gyrators,
although this requirement has not been emphasized previously. The only ir-
reversible elements we have considered are resistances. Energy "dissipated" in
a resistance does not vanish, of course, it is transformed into thermal form,
and thermal energy has yet to be considered. This omission is rectified in this
section.
Thermal energy is qualitatively different from the gravity, elastic, kinetic,
electrostatic and electromagnetic energies considered thus far. Rather than be-
ing based on macroscopic coherent generalized displacements or velocities, it is
based on the microscopic incoherent (random) motions of atoms and molecules.
As a result, engineering devices can convert thermal energy only partly to the
other forms of energy, as described by the second law of thermodynamics and
the concept of irreversibility. On the other hand, the other forms are readily
convertable to thermal energy. Since energy is conserved, as expressed by the
first law of thermodynamics, this means that thermal energy has been excluded
from the energy bookkeeping. That exclusion sometimes is unacceptable, par-
ticularly if you are interested in temperatures, or if temperature affects other
key parameters.
Irreversibilities are introduced here with the examples of heat conduction
and friction. The energy fluxes in these cases are analogous to the other types
of power flows in that they can be represented by simple bonds with a single
effort and a single flow. The introduction of mass transfer complicates the
representation, however; this subject is deferred to Chapter 12.

9.4.1 Effort and Flow Variables

A quantity of heat is labeled as Q in most thermodynamicstexts; here the script

Q is used to distinguish it from the volume flow rate of a fluid. The rate of heat
transfer, which is an energy flux a with the dimensions of power, is given as ~.
The first need is to identify the effort or generalized force associated with
heat conduction. Stop a moment before reading the next paragraph and try
to determine the proper physical variable. If you succeed your learning will be
enhanced.
3Theterm flux implies per unit time, and also usually meansper unit area. In this text
the latter is dropped;the energyflux refers to the rate of energytransfer for an entire macro
bond.
9.4. IRREVERSIBLE COUPLERS AND THERMAL SYSTEMS 719

The correct answer is absolute temperature, which is indicated herein with

the symbol 8, since T is already dedicated to the moduli of transformers. (8
is also used frequently in the literature to indicate temperature.) Temperature
has precisely the characteristics of an effort: it is the traditional "force" driving
the energy flux, and it is a symmetric scalar with respect to the control surface.
The second needed identification is tougher. What variable is the flow or
generalized velocity? This time you might like to get a pencil and some paper
and recall the definition of entropy and the relationship between effort, fiow and
power before reading on. The reward can be well worth the trouble.
The flow is the ratio of the energy flux Q to the absolute temperature 0,
or (dQ/dt)/O. However, recall that the change of entropy of a system due to a
reversible transfer of heat ~Q is

dS = --. (9.29)

The flow is therefore the rate of entropy transfer, dS/dt, due to the heat con-
duction. This is called the entropy flux due to heat conduction, and is labeled
~, since the entropy gained by one system because of its contact with another
system is lost by that other system. Thus the heat flux ~ is

~ = 0~. (9.30)

The symbols 0 and ~ are entered in the updated table of efforts and flows given
as Table 9.1. (A refinement appears in the use of the term a in the first two
entries of the table. This is a coefficient equal or greater than 1 which can
recognize the effect of non-square velocity profiles.)

9.4.2 Heat Conduction

Heat conduction associated with a finite temperature drop is irreversible, and

generates entropy. To see in simple terms how this happens, and to introduce
a new entropy-producing bond graph element, consider the uniform slab of
material shown in Fig. 9.20 through which a steady flux of heat passes. The
heat flux entering one face equals the heat flux leaving the other, so that

(9.31)

which gives an entropy generation rate of

(9.32)

This is always non-negative, since the sign of ~1 is the same as.the sign of 01-02.
In the linear special case, for example,

01~1 =02~2 = n(o1 -02), (9.33)

 720 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

Table 9.1 Effort and Flow Analogies (Extended)

generalized force generalized velocity
or effort, e or flow, 0
Fluid, incompressible
general pu + P + apv2 /2 + pgz Q
less thermal P + apv’2 /2 + pgz Q
approximate P Q
micro-bond any of above v
Mechanical, longitudinal
general Fc + pAv2/2 v =~
approximate Fc v =~
micro-bond o + pv2 /2 v =~
Mechanical, transverse
rotation M ~
translation (shear) Fs v,
micro-bond T V~
Electric circuit e i
Thermal, conduction t? ~

wherethe constant H is knownas a coefficient of heat conductance. This gives

2~2-~ =H(0~-02) (9.34)

0102 ’
which showsan irreversibility that grows with the square of the temperature
difference.
Entropy is generated throughout the slab. Energy storage and energy dis-
sipation, whenthey occur, also are distributed spatially. Nevertheless, lumped
modelsare most commonly used for thermal as well as other systems, for reasons
of computationalsimplicity. Only spatial integrals of the extensive properties
are represented in lumped models. The resistance element, ~R, is an exam-
ple. The problem of approximating continuous phenomenaby lumpedmodels is
discussed in more detail in Section 10.1, and distributed parameter models
are discussed in Chapter 11.

9.4.3 The Irreversibility Coupler

The energy-conservative but entropy-generating lumped general irreversible
coupler is nowintroduced. Traditionally represented as
el e2
~RS.’~-=--__~
01 q2

¯ this element often is called simply "the RS coupler." Whenapplied to heat

transfer, as indicated in Fig. 9.20, el and e2 are the temperatures 01 and 0e,
and 01 and 02 are the entropy fluxes ~1 and ~2, respectively.
9.4. IRREVERSIBLE COUPLERS AND THERMAL SYSTEMS 721

equal heat fluxes

in and out

temperature, 0O:

CONDUCTING
S~B
O~,.-- RS O~

Figure 9.20: Steady heat conduction and the RS element

The RS coupler is defined partly as a static coupler that conserves but does
not store energy; the energyfluxes ea01and e202are equal. In this sense it is the
sameas the transformer element. It is very different in another sense, however;
the transformer is used exclusively to represent reversible behavior while the RS
coupler never represents reversibility except in the limit of zero energyflux. The
transformer is reversible simplybecause it is never used whena variable entropy
flux is involved. The same is true of gyrators. Therefore, the RS coupler is
alwaysused in place of a transformeror a gyrator whenevereither or both ports
have an essential entropy flux. In the specification of a particular RScoupler
it is necessary to insure that the second law of thermodynamicsis satisfied,
whichimplies that entropy never vanishes. In the case of heat conduction, the
constitutive relation in equation (9.33) satisfies this requirement,as revealed
the non-negative net entropy generation of equation (9.34).

9.4.4 Application to Friction

You can replace an R element with an RS coupler whenever you wish your
model to retain the energy converted to thermal forrn. A transformer or a
gyrator cannot be so used, because the flow on the output bond is an entropy
flux. A major application is the modelingof energy conversion to heat through
friction, as the followingexampleillustrates.
722 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

Example 9.10
A shaft is supported by a journal bearing having some friction. Heat con-
duction along the shaft is neglected, compared with the heat conduction
through the bearing support to the frame. The bearing support offers sig-
nificant resistance to heat flow, and the frame is at a knownenvironmental
temperature

al sistance
//////////0[//// R

Model the system with a bond graph, including the heat fluxes, and write the
corresponding equations. The resistance of the traditional bond graph model
with dissipation, showff’~bove right, can be approximated as a function of
the form R(¢), or moPe’accurately of the form R(~, Oj).

Solution: The bond graph opposite employs M~

the element RS1 to represent the irreversible
conversion of mechanical power to the thermal
form 0j~j, where 0~ is the temperature of the
journal. The element RS2 represents the sub- RS~
sequent heat conduction through the bearing
suppport to the frame, which is at tempera-
ture Be. This cascade of elements details the
reduction in the availability of the energy and
its effect on the environment.
The constitutive relation
s~
R= R(~)
implies that the frictional torque is independent of the thermal variables. In
this case,
2,
0e~e= 0~j = R~
so that if 8e and ~ are known, ~e can be calculated. Note that ~ never
can be negative; the second law is satisfied. If a thermal conductance H
between the journal and the environment (as in equation (9.33), p. 719)
known, then 0j and ~j can be calculated also.
If the friction in the journal depends significantly on the local tem-
perature (as it well might since fluid viscosity depends on temperature),
expressed as R = R(~, ~9~), the equations above still allow for the computa-
tion of the temperature 0j, the frictional torque, the heat transfer and the
entropy fluxes.
9.4. IRREVERSIBLE COUPLERS AND THERMAL SYSTEMS 723

~
RS RS
/
0

RS
!

(a) spatial configuration 041 (b) bond graph

Figure 9.21: Heat interaction between regions separated by partially insulating

interfaces

Seh

M IDEAL
"~ ~ MACHINE

Set

Figure 9.22: Ideal heat engine (IHE)

9.4.5 Use of 0- and 1-Junctions

A body can interact thermally with any number of other bodies, as suggested
in Fig. 9.21. This is recognized by use of a 0-junction, or constant-temperature
junction. On the other hand, a 1-junction rarely can be used for heat-conduction
bonds, since this would imply a principle of conservation of entropy, in contra-
diction to the second law of thermodynamics. The only exception to this would
be in the reticulation of a machine that is idealized as being reversible anyway.
You might in fact wish to create a three-port element to represent an ideal
heat engine (IHE), a favorite of thermodynamicists. Such an element is reticu-
lated in Fig. 9.22. The port is mechanical and has no entropy flux. The other
two are thermal with flows that are, identically, entropy fluxes. The requirement
of reversibility forces these two entropy fluxes to sumto zero. Alternatively, this
constraint can be shownexplicitly with the use of the 1-junction in the reticula-
tion shown in part (b) of the figure. The thermodynamic efficiency of the IHE
is

which agrees with the classical Carnot result.

724 CHAPTER 9. MODELS }~qTH STATIC COUPLERS

So S

(a) (b)

Figure 9.23: Thermalcharacteristic (equation (9.37))

An IHE with three or more thermal ports also can be defined; the sum of
the entropy flows is zero.

9.4.6 Thermal Compliance

The simplest modelfor thermodynamiccompliancerefers to a fixed mass; there
is no convection. Also, work interactions with the environmentare neglected,
whichimplies that either the volumeof the bodyis constant or its surrounding
pressure is negligible. This leaves only a heat transfer interaction, and justifies
use of the word "thermal" as opposed to the more general "thermodynamic."
This thermal complianceis represented by a standard one-port compliance:

¯ ~C
S
A constitutive relation exists betweenS and 8, as it does betweenthe effort
and generalized displacement of any one-port compliance. The most common
assumptionis a constant specific heat, c, so that

8 ds = du + P d(1/p) = du = cdO (9.36)

where u is the specific internal thermodynamicenergy and s is the specific
entropy. Solvingfor 8,
e(
0 S-
= S°)/rac
O0 (9.37)

where mis the massof the compliancesubstance and the subscript 0 refers to
an arbitrary reference state. This nonlinear relation is plotted in Fig. 9.23.
The linearized model

8-8o= (S-So) or A8= AS, C=-~-o, (9.38)

as shownin part (b) of the figure, can be used alternatively. This modelcor-
responds to a specific heat that is proportional to absolute temperature, that
is
c = CS/m, (9.39)
9.4. IRREVERSIBLE COUPLERS AND THERMAL SYSTEMS 725

10° =
cal W
g K bo graphit~.~
cm K
10~ = ~tainless:
-stainless
lO-3 A i0-2
/ steel

i~rosilicat~

lO-S
X ~ ~.~" glass

//
10 o
°10 10 10 101 102 8, K 103

(a) specific heat (b) thermal conductivity

Figure 9.24: Typical specific heats and thermal conductivities

Noblegases have constant specific heats, and the specific heats of liquids
tend to be nearly independentof temperature. Also, the specific heats of most
solids at moderate or high temperatures and of most other gases do not vary
rapidly with temperature. These substances therefore agree or comeclose to
agreeing with equation (9.37) for most practical purposes. Onthe other hand,
the specific heats of solids at cryogenic temperatures decrease radically with
decreasing temperature, even faster than the linear modelof equations (9.38)
and (9.39). Sometypical behavior is given in part (a) of Fig. 9.24.

SoIne typical data for solids showingradical sensitivity to temperatures in

the cryogenic range given in part (b) of Fig. 9.24. Suchdata is apt to be very
sensitive to impurities and the crystaline form.

There is no such element as a thermal inertance. One consequenceis that

purely thermal systems do not exhibit resonances.
726 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

Example 9.11
The case of a shaft with journal bearing with friction, given in Example
9.10, is now elaborated by including a path for heat conduction along the
shaft, represented crudely by a heat transfer coefficient and a environmental
temperature/93. The model also is made unsteady by including a lumped
thermal compliance for the bearing. The bearing support has a fixed tem-
perature 0.~. Represent this model with a bond graph. Then, annotate the
graph with causal strokes and designations of the efforts and flows, leading
finally to the associated differential equation(s).
Solution: The corresponding bond graph is

RS~

o ol

C
With the added causal strokes and annotations,

RS~
TR~2/O(S)
I 0 3~ I RS

C
The aSsociaged differential equation is

(s
~ -s°I
-Ha /me
1- ~ ; O = Ooe
d~ - O(S)

In general, the thermal conductances ~ and Ha and the specific heat c are
functions of the temperatures.
9.4. IRREVERSIBLE COUPLERS AND THERMAL SYSTEMS 727

(a) heat conduction (1o) thermal storage

Figure 9.25: Pseudo bond graphs for heat conduction

9.4.7 Pseudo Bond Graphs for Heat Conduction

The assumptions that both the specific heats and the thermal conductivities of
a system are invariant with temperature allow a striking computational simpli-
fication. This advantage exists, however, only if one substututes for the state
variable S the state variable Q. Karnopp and Rosenberg (citation on page 16)
represent this idea in the form of what they call a pseudo bond graph for
heat conduction.

A pseudo bond graph for heat passing through a thermal resistance is shown
in part (a) of Fig. 9.25. The heat flow, Q, equals the temperature difference,
81 - 82, divided by the resistance, R. A pseudo bond graph for thermal energy
storage is shown in part (b). The rate of change of temperature, {}, equals the
difference between the heat flow in and the heat flow out, Q~ - Qa, divided by the
thermal compliance, C, which in turn equals inc. Causal strokes can be applied
as with true bond graphs, and differential equations written with relative ease
even for fairly complex combinations of resistances and compliances. The bond
graphs and the associated equations still can be used if the thermal resistances
or compliances are fuctions of temperature, but the advantage over the true
bond graph is lost.

The designation pseudo recognizes that, unlike true bond graphs, the product
of the effort, 8, and the pseudo-flow, ~, is not the energy flux. The pseudo-
flow itself is the energy flux. This poses a problem whenever a model for heat
conduction, represented by a pseudo bond graph, is coupled to a model for a
mechanical, fluid, electrical or hybrid system, represented by a true bond graph.
Such a coupling might be represented by an ad hoc coupler defined to address
the particular situation. One can write equations in terms of Q’s rather than
S’s regardless of which type of graph is drawn. The author therefore prefers
to avoid pseudo bond graphs, except when there is an isolated or an extensive
region with constant thermal resistances and specific heats. Pseudo bond graphs
nevertheless are quite commonin the literature.
728 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

Example 9.12
Convert the thermal conductance portion of the bond graph in the prior
example to a quasi bond graph. Apply causal strokes, and annotate the
graph variables assuminginvariant thermal conductivities and specific heat.
Finally, write the correspondingstate differential equation(s).
Solution:

dQ= Rl~p 2 1 Q 1 Q 1 1
02 Ra C’ 0~; C’ = mc; R2 = -~; R3 = -~-~.
d---~ R2 C’
This is a simple first-order linear differential equation with constant coeffi-
cients. The associated time constant for transients is

r = C’/(H1 + H2).

Should the specific heats or the thermal conductances not be assumedas

invariant, the advantageof using Q or 8 as the state variable vanishes.

9.4.8 Summary
Previous to this section thermal energy was treated as "dissipated," or useless,
and accordingly it was not entered into the energy bookkeeping. Instead, it
simply vanished in resistance elements. This approach is conventional in the
elementary analysis of dynamicsystems, but fails whenevertemperature affects
those properties of a systemwhichare of interest, or is of interest per se. The
subject of this section is howto bookkeepthermal energy alone, or in conjuction
with the other energies, in both static and dynamicsystems. Cases with coupled
mass flow and thermal effects are deferred Chapter 12; heat conduction is the
only modeof heat transfer considered here.
The use of absolute temperature as the effort or generalized force for the
transfer of thermal energy requires that the flow or generalized velocity be the
associated entropy flux. Thermalenergy thereby becomesa generalized poten-
tial energy. There is no such thing as a generalized thermal kinetic energy.
Thermalenergyis different from the other energies in that its convertibility to
9.4. IRREVERSIBLE COUPLERS AND THERMAL SYSTEMS 729

these other for~ns is restricted by the second law of thermodynamics. Heat con-
duction can be represented by the the RS static coupler element. The coupler
is like a transformer or gyrator in that it conserves energy, but unlike them in
that it allows irreversibilities and the associated generation of entropy. The RS
coupler also can represent the irreversible flow of energy from the other forms
into the thermal form, and is particularly useful in representing friction. Its
constitutive relations depend on its particular application.
Should you wish to model a thermal system by assuming that its specific
heats are constant and that its heat conductions are proportional to its temper-
ature differences, you should substitute the heats as the state variables. (You
can alternatively use the associated temperatures, since in this case they are
proportional to the heats.) This substitution can be represented in the form
of a pseudo bond graph for heat conduction. This is not a true bond graph,
however, because its energy fluxes are not the products of its efforts and flows,
and does not mate with true bond graphs using conventional couplers.

Guided Problem 9.8

This guided problem illustrates the organization of steady-state problems in-
volving heat engines and heat conduction provided by the methods presented
in this section.
The classical Carnot efficiency of the ideal heat engine operating between
the temperatures ~ and 0L WaS confirmed in Fig. 9.22 and equation (9.35)
(p. 723). In order to make the model conform more closely to a real system,
interpose a thermal resistance with conductance H between the warmer heat
reservoir and the ideal heat engine. Find how the resulting thermal efficiency is
affected by the output power, 7Pout. Specialize the result for ~L/(~H= 0.5. Also,
find the maximum7~o~,~ which is possible, and the associated thermal efficiency.

SuggestedSteps:

1. Add an RS coupler to the bond graph model to represent the thermal

resistance. Define symbols for all the efforts and flows, and place them on
the graph.

2. Write a complete set of algebraic equations to represent the constraints of

each of the elements in the model. Also, express the thermal efficiency as
a function of appropriate parameters and variables. Treat 7~o~ as known.
Make a list of the unknowns, and make sure their number equals the
number of equations.

3. Eliminate all variables, solving for the efficiency. This is tricky; it may
help to number the equations, and make a table in which the variables in
each equation are indicated with check marks.

4. Verify that the thermal efficiency equals the Carnot efficiency in the lim-
iting ’case "Po~,t = 0. If not, a mistake has been made.
730 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

5. Make the indicated specialization ~L/~H = 0.5, and sketch-plot the effi-
ciency vs. :Pout. The maximumpower and its associated thermal efficiency
should become apparent.

Guided Problem 9.9

This problem provides experience in the writing of differential equations when
irreversibilities are present. It does not require mucheffort if the simulation
part is omitted.
The fading of brakes for vehicles on mountainous roads is a serious problem;
the phenomenon of "runaway" trucks on long downhill runs is the most common
result. Consider a truck weighing 100,000 lbs traveling down a long 6 percent
slope. The coefficient of friction of the brake materials is

~-
#=P0-#I(A8) -6°F-2
#0=0-25 p~ =0.2x10

where A0 is the mean temperature of the brake material above the ambient.
(Should the temperature become so high that this equation gives p < 0, the
proper relation is# = 0.) The trucker attemps to keep the speed steady at 50
mph, and is successful for some time. The normal force squeezing the brake
materials together cannot exceed eight times its initial value (when 58 = 0),
however, and eventually the truck begins to accelerate. The effective mass of
the heated material is 125 lbm, its specific heat is 0.30 Btu/lbm.°F (or 233.5
ft.lbf/lbm.°F), and the effective coefficient for heat transfer to the surroundings
is 0.38 Btu/°F.
Write state differential equations for a model of the system. Determine how
long the speed remains constant, and the maximumlower speed for which the
truck would never become a "runaway" on this slope. Optional: simulate the
subsequent acceleration.

Suggested Steps:

1. Draw a bond graph for a simple model. Define symbols for the variables
and the parameters.

2. Write the state differential equations for the first phase, in which the speed
is constant.

3. Find the critical temperature above which the brakes will not prevent
acceleration. Solve the equations of step 2 analytically (this .should be
simple) to find the time at which this temperature is exceeded, and the
acceleration phase begins. At this point one can also determine the crit-
ical speed below which the brakes would never have reached the critical
temperature.

4. Write the differential equations in solvable form for the subsequent accel-
eration phase.
9.4. IRREVERSIBLE COUPLERS AND THERMAL SYSTEMS 731

5. The equations of step 4 are not easy to solve analytically. Solve them nu-
merically using the MATLAB simulator or any other simulation program.
Makesure the effective coefficient of friction never becomesnegative. Plot
the resulting velocity as a function of time.

PROBLEMS

9.30 A thin-walled spherical vessel, 0.5 m in diameter is full of hot water at

100°C when it is placed in an environment with an air flow at 0°C such that
the mean local overall heat transfer coefficient is 150 kJ/hr.m2°C. Determine
the temperature of the water as it cools over time. Note: For water, c = 4.18
3.
kJ/kg.K and p = 997 kg/m

9.31 An ideal heat engine (IHE) operates between a hot reservoir of tempera-
ture 0H and a cold reservoir of temperature 0L. A thermal resistance with con-
ductance H is placed between the IHE and the cold reservoir, with OL/OH= 0.5.
Find how the resulting thermal efficiency is affected by the output power, Pout.
Also, find the maximumPo,~t possible, and the associated thermal efficiency.
Compareyour results with those of Guided Problem 9.8, which is similar except
for the location of the thermal resistance.

9.32 Consider the slab of material below which exchanges heat with environ-
ments to the left and the right through thin partially insulating layers. The
thermal conductivities can be assumed to be constant at H1 and H2, respec-
tively. The specific heat of the slab can be assumed to be constant, also.

RS~ 0 RSz"-7--~"

(a) Write a differential equation for the state of the model in terms of the
conventional bond-graph state variable S. The temperatures 01 and 05
are specified independently.
(b) Repeat (a) substituting ~ as the state variable. You may wish
represent your model with a pseudo bond graph. Which approach do you
prefer?

9.33 A long piece of stainless steel of cross-sectional area A is used at cryogenic

temperatures in the range 2 K to 50 K; typically, one end is muchcolder than
the other. A simulation model consists of a series of alternating lumped thermal
resistances and lumped thermal compliances for elements of length L. Choose a
state variable and write a state differential equation for the ith such compliance
using approximations for the thermal properties based on the data given in Fig.
9.24 (p. 725).
732 CHAPTER 9. MODELS I~qTH STATIC COUPLERS

9.34 An assumed incompressible fluid at 120OFflows through a valve, dropping

in pressure from 3000 psi to 1000 psi. The heat generated initially goes into the
fluid, but ultimately goes to the environment at 70 °F. The density of the fluid
is 0.8 × 10-4 lb.s:/in 4 and the specific heat is 0.50 BTU/lbm.°F. Find the heat
generated, the temperature of the fluid immediately downstream, the entropy
generation before the fluid cools, and the additional entropy generation due to
the subsequent cooling.

(a) Draw a bond graph, showing the two fluid ports and one thermal port,
and two irreversible elements. Label all efforts and flows.

(b) Find the heat generated. Note that 1 BTU=778.16ft-lb and that one
pound mass weighs one pound force in one standard gravity.

(c) Find the temperature rise and the temperature of the downstream
fluid.

(d) Find the entropy fluxes at each of the two temperatures.

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 9.8

1-2.
~7 = OH~H (1)

o.8. = 0~-8 (2)

7~ o~ = (0’~ - OL)~
(3)
M (4)
OH~H= H(O. - O~H)
IMA CHINE OL

eq. no. ~/ hH ~[
1 x x
2 x x x
3
4 x
x
:
x
x

Equation (.1) shows that ~/ depends only on the unknown~H, and equation
(4) allows S~ to be expressed in terms of unknown/9~t.Youstart therefore
combiningequations (2) and (3) to eliminate
and 0~. l;¥om equation (3),
OL
Substituted into equation (2), this gives ~ =
On~H
9.4. IRREVERSIBLE COUPLERS AND THERMAL SYSTEMS 733

Substituting equation (1) into this result gives an equation whichcan be solved
for the desired result, ~:
Po~t = H OH-- OL . Therefore, if we define p =

When~o~ = 0, this gives y = 1 - ~ which you know is correct.

~H ~

WhenOL/~h = 0.5,
1
~=~

The plot of this result re- 0.5

veals that the efficiency de-
clines with increasing output
power, at first slowly, and ~ 0.4
then more rapidly. The max- 0.3
imumpossible output power
is 7aou~’: 0.0858HOH, which 0.0858
0.2
occurs whenthe efficiency is
decreased to 29.3%. 0.1

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 p 0.08 0.10

Guided Problem 9.9

~ Oo+4O
s, FW~i__~_,~ Oo

I C

~ = ~in - ~o~t, but use 0* as the state variable: Q~ = mcAO.

~i~ = Wsina&-- 100,000 x sin6 ° x (50 x 88/60) = 776,542 ft-lb/s,
~o~ = H 0".
dS* ~2 76,542 0.38
Therefore, 0.’
dt --,,o~(Wsina~- HO*) = 125 x 233,5 125 x 0.30
or (rs + 1)O* = (98.68s + 1)8" = 2591.7.
1
23. The brake overheats When~ ----/~ -- ~/~o 7
so that ~o ---- ~(0~)
from which the critical temperature is 0~ = ~ --- 1045.8 °F.
~* -- 2591.7(1- e-~/~); specifically, 2591.7(1-~¢/~) --- - 1045.8 °F.
734 CHAPTER 9. MODELS WITH STATIC COUPLERS

Therefore,--to_- 0.5167;tc = 50.99seconds.

T

3000
asymptote 2591.7 °F ..... 7.t ....... -.
At? °F
2000
asymptote.- - "’" ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -- ~

ooo 10.8
~ tc=50.99 s

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
t, seconds
1045.8
The critical temperature never would be reached if ~? < -- x 50 = 20.18
- 2591.7
mph.
Above the critical temperature, the drag force produced by the brakes de-
~.
creases with increasing temperature by the ratio ~l~d = 8 - 6.4 x 10-6(0")

Therefore, the differential equations become

dO~* = 1__ {Wsina[8- 6.4 x 10-6(0")21~- HO*}

dt mc
= 0.35813[8 - 6.4 x 10-6(0")~]~ - 0.010130",

d~ W sin a.
dt - ~g/g [1 - 8 + 6.4 x 10-6(A0)21 = 3.3631[--7 + 6.4 × 10-6(A0)2].

If 0* > V/~//~a = 1118 °F, braking would cease altogether, so that

d~
d-~ = 9 sin a = 3.363 ft/s 2. This state is never reached, however; it is ap-
proached asymptotically.
A simulation starting at t = tc and 0* = 0~ is given below. Most of the run-
away acceleration develops within a mere 10 seconds after the critical temper-
ature is reached. "

200

150 speed,

100
~ AO-1000, OF

50

~0.99’ dO ’ ~0 ’ 8; ’ 9~) ’ 100

t, seconds
Chapter 10

Energy Storage Fields

Energy is distributed over space, or over a. field. In most of this text energy
is approximated by functions of discrete numbers of variables. The associated
process of field lumping is the subject of the first section below. It focuses on
the lumping of the one-port resistance, compliance and inertance elements that
have been assumed thus far.
The name’ field is also applied, in a discrete sense, to resistance, compliance
and inertance elements that have two or more ports. Multiport compliances
represent energy stored by virtue of two or more energy fluxes and their associ-
ated displacements or efforts. These compliances are particularly important in
modeling electromechanical and thermodynamic (or thermal-mechanical) com-
ponents for which the fluxes are of different types. This is the subject of Section
10.2. Multiport inertances represent energy stored by virtue of two or more en-
ergy fluxes and their associated velocities or momenta, as discussed in Section
10.3. Here it is especially critical to distinguish energy storages that are truly
dependent on two energy fluxes (called holonomic) from those that depend
one energy flux and a remote generalized displacement (called nonholonomic).
Engineers often assume linearity when faced with the complexities of multi-
port fields. Linearity is assumedin Section 10.1, but is not assumed in Sections
10.2 and 10.3. Linear multiport fields are discussed in Section 10.4, including a
systematic glimpse of a wide variety of interdisciplinary phenomenaand devices.

10.1 Field Lumping

This book emphasizes lumped models (with the exception of Chapter 11) de-
scribed as compliances, inertances and resistances interconnected by a junction
structure. Nevertheless, energy and the mechanisms that dissipate it actually
are distributed over space. The process by which the energy storage or power
dissipation over someregion or field of space is approximated in terms of a small
number of variables is called field lumping. The state of a one-port field, for
example, can be described in te~ms of a single variable: a characteristic gener-

735
736 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

alized displacement, velocity, force or momentum.In addition to their number

of ports, fields can be categorized as scalar, vector or tensor, and also as nodic
or non-nodic.
This book has engaged implicitly and almost routinely in field lumping,
without identifying it as such. In a typical example, the energy in a coil spring
results from the torsion and twisting strain of the wire, which in turn results
from the shear stress and strain at each point. To evaluate the "spring constant"
k or the lumped compliance C = 1/k from first principles one can integrate the
strain energy over space and set the result equal to1 ~kx-~
or 1gox2 . In another
example, the resistance to a flow of a viscous fluid through a tube is associated
with the integral of the power dissipation from the center of the tube to its
periphery and from somewhat outside one end of the tube to somewhat outside
the other end.
Some of the basic concepts and methods are organized in this section, and
they are extended particularly with regard to nodic vector fields.

10.1.1 Scalar Fields

The scalar field is defined by the existence of a commoneffort, flow, mo-
mentumor displacement over the entire spatial extent of the field. The most
familiar examples include translation of an incompressible solid or liquid, that
is motion with a commondisplacement, velocity and momentumper unit mass.
The result is overall or lumped inertance (e.g. mass), resistance, or, for mo-
tion in a gravity field, an effort (force) source as a degenerate or special type
of compliance. Another familiar example is the compressibility field of a fluid
in which the pressure is assumed to be uniform over the extent of the defined
control volume. The result is a lumped compliance. A thermal field in which
the temperature is assumed to be uniform over the extent of the defined control
volume similarly results in a lumped compliance. A lumped resistance results
from the assumption of uniform flow of a fluid through a homogeneouscylindri-
cal porous plug with uniform pressures over its two ends. In all of these cases
the lumped resistance, compliance or inertance equals a uniform property on a
per unit mass or volume or length times the total mass or volume or length.

10.1.2 Rigid-Body Vector Fields

The gravity potential energy of a solid or fluid in rigid body in a uniform gravity
field is expressed as the product of its mass and the elevation of its center of
mass. This center is in fact defined so that the spatial integral of the potential
energy, f gz dm, equals mgzc,~. Similarly, the kinetic energy of the body in
planar motion is represented by two lumps, one with linear inertia (mass) and
linear velocity and the other with rotational inertia and rotational velocity.
Here, the center of mass and the rotational inertia J are defined so as to make
this lumping work; that is, so that the kinetic energy is

lf~.d 1 ~
7-= ~]v m = "~mV;r n + ~j~2. (10.1)
10.1. FIELD LUMPING 737

10.1.3 The Role of Approximations

The approximation inherent in any definition of a lumped element is the as-

sumption that one or at most a few commonvariables apply to all regions of
the field. To the extent that a solid body is not rigid, for example, the very
ideas of a center of mass fixed to the body and a constant rotational inertia be-
come invalid. The spring compliance becomes an inaccurate description if the
spring is deflected so fast that the axial force (or the torsion on the wire) is non-
uniform along its lengt h due to the mass and the acceleration. The resistance
of the tube to flow becomes nebulous if the dissipation of energy is affected by
the acceleration of the fluid; this phenomenonindeed sometimes occurs because
the velocity profile across the tube, which strongly affects the dissipation, can
be ~narkedly altered by acceleration.
Compliance, inertance and resistance fields can be coextensive, that is oc-
cupy the same space and involve the same matter at the same time. The lumping
of these fields nevertheless is accurate if the fields do not interact with each other.
The kinetic energy and the gravity energy of a truly rigid body, for example,
do not interact. The compliance energy of the spring does not interact much
with its inertance energy as long as the latter is muchsmaller than the former
(or vice-versa!). The resistance field of the fluid-filled tube is not affected much
by the coextensive inertance field if the latter has little energy, and the affect
of the resistance field on the inertance field is limited in any case, permitting at
least rough approximation. You must watch out for coupling between the iner-
tance and compliance fields in the tube, however, which can produce wave-like
behavior.
The couplings of fields usually can be reduced to an acceptable degree if
the spatial region of interest is reticulated into multiple fields of small extent.
The solid body that is not quite rigid, for example, might be represented as
having a single deflection variable with a single stiffness or compliance; this
implies two inertance fields and one compliance field. If that model still is not
good enough, the body could be modeled with several inertances with several
overlapping compliances. In certain cases it might be appropriate to allow the
fields to interact continuously; this is the subject of Chapter 11 on distributed-
parameter models. The whole business of modeling ultimately becomes an
art which is strongly dependent on the objectives and skills of the modeler.

10.1.4 Nodic Fields

A field is called nodic if the flow or generalized displacement therein has zero
divergence. Physically, this means that the flow or displacement is like that of
an incompressible fluid with no sources or sinks other than at boundary ports.
Mathemetically, this "continuity" relation is stated by

R or I field: ~" ~l = 0, (10.2a)

C field: ~ ¯ q = 0. (10.2b)
738 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

The rigid body motion discussed above corresponds to a nodic field. So does
the incompressible flow of the liquid through a porous plug, and the motion of
an elastic solid in pure shear, such as pure torsion. On the other hand, any
kind of material dilation or compression violates the nodic condition, as does
the thermal compliance. Nodic fields are generally incompatible with uniform
effort, and exclude most fields described by tensors, such as complexstress-strain
fields in solids.
Fields of most commontypes can be analyzed numerically with a wide variety
of finite-element and finite-difference software packages. The objective here
is not to replace these packages, except in the simplest cases when a quick
approxilnation can be made directly. Rather, the aim is a deeper understanding
of the role and meaning of field lumping in the context of the modeling of
complex systems.
The focus here is on vector nodic fields. Vector fields are intermediate in
complexity between scalar fields which require little exposition and tensor fields,
which are discussed in Section 10.4.7. In particular, the focus is on fields in which
the vector flow or displacement is in the direction of the gradient of the scalar
effort or momentumand is uniformly proportional to it:

R field: £1----- -k Ve, (10.3a)

C field: q = -kVe, (10.3b)
I field: ~l = -k Vp. (10.3c)

Bold-face notation implies a vector field.

For the R field, k is known as a conductivity, which is the reciprocal of
a resistivity. For an electrostatic C field, k is the dielectric constant; for a
magnetic C field it is the magnetic permeability. For an inertive I field, k is
knownas the susceptivity, which is the reciprocal of the density.
Substitution of equations (10.2) into (10.3) gives the well-known Laplace’s
equation:

O~e O~e
RorCfield: V~e=O or ~x 2 +~+~z ~ =0, (10.4a)

O~p 02p +~z2

02p
Ifield: V2p=0 or ~+~y2 =0" (10.4b)

Together with equations (10.2) these require that a set of equipotential (e or

lines or surfaces form an orthonormal network with a set of flow or displacement
(0 or q) lines or surfaces (across which no displacement or flow occurs).
example with ports at the two ends of a channel with squar e cross-section is
pictured in Fig. 10.1 part (a). The spacing between the flow or displacement
surfaces is chosen to equal the spacing between the potential surfaces, resulting
in an array of cubes-in-the-s~nall.
The element can be represented by the bond graphs of part (b). In the
special case where either e~ or e_~ is zero, the element becomes a simple one-
port inertance, resistance or compliance. In general, the ratio of the integrated
10.1. FIELD LUMPING 739

qor q
e) or
potentiale2 or P2
surface 1 ~
potentiale1 or p~

(a) three-dimensional
two-portfield

el e2 eI e2 e1 e~
"-
R iil=(e~_e~)[
~ =el-e2~ e~-e2= q/C
el-e2~ ,Io=P" q
l
R 1 C

(b) bond-graphmodels
//////(//////
.~ el+e~
0/2
~ ~" "

I
/1111//11//
(c) conductanceof planar squares

(d) sketchingmethodsfor planar fields

Figure 10.1: Two-and three-dimensional fields

740 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

flow or displacement through the channel to the difference between the efforts
or momenta at the two ends is known as the field transmittance, ~-. For a
resistive field this transmittance becomes the field conductance, G = l/R;
for a compliance field it becomes the field compliance, C; for an inertance
field it becomes the field susceptance, 1/I.

10.1.5 Planar Vector Nodic Fields

A planar field is the special case with uniform depth, w. Consider first the
special case of a square resistance planar field with flow from left to right, as
shownin part (c) of Fig. 10.1. The conductance of this field is the conductivity,
k, times the depth: G = kw. Divide this square into four equal squares, as
shown. Each small square has one-half the flow and one-half the potential drop
of the large square. Therefore, tl~e conductance of each small square, which
equals the ratio of its flow to its potential drop, is the same as for the large
square. This process of subdivision can be repeated. The same result would
apply to the other transmittances (compliance and susceptance). The conclusion
is that all squares in a planar vector nodic field have the same transmittance.
A particular planar field is sketched in part (d) of the figure, The flow lines
and the equipotential lines form an orthonormal net of "squares." Note that
if each "square" were subdivided into four parts, these smaller regions would
be closer to perfect squares. Therefore, the conductance of each subdivision is
the same as every other, assuming they are drawn as nearly square as possible.
There are ten "squares" in series for each stream tube, or sequence of squares
from one port to the other; therefore, the transmittance of one stream tube is
one-tenth that of one square, or kw/lO. There are three such stream tubes, so
the overall transmittance is (3/lO)kw. In general, the overall transmittance of
such a field is
r = ~kw, (10.5)

in which A, called the form factor, is the ratio of the number of squares in the
direction transverse to the flow or displacement to the number of squares in the
direction parallel to the flow or displacement; in the present example, A = 3/10.
Whennecessary, it is correct to consider fractions of squares.
A sophisticated analytical technique called conformal mapping is some-
times successful in mapping a curved region into a rectangular one, so that the
form factor is determined analytically. Much more commontoday is the use
of numerical computer routines for estimating the solution to Laplace’s equa-
tion, to the same end. Most popular among these are finite element methods.
For rapid and intuitive approximate analysis, however, it is hard to beat trial-
and-error sketching of the field, particularly if it is planar, as suggested in the
figure. Methods for sketching the orthogonal net of equipotential and flow or
displacement lines are suggested in part (d) of the figure. If you use a pencil and
a good eraser you usually can do a rather good job, and get a better grasp of
the nature of the field than would result from using a computer solution. Note
that lines drawn as diagonals of the "squares" also form an orthonormal set,
10.1. FIELD LUMPING 741

and circles inscribed in the "squares" touch all four sides. Youstart by guessing
either the flow/displacementlines or the equipotential lines; in the case shown,
guessing the flow/displacementlines is probably easier. Further methodsto aid
in estimation are given below.
Estimates of the energy or dissipated powerstored in a field also can be
deducedfrom the sketched solution. For a single square, the powerdissipated
in the resistive case is ~(el - e2) = kW(el e~) 2 = (1/kw)(12, the energy st ored
in the compliancecase is ½kw(el- e.2) ~ = (1/2kw)q~, and the energy stored in
the inertance case is ½kw(pl-p2)2 = (1/kw)o"2. The potential differences, flows
and displacements here refer to individual squares, of course, but are the same
for all squares in a field. Therefore, these powerdissipations or energy storages
are the samefor all squares, large and small. Thus, small squares have a higher
power dissipation or energy storage density than large squares. Further, the
powerdissipated or energy stored for an entire field equals the powerdissipated
or energy stored per square times the total numberof squares.
Usingpotential differences, flows and displacementswhichrepresent the en-
tire field, the powerdissipated or the energy stored becomes

resistance:

compliance:

inertance:

10.1.6 Estimating Upperand LowerBoundsfor Field Trans-

mittances*
Trial-and-error in the estimation of field transmittances maybe reduced, and
upper and lower boundsof the form factor estimated, through the use of methods
given by Paynter. ~ He applies the ThompsonPrinciple to give an estimate
of T which,if done with reasonablecare, is on the low side of the actual value.’
He also applies the Dirichlet Principle similarly to give an estimate.on the
high side.
The ThompsonPrinciple uses an assumed distribution of the displacement
or the flow. The total energy storage or powerdissipation associated with this
distribution is estimated; errors in the assumedfield producean over-estimate
in the energy or power. This happensbecause the actual flow or displacement
distributes itself so as to minimizethe energyor powerin the field.
Using the subscript T to indicate the estimate with an assumedresistance
field, equation(10.6a) gives

(~)~ (~)2 ~0
- - 7, (10.7)

~H.M. Paynter, Analysis and Design o] Engineering Systems, M.I.T. Press, 1961. This
section may be skipped without loss of continuity.
742 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

showingthat Tr is indeed a lower boundfor ~-. The same result applies to the
complianceand inertance fields.

The Dirichlet Principle uses an assumeddistribution of the constant-potential

lines (e or p). Again, the consequentfield wouldhave a greater energy or power
dissipation than the actual field. Usingthe subscript D, the expression analo-
gousto equation (10.7)

rD --= (el -- e:): > (el -- e:): -- (eL -- e2) =T, (10.8)

showing that TD is indeed an upper bound for ~-. The Thompson-Dirichlet

results can be summarizedas follows:

TT < T < TD, (10.9a)

AT < A < AD. (10.9b)

Example 10.1
Find a close overestimateof the inertance of a planar field of incompressible
fluid of density p, betweenthe left and right boundaries as plotted below.
The pressures along each boundaryare uniform, arid viscous effects are to
be neglected.

Pl
10.1. FIELD LUMPING 743

Solution: The Thompson principle, when applied approximately, gives the

desired overestimate. First, streamlines are guessed; those shown below
divide the field into four channels that each carry one-quarter of the total
flow. This comprises the Thompsonestimate of the flow distribution. Each
channel now is carefully subdivided into squares (estimated below using
circles), without reference to the other channels:

"total numberof squares/circles: 79.9

If the original streamlines were chosen without error, the resulting

equipotential lines for the four channels would line up; clearly, the estimate
was not perfect. At this point the work could be erased and a more informed
estimate attempted. If instead the decision is to proceed, the kinetic energy
of the assumedfield is written

This recognizes that each square is supposed to have the same flow, 0/4.
The Thompson susceptance therefore becomes

0~/2 16w
rT -- "fT
pk

Here, k is the total number of squares, including fractions thereof; in the

present case it is k = 79.9. It may be seen that errors in the original
assumptions of the streamlines should always result, if care is taken, in too
many squares, so therefore TT is an underestimate of the correct 7. The
inertance estimate IT is the reciprocal of TT, so that

I > IT = ~p
¯4.99
W
744 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

Example 10.2
Find a close underestimateof the inertance of the fluid field addressed in
the above problem.
Solution: The Dirichlet principle, applied approximately, gives the desired
result. This starts with a guess of the equipotential lines. The potential
drop is arbitrarily subdividedinto eighteen equal intervals. For each interval,
squares or circles are drawnand counted; there are manyfractions of squares
to count also, giving a total of about k -- 64.2:

///~////

~5" 3.,~’~3.~ 3.8 3.7

2zZT
3.6
.
total numberof squares/circles: 64.2
3.3
3.3

The kinetic energy of the assumedfield becomes

TD = ~ 2(Api)
i=l

with the result

TD kp
TD- (Pl --P~)2/2 - 324w

The inertance I is the reciprocal of the transmittance or susceptance, T.

Substituting the respective numbersof squares, k, gives

I < ID p--.
= 5.05
W

Note that the difference between this overestimate and the underestimate
found in the previous exampleis little over 1~0.

10.1.7 Three-Dimensional Vector Nodic Fields

The three-dimensional equivalent of the square is the cube. Since a cube is the
sameas a square of thickness equal to its other two edge lengths, defined as L,
its transmittance is
Vi ---- kLi (10.10)
10.1. FIELD LUMPING 745

The field comprises m stream tubes arrayed in a cluster instead of a sheet;

fractions of such stream tubes can be included. The flow through each stream
tube in a resistive field, and therefore through each cube, is the same. The
product Ae~Li or ApiLi for the ith cube therefore is the same for all cubes.
Choosing any particular stream tube, the total potential drop between the ports
of the field therefore is
(10.11)

where n is the total number of cubes in the stream tube. The field conductance
thus becomes
G -- it -- km (10.12)

Doubling all dimensions (but keeping the same shape) doubles the conduc-
tance. Thus, it is traditional to represent the conductance as a product of the
conductivity, k, a eharaeter|stlc length, L, which can be any dimension of
the field, and a form factor, A:

G = ALk (10.13)

Considering compliance and inertance fields also, this result can be generalized
to give
T = ALk (10.14)
Notice that, unlike for the planar field, the form factor depends on the choice
of characteristic length. The energy dissipated or stored in each cube is propor-
tional to the linear size of the cube, like the transmittance. Equations (10.6)
apply to the three-dimensional field as well as the planar field.
Rarely is it practical for the modeler actually to sketch cubes for a three-
dimensional field; the analysis above can be interpreted in more practical terms.
In most cases the simplest and best approach is to estimate the flow lines so
as to pekmit an estimate of the energy storage or power dissipation at each
point in the field as a function of the total flow or displacement. This energy
or power then is integrated over the field to give the total energy stored or
power dissipated. The result is then equated to the proper power or energy
of equation (10.6). Finally, the transmittance is deduced. This procedure
tantamount to application of the Thompsonprocedure, and consequently gives
a resulting 7 on the low side of the actual value. Starting with an estimate of
the potential lines is an alternative: this application of the Dirichlet procedure
gives an overestimate of T.

10.1.8 End Corrections for the Inertance of Channels

A special case of a three-dimensional field has already been considered: the
inertance of a slender fluid channel. The energy method given in Examples 3.3
and 3.4 (pp. 105-106) is essentially an application of the Thompsonapproach.
All inertia in the local regions beyond the ends of the channel is neglected,
746 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

equivalent prismatic channels: .........

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10.2: Types of channels

however. Corrections to the inertance for these end effects are very important if
the channel itself is very short; in the extreme case of a channel of zero length,
which implies a slit or hole in a plate of zero thickness, the end regions comprise
the entire field. This case is pictured in part (a) of Fig. 10.2. Part (b) shows
case of a hole in an infinite baffle, for which part (a) is a special case. Part (c)
shows a slender walled channel, which by virtue of the additional space around
its ends gives less additional inertance.
The end corrections frequently are important in unsteady hydraulics, and
often are critical in acoustics. Beranek2 expresses the corrections as effective
extensions of the length of the channel. For a circular hole of radius r in an
infinite baffle he calculates an effective added length equal to 0.85r for each end.
For a slender circular tube the length is 0.613r.

10.1.9 Multiport Vector Nodic Fields

The linear vector fields considered thus far have two ports. Sometimes one
wishes to model a linear field with three or more ports, which requires only
a modest conceptual extension of what has been done already. An example
of a three-port field is shown in Fig. 10.3 part (a). Assuminga resistive field
(inertances could be readily substituted), a tee model, so called because of its
shape, is shown in part (b), and a delta model, again named for its shape,
shown in part (c).
The first of two approaches starts by assuming that port 3 is blocked, and
evaluates the resistance between the remaining ports 1 and 2. This resistance
can be seen to equal R1 +R.9. Next, port 2 is assumedblocked, and the resistance
/~2 q- R3 is computed. Again, the resistance R1 + R3 is computed in a similar
manner. Finally, the individual resistances R1, R2 and R3 are deduced from
the three sums.
The second approach starts by assuming ports 1 and 2 are connected to the
same effort, leaving a two-port field with conductance (1/R13) + (1/R23).
ports 1 and 3 are similarly connected, leaving a two-port field with conductance
(1/R12) + (1/R23). Connecting ports 2 and 3 together gives a two-port field
2Leo L. Beranek, Acoustics, 2rid edition, American Institute of Physics, Inc., New York
NY, 1986.
10.1. FIELDLUMPING 747

port
2

e3 (a) field

2
i i
| 2
0
RI2

1
I R
3

3
R13

(b) tee model (c) delta model

1 T ~1~

R
b
(d) one of manyother possible models

Figure 10.3: Three-portresistive field

748 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

conductance (1/Rr)) + (1/R13). Knowledge of the three conductances permits

the individual conductances or resistances to be computed. The tee model
parameters can be converted to the delta model parameters, or vice-versa, if
desired.
There are many other equivalent three-parameter models for a three-port
field. Part (d) of the figure shows one of these. Equivalence may be estab-
lished most generally by equating the power dissipation or energy storage of the
respective models.
Access to m~ actual piece of hardware may permit three individual experi-
ments to be carried out which determine the component parameters of a model,
following the same logic as the analysis. Most experienced engineers employ
a combination of analytical and experimental methods in modeling. The pro-
cess of modeling from purposeful experiment has become known by the na~ne
of experimental identification.

10.1.10 Summary

Field lumping is the essence of lumped modeling. The major source of error
in a carefully executed lumped model results from neglect of couplings between
different types of fields, which can be reduced at the expense of complexity by
choosing smaller spatial domains for the fields.
Scalar fields with a uniform effort are assumedfrequently and are relatively
simple to understand and compute. Emphasis therefore has been placed on
the next more difficult type of field, the linear nodic vector field. In the usual
application of this field the vector generalized velocity or displacement is nodic,
that is, acts like an incompressible mediumwithout internal sources or sinks.
Si~nply organized nodic vector fields such as rigid body motion and displacement
of a rigid body or a liquid in a gravity field can be addressed analytically, as
you have seen previously.
Special attention has been devoted to the case in which the effort or gen-
eralized momentumacts as a scalar potential; the flow is proportional to the
gradient of this potential. The resulting field satisfies Laplace’s equation. Ex-
amples include resistance fields in which the flow of a fluid or of an electric
current is impeded by a resistivity, compliance fields in which the displacement
of electric charge is impeded by the dielectric phenomenonor the magnetic dis-
placement is impeded by the permeability phenomenon and inertance fields in
which the acceleration of a fluid is impeded by its inertance. Although pre-
cise analytic methods are available in some cases and computer methods are
widely available, emphasis has been placed on approximate analytical and field-
sketching methods, since these methods impart an understanding which aids
the design process more directly, and give quick estimates.
Nodic vector fields with more than two ports can be treated as combinations
of pairs of fields with two ports. The results can be organized in terms of bond
graph equivalences. More complicated tensor fields such as are associated with
the strain of an elastic solid are in general beyond the scope of this text, but
simple approximate cases such as the classic bending of beams or torsion in rods
10.1. FIELD LUMPING 749

air
~ water - coffer clam

air
soil, permeability k
~water ......

~ soil, permeability 2k

Figure 10.4: Guided Problem 10.1

and coil springs can be accomodated readily, either through the standard devel-
opment of their constitutive relations or through evaluation of their potential
energy storage. See also the tensor fields in Section 10.4.7.
Field lumping is one way to address systems which have coupled fields.
This important topic is considered in Chapter 11, which focuses on distributed-
parameter models.

Guided Problem 10.1

As sketched in Fig. 10.4, a coffer dam holds back earth and water at an excava-
tion site. The permeability (conductivity) of the soil to water seepage in the
region to the left of the given dividing line is k; in the region to the right it is
2k. The area is undergirded by impermeable rock. Estimate the seepage rate
under the coffer dam per running foot in terms of k.

Suggested Steps:

Photocopy the figure, perhaps doubling its size. Assumethat the dividing
line between the two. soils is an equipotential surface. (The problem is in
fact arranged so that this is a line of ~irtually uniform pressure.) Guess
streamline above which half the water flows. Take each of the two regions
above and below this streamline and sketch further estimated streamlines
which separate their respective regions into two equal-flow sub-regions.
This process of subdivision can be repeated further, but as a practical
matter you might do this only for the soil on the left, and there only once
more.

Starting from the line dividing the two soils, sketch candidate constant-
pressure lines, attempting to form squares with the flow lines.
750 CHAPTER 10. ENERGYSTORAGE FIELDS

3. Critique your results, paying special attention to whether the aspect ratios
of your would-be "squares" are close to 1:1 and the flow and equipoteno
tial lines intersect perpendicularly to each other. Erase and re-sketch
repeatedly until you are satisfied. (This is not getting as fancy as use
of the Thompsonor Dirichlet principles, which together are directed at
estimating error.) Pay special attention to the region im~nediately below
the coffer barrier, where a near-singularity exists that produces very small
"squares."

4. Find the form factors A for each of the two soil regions.

5. Find the conductances of the two regions in terms of k.

Relate the total flow to the two conductances. (Note that the pressure
drops add, and the flows are common.)

7. State a compatible set of units for k, Q and AP.

PROBLEMS

10.1 Estimate the resistance of the fuse link of uniform thickness t. The con-
stitutive relation (equation (10.3a)) is J = -aVe, where a is the electrical
conductivity.

10.2 Estimate the inertance referred to the velocity of the piston below. The
system is axisymmetric and is filled with a fluid of density p.

//// ////// .

////
.............
"---- l :~: l ~ open end (submerged)
10.1. FIELD LUMPING 751

10.3 An impeller pump of the type used for cooling the steam in a power plant
includes an inlet convergent section, a row of stator vanes, a row of rotating
vanes, a second row of stator vanes and a diffuser section, with the rotating shaft
contained within a fixed central column. (The axis drawn horizontally below
actually is vertical.) The transient produced when the pump is started and the
water rises from its initial level has the potential of producing an unacceptable
waterhammereffect, so it is important to knowthe inertia of the water.

~_ ~¢rdcal _ sm’tor #1 inlet

0 20 40 60 80 100

(a) Estimate this inertia for the system shown as a function of the depth
of the water, starting at its initial level at the bottom of the diffuser and
ending when the water has reached the top of the diffuser.

(b) Construct a calculable model that accomodates the bond-graph re-

striction to constant inertances. Define the moduli of all elements.

SOLUTION TO GUIDED PROBLEM

Guided Problem 10.1
1-3. The following sketch represents about ten minutes of draw-and-erase-and-draw-
again:

air
water - ~ coffer dam

air
~ water - - ¯

rOCK,perme;
752 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS
On
- . the left side, the formfactor is aboutA1= 3-~_~;on the right side, A.~= ~_3~
8 4
4.

5. The conductances are the transmittances T1 ---- kA1and v2 = 2kA2.

6. Q = ~-
AP -- (l/T1) 1 (1/7~)AP ---- kAP

3
7. [Q]- fta/hr
ft fte [Ap] = psi; [k] = hr ftpsi"
- hr’

10.2 Discrete Compliance Fields

The potential energy stored in a system sometimes cannot be separated into
terms V1 (ql), ]}2 (q2),..., ~,, (qn), but rather includes irreducible mixed
V(ql, q2,..., q,~) that are called discrete compliance fields. Examples below
include an electrical capacitance that varies with the displacement of a plate or
of the meniscus of a dielectric liquid, the pressure-volume-heat flux relation of
an ideal gas, and, later, the piezoelectric and piezomagnetic materials used in
transducers. Such a field is represented by a multiport compliance element
of the form

el em
-" C"~ ~

The present discussion largely assumes general nonlinear relationships. Many

compliance fields are modeled as linear, however; such fields are discussed in
Section 10.4.

10.2.1 Generic Relationships

The compliance field with stored potential energy

V = V(ql, q2,..., q,~) (10.15)

has as its net input power or energy flux

dV ~ OP dqi
7 )= ~ ei?ti- dt - (10.16)
cgqi dt"
i=1 i=1

Since this result applies regardless of the magnitude of the individual Oi, the
key result is the theorem of virtual work:

e~ = ~q~. (10.17)
10.2. DISCRETE COMPLIANCE FIELDS 753

This equation computes ei given the values of qi, i = 1, 2,..., m, and thus is
consistent with integral causMity:

e2ti’2", e
ql qm

It should be noted that the theorem of virtual work also applies directly to a
one-port compliance; the partial derivative in equation (10.17) simply becomes
an ordinary derivative.

10.2.2 Examples with Geometrically Varied Capacitance

Any capacitor that has its capacitance varied mechanically serves as an elec-
tromechanical transducer, that is, a device that transforms electrical energy to
mechanical form or vice-versa. As a result, the force that the electric field places
on the movable member can do work. Similarly, mechanical work done exter-
nally on the moveable memberaffects the electrical field. The device becomes a
transducer that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy, and vice-versa.
It may be useful either as a sensor (instrument transducer) or as an actuator
(power transducer).
Two examples are given below. The mechanical motion in the second case is
actually the motion of a fluid. The further example of a capacitace microphone
is given as a Guided Problem in Section 10.4.

Example 10.3
The upper plate of a parallel-plate capacitor is movable in the direction
normal to the planes of the plates:

Model the system with a bond graph, and relate the voltage e across the
capacitor and the force F on the plate as functions of the gap width, x, and
the electric charge, q. You. may assume that the capacitance is given by

eA

in whiche is the dielectric constant, A is the area of the plates, and fringing
effects of the electrostatic field around its edges are neglected.
754 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

Solution: The bond graph is

X
The electrostatic energy F can be represented in the standard quadratic
form
1 .~ x 2
F = ~-~q" = 2-~Aq .

Thus, from equation (10.17), the voltage e and the force F are

OF q xq
e- Oq - C- Ae’

OF q2 2eAe
Ox 2cA "z
2x
Note that the applied force F and velocity/c are in the same direction, so
the power product F~ is positive when mechanical power flows into the
compliance.

Different substances have different dielectic constants, and thus the capaci-
tance of a fixed-plate capacitor changes when different materials are movedinto
the gap. This is the basis of the device analyzed in the following example, which
could be used to sense the level of a liquid such as water. It also could be used as
the heart of a pump which has no solid moving parts; the author has suggested
this concept for use in microelectromechanical systems.
Example 10.4
Two immiscible fluids with different dielectric constants, either or both of
which are liquids, are separated by a meniscus that lies in the gap between
two fixed plates of a capacitor:

meniscus ]fiat plate electrodes

diel[c~r~c’~d~’~ ~ [ /( ~’-~e~e~t~i[~uid
Q ~1 , _ Q

I. L .I depth d~ension: w
Model the system with a bond graph. Then, relate the voltage e across
the capacitor to the electric ch~ge q and the position x of the meniscus,
assuming the parameters L, g, w, el and e~ and neglecting the effects of
electrostatic fringing. Also, relate the horizontal force F that acts on the
meniscus, producing the pressure drop Pl - ~, to the same variables and
parameters.
10.2. DISCRETE COMPLIANCE FIELDS 755

Solution: The bond graph below employs the force F and velocity k to
describe the fluid within the gap. They are related to the more conventional
pressures P1 and P2 and flow Q by the transformer, the modulus of which
is the reciprocal of the area of the channel.

P2I - F e
1 ~---’-~T .-~-~ C"~. T
P

The meniscus will be assumed to be planar; this simplifies the model, and
tends to be approximately ~orrect because both the surface tension and
electrostatic forces encourage it. The capactor then can be viewed as two
capacitors in parallel, one containing the first dielectric fluid and the other
containing the second dielectric fluid. The total capacitance is the sum of
the two. (Both have a commonpotential, and currents or charges that sum,
and therefore they can be bonded to a common0-junction.) Thus,

e2w(L - x)
C = elwx +
g 9
where x and L - x are the respective lengths of the two slugs of fluid within
the gap. Note that the channel has a rectangular cross-section.
The potential energy becomes

1 q2 _ gqZ/2
V = Y(q, x) = 2C(x)
w[e2L
I " + (el - e2)x

Therefore,
OV gq
e -- Oq w[ezL q- (,1 -- £2)X]’

w (~ __ e,~)e2"
F = O_~Y = -9(el - e2)q ~ __
OX22w[e2L d- (el -- £2)X] 29
Note that the equations correspond to the standard use of integral causality.

10.2.3 Thermodynamic Coupling Between Mechanical and

Thermal Energies
The temperature of a body is changed if the body is significantly compressed
or expanded in size, and heat transfer to the surroundings is restricted. The
resulting coupling between mechanical and thermal energies can be represented
conveniently by a two-port compliance. This idea is now developed using a
hydraulic accumulator as a case study.
A hydraulic accumulator is based on the compression of a fixed mass of gas.
In Section 3.6.3 (pp. 166-167) it was modeled crudely by a one-port compliance.
It was noted, however, that unless the compression and expansion takes place ei-
ther very slowly (isothermal conditions) or very fast (adiabatic conditions), heat.
756 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

transfer effects are fairly significant. A better model recognizes both mechanical
and thermal energy fluxes:

The volume flow rate of the hydraulic fluid is written as (-(/’); the minus sign
results from the definition of V as the volume of the gas, not the liquid which
displaces it, in contrast to the earlier treatment. Assumingan ideal gas of mass
m, the conventional thermodynamic assumptions are

PV = mRO, (10.18a)

V =-’U :- mc.vO, (10.18b)

in which ]; _= U is the internal energy, Cv is the specific heat at constant volume

and R is the gas constant. The crudest approximation being made is that the
heat flux, dQ/dt = 0~, is proportional to.the temperature difference between
the temperature of the environment, 0e, and the mean temperature of the gas:

dQ
(10.19)
d--~ = H(O~- 0):

The first law of thermodynamics requires

dY = dU = dQ - P dV. (10.20)

Substituting equations (10.18) and (10.19) into equation (10.20),

mcv dO = H ( Oe - O)dt - (mRO/V)dV. (10.21)

This can be rewritten in the final desired form as

dO H RO dV
-- (Oe - O) + ----. (10.22)
dt rncv cv V dt

In practice, dV/dt is treated as a causal input, that is a function of external

variables~ and is integrated to give V. Equation (10.22) becomes the state
differential equation for the compliance, giving 0. Finally, the pressure P is
calculated using equation (10.18a).
Problems in which a flow of gas enters a chamber are considered in Chapter
12, along with fancier equations of state including phase change. The simpler
problem of the thermal exl~ansion of a solid or a liquid is considered in Section
10.4 below. The whole area of coupling between mechanical and thermal ef-
fects is important to the modeling and analysis of many nominally mechanical
systems.
10.2. DISCRETE COMPLIANCEFIELDS 757

"--] flat plates [ electrode ~ 7 ...... ~’--"F

~ i~el"e~t " ]" .... "-..] -T ..........
r"o"d~
[
I..__.__1 ~ x -----4 g depth dimension:w
e F

Figure 10.5: Guided Problem10.2

10.2.4 Summary

Potential energy storages whichare irreducibly a function of two or moregener-

alized displacements can be represented by multiport compliances. If the stored
energy is knownas an expressed function of these displacements,as in the exam-
ples given for variable capacitance, the efforts or generalized forces are readily
computedas the gradient of the function in the direction of the respective dis-
placements. This computationis consistent with integral causality, and thus
can be incorporatedinto the writing of differential equations for a larger system
into whichthe compliancefield is imbedded.
Purther compliancefields are presented in Section 10.4 and Chapter 12.

Guided Problem 10.2

Themovableplate of a variable-plate capacitor, shownin Fig. 10.5, is supported
mechanically so that it can movefreely in the direction parallel to the plane
of the plates. (This concept has been used in some microelectromechanical
systems.) Represent the resulting coupling betweenthe electric and mechanical
variables by an annotated bond graph. Find approximate relations for this
coupling,neglecting the fringing effects of the electrostatic field.

Suggested Steps:

1. Write an approximateexpression for the electrostatic energy of the field,

as functions of the displacementx and the electric charge q. The examples
above should indicate howthis can be done.

2. Find the force F and voltage e by computingthe appropriate derivatives,

as indicated by equation (10.17).
758 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

PROBLEMS

10.4 The slider-crank mechanismshownbelow lifts a weight, mg, vertically.

The weights of the other membersmay be neglected by comparison. Thus the
representation
M mg
T S~
¢ ~
can be used, in whichT = T(¢). Alternatively, however,from the point of view
of the shaft the device tooks like a rotary spring:

lowestposition

(a) Writethe potential energyof the spring as a function of ¢, and deter-

mine the compliance relation M= M(¢).

(b) Find a linearized modelvalid for small displacements from a nominal

angle ¢ = ~, including evaluation of the linearized complianceC* and any
other parameter(s).

10.5 A movable-plate capacitor has its movingmemberattached to a spring, as

shownbelow. The spring exerts zero force whenx = xo. For the voltage e being
constant, find any equilibrium positions x and determine their stability. You
mayexpress the answerson a sketch-plot of the electric and spring forces, rather
than algebraically. Also, find the minimum value of k necessary for stability at
a particular value of the equilibrium x, and the associated ratio xo/x.
10.2. DISCRETE COMPLIANCEFIELDS 759

10.6 Anelectrostatic motor, shownin cross-section below, has a fixed cathode

of radius r, a rotor of thickness t comprising alternate 90° segmentsof high
dielectric constant ki~eo and low dielectric constant kLe0, and an outer anode
with four equal segments. A high constant voltage v0 is attached to terminals
A-Aand a zero voltage to terminals B-B; every quarter revolution of the rotor
the voltages are switched. The unit has thickness w. The clearances maybe
assumedto be very small.

segmented rotor B~~

(smallclearances)~:~k
r~~
segmentedanode
A""~...JI.....~ / ~13

(a) Estimatethe potential energystored in the electric fields of the motor,

valid for up to 90° of rotation.
(b) Find the torque, M, generated by the motorin terms of the information
given.
(c) Find the electric current required by the motor.

10.7 The bladder of a hydraulic accumulator is filled with an open-cell solid

foam of mass my and specific heat c~, intended to inhibit circulation of the
compressedgas, and therefore reduce heat transfer to the walls and increase the
reversibility of a compression-decompression cycle. The gas satisfies the perfect
gas law PVg= mgROg;the gas has mass rng, specific heat Cv~, volumeV~and
temperature ~ga. Heat transfer betweenthe gas and the foam can be assumedto
satisfy Q = H(8~- 0f), whereH is a constant and/91 is the temperature of the
foam. The volumeof the solid material in the foam does not change, although
the voids expandin size so that the foamfills the entire space available.
Drawa bond graph modelfor the situation of a changing volume, but with
no heat transfer to the walls. Define variables and parameters as appropriate,
and write a (set of) state differential equation(s).

SOLUTION TO GUIDED PROBLEM

Guided Problem 10.2
1. ]2= gq2
2ewx
2.
x e= -~q
OY = gq~w: ~
OY gq2 ewe.~
F =--~ = 2~wz~ = 2g
760 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

10.3 Displacement Modulated Inertances

The inertances considered thus far have a single port, and can be represented
by an algebraic relationship between the flow and the generalized momentum.
A complication introduced in Section 9.1 allows the generalized kinetic energy
associated with an inertance to be affected by either a local or a remotedisplac-
ment. This is done by interposing a variable transformer betweenthe inertance
and the rest of the system, so that the inertance itself is constant. The mod-
ulation of these transformers, like any tranformers, must not involve a direct
exchange of energy with a remote displacement or velocity. Such direct ex-
changes between generalized kinetic energy storage mechanismsand separate
displacements nevertheless sometimes occur. They require the use of one or
more multiport inertances.
The strictly analogous situation to a multiport compliancethat that depends
on more than one generalized displacement wouldbe a multiport inertance that
depends on more than one generalized momenta.It turns out that this is not a
very useful formulation, however.This section introduces, instead, a multiport
inertance with generalized kinetic energythat dependsjointly on one generalized
momentum and one or more separate displacements. Further, energy is directly
exchangedwith these displacements.

10.3.1 Inertances Dependent on Holonomic Constraints

A variable width flow channel with an inertive fluid flow is an exampleof a
generalized kinetic energy that depends on a generalized momentum and on a
remote displacement, namelythe width of the channel. The generalized kinetic
energy in the major class of systems being considered is represented in the form
T = T(pl, q~, q3,..., qm). (10.23)
The variables in parentheses are treated as state variables. To be consistent
with integral causality, they are the time integrals of the causal inputs to the
energy-storage element. Accordingly, the mixedcausality employedis indicated
by the causal strokes below:

q~emI~m’" q3

Only the first bond has generalized momentum as its input. The inertance
can be said to refer to pl or Ol but at the sametime be modulatedby q2,.. ¯, q,~.
Takingthe time derivative of equation (10.23) in the standard fashion,
dT ~ 0T 0T. 0T. (10.24)
d-~=~-"e~(l~i= Op-~el
+ -~"~q~q2q~
+... +--Oq,~qm
10.3. DISPLACEMENT MODULATEDINERTANCES 761

Therefore,
OT
~1 = ~Pl (10.25a}

OT
ei = ~ i = 2,...,m (10.25b)

Notethat if a displacementaffects the generalized kinetic energy, and that dis-

placment is changed, powermust flow into or out from the inertance through
the bond associated with that displacement or generalized velocity. The iner-
tance is said to interrelate the variables of the various bonds by a holonomic
constraint. The contrast to the nonholonomicconstraint is made below.
There are holonomicconstraints that do not fit equation (10.23) and are
3beyondthe scope of this chapter.
The examplebelow models the solenoid, which is the most commontype of
electromechanicalactuator. It also can be used in the inverse wayto sense elec-
trically the position of a mechanical member.Anotherexampleof a holonomic
modulationof an inertance is given in GuidedProblem10.3.

Example 10.5
A solenoid, pictured in cross-section below, can be described as a variable-
geometryinductor. It comprises a coil with inductance dependent on the
mechanicalposition of a movableferromagnetic prismatic core.

Represent the solenoid by a bond graph with the preferred causalities, and
relate the causal output electric current i and mechanical force F to the
input displacement x and voltage e. The dependence of the inductance on
x, that is the function I(x), can be assumedas known.
3The approach here is a special case of the Hamiltonian method presented in a Chapter
13 that may be available from the author.
762 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

Solution: The local generalized displacement, q, is the time integral of the

electric current, whichis the local flow. The local generalized momentum, p,
is the integral of the voltage. Thegeneralized kinetic energycan be written
in the form
2T = 2/~p

in which x is a non-local displacement. The causal bond graph is

Substitution of the equation for ~- aboveinto equation (10.25) gives the

results
P

2[I(x)] 2 dx 2 dx
In a particular design, the detailed task nowis to evaluate I(x). Withluck
you could ~sign this job to a speciMist.

10.3.2 Inertances Dependent on Nonholonomic

Constraints
Consider a constant inertance Ic driven through a transformer with modulus
T(x) that depends on a remote displacement, x:

IT f edt=~llc T= T(x)
(l=p/TIc (lc=T(t=p/Ic
Althougha variation in x changes the stored energy, the powerflow associated
with the change equals the product of the generalzied velocity ~ and effort e
exclusively; no generalized force must act on the displacement x itself. This
kind of relationship is an exampleof a nonholonomlcconstraint. It is the
sametype considered early in Section 9.1.
By definition, a holonomicsystem has the same numberof generalized co-
ordinates as degrees of freedom; a nonholonomicsystem has more generalized
coordinates than degrees of freedom. The displacements 0, ~c and x are gener-
alized coordinates, but the transformer ~ntroducesa constraint that reduces the
degrees of freedom(the numberof geometrically admissible infinitesimal changes
in displacement) without reducing the numberof generalized coordinates (the
minimumnumberof displacements needed to specify the displacement state of
the system). Specifically, Aqc is madedependent on Aq, while still requiring
values of q, qc and x to describe the displacementstate.
Observethat the generalized kinetic energy of the bond graph above can be
written as
=
10.3. DISPLACEMENT MODULATED INERTANCES 763

This is the same as the following expression for the generalized kinetic energy
of the holonomic variable-geometry inductor or solenoid of Example 10.3 above,

T = ~I(x)i 2, (10.27)

if the associations ~ = i and T~’(x)Ic = I(x) are made. Nevertheless, the bond
graph above is incompatible with the bond graph of the solenoid, and the general
holonomic relation of equation (10.23) cannot represent a nonholonomic system.
An attempt to represent the variable-geometry inductor by the nonholonomic
bond graph above, for example, would result in a system with no mechanical
force on the moving member, which is obviously incorrect.
Equation (10.23) expresses the energy in terms of the generalized momentum.
It is not possible, in fact, to express the energy of the nonholonomic system
above in terms of its generalized momentum,which is f e dt = f T(x)[9 dt (except
in the trivial case in which x is a constant, which voids all coupling between
the inertances and x.) Therefore, the two bond graphs themselves, or energy
relations expressed in terms of generalized momentaas opposed to generalized
velocities, are sufficient to distinguish the two types of constraints.
The following example represents conceptually the nonholonomic coupling
between a flywheel used to store energy for propelling a vehicle, and the vehicle
drive wheel. It bears a superficial resemblance to a variable speed flywheel with
a holonomic constraint given in Guided Problem 10.3, but the behaviors are
dramatically different.

Example 10.6
It is proposed to store kinetic energy for a bicycle or other vehicle in a
flywheel. The flywheel is driven from a drive wheel by a transmission with
a continuously adjustable speed ratio that is a knownfunction of the axial
displacement of the flywheel, x:

x Adjustable
Position

Rolling Contact

(BearingNot Shown)

Part Of F"
764 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

Identify whether the system is holonomic, and modelit with a bond graph.
Then, find the associated equations, assumingthat the momentMapplied
to the drive wheeland the position x of the flywheelare specified.
Solution: The bondgraph below represents the fixed inertia of the flyweel
by. Ic. The speed ratio betweenthe angular velocities of the drive wheel
(¢) and the flywheel/~)c) is represented by the modulusof the transformer,
T(x). This transformer constrains infinitesimal displacments of qc without
reducing the numberof generalized coordinates (three, for q, qc and x)
necessary to describe the positional state of the system.

M Q~) ~:ic

The associated differential equation and output variable, as the annotations

indicate, are
dp 1
dt - T(x)
1
~- IcT(x)P,

Note that adjustment of the friction drive requires zero essential force and
energy, consistent with a nonholonomicmodulation and inconsistent with a
holonomicmodulation. Minorforces due to the accelerations or friction in
the adjustment mechanismcould, if desired, be modeledseparately.

Heat transfer and thermal expansion can changethe modulusof an inertance.

This change can be represented as a nonholonomiccontraint that modulates
a transformer bonded to a fixed inertance. An exampleis offered in Guided
Problem10.4. Heat transfer is possibly the most ubiquitous (and as such under-
recognized) of all nonholonomicconstraints.

10.3.3 Summary
The bond graph formalism employedin this book requires that one-port iner-
tances either be constants or at most functions of the local generalizedvelocity.
A kinetic energy that dependspartly on a local displacementcan be represented
by a displacement-modulatedtransformer in series with such an inertance. A
kinetic energy that dependspartly on a non-local displacement can be accomo-
dated the same wayif and only if the constraint is nonholonomic.Otherwise,
it can be represented as a multiport inertance field, in ~nuchthe sameway as
compliancefields are treated. The energy should be expressed as a function of
4the primary momentum and the remote displacement or displacements.
4In the reference cited in footnote 3 on page 761, the bond graph for the holonomicsystems
considered in the present section becomesa special case of what is called a Hamiltonian bond
graph.
10.3. DISPLA CEMENT MOD ULATED INERTANCES 765

Cylinderof Radiuso

Rolling On
Port Of Frame Drive Wheel

DriveWheel.-----~I.~...%~,,.~ I|1 f.,~’J~. ~

ble With

Figure 10.6:..Guided Problem 10.3

Holonomic constraints produce generalized forces on all bonds of the mul-

tiport inertance. Significant power is apt to flow through any of the bonds.
Nonholonomicconstraints have no essential efforts associated with their influ-
ence on the kinetic energy through their modulation of the transformer. No
power is required to effect this modulation, apart from any parasitic friction or
other minor non-essential forces that you might wish to model separately. The
contrast is illustrated in the comparison of the systems in Example 10.6 above
and Guided Problem 10.3 below.

Guided Problem 10.3

A flywheel with adjustable inertia comprises two blocks, each with mass m/2,
which move radially on rods welded perpendicularly to the shaft, as shown in
Fig. 10.6. The blocks are held by cords that pass over p~ulleys; the centers
of mass can be drawn inward or released outward with this cord. Model the
system by a bond graph, define state variables, and find the state differential
equations. The blocks may be idealized as point masses, all other inertias may
be neglected, and all friction may be neglected.

Suggested Steps:

1. Define the adjustable radius, x, and the angle of the shaft, ~b, as the
generalized displacements. Write the kinetic energy of the idealized system
766 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

heat flow

flow in
~ ~ ~ ~-~.
insulation

flow out

Figure 10.7: Guided Problem 10.4

in terms of these displacements and associated generalized momenta. Note

that the kinetic energy for radial velocity of the blocks can be expressed
in a term separate from the kinetic energy for rotation.
Drawa bond graph, apply causality, and identify the effort and flow vari-
ables. The torque on the shaft and the force on the cord may be considered
as independent variables.

Write the differential equations using the standard techniques, except that
equation (10.25) above is used for the two-port inertance.

Guided Problem 10.4

The temperature-regulated valve shown in Fig. 10.7 is used with a highly un-
steady flow, so the flow. inertance I as well as the flow resistance R are of interest.
Consider that these parameters depend on the temperature of the expandable
member in a known way. The thermal compliance of this member is C, which
can be considered to be a constant. Its temperature is 0, the temperature of the
environment is 0e, and there is a thermal conductance H between the two. Find
differential equations which if solved would give the volume flow in response to
the pressure drop AP and the environmental temperature. Neglect any heating
or cooling of the expandable membercaused by the flow.

Suggested Steps:

1. Identify the state variables.

2. Formulate the key constraint and identify ,whether it is holonomic or non-

holonomic.

3. Draw a bond graph and label the variables.

4. Write the differential equations. (Since you are not given the forms I(O)
and R(0) and are not asked to model these, the equations are not yet
in a form ready for solution. This could be done as an extension to the
problem, however.)
10.3. DISPLACEMENT MODULATED INERTANCES 767

PROBLEMS

10.8 Identify whether the constraints in the five systems given in Problems 9.1,
9.2 and 9.3 (pp. 674-675) are holonomic or nonholonomic.

10.9 The electromechanical balance below has a position-dependent capacitor

and inductor with values as given (which neglect fringing effects). The motion
is very small; x << d.

?rigid balance beam I

,~ .2 d+x
’TieA coil fixed
C(x) R~~ to frame
~ L(x)=Lo+aCr

(a) Model the system with a bond graph, and evaluate all moduli in terms
of the given information.
(b) Find the describing state differential equations.
(c) For i = i0 sinwt, determine the frequency w for which the time-average
of position x equals zero when no external force is applied to the beam.

10.10 A liquid-filled tank of uniform area AT is drained through a tube of uni-

form area AL and length L. Initially, a valve located a distance Lo downstream
of the tank is closed, and the section of the tube downstream of this valve is
empty. The valve is opened abruptly, giving a flow equal to a Ax/-~-fi, where zXP
is the pressure drop across the valve and a is a constant. No other frictional
pressure drop need be considered, and the liquid-air interface remains virtually
normal to the axis of the drain line.

valve
area A
L

(a) Model the system with a bond graph.

(b) Find a solvable set of differential equations, which if solved would give
the behavior of the system valid until the liquid-air interface reaches the
downstream end of the tube.
768 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

10.11 Anincompressible fluid of density p flows through a long narrowchannel

with width, x, that can be varied by the application of a force, F. Modelthe
system. Find differential equations that interrelate the flow Q, the position x,
the velocity 2, the force F and the pressures P1 and.Be. Viscosity and Bernoulli
losses maybe neglected.The velocity of each fluid particle is virtually horizontal
(i.e. w~<< Q/wx).

~F

10.12 A cylindrical piston with dimensionsas shownis (i) supported submerged

on a spring with stiffness k in an incompressibleliquid of density p, or (ii) floats
on the liquid with the equilibrium position as shown.In both cases the cylinder
is only slightly larger in diameter than the piston. Viscous effects maybe
neglected.

m
(nominal)
area: A area:A
cylinder P
areas: Ac

(a) Find the effective mass, stiffness and natural frequencyin case (i),
includingthe effect of the kinetic energyof the liquid in the annularregion.

(b) Definestate variables and find differential equationsfor case (ii)

form suitable for solution.

(c) Linearize the equations of part (b), combine them to leave only
position variable, and determinethe responseto an initial condition which
is not far fromequilibrium.
10.3. DISPLACEMENT MODULATED INERTANCES 769

10o13 A dielectric fluid with density p and dielectric constant e is pumpedfrom

a lower reservoir to a reservoir h higher. The environment is air, which has a
dielectric constant e0 < e. This is accomplished by placing a ~roltage vo across
a pair of plate electrodes of width w and separation d. As soon as the fluid
reaches the top of the right-hand plate the voltage is discontinued, but inertia
keeps the fluid moving upward for a while. The fluid that rises above the top
of the right-hand plate falls back into an upper reservoir; the fluid remaining
between the plates falls back to the lower reservoir. The cycle is then repeated.

Notes: Parts (a)-(c) can be done independently of one another. Viscous

wall-shear effects maybe neglected, but not all other resistive or inertial effects.

~upper

reserv°ir N1
il~lA

lower reservoir,

(a) Model the system when the surface of the liquid is rising between
the plates. Evaluate the parameters of your model, or alternatively give
expressions for their energy in terms of defined state variables.

(b) Model the system after the surface has broached the upper edge of the
right-hand plate but before it has stopped rising. Give parameters as in
(a).
(c) Modelthe system when the surface is settling downbetween the plates.
Again, give the parameters.

(d) If you have completed part (a), find a set of state differential equations
to to describe that part of the cycle. Otherwise, find the equations for part
(c) for part credit or part (b) for the least credit.
770 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 10.3

1. T = ½rn[(x~)2 ÷ ~o_]. However,the momentum for the radial velocity is p~ = m~,

and the momentum for the rotational velocity is pC = mx~. Therefore,

Op¢ "~
rnx
OT p~
3ll~X
OX
The differential equations are

dt
dp~
dt ~
mx
dx 1
dt
Note that ~ = p~/m.

Guided Problem 10.4

1. The entropy of the expandable member, S, and a momentumfor the flow, p,
are proper state variables. The need for a constant inertance (to satisfy the re-
quirementsof our schemefor writing differential equations) affects the choice of p,
however, as noted below.
2. Both the resistance to the flow, R = R(8, Q), and the inertance, I = I(8),
assumedto depend only on the temperature, 8, which is a direct function of S.
Our schemefor writing differential equations requires that we employa constant
inertance, however.This could be Io = 1(80), whichis connected to the flow Q
a transformer with modulus T -~ T(~) -~ V/~/I(8o). But does this transformer
represent a nonholonomicconstraint, which would deny any further coupling be-
tween the fluid flow and the entropy (or temperature)?
The literal answer to this question is no. This follows from the observation that
the generalized velocity TQis not integrable, that is f TQdt is a quasi-coordinate
not representable by a function other than its being a time integral of a state
function. Further, an accurate accounting of the kinetic energy of the fluid in the
gap includes the effect of the velocity at whichthe gap opens or closes. This gives
a direct force on the movingmemberdependant on both this velocity and the fluid
flow. The problem is not included in the restricted class represented by equation
(10.23).
10.4. LINEAR MULTIPORT FIELDS 771

Nevertheless, the velocity at whichthe gap opensor closes is likely to be so small

that its effects on the kinetic energy of the fluid are negligible. The change in
the gap due to the strain of the expandable memberthat results from the fluid-
induced force on it also is likely to be negligible. Therefore, the modelercan be
quite justified to treat the coupling as thought it were nonholonomic.Nofurther
coupling betweenthe thermal and fluid parts of the system is recognized by this
approximation. This interpretation is consistent with the problem statement.
The bond graph has two pieces:

1=I(Oo).

10.4 Linear Multiport Fields

Multiport inertance, compliance and resistance fields often are assumed to be
linear. Linearity introduces special properties that allow the useful concepts of
mutual inertance, mutual compliance, mutual resistance and certain standard
bond graph equivalences to be employed. Applications considered below with a
single power type include electric transformers that have two or more coils, and
inertive rigid bodies that are actuated from more than one pivot point. These
two cases will serve to introduce the linear inertance and resistance fields. Appli-
cations with two power types include the piezoelectric transducer (electric and
mechanical powers, and electrostatic and strain energies) and the piezomag-
netic transducer (electrical and mechanical powers, and magnetic and strain
energies). These are used to introduce the linear compliance fields, which are
finally applied to a general linear material with several coupled energy storage
mechanisms.

10.4.1 Mutual Inertances and Resistances: the Real

Electrical Transformer
A real transformer stores energy in the magnetic fluxes that pass through mag-
netically permeable material (most often iron) and are generated by the currents
il and i2 in the two coils. The electric circuit symbol for the transformer, given
in Fig. 10.8 part (a), includes two parallel lines that suggest the permeable core.
The energy for the most general linear two-variable inertance may be written
772 CHAPTER 10. ENERG-Y STORAGE FIELDS

el e2

(a) circuit diagram symbol (b) bond graph with mutual inertance

e1 ll ~ o-i’
lil ~ T ~ 0 e212
- e1 " T i2’ e2

(c) equivalem graph with transformer (d) circuit graph equivalent

(e) reduction with perfect flux linkage (f) added reduction for 12~ or ¢o-~o

el ~’~ Ts’----~ 0 ~.~

!?"~-T~ ------- 0

li2’

(g) bond graph with resistances added (h) equivalent bond graph

Figure 10.8: Non-ideal electric transformer

10.4. LINEAR MULTIPORT FIELDS 773

in the quadratic form

1
T = 1-I, i21 + I12ili., + -~Igi;. (10.28)

For the transformer, I1 and I2 represent the inductances of the separate coils
and I12 is knownas the mutual inductance Of the coils. (The letter I is used
for inductance, rather ~han the more conventional L, to reduce the number of
symbols.) It is this mutual inductance, due to the magnetic flux linkage through
the commonpath for the two coils, that makes the transformer work.
The currents il and i2 are appropriate flows or generalized velocities, as
with the ideal trm~sformer. The inductances I1 and 12 then become common
one-port inertances. It is convenient to represent I12 as a special two-ported
mutual inertance, as shown in part (b) of the figure. Its respective efforts are
el = I~2di.2/dtand e2 = lredi~/dt.
A bond graph with a mutual inertance is awkward to implement causally in
order to find the corresponding state differential equations. It serves very well,
however, as a bridge between the energy expression and a corresponding bond
graph that is indeed in a convenient form for application of the causal strokes
and the writing of the differential equations. This latter bond graph is given
in part (c) of the figure. It is a universal equivalent to the graph of part (b),
assuming the parameters If and T are properly determined.
For the equivalence to apply, the only. requirement is that the two bond
graphs must represent the same energy in terms of their boundary variables.
This new graph represents the energy
1 , .2 1_ .,2
(10.29)

which equals the energy of equation (10.28) if and only

~2" = i2 + Til, (10.30a)

T = ~-2’ (10.30b)

I~ = I~ - T2I.~~ = 11- --.I~2 (10.30c)

1.2
You may verify this claim by direct substitution. Equation (10.30b) gives the
junction structure of Fig. 10.8 part (c), which iucludes an ideal transformer.
Equation (10.29) shows that two inertances I~ and I2 should be attached. This
bond graph model can be converted back into the circuit diagram of part (d)
the figure, which includes an ideal transformer, a series inductor and a parallel
inductor. This diagram appears commonlyin textbooks for electrical engineers.
Electrical engineers are taught how to write differential equations for circuits
like this upon examination of the circuit diagram; you may accomplish the same
result by working with the bond graph directly.
The best possible performance of an electrical transformer results when the
mutual inductance 112 is maximized. The theoretical limit of I12 corresponds
774 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

to perfect flux linkage between the two coils, l%r this value, I~ vanishes, and
T has its maximumvalue consistent with the physical fact that I~ cannot be
negative:
I1.~ : ~ T= ~v~-~/I~. (10.31)
The corresponding bond graph and circuit diagram equivalent are shown in part
(e) of the figure. The series inductance has been ~liminated, which becomes
important if the device is to operate well at high frequency.
The current passing through the inductor I2 in part (e) decreases as the
frequency of excitation is increased or as the value of I2 is increased. If this
current is sufficiently decreased, the energy ~ : 2 becomes negligible, the iner-
tance I2 can be erased from the graph, and the d~evice virtually reduces to ~
ideal transformer as shownin part (f) of the figure, as is normally desired. The
designer of a transformer that is to operate at 60 Hz would m~eIe large enough
so that this condition is more or less satisfied at that frequency. He does this
by adding iron to the core. This explains why power transformers are typically
so heavy.
Energy dissipation has been ignored thus far. Linear dissipation may be
approximated by the quadratic expression

P = R~z~ + 2R~2i~i: + R~i~, (10.32)

where R~ and R: refer primarily to the electric~ resistances of the two coils and
R~: is a mutual resistance associated largely with the eddy-current losses in
the core. This description leads directly to the gener~ bond graph model of
part (g) of the figure. The mutual resistance can be replaced by the s~e type
of bond graph structure employed for the mutual inertance, however, giving
the equivalent bond graph of part (h). The anMogousequations to (10.28)
(10.29) are
P = R~i~ + R~i~, (10.33a)

i2 = i2 + TRil, (10.33b)
R~
(10.33c)

R~ = R~ - T~Re = R~ - R~ (10.33d)
Re
Muchof the complexity of this model evaporates if R~ is neglected.

10.4.2 The Rigid Inertive Floating Link

The commonutility of the bond graphs above is suggested by a direct analogy

between the transformer without dissipation and a "floating link" of rigid ma-
terial, pictured in Fig. 10.9, in which the two pivot points are movedvirtually
in a direction fixed parallel to one another, and only within a small maximum
displacement, so the axis drawn between them remains nearly perpendicular
to the direction of the motions. The two velocities &l and ~e are analogous
10.4. LINEAR MULTIPORT FIELDS 775

(a) link with pivot points

F~

I1 I2 I1’ I2
(b) equivalent bond graphs (compare to Fig. 10.8)

(c) springs and dashpots added (same as vehicle modelof Fig. 5,15 (p. 322))

.R
2
C~ C2
./R
a

I~’ I2

(d) associated bond graph

Figure 10.9: Rigid inertive floating link

776 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

to the two electric currents, and the inductance energies become analogous to
the kinetic energies of the mass m in vertical translation and of the rotational
inertia mr2 in rotation about the center of mass (cm):

rn(b~" +2r2)" re(a2 + r2)’ m(ab - 2)

I1-- (a+5) ’ 12 = (a+b) -~ ’ I12 - 2 (10.34)
(a+5)
The bond graphs and equivalent circuits for the electric transformer (as given in
Fig. 10.8) also apply to the floating link. The equivalent bond graph with the
transformer includes the parameters
2mr 2ab - r
I~ = a~ + r2 ; T - a2 + r:. (10.35)

The analogy to maximizing the flux linkage occurs when the mass is concen-
trated at a point (the mass center, of course), reducing the rotational inertia
(and the radius of gyration, r) to zero. The subsequent analogy to neglecting
the current i2 by making I~. or the frequency large corresponds to making the
mass so large or the frequency so high that the mass center does not moveappre-
ciably. By not movingit acts as a pivot point; the floating link becomesan ideal
lever, which is indeed properly modeled by an ideal transformer. This analogy
can enhance your feeling for the behavior of a real electrical transformer.
In parts (c) and (d) of the figure, springs C1 and C2 and dashpots R~ and
are added to the pivot points of the floating link. This model could represent
a vehicle with springs and shock absorbers at its front and rear axles. The
resulting motion involves heave and pitch modes.

10.4.3 Multi-Coil Transformer with Perfect Flux Linkage

Occasionally a system model will have most of the characteristics of linearity,
but nevertheless contain a nonlinear characteristic. A three-coil electrical trans-
former such as shown in Fig. 10.10 is such a case. A perfect flux linkage is
assumed, which means that the magnetomotive forces of the three coils sum
together. The individual magnetomotive forces are proportional to the currents
and the number of turns of the respective coils. The bond graph of part (b)
the figure results; there is a single inertance/inductance. Thus far the system
acts as though it were linear.
If the currents are raised high enough, however, magnetic saturation occurs;
there is a virtual limit to the magnetic flux and to the energy that can be stored.
The constitutive relation can be plotted in the form of part (c) of the figure.
Thus in dealing with electromagnetic components you can encounter nonlinear
inertances, unlike in classical mechanics where they do not exist by definition.
This nonlinear inertance can be accomodated fairly simply by means already
developed, however, because it has only one port.

10.4.4 The Piezoelectric Transducer

A piezoelectric crystal stores energy by virtue of both its mechanical stress or
strain and its electric field or electric displacement (charge). The effects are
10.4. LINEAR MULTIPORT FIELDS 777

il "x

(a) schematic (b) bond graph

;----~-R3
1
P~g~etic energy characteristic
with saturation

TA+T~i~+T;~

Figure 10.10: Three-coil transformer with perfect flux linkage and saturation

coupled. It is supposed here that the stress or strain and the electric field or
charge is imposed in only one direction, as shown in Fig. 10.11. The constitutive
relation is further assumedto be linear:

(10.36)

The strain is S and the relative displacement of the two conductive surfaces is
Ax = xoS, where xo is the thickness of the crystal; the tensile stress is a and the
associated force is F = Aa, where A is the cross-sectional area; the electric field
strength is E and the applied voltage is e = xoE; the electric displacement is D
and the electric charge is q = AD. The mechanical compliance of the material is
represented by the reciprocal of Young’s modulus, l/E, the electrical compliance
(dielectric constant) by ~, and the piezoelectric coupling by de.
The device is used as a transducer. This means that either a mechanical
force or displacement is imposed and an electrical voltage or current is pro-
duced, or that an electrical voltage or current is imposed and a mechanical
motion or force is produced. Such devices are used, for example, in crystal
microphones and pressure transducers (to convert pressure or force o voltage)
and in some vibration and valve control systems (to convert voltage to force and
small motion).
The behavior can be understood better in terms of bond graphs. The graph
of part (b) of the figure shows three separate energy storage elements: C’¢ for
strain energy, Cd for electric energy, and the mutual compliance C,,d for the
778 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

---~ x=.~+x*~-
(a) schematic

~xF0 "-’--"-C~d-’~---- 0e ~ C~=2/AE

l [ q C~=A~/~
c~ G C~=d~
(b) bond graph wi~ mutual compli~ce

~--~- 0 ------~ T --~-~l 1q ~ T=Cd/C~a

x
C~’=C~-Cof/Ca
~ ~
~
C~ G
(c) equivalent bondgraphfor computation

(d) equivalentcircuit diagram

Figure 10.11: Piezoelectric transducer

10.4. LINEAR MULTIPORT FIELDS 779

piezoelectric or coupled energy. The stored energy can be written

~ + CadFe+ lzCdeU’z
~2 = ~C~F
(10.37)

It is awkwardto write equations directly from this graph, since there are
three compliances but only two independent energy storages, so integral causal-
ity cannot be applied to all three compliances. This problem vanishes upon
conversion to an equivalent bond graph with only two compliances, each with
a single port. One of two possible versions is shown in part (c) of Fig. 10.11;
the other has a mirror image structure, with the 1-junction on the left and the
0-junction on the right. This bond graph equivalence follows the same idea as
the equivalence employed in Figs. 10.8 and 10.9 for the inertances. The relation-
ships for the modulus of the new transformer and the modulus of the modified
mechanical compliance C~ also are given in the figure. These are universal, and
can be used whenever a graph of the form of part (b) of the figure is converted
to a graph of the form of part (c). The equivalent circuit diagram is shown
part (d).
The bond graph or circuit diagram reveals potential limitations to piezoelec-
tric transducers. At low frequency the compliance Cd can be seen to reduce the
mechanical response to a voltage e, but not to current i -- 0. At high frequency
the compliance C~ drains off flow, producing a break frequency above which the
transducer largely fails to operate. This break frequency is raised as the mutual
compliance Coa is increased, analogous to the effect of increasing the flux link-
age in an electrical transformer or the concentration of mass at a single point in
the floating link. In the theoretical limit of maximummutual compliance (not
achieved with real crystals), C~ would vanish altogether, so that at sufficiently
high frequencies the transducer would act just like an ideal transformer with
modulusT. This objective, only partially realized in practice, is the ideal goal
for the design of a piezoelectric transducer.

10.4.5 The Thermoelastic Rod

The thermoelastic rod stores energy by virtue of both its mechanical stress
or strain and its temperature or entropy changes. Suppose that the stress or
strain is imposed in only one direction,, as shownin Fig. 10.12. The constitutive
relation is further assumedto be linear:

The strain, S, stress, a, and Young’s modulus, E, are the same as with the
piezoelectric transducer: As = xoS and F = Aa. The change of temperature
from some reference value is A0. The change of entropy per unit mass is As,
so the total change in entropy is AS = pAxoAs. The thermal expansion co-
efficient, a, represents the thermoelastic effect, whereby not only does heating
cause expansion, but stretching causes cooling.
780 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

~x
r
(a) systemand general ]A [ 0 F
bond graph

~ F
(b) reticulated linearized At?
~ 0 ~ Coc~ 0 ~ Co=AE/L
model
C~=I/Ltr
l l
cc co cc =Ogpc
(c) equivalent bondgraph At? F
for computation ~ 1 ~ T ~ 0 ~ T= Cc/C~
Co= C~-C~/Cc
c~
Figure 10.12: Thermoelastic rod

As with the piezoelectric transducer, the behavior can be understood better

in terms of bondgraphs. The graph of part (b) of the figure showsthe analogous
three separate energy storage elements: C~ for strain energy as before, Cc for
thermal energy, and the mutual complia~aceC~c for the thermoelastic or coupled
energy. The stored energy can be written in the same form as before,

v= +c cF,O+ 2.Cc
,O
This graph is converted, as before, to the equivalent form shownin part (c)
the figure, in order to permit integral causality. This graphreveals directly that

1
~-AS), (lO.40a)

A0= ~cAS- ~F, 1

(10.40b)

demonstratingthat inwardheat flow reduces the tensile force (or increases com-
pressive force) and that tensile force decreases temperature.
’ Equation(10.39) expresses the energy in terms of efforts. Alternatively, the
energy could be expressed in terms of generalized displacements,

]? = y(Ax, AS),. (10.41)

and the results of equation(lO.40) found in the traditional general manner

Section 10.1:
OV
A0= oA-~-~; F = ~x" (10.42)
10.4. LINEAR MULTIPORTFIELDS 781

Implementationof this approach employsthe inverse of equation (10.38). The

initial bond graph with a mutual compliance has 1-junctions in place of 0-
junctions. See Problem10.14. This approach is often useful, as Guided Prob-
lems 10.5 and 10.6 are intended to demonstrate.

10.4.6 Piezomagnetic (Magnetostrictive) Transducer

A piezomagneticor magnetostrictive material is like a piezoelectric material
except energy is stored in a magnetic field instead of an electrostatic field.
Considerthe systemshownin Fig. 10.13 part (a), in whichthe magneticfield
generated by a coil, and the core is madeof a magnetostrictive material which
is fixed at one end. The constitutive relation is

=I
where B is the magnetic flux density, H is the magnetizing force, ~ is the
magnetic permeability coefficient and d, is the piezomagneticcoefficient. As
with the piezelectric transducer, Ax = xoS and F -- Aa. The magnetomotive
force Fm=zoH (which neglects the reluctance of the magnetic circuit other
than the plunger) becomesanalogous to the voltage e, and the magnetic flux
¢ = AB becomesanalogous to the current 0- Fmis directly proportional to
the actual applied electric current, however;specifically, Fm= 4pNil. Thus,
the bond graph on part (b) of the figure is analogous to that of part (b)
the preceding two figures for the piezoelectric transducer and thermoelastic
rod, except that the coil is represented by the addedgyrational coupling with
modulus G = 4pN. Similarly, the equivalent bond graph of part (c) contains
only two energy storage elements, which are causally independent. To simplify
this result, the 1-junction with its compliancecan be dualized to leave a 0-
junction with an inertance; the transformer thus becomesa gyrator and vice-
versa, as shownin part (d). Finally, the values of the gyrator and inertance
moduli can be modifiedto allow the modulusof the transformer to becomeunity,
so the transformer can be replaced by a simple bond, as shownin part (e). This
is the simplest representation possible, unless one or more of the remaining
effects are neglected. Note that, unlike the piezoelectric transducer and the
thermoelastic rod, the piezomagnetictransducer is essentially gyrational.

10.4.7 Generalized Linear Media

The piezoelectric, thermoelastic and piezomagneticmedia considered aboveare
special cases of moregeneral media.First, they were restricted to unidirectional
strain and stress only. In general, there are 3 normal and 3 shear stresses and
strains; the elastic behaviorcan be represented by a symmetric6×6array of elas-
tic coefficients, leading to 6 one-port compliancesand 15 mutualcompliancesfor
the 21 independentcoefficients. Second,adding directionality to the dielectric
and magnetic permeability coefficients gives two 3 x 3 arrays with 3 two-port
and 6 mutual compliances each. Finally, thermal expansion also can be added,
782 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

(a) schematic

F :~H e C~=.~/EA
~ 0 "--~-~Cu-’~’~-- 0 ~ G ~
C2=AIz’:2

Cl C2 G =4 zN
(b) bond graph with mutualcompliance

(c) equivalent bondgraphwith transformer

x~--~- 0 ~-I G’I---~,.- 0 ~- T ’~-- T’=G

(d) bond graph wi~ dualized region

x ~ ~ q I~’=C~

(e) final reducedbondgraph

Figure 10.13: Piezomagnetic(magnetostrictive) transducer

10.4. LINEAR MULTIPORT FIELDS 783

Table 10.1 Sub-~natrix coefficients for energy storage in a mediumwith

elastic, electric, magnetic and thermal energies
H~O
Sij 8E,H,O dij~
’ ~j~!
TH8
mink p.~ Ek
T,E.O
Bm (symmetric) #ink p~.E Hk
pcE,H,T/ o AO

Thesubscripts i, j, k, l, m refer to Cartesian directions.

sub-matrix and name of coeff, sym~netric? dimensions independ, coeff.

E.H,O
8ijkl elastic yes 6× 6 21

e,~kT’S’O dielectric yes 3× 3 6

pT,E,O
mk magnetic permeability yes 3× 3 6
pcE’H’T/o specific heat not applic. 1×1 1
°diHj~ piezoelectric no 6×3 18
dE,O piezomagnetic no 6×3 18
~j~
~Ej,H t~hermal expansion no 6 ×1 6
T,O
mink magneto-dielectric no 3×3 9
p~H pyro-electric no 3×1 3
pTm’E pyro-magnetic no 3 x1 3
cI energystorage yes 13 × 13 91

to give an additional one-port compliance. The couplings between these four

different types of fields can be described by 6 dielectric coefficients, 18 piezoelec-
tric coefficients, 18 piezomagnetic coefficients, 6 thermal expansion coefficients,
3 pyro-electric coefficients and 3 pyro-magnetic coefficients, all representable by
mutual compliances.
The complete result is a symmetric 13×13 array of coefficients, as shown with
matrix tensor notation in Table 10.1. Stress is represented by the symbol T,
temperature increments by A0, and entropy increments by Aa. The 13 diagonal
elements are representable by one-port compliances, and the 78 independent off-
diagonal elements are representable by mutual compliances. This gives the bond
graph of Fig. 10.14, in which the 78 bonds interconnecting the 13 zero-junctions
implicitly represent the mutual elements.
Fortunately in engineering one always vastly simplifies this extremely com-
plicated general case. Probably no real material exhibits significant effects for
all the coefficients or even a majority of them, and if it did the material itself
or at least most of its effects would be ignored.
784 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

C~3~yy

~,~ Note: The78 lines connectingthe

~x \C 13 0-junctions represent mutual
-~ compliances (~ C ~).

Figure 10.14: Compliancefield for energy storage in a volumeof a substance

10.4.8 Reticulation Of General Multiport Fields

Breedveld5 has developed a congruence canonical form for representing a

linear n-port C, I or R field with n one-port C, I or R elements interconnected
with a "weighted" junction structure comprising 0 and 1-junctions and (n2 -
n)/2 transformers. Althoughnot unique, his structure appears to be as simple
as any. The two-port case is identical to that employedrepeatedly above and
inside the rear cover. The three-port case is shownin Fig. 10.15 part (c) for
the compliancefield and Fig. 10.16 part (b) for the inertance field. The dual
junction structures also can be used; these are shownin Fig. 10.15 part (b)
and Fig. 10.16 part (c). (The options shown in the parts (b) are somewhat
easier to manipulate. The two cases shownin the parts (b) are perfect duals
of one another, as are the two cases shownin the parts (c).) The graphs
not symmetricwith respect to the three ports; there are therefore six options
for each field. The two-port fields also are not symmetric, as you have seen,
and possesses two options. Integral causality is shownin each case; differential
causality also maybe used.
Thesefield reticulations are helpful becausethey exposethe essential trans-
formational couplings betweenthe parts. If, for example, the effort el in Fig.
10.16 part (b) is madean independentinput (changing the causality of its bond
and the bondfor C1), its contribution to e~ is simplyTa~e~and its contribution
to e2 is simply T~le~. Also, state variables maybe associated with each energy
storage element and the correspondingstate differential equations can be found
by the standard methods.

5p.c. Breedveld, "Decomposition of multiport elements in a revised multibond graph no-

tation," J. I~ranklin Institute, v. 318 n. 4 pp. 253-273, 1984.
10.4. LINEAR MULTIPORTFIELDS 785

I
’C C12

(a) bondgraph with mutualcompliances

(b) equivalent bondgraph(dual of Breedveldstructure)

Figure 10.15: Reticulation of a general linear three-port C field

786 CHAPTER10. ENERGYSTORAGEFIELDS

V I

112

[]13
112

12

]23
1"13]

123[ q
!
/v3J

(a) bondgraph with mutualinertances

T31 =113/13
Z21 = (123~13-I1313)/(~213-I132)

(b) equivalent bondgraph(due to Breedveld)

Figure 10.16: Reticulation of a general linear three-port I field

10.4: LINEAR MULTIPORTFIELDS 787

10.4.9 Further Equivalences

Someof the bond graphs with mutual elements above e~nploy 1-junctions, while
others employ0-junctions. Not infrequently, the most convenient energy ex-
pression is in terms of displacementinstead of effort, or momentum instead of
flow. Similarly, the most convenient energy dissipation expression might be in
terms of effort rather than flow. As a result, the type of junction to which
the expression corresponds is switched. Equivalent graphs without the mutual
elementsare given inside the rear cover for all cases.
Determinationof these equivalences is straightforward. Anexampleis de-
veloped step-by-step in GuidedProblem10.5 below.

10.4.10 Summary
The energy stored or dissipated in linear models is represented by a sum of
terms, someof which are proportional to the square of an effort, momentum,
displacementor flow variable and others of whichare proportional to the prod-
uct of a pair of variables. Those terms of the energy associated with each sep-
arate variable are directly representable, as before, by standard single-ported
compliances, inertances and resistances. Those associated with a pair of vari-
ables are directly representable by special double-portedor mutualcompliances,
inertances or resistances.
It is possible to write state differential equations directly frombondgraphs
that contain both self and mutual energy storage elements, but the numberof
independentdifferential equations is less than the numberof elements, requiring
someuse of differential causality. The recommended alternative is to construct
equivalent bond graphs which contain only single-ported compliancesand iner-
tances, plus ideal transformers. Theseequivalent graphs not only permit simple
interpretation in the form of differential equations, but also reveal in familiar
terms the inherent transformational structure of the coupled storage mechanism.
The process of workingfrom the stored energy expression through a bond graph
with mutual elements and then to an equivalent graph without these kinds of
elementsand finally a set of state differential equationscan be simpler than the
apparently more direct methodsthat have been employedpreviously.

Guided Problem 10.5

Find the general bond graph which is equivalent to that shown below, but
contains no mutual element and can be given integral causality. The parameters
C1, Ca and C1~ are constants. (This graph is used in Guided Problem 10.6
below. Note its difference from the graphs of Figs. 10.11 and 10.13.

C~
788 CHAPTER10. ENERGYSTORAGEFIELDS

rigid 13 diaphragm
perforated ~ electrode
electrode ~

~ d+x

Figure 10.17: Capacitance microphoneof Guided Problem 10.6

Suggested Steps:

1. Write the total energy stored in the graph elements in terms of ql and q2.
2. Propose a graph with either of the forms

1. T 0

Ca Cb

~ 0 ~------ T ~ 1.

Ca
and also find its energyin terms of ql and q.~.
3. Equatethe two energy expressions for arbitrary values of ql and q2, so as
tofind the constant parameters Ca, Cb and C12,
4. Applyintegral causality to the newequivalent graph.

Guided Problem 10.6

A capacitance microphoneis b~sedon a parallel plate capacitor: one electrode
is a diaphragm of effective area A and mass m which moves with a uniform
displacement, x, while the other electrode is rigid and perforated to allow free
passageof air, as shownin Fig. 10.17. The meanseparation of the plates is d, to
give a capacitance of C = ¢A/(d+x). The effective stiffness of the diaphragmis
10.4. LINEAR MULTIPORT FIELDS 789

k, which includes any effect of compression of the air in the volume behind the
diaphragm. The voltage applied is ~ + e*, where ~ is constant; the associated
electric charge is ~ + q* where ~ is constant. Write differential equations which
model the dynamics for small changes x << d, e* << ~ and q* << ~.

Suggested Steps:

Write an expression for the energy stored (Y), including both the electro-
static energy and the elastic energy. Employas the variables the general-
ized displace~nent pair V (equal to Ax) and q. Note that when x = 0 the
diaphragm has a strain deflection, which you could call -5, due to the
charge ~.

Calculate the pressure P* -- 0Y/DV and voltage e* + ~ = O)?/Oq. Note

that the constant terms in the first derivative must cancel, and the con-
stant terms in the second derivative equal ~.

Complete the linearization started in step 2 by retaining only first order

terms in V and q; the higher order terms are relatively small and may be
neglected. Represent the results by the bond graph below.

Evaluate the compliances as functions of the constant parameters.

4. Add the inertia of the diaphram to this graph. Find its value through use
of its kinetic energy.

5o Apply the bond graph equivalences found in Guided Problem 10.5 to elim-
inate the mutual compliance in favor of a transformer. Apply integral
causality to the graph.

Write state variable differential equations for the system, and relate the
causal outputs to the state variables.

P
790 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

PROBLEMS

10.14 A yoke shown below is rigidly attached to a rotating shaft at a right

angle. A small mass m slides frictionlessly on a small rod attached to the yoke
as shown; the mass is loosely constrained by springs with a net spring rate k.
The yoke has momentof inertia I~ about the shaft.

shaft

(a) Write an e.xpression which approximatesthe kinetic energy of the

system, using ¢ and 2 as the velocity variables.

(b) Find a linearized model for small displacements of z, identifying self

a.nd mutual inertances as well as a compliance. Drawa corresponding bond
graph. (Note: When~ is large, the nonlinear behavior of this system can
be significant for fairly modest displacements. Problems of this type are
addressed in the reference cited in footnote 3 on page 763.)

(c) Find an equivalent bond graph with no mutual inertance.

(d) Find the natural frequency of the model when the momentin the shaft
is zero.

10.15 Oil-cooled transformers tend to be noisy. (You may have heard them
buzzing on telephone poles.) Eddy current and hysteresis losses are proportional
to the square of the rate of change of the magnetic flux. Magnetostrictive action
of the nickel/iron core causes a dilational fluid flow Q. There is an effective
compressibility of the oil, and the acoustic pressure P acts against an acoustic
impedance with resistance R.~ and inertance I3. It is proposed that these effects
can be represented in a summary fashion in the bond graph model on the next
page.

(a) Identify qualitatively and briefly the meanings of the various parame-
ters (other than R2 and I3 which are already identified).

(b) Identify what you consider the most glaring omission in this model.

(c) Simplify the given graph in preparation for part (d), defining any
elements in terms of what is replaced. Apply causal strokes, identify input
variables, and relate the output pressure P to the state variables. (This
part can be done independently of parts (a) and (b).)
10.4. LINEAR MULTIPORT FIELDS 791

(d) Write in solvable form the set of state differential equations corre-
sponding to your graph of part (c).

~small volume of air (neglect

r-,.’x for most purposes)
/’-""oil
(I I ~ I )/ cooling tubes (neglect)

all parameters assumedconstant

el li
1 ~Cl2~ 1 ~ 0 ~ 1 ~ 1

R~ I1 C
3 12

10.16 You are asked to evaluate the feasibility of basing a solar engine on the
thermal expansion of a metal, avoiding some of the problems associated with
fluids. Since the strain and percent change in absolute temperature are small,
linearized characteristics can be used to model the behavior. Consider a unit
volume of metal, for example in the shape of a rod, with uniform state, which
undergoes a thermodynamic cycle by being alternately exposed to and shaded
from sunlight.

(a) Represent the strain, thermoelastic and thermal energies of the metal
in the form associated with a linear model. Draw the corresponding bond
graph, and convert this graph into an equivalent graph with only two
energy storages, one associated with the strain, S, and the other with the
changes in entropy, (fa.

(b) Make the metal undergo a Carnot cycle, with the processes 1 to
below. Find the corresponding stress (T) - strain diagram, and the thermal
efficiency of the cycle.

(c) Define the ratio of the actual thermal expansion coefficient to the
maximumtheoretically possible as e. Evaluate e for two or three metals for
which you can find data (such as aluminum, iron, copper or magnesium),
and compare to an ideal gas (such as air or a monatomic gas).

(d) Find the ratio of the energy converted per cycle to the maximum
energy stored during the cycle (at the end of process 1) in terms of
792 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

(e) Assume that the frictional loss per cycle is a fixed fraction, ], of the
maximum strain energy. Find an expression for the mechanical e~ciency
i~ terms of e and f.

(f) Draw"practical conclusionsabout the feasibility of solar engines based

on the expansionof metals from the results of the steps above.

10.17 A magnetic pick-off transducer comprises a U-shaped magnetic path in-

cluding a permanent magnet with magnetomotiveforce (mmf) F0, a coil with
N turns and an electrical resistor. Whenthe bar of magnetically permeable
material (such as iron) passes by at a distance w and velocity ~:, as shownbe-
low, magnetic flux surges through the path, producing a pulse in the voltage
e. The magnetic energy is f F de, in which the total mmfis F = Fo - Ni and
the magnetic flux, whichis conserved around the loop, is ¢ = BA; the flux per
unit area is B = pH = # dF/ds where s is distance along the path, and A is
cross-sectional area.

(a) Relate ¢ to F as a function of the position x. All reluctance in the

magnetic path maybe neglected in comparison to the reluctance of the
air gap, where # = #0 and fringing maybe neglected.

(b) Modelthe system with a bond graph. Note that the magnetic energy
can be represented as a compliance.

(c) WhenR is infinite so that i vanishes, find e and the force F~ which
acts on the bar.

(d) WhenR is arbitrary, find equations whichif combinedor solved would

give e and F~.
10.4. LINEAR MULTIPORT FIELDS 793

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 10.5

2. The two graphs are mirror images of one another. For the left-hand graph,

1T 2 1 1 ~
Y=~-Tq’+~b( qI+q2)2=~ ~-~+~bb
1(1 q~+-~bbq~q’~+~bqg
T2) ~

3. Equating the three respective coefficients gives, directly,

1 1 2T 1 T 1 1

C2
from which T = Ct2’ Ca = 1 - C~C~/C~2’ Cb = C~

Guided Problem 10.6

x. v =d+x
~(O;)+~-~(~
1
- ~)~- d+V/A,_
7~-~~q+ q*?+ 1. [V .~)~
~ ~-~ -

= 2--e-~ (q + 2~q* + q,2) +

01.’--=
OY d + VIA .....

Canceling the const~t terms,

- 1 ..~ k
P=~q*+~q-+~V
d , ~V+ 1
e* = ~q + eA
~

Neglecting the higher-order terms in q* and V, and comparing to the bond

graph,
~ . k . 1 1 ,
P= ~.~_,q+7~v= c-77~.~v"
+~t.
e* = ~..-~q* +cA,z ~-~qq*+ V]

Therefore, Cv = ~ ; d
Cq= e.’-~; Cvv = "~
~
794 CHAPTER 10. ENERGY STORAGE FIELDS

4. I :.IlQ ~ 1 . 2
z = ~mx ; therefore, I = m

l ~’Cvq-~-"--li__~--Z~-~iq

5. 1

P (~p/l"
~ 1 _l’-~--r:~__ Tl~--"."eo ~

V/C~ -Q= V q/C,~ =q

c; c~
Cv k/A
whereT-- C9 _ Ad, Cv’ _ ~ =
Cyq ~ 1 - CvCqC~q 1 - kd~AZ /~

6. The state v~ables are no~d ~ the ~aph above, ~om w~eh the ~e~ntiM
equatiom are
d;
-~ = P-~v-
c~, TGq
.
dV 1
~
d---~
=-i
dqdt = i + TQ = I + ~P
1 .
and the causal outputs are Q --- l~- = -~p; e* = ~-q
Chapter 11

Introduction to Distributed-
Parameter Models

All physical systems are distributed in space, so it is natural to seek models that
also are distributed in space. A distributed-parameter model has at least
two independent variables, and possibly three or four. If the model is dynamic,
one of these is time. The others are spatial, for example the Cartesian coor-
dinates x, y and z. The lumped dynamic models considered exclusively thus
far have one independent variable -- time -- leading to ordinary differential
equations. The presence of two or more independent variables requires that dis-
tributed parameter models be represented mathematically by partial differential
equations.
A distributed-parameter model of a physical system is not necessarily more
accurate than a lumped model of the same system. It also is not necessarily
more difficult to handle than the lumped model. Distributed-parameter models
should be thought of as alternatives which not infrequently produce superior
results for a given degree of complexity.
Nonlinear distributed-parameter models are commonly addressed with nu-
merical simulation, like lumped models. Rather than delve into the complexities
of simulation with two independent variables, however, this book assumes lin-
earity and taps directly into the powerful and revealing analytical consequences
of the property of superposition. Certain nonlinear boundary conditions will be
treated, nevertheless.
The models considered employ only one spatial variabl~. The restriction to
one-dimensional models is not as severe as might appear, since two and three-
dimensional effects often can be represented. Further, complex systems often
can be viewed as networks of one-dimensional distributed-parameter models
joined at simple junctions. 1 Most phenomena which occur in two and three
dimensions also occur in one dimension, however, and areintroduced here.

1Asecondchapter including morecomplexmodelsthan are treated in this bookhas been

written and maybe available fromthe author.

795
796 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

M~ M~ MI M~

C !
(a) shaft (b) spring model (c) inertia model

Figure 11.1: Rotating shaft and low-order lumped models

11.1 Wave Models with Simple Boundary

Conditions
The simplest and most commonly assumed distributed-parameter model is the
pure bilateral-wave-delay model. Physical structures often so modeled include
the rotating shaft, the rod with longitudinal motion, the acoustic tube, the
stretched string with lateral vibrations, and the electic coaxial cable. The discus-
sion below focuses on the Simple wave propagation associated with this model.
Attention is restricted to steady-state boundary conditions, apart from an ini-
tial excitation. Methods capable of handing dynamic boundary conditions are
discussed in Section 11.4.

11.1.1 Comparison of Lumped and Distributed Models

Consider the cylindrical shaft of Fig. 11.1 part (a), which is constrained to rotate
about its axis. Perhaps one end is attached to a motor and the other end to a
load. If the torque is high but the angular accelerations are low, you might use
the simple lumped model given in part (b) of the figure, in which C represents
the flexibility (compliance) of the entire shaft. If, on the other hand, the torque
is low and the angular accelerations high, the simple alternative lumped model
of part (c) might be appropriate, in which I represents the inertia (inertance)
of the entire shaft. For either the inertia or the compliance of the shaft to
be negligible, as they are assumed to be in the two models, respectively, the
frequencies of excitation must be low. For high excitation frequencies, both the
torque and angular accelerations become large, and therefore both compliance
and inertance are significant.
If both the compliance and inertance of the shaft are important, one of
the alternative lumped models shown in part (a) of Fig. 11.2 might suffice.
For quite high frequencies, however, waves can be seen to propagate back and
forth along the shaft, and the model of part (b) might be proposed. This
model has seven lumps, and is not particularly simple to handle analytically or
computationally. Further, it does a rather poor job of representing the wave
propagation. More lumps would improve the representation, but at the expense
of additional complication.
As shown below, it is possible to characterize the shaft with a distributed-
11.1 WAVE MODELS WITH SIMPLE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 797

(a) symmetric third-order models

M: 1 __..._.~ 0 .~_.~ 1 _...___~ 0 __....~ 1 ...~.~ 0 .~_._~ 1 M..~

I/6 C/3 I/3 C/3 I/3 C/3 I/6

(b) symmetric seventh-order model

Figure 11.2: Higher-order lumped models for rotating shaft

parameter model that has only two parameters, the wave travel time from
one end to the shaft to the other, and the ratio of the angular velocity changes
in these waves to the associated torque changes, called the characteristic or
surge admittance. This model could be represented by a new kind of bond
graph element, the pure bilateral-wave-delay element:
M1 " M~
~1 D ¢2
Analysis and simulation with this delay model can be considerably simpler than
with a multi-lumped model, as may be seen intuitively and as will be demon-
strated below. Further, the model is more accurate. Or is it, always?
Nowconsider that the shaft is extremely small and comprises a perfect single
crystal with lattice planes perpendicular to the axis. Further, presume that the
frequencies of excitation are exceedingly high, near the natural frequencies of
the individual atoms within the lattice. The lattice vibrations in this periodic
structure 2 modif~v the gross wave behavior markedly, changing the propagation.
velocity and introducing at least one absorption band. To model this behavior,
you must return to a lumped model, using point masses for the atoms and
lumped springs for the interatomic forces.
You have seen an example in which a lumped model is simpler than a dis-
tributed model for the same system, and a counter example in which a dis-
tributed model is simpler than a lumped model. You also have seen an example
in which a distriSuted model is more accurate than a lumped model, and a
counter example in which a lumped model is more accurate than a distributed
model. The most appropriate type of model to use tends to change as the scale
of the system is increased or decreased dramatically; there could be several re-
versals if the change is over a truly enormous range. The same observation
2SeeLeonBrillouin, WavePropagationin Periodic Structures, first edition McGraw-Hill,
1946; secondedition, DoverPublications, 1953.
798 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

Oe_dx

c~

Figure 11.3: Bond-graph model for an infinitesimal segment of a simple wave-

like element

applies to changes in the frequency of interest. There are no simple rules that
dictate the choice of a lumped or a distributed model. Modeling, again, becomes
partly an art, based on knowledge, experience and intuition.
Beware of the term distributed-parameter systems, since all physical systems
are distributed over space. The term distributed-parameter model is clear, how-
ever. To a mathematician, nevertheless, a system is merely a set of equations.
For example, a matrix partial differential equation often is called a distributed
system.

11.1.2 The Pure Bilateral-Wave-Delay Model

The rotating shaft is well represented by a simple wave-like model, as found in
Example 11.1 below. Other examples that can be so approximated are given
in Examples 11.2-11.5. The commonmodel for these cases can be represented
by the bond graph of Fig. 11.3, which describes an infinitesimal segment of
the structure having length dx; the independent position variable is x. If I’
and C’ are the inertance per unit length and the compliance per unit length,
respectively, the inertance Idx and the compliance Caz are

Id~ = I’ dx; Cd~ = C’ dx. (11.1)

ExampIe 11.1
Identify the generic variables e and 0 and the parameters I ’ and C~ for a
uniform elastic rotating shaft.
Solution." For the shaft~ e represents the moment,M, and 0 represents the
angular velocity, ~, as before:

The momentdue to inertia is the integral over the area of the radius times
the acceleration times the density, and the momentof inertia I ~ is the ratio
11.1 WAVE MODELS WITH SIMPLE BOUNDARYCONDITIONS 799

of this momentto the angular acceleration, or

I’ -’- f~ r(rO~/c~t)p(2rcrdr) 4_ p~ra

o$/ ot -
The shear stress on a transverse element at a radius r is
Ou

in which /~ is the shear modulus. The momentthat this stress produces

on the shaft can be found by integrating the product of the stress and the
momentarm (i.e. the radius, r) over the area of the shaft, whichhas radius
a:
47rpa
0¢
f
Ox Jo 2 Ox
The complianceis the ratio of the twist in the shaft to the moment,or

C’- O¢/Ox = .2

Example 11.2
Represent the approximatebehavior of the longitudinal vibrations of a rod
(or any slender prism) by the pure bilateral-delay model, defining the vari-
ables e and ~ and the parameters I and C. Commenton the accuracy of
this modelas comparedwith the torsional shaft of Example11.1
Solution: Longitudinal vibrations in a rod or any slender prism can be ap-
proximatedin terms of the axial force, F, as the effort, and the longitudinal
velocity, v = 0, as the flow:

~ ~ BX
The inertance is simply the cross-sectional area, A, times the density; the
complianceis the reciprocal of Young’smodulus,E, times the area, or:

I’ = pA; C’ = 1lEA.
The Poisson’s ratio, however,produces small transverse expansions and
contractions. This implies the existence of small transverse velocities and
associated kinetic energy. The gradient of the expansionsalso producessmall
stresses in the transverse direction, and consequentstrains. As a result of
these neglected secondaryeffects, the pure bilateral wavedelay modelis not
nearly as accurate as it is for the twist of a shaft, whichhas no comparable
effects. Note that the slenderer the rod or prism, the more accurate the
model.
800 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

Example 11.3
Represent the approximate behavior of acoustic waves in a tube by a pure
bilateral-delay model,identifying the efforts and flows and the inertance and
compliance. Comment on any limitations in the model.
Solution: Acoustic wavesin a rigid tube are almost the same as the longi-
tudinal wavesin the rod or prism of Example11.2, except that one usually
uses the pressure perturbations as the effort and the volumeflow rate as the
flow:

As a result, the inertance and complianceare

I’ = p/A; C’ = A/3.

In place of the Young’smodulusthere is the bulk modulus,8- The difference

is that fluid does not expand!aterally, unlike the solid, and as a result the
secondary effects of the solid are missing in the fluid. On the other hand,
however,a real fluid has viscous effects whichintroduce dissipation that is
missing in the pure bilateral wavemodel.

Example 11.4
Represent the approximatebehavior of the lateral vibrations of a stretched
string by a pure bilateral-delay model, identifying the effort and flow and
the inertance I’ and the complinaceC’.
Solution: The string is presumedto be flexible enoughand stretched tight
enoughfor its tension, T, to be considered uniformand constant. The effort
is the lateral force, which equals the tension times the slope Oy/Ox, where
y is the lateral deflection. This slope is presumedto be small. The flow is
the lateral velocity Oy/Ot.

~+/~-Txe dx q + d~-qdx

The product of the effort and the flow is the propagated power, as always.
The inertance becomesthe mass per unit length, pA, and the compliance
becomes lIT.
11.1 WAVE MODELS WITH SIMPLE BOUNDARYCONDITIONS 801

Table 11.1 Examples Modeled by the Pure Bilateral Wave Delay

rotating shaft M ~
rod, longitudinal F v
tube, acoustic P Q
Oy Oy
string, lateral
T-~x Ot
coaxial cable e i

Example 11.5
Represent the approximatebehavior for the propagation of electromagnetic
wavesalong coaxial cable, whichis the simplest case of a pair of conductors.
Identif~v the effort and the flow. Either computeor find in a reference the
inertance I ~ ~.
and the complianceC
Solution." The variables for planar electromagnetic wavestraveling along a
pair of conductorsare the voltage difference and the current. The compliance
is the capacitance per unit length, and the inertance is the inductance per
unit length.

e+~--ed~

dx ---~.
The capacitance and inductance can be found in nearly any eleruentary text
on electromagnetic theory to be

C’ = 2~re I’ = ~ ln(ro/ri).
ln(ro/ri)
Here e and # are the dielectric constant and magnetic permeability, respec-
tively, for the annular material, and ri and ro are the radii of the inner
conductorand the inner radii of the outer conductor, respectively.

The results of the five examplesabove are assembled in Table 11.1, plus
further consequencesof the modelsas discussed in the following subsection.
802 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIB UTED-PARAMETER MODELS

~>e ÷ -to

0 Xo x

Figure 11.4: Arbitrary traveling wave

11.1.3 Analysis of the Pure Bilateral-Wave-Delay Model

It is convenientto employdifferential causality, as shownin Fig. 11.3 (p. 798).
Solvingfor e and (1,

0e cO
o
e = e - ~xdX--Idx--~, (ll.2a)
0(1 0e
(1 = (1 + -~x dx + Cdx (11.25)

Withthe help of equation (11.1) (p. 798) these give the differential equations

Oe ., 04
0(1 _C, COe
(1i.3)
-5-~= Or"
These equations can be combinedto eliminate either e or (1. The latter case
gives
’02e = I’C
~x~= - "~02(t
-5~ 2" at (11.4)

There are two general solutions to this equation, whichcan be written as

e+ = e+(x - ct); e_ = e_(x + ct). (11.5)

The terms in parenthesis represent the arguments of the functions. Imagine a

pulse-like function e+, such as shownin Fig. 11.4. The peak occurs when the
argumentx - ct equals x0. Therefore, if the function is plotted as a function
of x, instead, the peak occurs whenx = xo + ct. As time advances this peak
movesto the right at the constant velocity c, whichis knownas the wavespeed
or celerity. The shape of the waveremains unchanged.The function e_ differs
in that it represents a wavetraveling to the left with the samewavecelerity c.
The complete solution is the sum of these two waves, which are transparent to
one another.
To prove that these functions are indeed the solution, and to evaluate the
wavecelerity, you can substitute the proposedsolution into the differential equa-
tion (11.4). Thefirst and secondderivatives of each functiori :hie’indilated with
11.1 WAVE MODELS VVITH SIMPLE BOUNDARYCONDITIONS 803

respect to its argument(x- ct) or (x + ct) by e+~, e+" and e2, e2’, respectively.
Therefore,
0%= eJ’ + e_"; O’~e
")-
Ox 2Ot c’~(e~/’
+eft). (11.6)
Withthis notation the substitution gives

e+" +e_" = I’C’ c’2(e-~’ +eft), (11.7)

whichestablishes the correctness of the solution and gives the wavecelerity as

The consequentwavecelerities of the various physical systems considered thus

far are included in Table 11.1.
The bilateral wavesof effort e+ and e_ implywavesof flow, 0, also:

gl =O+(x- ct) + ~l-(X +ct) (11.9)

It is necessary to understand these flows, because the end conditions usually
are expressedin terms of flow as well as effort. Substitution of only the right-
traveling wavesinto equation (11.3b) gives

OJ= C’ce+’. (11.10)

Thus 0+ and e+ are proportional to one another, with a ratio called the char-
acteristic admittance,

~+ ~J - C’ c = (11.11)

Substitution of the left-traveling wavesinto equation (11.3b) gives

~_’ = -C’c e_’, (11.12)

so that

[~-~-- = -Ye. I (11.13)

The difference betweenthe left and right-travelling waves,therefore, is the minus

sign. This follows directly from the fact that ~ is defined as positive fromleft
to right.
The characteristic admittancesfor the specific cases considered in Fig. 11.3
are entered into Table 11.1.
The reflections of wavesat boundaries can be determinedfrom the following
relations, whichresult directly from the equations above:

gl=Ye(e+- e_),. (11.14)

804 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

(a) t=O (b) t= T/4

(c) t=T/2 (d) t=3T/4

(g) t=3T/2 (h) t=7T/4

~ key: string position

q÷ wave ...... ~
~

(i) t=2T
q. wave ~ .......

Figure 11.5: Plucked stretched string

The inverse of these relations also is useful:

~(e- 4/~;). (11.15)

11.1.4 Fixed and Free Boundary Conditions

A procedure for treating fixed and free boundary conditions is now developed,
starting with the case study of a musical instrument with a stretched string that
is clamped (fixed) at each end. As shown in Fig. 11.5, the string is plucked at
location one-quarter of the distance from one end to the other. At the instant
of release, the lateral velocity, ~, is zero for all x. Equations (11.15) require
e+ = e_ = e/2 everywhere at this instant. Recall that e is the lateral force,
which equals the tension T times the Slope of the string, Oq/Ox.. Therefore,
Oq+/Ox = Oq_/Ox = (Oq/Oz)/2. The displacements q, q+ and q_ equal the
integrals of these slopes over x, so you can conclude that, at the first instant at
every location, q+ = q_ = q/2.. The bilateral waves are shown by the dashed
line in part/a) of the figure.
As the waves q+ and q_ propagate, relected waves are continuously generated
at the ends of the string in such a manner that the end conditions are satisfied.
At each end ~ = 0 and q = 0, which from equations (11.22) requires e+ = e_,
which in turn requires q+ = q_. (Note that if q+ is the wave incident on
11.1 WAVE MODELS WITH SIMPLE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 805

the right end, q_ is the reflected wave there; if q_ is the wave incident on
the left end, q+ is the reflected wave there.) The consequent wave pattern
and total string position is shownin parts (b) - (i) of the figure for the times
t = T/4, T/2, 3T/4, T, 5T/4, 3T/2, 7T/4 and 2T. It is helpful to include the
virtuM wave shapes beyond the ends of the string in order to anticipate the
pattern of the reflected waves which satisfy the boundary condition q = 0. The
position of the string at t = 2T is identical to its position at t = 0, indicating a
cycle time of 2T:
Free boundary conditions can be treated in the same manner as fixed bound-
ary conditions, except it is e rather than q or 0 which is zero. Thus, for example,
at each end e+ = -e_ = 0/21~. This means that the reflected wave still has the
same amplitude as the incident wave, but its sign is inverted. The.difference is
illustrated by a compression wave in a tube approaching either a blo.cked or an
open end. The blocked end produces a reflected compression wave, whereas the
open end produces a reflected rarefaction wave.

11.1.5 Fourier Analysis with Fixed or Free Boundary Con-

ditions
Functions of t.ime, t, are represented by a Fourier sum of sine and cosine waves in
Section 7.1.1. With distributed parame.ter models there is a second independent
variable, position, x; often it is useful also to represent a function of ¯ by a
Fourier series.
Continuing with the case study of the stretched string, with its fixed ends,
Fig. 11.6 shows that the components of displacement q(x) can be represented
by the sine series

= q,~ sin(n~rx/L). (11.16)

This is similar to the sine series for an odd periodic function of time, except that
the interval is 0 < x < L rather than -T/2 < t < T/2. As a result, the lowest
or fundamental harmonic has one-half a wavelength over the interval, rather
than a whole wavelength of the periodic function of time. This is ~cceptable
because, unlike before, the function does not have to repeat for intervals outside
of its length, L.
Values of qn can be found to match any given continuous function q(x)
that satisfies q(O) = q(L) = 0. Multiplying both sides of equation (11.16)
sin(m~x/L) and integrating over the interval 0 < x < L, in standard Fourier
fashion,

q(x)sln ---f T- = q,, sin ]dx re=l,2,....

~0 L . (mTrx)~ ~ L (n Trx)__~ si n\(m~rx~L
(11.17)
As before, the integral on the right side is non-zero only when m ~ n, and then
it equals Lqn/2. Therefore,
806 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

exact deflection

note: deflectionsare
greatly exaggerated
x--O x=L x=O x=L
(a) first three harmonics (b) sumof first 12 harmonics

I" d full-wave/~ravel:,~ (competecycle),l

half-wave travel:~2/2---~2/2 ~ (sum reverses)
quarter-wavelengthtravel:~-2/4--~2/4-~ (sumcancels)

".,~,~~:’:., : ....... .,..::’.~2’:’:.,.:.’..’...:.-., .:’. .... ,-

first harmonic: L=2/2~i.----- L -~
secondharmonic:L=A .~, L ’-~
third harmonic:L=3A/2 ~, L ,~
(c) right and left-traveling harmonicswith standing-wavesums

Figure 11.6: Fourier sine series decompositionof initial string displacement

11.1 WAVE MODELS WITH SIMPLE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 807

q~ =-~2 foL q(x) sin(n~rx/n) dx. (11.18)

For the initial position of the string as shownin Fig. 11.6,

q(x) = 4qox/L; 0 < x < L/4,

= 4q0(L- x)/3L; L/4 < x < L. (11.19)

Substitution of this function into equation (11.18) gives, after cancelation

several terms,
q~_ 32 (nTr)
(11.20)
q0 3(n7~) 2 sin ~ .
The respective values of the first 12 harmonies are 0.764, 0.270, 0.085, 0, -0.031,
-0.030, -0.016, 0, 0.009, 0.011, 0.006, 0. Part (a) of the figure shows the first
three harmonics and their sum. Part (b) shows the sum of the first twelve
harmonics, which is a reasonable approximation to the complete straight-line V
shape.
Each harmonic produces a pair of bilateral propagating sinusoidal waves of
one-half the amplitude of the harmonic itself. These waves all propagate at the
constant wave celerity, and the sumof each pair satisfies the end conditions. Part
(c) of the figure is intended to show how the propagation of the componentpairs
of traveling waves sum to produce standing waves with the periods Tn = 2L/cn.
The sinusoid depicted with a solid line represents the left and right-traveling
waves of some harmonic at a moment when they are superimposed. The dashed
lines represent the waves after they have propagated a distance of one-quarter
of a wavelength. They sum to zero, so the standing wave has advanced by one-
quarter of a cycle. The dotted lines represent the traveling waves after they
have propagated a distance of one-half a wavelength. They sum to exactly the
negative of the original standing wave, and therefore the standing wave has
advanced by one-half cycle. The cycle is completed when the left- and right-
traveling waves have moved a whole wavelength. The w-avelength of the nth
harmonic of the stretched string is 2L/n, and the wave speed is c; therefore, its
frequency is 1/T~ = nc/2L.
Musicians call the second harmonic3 the first overtone; a frequency dou-
bling is precisely one octave. The frequency of the third harmonic, by the same
reasoning, is triple that of the first, and so forth. For example, if the fundamen-
tal frequency is 256 Hz (middle C), the first overtone is at 512 Hz (the next
higher), and the second overtone is at 1024 Hz (G above that). (If you raise
dampers for this higher C and G on a piano, by holding down their keys, and
then strike middle C, these higher strings will resonate. Their reverberation is
audible if the middle C is quickly damped. This phenomenon does not occur
for non-harmonic notes.)
3Someauthors identify as the first harmonicwhat is called here the secondharmonic,
and the secondharmonicwhat is called here the third harmonic,etc. Their use of the word
"harmonic"becomesessentially the sameas the present use of the word"overtone."
808 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

compression rarefaction

rarefactio@
@~ compression

Figure 11.7: Wavesin the hodographplane

The quality of a musical tone is affected by its pattern of overtones, plus

any randomness that mayoccur due to phenomenasuch as turbulence-induced
vibrations of an air column. Different instruments produce different patterns.
The plucked string itself is affected by the location of the plucking; were it
to be plucked in the center, the second harmonicwouldbe noticeably absent,
which maybe considered undesirable. This affects the way guitars and harps
are played.

11.1.6 The Hodograph Plane

Sometimesthe terminations at either end of a pure bilateral delay line can be
expressedas static sources or resistances, that is by effort-flow characteristics.
These cases are, in general, nonlinear and morecomplicated than the fixed and
free boundary conditions considered above. They are addressed here for the
simplest kind of wave: a discontinuity betweentwo otherwise steady states such
as shownin Fig. 11.7. Suchlongitudinal wavesin rods and fluid tubes have four
types: compressionto the right, compressionto the left, rarefaction to the right,
and rarefaction to the left. "Compression"and "rarefaction" can be generalized
for other mediato meanan increase or decrease, respectively, in the effort, e.
It is convenientto represent the twoconditions on either side of such a wave
graphically, as points on a mapwith the generalized flow as the ordinate and
the generalized effort as the abcissas. Straight line segments drawnbetweenthe
two states separated by a simple wave discontinuity must have slopes of =kYc
in order to satisfy equations (11.10) and (11.12). The vertical and horizontal
componentsof the line segment represent the rightward-traveling waves0+ and
e+, respectively, if the slope is positive. If the slope is negative, they represent
the leftward-travelling waves0_ and e_, respectively. A mapusing these coor-
dinates is knownas a hodograph plane. The arrow drawn near the middle of
the line segmentspoints toward the newstate, which is sweepingawaythe old
state as the wavepropagates.
11.1 WAVE MODELS WITH SIMPLE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 809

Example 11.6
An acoustic tube is closed at its left end and open on its right end:

At any one time, presume there are only two states in existence, separated
by a single wave that is traveling to the left or to the right, as suggested
in the drawing. Show on a hodograph plane the sequence of waves that
comprise a cycle.
Solution: The abcissas of the hodograph plane is the characteristic of the
left end, and the ordinate is the characteristic of the right end. Start with,
say, a rarefaction wave traveling to the left. This is represented in the
hodograph plane below by the line segment in the first quadrant. The arrow
is pointing toward the new state that is sweeping out the old state, at the
left (and upper) end of the line segment.

~ = Q] characteristic
characteristic~’~k ~ for left end
\for right e~ I ",~.

"~ waves

0
Whenthe wavereaches the left end of the tube, it reflects; what had been the
new state becomes the old, and the new state is found where the new surge
characteristic intersects with the proper boundary characteristic. Since the
newwave is traveling to the right, its line segment has a positive slope, and
appears in the second quadrant. The new state is at the left (and lower)
end of this line, toward which the arrow points. After this wave reaches
the open right end of the tube, it reflects again, producing a compression
wave with a new line segment (third quadrant). The wave that completes
the cycle (fourth quadrant) is produced after this second leftward-traveling
wave reaches the closed end of the tube. The states repeat themselves after
every two full round trips of the wave. The oscillation never dies out, and
has a period of 4T, where T is the time for a wave to propagate from one
end to the other.
810 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

Example 11.7
An acoustic tube is blocked at both ends. It cannot contain only one wave
discontinuity, since the flow is zero at both ends. It can, however, contain
two such waves that move symmetrically, one of compression and the other
of rarefaction. In this case the pressure at the center of the tube remains
constant. As suggested in the drawiag below, the tube then can be analyzed
as two half-tubes, each of which has a zero flow at one end and a constant
pressure at the other end. Show the hodograph analysis, assuming some
compatible initial state, and find the period of a cycle.

Solution: This is the same as Example 11.6, except that since the time
for a wave to travel from one end of the half-tube to the other is T/2, the
period is 2T. The hodograph analysis is as follows:

4=Q[ characteristic
characteristic
for center
o
0

Example 11.8
In a more interesting case, a hydraulic tube of length L = 125 in has constant
pressure of 2000 psi maintained at its right end by a large accumulator (tank
with compressed gas inside). The left end also has an accumulator, with
pressure of 3000 psi. An adjustable valve is located immediately to the
right of this accumulator, however, which when open gives a pressure drop
proportional to the square of the flow and equal to 1000 psi when the flow
rate is 20 in3/s. The hydraulic fluid has a density of p = 0.8 × 10-4 4lb s/in
and a bulk modulus of B = 200,000 lb/in 2. Two different cross~sectional
areas of the tube are to be considered: A = 0.04 in 2 s.
and A = 0.10 in

WNaccumulator and valve accumulator ~

Po~’P~ rigid line, area A P2

3000 psi 2000 psi
(constant) (constant)

Find the pressures P~ and the P’2 and flows Q~ and Q2 at the two ends of
the tube as functions of time, following a initial quiescent state with the
valve closed and a subsequent instantaneous opening.
11.1 VfAVE MODELS WITH SIMPLE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 811

Solution: The first step is to draw the pressure-flow characteristics for the
two ends of the tube in the hodograph plane (Q vs. P). The right-end
characteristic is a vertical line at 2000psi. Initially, the valve at the left end
is closed, so that there is no flow and the pressure everywhere in the tube is
2000 psi. After the valve is opened, the pressure-flow characteristic at the
left end of the tube (just to the right side of the valve) is as plotted below:

characteristic for right en~~.

waves forA =0.10 in2---:*’--/ ~ , i ~

1600 2000 P, psi 3000

The pressure drop across the valve equals 3000 - P1, and the flow is pro-
portional to the square root of this pressure drop, producing the parabolic-
shaped characteristic. The surge admittances for the smaller and the larger
tube areas are, respectively, :ks = A/x/~ = 0.0100 and 0.0250 inS/lb.s.
A wave starts propagating from the left end of the tube toward the right
the momentthe valve opens. The slope of the line segment in the hodograph
plane that connects the two states on either side of the wave therefore must
have the positive slope ~"~. Further, the old state being swept out has zero
flow and 2000 psi, and the new state must be on the characteristic for the
left boundary. This defines the new state, which is labeled L1. When the
wave reaches the right side and reflects back, the original state is gone and
the new state on the right side, labeled R2, lies at the intersection of the
characteristic for the right side and the surge characteristic with negative
slope 1~ that passes through state L1. The process continues until the
equilibrium is reached. The flows at the two ends are plotted below:

Q,30~I- .
........ . :.
in3/s | -_-.~ ....
2hi_ i .. L ’ ..... -------- .....

~ :"~---7~"~ "’~’--’~:(~’in2 2A=0.10in

I oL ...........
L.-" A -- ......
!::-/" I lumpedQ ............................
0 " 5 10 15 20
t, ms
812 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

Note that the case with the smaller area approaches the equilibrium flow
quickly, and without overshooting. The larger area produces an overshoot
and an oscillation, although the oscillation decays fairly rapidly. Sometimes
one wishes to design such a system to minimize oscillations.
It is instructive to compare this solution to the one that results if the
compressibility of the fluid is neglected, leaving a lumped model with the
same boundary characteristics at each end but just a fluid inertia in between.
2,
For the line area of 0.04 in

P1 = P’). +____PLdO, _: dQ
2000 + 0.25
A dt dt’

/3000 - P1
Q1 ----" 20v ]"~’~ ¯
Combining these equations leads to
2,
d~Q = 4000 - 10Q
dt
which has the solution
Q = 20 tanh(200 t).
The line area of 0.10 in changes the coefficient 200 s -1 to 500 s -~. Both
2
solutions are also plotted above. It can be seen that the more precise wave
solutions zig-zag about the lumped solutions, a typical occurance.

11,1.7 Summary

Spatially distributed phenomenaare the stuff of elasticity, plasticity, fluid me-

chanics, heat and mass transfer and electromagnetics. Most conventional meth-
ods and associated computer packages are restricted to static or steady-state
problems. They often e~nploy finite element or finite difference techniques. In
the analysis of complex engineering systems these tools can be used to aid in
field lumping, that is the approximation of a phenomenon distributed over a
spatial field by discrete or lumped models. This text employs lumped models
exclusively, except for the present chapter. The more difficult or less obvious
field lumping situations have been avoided. Sometimes you may find it more
practical to engage a specialist to carry out needed field lumping, rather than
to become a universal expert yourself.
The dynamic interadtion of inertance, compliance and resistance fields can
be particularly troublesome. The behavior at low frequencies usually can be
deduced by lumping these fields separately, even when they are coextensive.
For high frequencies, however, partial differential equation models may be more
practical. This subject has been introduced via a special class of systems: one-
dimensional models exhibiting bilateral waves of constant wave speed. Examples
include models of the rotating shaft, the translating rod, the acoustic behavior
of fluid in tubes, the vibrating string and the electrical transmission line. These
11.1 WAVE MODELS WITH SIMPLE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 813

are characterized by two constant parameters: the wave speed or celerity and
the surge impedance, which is the ratio of the effort of a waveto its flow.
One approach is to plot the effort or the displacement or flow versus posi-
tion, and to decompose it into bilateral waves. The reflections of these waves
are particularly easy to represent for fixed and free terminations. The waves
also can be decomposedinto Fourier components, resulting in an infinite set of
natural frequencies. Purely sinusoidal behavior can be analyzed for unforced
conservative systems and forced systems with static or dynamic boundary con-
ditions by assuming a particular effort or flow and tracing it for one complete
spatial cycle, noting that the pure wavelike mediummerely advances or delays
the phase by the angle wL/c.
Transient behavior has been addressed for the case in which the terminations
of the wavelike system can be represented by steady-state characteristics. A
hodograph plane, or plot of flow versus effort, is used. Waves are represeated
by line segments having a slope equal to plus or minus the inverse of the surge
4impedance.

Guided Problem 11.1

Twosimple bilateral wave media with the same wave celerity but different surge
or characteristic admittances, Ys~ and Yst, are joined. They might be, for ex-
ample, acoustic tubes of different diameter, or slender torsion shafts of different
diameter. A wave approaches the interface from the side with surge admittance
Y~. Find the ratios of the amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted waves to
the incident wave.

Suggested Steps:

1. Define the incident wave as (e+)~, the reflected wave as (e_)~ and
transmitted wave as (e+)t. Note that there is no wave (e-)t.

2. Find the effort e~ and flow ~ in the incident memberas functions of the
incident and reflected waves.

3. Find the effort ee and flow ~t in the transmittance memberas functions

of the transmitted wave.

4. The efforts and flows of the two membersmust be equal at the interface.
Therefore, equate the respective results of steps 2 and 3.

5. Solve the two equations from step 4 simultaneously for the reflection ratio
(e-)i/(e+)i and the transmission ratio (e+)t/(e+)~.

6. As a check, make sure that when Y,~ = Y~t, which implies no discontinuity
at all, the reflection ratio is zero and the transmission ratio is unity.
4Ageneralization of this approach,called the methodof characteristics, is givenin the
reference cited in the footnoteon page795.
814 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED:PARAMETER MODELS

P0 = 1000t rigid fluid line, area A ~¢~ P = 0

Figure 11.8: System for Guided Problem 11.2

Guided Problem 11.2

A rigid hydraulic tube connects a hydraulic chamberwith a constant pressure of
P0 = 1000psi to a valve with Bernoulli-type characteristics whichis connected
to a virtually zero-pressure region, as shownin Fig. 11.8. The valve is opened
abruptly. Choosethe area of the tube such that the duration of the transients
-4
in the pressure and the flow is minimized.The density of the fluid is 0.8 x 10
lb.s2/in 4, its bulk modulusis 200,000 psi, and the equilibrium desired flow is
Qo = 30 in3/s.
Suggested Steps:

1. Sketch the pressure-flow characteristics of the terminations of the fluid

line in the hodographplane. Numbersaren’t needed at this point; it is
sufficient to scale the plot using the symbolsP0 and Q0. Note the final
equilibrium state.
2. Sketch the initial waveon the hodographplane, choosing an arbitrary
surge impedance(inverse slope of the line segment) and taking care
get its proper direction of propagation. Then continue with the second or
reflected wave.
3. It is possible for the surge impedanceto be selected such that the second
waveleaves the entire tube at the desired final flow, Qo. Showgraphically
howthis is done.
4. Evaluate the pressure and flow behind the initial wavein terms of Po and
Qo. Find the surge impedancein terms of these parameters.
5. Relate the surge impedanceto the density, bulk modulusand tube area,
and solve for the area as desired.

PROBLEMS

11.1 The strings for the lowest register on a piano are wrappedwith heavy wire
in order to increase their effective massper unit length without increasing the
tension force. Determinethe effect on the wavespeed and resonant frequency
of quadrupling the effective mass in this manner. Whatmusical interval does
this represent?
11.1 WAVE MODELS WITH SIMPLE BOUNDARYCONDITIONS 815

11.2 One of the most commonstandard steel hydraulic tubing has an outer
diameter of 0.5 inch and a wall thickness of 0.049 inch. Computethe wavespeed
and the characteristic admittanceif this tubing is used to propagate power(a)
with a hydraulic oil having a bulk modulusof 200,000 psi and a specific weight
density of 50 lb/ft 3, (b) with air at 100 psig and 70°F, (c) as a push/pull
and (d) as a rotating shaft. The Young’sand shear modulifor steel are 30 × 106
psi and 11 × 106 psi, respectively, and its weight density is 0.283 lb/in 3. The
effect of expansion of the tube caused by internal pressure maybe neglected.

11.3 A virtually incompressible fluid of density p passes slowly through a tube

with thin, radially compliant walls with meanradius r, thickness t, Young’s
modulusE and a Poisson’s ratio of essentially zero. Determinethe compliance
and inertance per unit length, the wavespeed and the characteristic admittance.

11.4 The properties of coaxial cables most commonlyspecified are the capaci-
tance per unit length and the "impedance,"which meanssurge or characteristic
impedance. A particular typical cable is listed as having 67.2 pf/m (or ##
f/m) and 75 ft. Determinethe inductance per unit length and the wavespeed;
represent the latter as a fraction of the speed of light (3.00 x l0s m/s).

11.5 Placing thumb tacks on the hammersof a piano produces a "honky- tonk"
sound. Explain the phenomenonqualitatively in terms of the harmonics or
overtones.

11.{}A string in a musical instrument is plucked at its midpoint.

(a) Sketchthe positions of the string for every one-quarterof a wave-travel

time, similar to the exampleof Fig. 11.5.
(b) Find the harmonic content of the resulting motion. Do you expect
this is moreor less desirable than the result given in the text for plucking
the string at the location one-quarter of the distance from one support to
the other? Why?

11.7 A rigid tube through which fluid wavespropagate bifurcates at a Y junc-

tion into two tubes with the same properties. Determine the reflection and
transmission of a simple wavediscontinuity which is incident on this junction.
Hint: Note the similarity to GuidedProblem11.1.

11.8 A rod 100 in. long and 0.375 in. in diameter is suspended horizontally
from aboveby two wires so that it is free to movein every direction except the
vertical. The rod, which is observed to weigh 3.13 lbs, is then struck on one
end by a hammer.Subsequent vibrations, monitored by a small accelerometer
mountedon the other end, reveal harmonics at 505 Hz and multiples thereof.
Determine the Young’smodulusof the material.
816 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

11.9 The system described and analyzed in Example 11.8 has reached its equi-
librium state at 20 in3/s when the valve opening is suddenly changed. Find the
resulting waves, and plot the flows as a function of time.

(a) The valve is shut completely.

(b) The valve is closed partly to give an equilibrium flow of 5 in3/s, and
then is shut completely.

(c) Generalize from the results the qualitative effect of slow as opposed
rapid closure of the valve.

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 11.1

waves: ~(e_)~ (e+),

interface
2. Fromequation (11.21), ei = (e+)i + (e-)i

Oi= Yod(e+)i
3. Similarly, et = (e+)t

6 = l;~(e+)~
4-5. (e+)t = (e+)~ + (e-)i

~(e+)~= c,[(e+)~+ (e-)d= Yc~[(~+)~

-
Therefore, (Y c~ + Yct)(e-)~ = (Y~

whichgives the reflecgion ratio (e-)i

(e+)i

and the transmission ratio

(~-)~ (e+),
If Y~t = :t~, the above results give (7+)/ = 0 and (7+)~ = 1, as expected.
11.2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL MODELS 817

Guided Problem 11.2

1-2. neglecting wall shear:

finalstate
locus at right end Q~X~

locusat left end

initialstate
P

Po P
In this ideal case, l~=--=---=---=(1/2)Q° 2Qo2 30 0.020inS/lb.s
(3/4)P0 3P0 3 1000
50
but Yc = Alva, so A = I~fl = V/0"8 x 10-4 x 200, 000 2= 12.5 in

in 5 lb.sin 4~ ~
lb.s~/ lb
in

11.2 One-Dimensional Models

The pure. bilateral-wave-delay model is a very special one-dimensional model.
General linear one-dimensional models are represented mathematically in this
section. Subcategories are described by the power number and whether local or
global symmetry or anti-symmetry apply. Analysis of these models is deferred
to later sections.

11.2.1 General Formulation

The operator S =- O/Ot is employed to represent differentiation with respect to

time, t, as before. The model is represented in general with the following matrix
equation which is first-order in the spatial variable x:

I OY -A(x,S)y + B(x)u(x,t).l~xx = (11.22)

The state variables are represented by the vector y = y(x, t). Whenthe square
matrices A and B are not functions of x, the model is said to be uniform in x.
818 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

The example of a uniform rod in torsion illustrates this form. If the state
variables are chosen to be the torque or moment, M, and the angular velocity,
~, and no excitation exists for the region of x under consideration (this does
not include the ends of the rod), equation (11.22) becomes either

(11.23a)

or equivalently

[:]. (11.23b)

The rotational mass momentof inertia per unit length is I, and the rotational
compliance per unit length is C. Without the operator notation the equations
become
OM O~
(11.24a)
Ox -
0~_ cOM
(11.24b)
Ox Ot ’
or equivalently
OM T0~’¢
(11.25a)
Ox -
0¢_ CM.
(11.25b)
Ox
If the Laplace transform is taken of these equations with respect tO the indepen-
dent variable t, there results the respective forms

(11.26a)
dx Cs

(11.26b)
dx .
The derivative operator S can be seen to correspond to the Laplace notation
and variable s except for the initial-condition terms, which usually are not of in-
terest. Both notations serve the useful purpose of converting partial differential
equations into ordinary differential equations.
An alternative approach to equation (9.22) employs a Heaviside operator
:D = O/Ox, or the corresponding Laplace operator:

0y _ A(x,T~)y B(x)u(x,t).
(11.27)
Ot
The particular example of the torsion rod becomes, for example,

(11.2s)
11.2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL MODELS 819

There is no clear preference between the alternative forms in this particular

case. Both are used in the literature. The first form is used exclusively in the
remainder of this book, however, because it allows functions A(S) which are
irrational (employingsquare roots, for example), very usefully expandingthe
domainof the modelsand permitting important three-dimensional effects to be
included.
The pair of equations (11.24a) and (11.24b) or (11.25a) and (11.25b)
combinedto give
0’2 M O~ M
(11.29)
~ - ICS~-M = IC -~.
Since this form of the modeldescribes only Mand not ¢ or ~ it can be called
incomplete. Completeness, of course, has nothing to do with exactness, which
never applies to a model. Addingthe equation

0"2¢ ICS2¢
2Ox IC (11.30)
Ot
does not confer completeness,either, since the relation betweenMand ~b is left
undescribed. For general purposes, then, the matrix modelsare preferred.

11.2.2 One-Power Models

The torsion rod is an exampleof a one-powermodel; a transverse cut at any
location defines a single effort and its conjugateflow, the product of whichequals
the instantaneous power. The connection betweenthe two sides of the cut can
be represented by a single bond. Wheneverpractical, the effort is defined as
symmetric with respect to the cut, while the flow and the product of the two
are anti-symmetric, oriented in either the plus-x or the minus-xdirection. This
is precisely as described in Chapter 2. The state vector comprisesthe effort on
top and the flow below, or in general the symmetricvariable Y8on top and the
anti-symmetric variable Ya below:

[Ys]
Y = Ya "
(11.31)

The general 1-powermatrix A is partitioned with the following notation:

In the usual case of effort and flow variables, the dimensionsof Z are those of
the gradient of effort divided by flow; Z is called the series impedanceper
unit length. The dimensions of Y are those of the gradient of flow divided
by effort; Y is similarly called the shunt admittance per unit length. The
symbols Wand X, which.experience muchless interest and use for a reason
youwill see shortly, are chosenhere simply becauseof their juxtaposition in the
alphabet to Y and Z.
820 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

Occasionally one assumes that the effort or the flow of a one-power model is
itself a constant, leaving only a single state variable. This is called a degenerate
one-power model. Only W or X then exists.

11.2.3 Symmetric One-Power Models

A locally symmetric model has the same differential equation if written in

the lninus-x direction as it does if written in the plus-x direction. This is a
consequence of the symmetry of a slice of the system of infinitesimal length
dx. The symmetric variable appears the same regardless of the +x or -x
perspective, but the anti-symmetric variable has its sign changed. Therefore,
the differential equations in the two perspectives become, respectively,

-~x ya (Ii.33a)
- :Y Ya ’

0 Ys Ys
(11.33b)

Local symmetry requires the two square matrices to be equal. Thus, the model
exhibits local symmetry if and only if

W = X = 0. (11.34)

A locally symmetric system is globally symmetric if it is locally symmetric

and is uniform in x. Note that the uniform rod in torsion satisfies this condition,
but a non-uniform rod usually does not, despite its local symmetry.
Since all degenerate one-power models include only W or X, they are nec-
essarily anti-symmetric.

11.2.4 Multiple-Power Models

A transverse cut through a non-degenerate multiple-power model reveals two

or more pairs of effort and flow variables. Each pair can be represented by its
own bond; there is a bundle of parallel bonds. Each bond represents one of the
powers. If one of the powers is not coupled to the others, it can be separated
therefrom, reducing the complexity of the remaining model. It will be assumed
that such separations have been made.
The state variables need not be effort and flow variables, as noted above;
each conjugate pair of variables nevertheless includes one that is symmetric with
respect to the transverse cut and one that is anti-symmetric. All the symmetric
variables are collected together into a vector, Ys, and all the anti-symmetric
variables are collected into a second vector, Ya. To be as orderly as possible, the
elements in the two vectors are placed in the same order. Thus, for example, the
second asymmetric element is the conjugate state variable paired to the second
symmetric element. Finally, the two vectors are assembled into the overall state
vector:
11.2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL MODELS 821

[y81
Y = Ya "
(11.35)

The state differential equation can be partitioned, like the one-power model
above, to give square matrix elements W, X, Y and Z:

The identification of locally symmetric and anti-symmetric cases given above for
one-power models can be generalized directly to multiple-power models, with
the result that symmetry exists if and only if Wand X vanish. In other words,

represents the general symmetric model.

Solutions to the state differential equations are given in the following sec-
tions, starting with the simpler cases. The basic approach and several of the
5results have been published by the author.

11.2.5 Summary

The distributed-parameter models addressed in this chapter are linear and em-
ploy only one spatial variable as an independent variable. Nevertheless, certain
two and three-dimensional phenomena can be included if the first-order can-
nonical form of equation (11.31) is used. This form defines a square matrix
in which the dynamics is represented by use of the derivative operator S or the
Laplace derivative operator s.
The models can be categorized according to the number of bonds necessary
to represent the power which flows across any transverse cut. The state of a
non-degenerate n-power model therefore is represented by a state vector with
2n elements. The symmetric variables are collected in the first subvector com-
ponent of the state vector, and the asymmetric variables, ordered to match,
form the balance of the state vector. This partitioning defines four submatrices
of A. One advantage of this scheme is that local or global symmetry is immedi-
ately apparent, corresponding to the vanishing of the upper-left and lower-right
submatrices.

Guided Problem 11.3

Find a state differential equation modeling gravity waves with wavelength con-
siderably greater than the mean depth. Assume a horizontal bottom and wave
heights considerably smaller than the mean depth.
5F.T. Brown,"A Unified Approachto the Analysis of UniformOne-DimensionalDis-
tributed Systems,"ASME
Transactions J. of Basic Engineering, v 89 n 2 pp 423- 432, June
1967.
822 CHAPTER 1 I. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

Suggested Steps:

Choose state variables, one symmetric and the other asymmetric. These
could be efforts and flows, but need not be. Presume that the velocity of
the water is largely horizontal and uniform over the depth, which follows
from the long wavelength assumption.

2. Find the continuity relation between the state variables. Drawing two
vertical control surfaces dx apart can be helpful,

3. Find the momentumrelation between the state variables. Drawing a small

horizontal contol volume can help.

4. Assemble your results in the canonical form.

Guided Problem 11.4

The static bending of a uniform slender beam is presented in elementary text-
books by the model dM/dx = F, ~/dx ~ = (1/EI)M and dF/dx = -W(x),
where Mis the bending moment,F is the shear force, ~ is the lateral deflection,
W(x) is the applied loading per unit length, E is Young’s modulus and I is the
area momentof inertia of the cross-section. Introduce dynamics into this model
with the simplest possible assumptions, and present it in the canonical form
given above. The resulting model is known as the Bernoulli-Euler beam.
Check for the symmetryof your result. Solutions will be sought in Section 11.5.

Suggested Steps:

Draw an element of the beam. Label the variables appropriately.

Power is propagated along the beam by virtue of transverse force and mo-
tion and rotatibnal moment and motion. Identify two pairs of symmetric
amd anti-symmetric state variables, and collect them into a state vector
y.

3° Place the given differential equations into the canonical form given above.

The simplest possible representation of the dynamics includes the inertia

for lateral velocity but overlooks the inertia for rotational velocity. Write
the corresponding differential equation, place it in the cannonical form
and complete the matrix A accordingly.

5° Identify the component submatrices W, X, Y and Z. The model is known

to be symmetric, so your Wand X should be zero.
11.2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL MODELS 823

PROBLEMS

11.10 A comxial cable (with inductance and capacitance) has a series resistance
per unit length R~. Find the elements of the associated matrix A.

11.11 Repeat the above problem, adding a shunt, conductance G~ per unit
length.

11.12 The fluid in an acoustic tube has a viscosity #. Find the elements of the
associated matrix A assuming a resistance consistent with laminar steady flow,
as can be deduced from equation (2.14) in Section 2.3 (p. 44).

11.13 A fluid-filled tube with series inertance I t per unit length and shunt com-
pliance C’ per unit length leaks through pores in its walls; the shunt conductance
is G~ per unit length. Evaluate the matrix A.

11.14 An acoustic muffler comprises a long central tube with numerous radiM
holes leading to otherwise sealed chambers, as pictured below.

four holes of diameter dh evenly spaced around periphery

for each segment

(a) Construct a bond-graph model of one segment of this discrete system,

using the pressure and the axial flow as the state variables. The orifices
may be modeled as inertances, and the chambers as compliances; energy
dissipation may be neglected.

(b) Evaluate the moduli of the bond graph elements of part (a).
orifices may be assumedto be through a sheet of zero thickness; see Section
10.1.8 (pp. 745-746).

(c) Convert the descrete model into an approximately equivalent distrib-

uted-parameter modeli give the elements of the matrix A.

11.15 Identify whether or not the models for the five preceding problems are
locally or globally symmetric. (You need not solve the problems to answer this
question.)
824 CHAPTER I1. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 11.3

1. The choice here is the depth of the water, y (let ]"0 be the meandepth), and
the horizontal velocity, v.

2. ~, , ,v(x+dx)
~ face
~ttdx
= y(x)v(x) - y(x + dx)v(x
~--yo ~xdxOV
= -~---~(yv)dx _ VO~xxd
y(~) ~ ~y(~+dx) x

Oy
The mean velocity will be assumedto be zero, so that ~- = - y0~xx

At the bottom: P(x)~ P(x+dx)

If the dynamicheads are neglected (due to the zero meanvelocity),

~xdX Oy Ov
= pg-~xdX = -(pdx)-~

4 ~z =- S/yo

Guided Problem 11.4

2. The transverse displacement, r/, is symmetric, whereasthe transverse force, F,

is anti-symmetric; these can form the first conjugate pair of variables since the
associated power is f O~/Ox. The moment, M, is symmetric, and the angle
OrlOXis asymmetric; these can form the second pair since the associated power
is MO2rl/OxOt.The resulting state vector is T.
[~l, M, F, ~grl/~gx]
~/ 0 0 ~
0 0 -01 + 00
=- o o -
O,]/(9x -1/EIm 0 Orl/Ox WOO(m)
This is valid only for the static case.
M per unit length times the
F
4. The net lateral force per unit length equals the mass
lateral acceleration, or

OFdxo---~= (pAdx)-~02~(omitting the effect of the external loading, W(x)).

11.3 WAVE PROPAGATION 825

Entering this into the equation above gives

1[ ] i
PAos~
0
-1/EIm 0
0
(This is used in Section 11.5, equation
(11.120).)

Z= 1 .
’ -l/El,, ; W= X =

11.3 Wave Propagation

The concepts of phase and group velocities, wave number, attenuation factor
and dispersion are introduced. This is done in the context of degenerate one-
power models, in particular the case study a heated incompressible fluid flowing
at a constant velocity through a tube of uniform area. The waves in this case
are propagated unilaterally in the downstream direction, simplifying the con-
sideration. Frequency and transient reponses are calculated for three assumed
wall conditions.

11.3.1 Simplest Model: Pure Transport

The simplest model for heated fluid flowing in a tube presumes a slug-flow
velocity profile, as shownin Fig. 11.9, with negligible mixing of the fluid. Axial
heat transfer is neglected, and the walls are assumed to be adiabatic. The
behavior of the system is clear before any equations are written: temperature
disturbances propagate, without distortion, at the velocity v of the fluid. This
fact will be expressed mathematically.
The differential equation that describes the system can be written directly.
This approach is inadequate to address more difficult problems, however, so a
more powerful method will be used. Often when mass transport is involved, it
is best to emply the substantial or material derivative d/dt which describes
the behavior of a fixed quantity of mass:

d 0 0
(11.38)
dt - Ot + v. A = -~ + V~x.

insulated walls

velocity v

Figure 11.9: Pure transport of heated fluid in tube

826 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

The form on the far right is the scalar version for one spatial dimension. Since
the temperature 8 of any particle of fluid in pure transport is constant,

(11.39)
d-~- = 0,

or, in the canonical operator form of equation (11.2) (p. 817),

- $8. (11.40)
Ox v

The solution of this equation can be found readily by retaining the time
derivative in operational form:

8(x, t) -- e-TSs(o, t) = 8(0, t -- (ll.41a)

T -- x/v. (ll.41b)
The operator e -TS is the pure delay operator, and e-Ts is its Laplace coun-
terpart. T is the delay time associated with the transport velocity. Equation
(11.41) also can be generalized slightly to give

8(x2,t) = 8(x~, t T~I), (11.42)

where T2~ is the time delay required for a fluid particle to traverse the distance
x2 - xl. This solution corresponds to what you should anticipate.
The response to the sinusoidal input disturbance

8(0, t) = Re jwt
8o(O)e (11.43)

can be found by assuming a solution of the form

8(x, t) = Re 8o j~t.
(x)e (11.44)

Uponsubstitution into the differential equation, this frequency response be-

comes
80(z)_ e_~k~, (11.45)
80(0)
k = ~/v -~ 2~r/A. (11.46)

The same result follows most directly from substituting j~ for S in equation
(11.41). The symbol k is employed here in its traditional role as wave number,
which is defined as the ratio of the frequency of a propagating sinusoid to the
phase velocity, Vp. This also equals the ratio of 2;r divided by the wave-
length, A. The phase velocity is defined as the velocity at which a sinusoidal
wave propagates. In the present case, the phase velocity equals the transport
velocity: Vp = v.
11.3 WAVE PROPAGATION 827

11.3.2 First Modification: Thermal Leakage to a Con-

stant-Temperature Environment
Attenuation can be introduced into the above problemby allowing heat to flow
through the walls to an environmentthat has a constant temperature over time,
thoughit mayvary as a function of x. Specifically, it will be assumedthat the
thermal conductivity-per-unit-length, G, is constant, and that all thermal stor-
age in the walls or in the thin boundarylayer associated with the conductivity
is negligible. Thus, equation (11.39) is modifiedto become

Afcf~dO(x, t) =-G[8(x,t) - 8e(x)], (11.47)

in which Af is the area of the tube, cf is the specific heat of the fluid and
81 is the temperature of the environment, This equation represents the actual
thermal energy transferred per unit length. Usingequation (11.38), it gives

(8 - 81); (11.48a)
Ox v cot
~-~=_AIcI /G, (11.48b)
whereTf is a time constant for heat transfer to or fromthe fluid.
If the temperature8(0, t) is held constant for a while, a steady-state solution
is approachedthat will be rather complicatedif 81 is a complicatedfunction of
x. Tosimplify matters it is useful to distinguish the steady-state solution 8o (x)
from an incrementalunsteady solution 81 (x, t):

O(x,t) = 00(x) + 0~ (x, (11.49)

Twoequations result, one that can be solved for Oo(x),

000 1
..... 81), (11.50)
Ox r~v
and one whichcan be solved for 8~ (x, t):

O~l
_Ox
(11.51)
(S+81"v
l/r~)
The solution of the latter is alwayssimple because it is independentof

81 (X, t) e-TSe-T/r" 8( 0, t) = e-T/r~ 0(0 , t - - x/v ). (11.52)

Thetwosolutions are essentially identical, of course, if toe is uniformin position.
This result reveals that the sole effect of the conductanceis an exponential
attenuation of the temperaturefor increasing x. As illustration, the responseto
an upwardfollowed by a smaller downwardchange in the upstream temperature
is plotted in Fig. 11.10.
828 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

0(0,0

I I I I
0.5 1 1.5 2
(a) input disturbance

~:
0 0.5 1 1.5G~
of propagation

v 2

(b) responseat time

Figure 11.10: Step responses of heated flow in tube, first modification

perfect insulation
wall wi~ ~e~al compliance
possibleinsulating spacers

Figure 11.11: Heated flow in tube, second modification

11.3.3 Second Modification: Thermal Compliance in the

Walls
Consider finally that the previously time-invariant environmentaltemperature
becomesthe time-varying temperature of the wall of the tube, 0~,(x,t). The
conductances G and G~ refer to the film coefficient associated with the thin
boundarylayer, which is presumedto be independent of position. The exterior
of the wall is assumedto be adiabatic, or perfectly insulated. The wall itself
is assigned a uniform thermal compliance Au, cw per unit length. Axial heat
transfer in the wall is neglected, as emphasizedin Fig. 11.11 by the probably
hypothetical placementof insulating spacers. (Inclusion of axial heat transfer
would require a two-powermodel.) These assumptions might apply reasonably
well to the hot water pipes in your residence, particularly whenyou turn on the
faucet in the morningand wait for the water to becomehot.
11.3 WAVE PROPAGATION 829

Equation (11.47) is modified only by the substitution of the variable wall

temperature for the constant environmental temperature:

A fcf
dO(x,
~ = t)-G [0(x, t) - 0.,(x, t)]. (11.53)

Equatingthe heat efflux from the fluid to the heat influx to the wall,

A (11.54)
wc~,--~-,= G(0- 8,,,),
or
1
~ - 1 + ~dS; (11.55a)

~, ~ A~c~,/G, (11.55b)
where 7wis a time constant for heat transfer to or from the wall. The Combi-
nation of equations (11.53) and (11.55) with equation (11.38) can be written

-- = -W0; (11.56a)

v ~ 1 +~WS "
Note that the use of the symbolWis consistent with its use in Section 11.2.
The modelis of necessity anti-symmetric.
The steady-state solution is trivial: a constant uniformtemperaturefor ev-
erything. The solution of equation (11.56) for the incremental unsteady tem-
perature is
O~(x,t) = e-~w0~(0,t)
=e-~/~’ e-~SeZ/r~’(~+r~S)o~
(0, (11.57)
This is rather complicated. The simplest case is the frequency response, which
can be found by employingthe substitution ~ S ~ j~:
~
0~
, = Re 0~0e (11.58a)
010(x~ = e_W(~)~= e_(j~+~)~, (11.58b)
0~0(0)

(11.58c)

. = ( l.SSe)
1(
Here, k is the wavenumber, as before, and ~ is knownas the attenuation
factor. All phase information is contained in the wavenumber,which is tradi-
tionally plotted against frequencyas shownin Fig. 11.12. For re~ons that will
6The rigor of this approach can be demonstrated, but its application can overlook the
possibility that the response to an old transient disturbance still lingers. This problem occurs
mostly in conservative systems, where transient responses do not decay.
830 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

0.4

3 0.3

asymptote k
0.2
1 /

0.1

0 0
0 1 2 (r.,v)k 4 0 2 4 10
86( r..v)k
(a) dispersionrelation (dimensionless) (b) attenuation per radian

10

dashed lines are /

(c) log scales for asymptrltlJ

parts (a) and(b) 1.(

0.2 1.0 10
( r..v)k

Figure 11.12: Frequencybehavior for heated flow in tube, second modification

11.3 WAVE PROPAGATION 831

become apparent later, equation (11.58c) is known as a dispersion relation.

The phase velocity is precisely the slope of the chord drawn from the origin to
the point of interest, or
w w~ v
Vp k 2~r - ’ (11.59)
1 + r~v/7l(1 + ~:~’-~w2)
At very high frequencies this phase velocity approaches the fluid transport ve-
locity. This should be anticipated, for at high frequencies the temperature of
the wall would not fluctuate appreciably, due to its thermal compliance and the
brevity of each half-cycle. Thus the problem becomes virtually the same as the
earlier problem with constant environmental temperature.
At very low frequencies, on the other hand, the temperatures of the wall
and the adjacent fluid track each other nearly perfectly, so that the thermal
resistance of the boundary layer becomes inconsequential. The phase velocity is
less than the transport velocity because the wall as well as the fluid is alternately
heated and cooled:
L v__~p = 1 (11.60)
~o v 1+
At intermediate frequencies the phase velocity changes continuously from its
lower to its upper asymptotic values.
The attenuation of sinusoidal waves is represented exclusively by the atten-
uation factor, which is plotted in part (b) of the figure. At very high frequencies
the attenuation, like the phase velocity, approaches that of the earlier problem
with a constant environmental temperature. At lower frequencies the attenua-
tion is reduced~ approaching zero at zero frequency and infinite wavelength.
Transient responses are harder to deduce from equation (11.57). The first
factor on the right clearly represents an attenuation that is exponential in posi-
tion, and the second factor represents a pure delay corresponding to the trans-
port velocity. The meaning of the third and final factor, called a percolation
operator, is not immediately apparent, however. It can be evaluated by em-
ploying the one-sided time Laplace transform of the equation, presuming zero
initial conditions. Using a bar over a symbol to represent its Laplace transform,

E1 (X, 8) = e-T/r~e-Tse T/r~ (l+rs)~

1 (0, 8). (11.61)
The percolation term can be simplified by noting the following property of
Laplace transforms, taken from Table 7.1 (p 511):

f_.-~[f(a + s)] = e-~t£-’[f(s)]. (11.62)

Here f is any function and a is any constant. Thus, after both sides of equation
(11.61) are multiplied by eT%the anti-transform becomes

t+ x/v) = s- (11.63)

Whent?~ is a unit impulse, ~(0, s) = 1, which is not a function of s

all, so ~ (0, s - 1/Tw) = 1 also. The inverse transform within equation (11.62)
832 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

0"8 t /T/~= 0.25/ case

0 ~0

~e ~L~S: ]~p~]~e ~d ~ep ~e~po~es fo~ ~e~ed ~o~ ~ ~ube, second ~od-
~c~t~o~

becomes, from transform pair #44 of Appendix C with b = 1,

(11.64)

in which Io and I1 are modified Bessel functions. The impulse response here
is stated as the time derivative of the step response. Both responses, with the
other terms in equation (11.64) also accounted for, are plotted in Fig. 11.13.
Note that the impulse and step terms propagate at the velocity of the fluid, but
decay rapidly. The remainder of the responge, which is its bulk except close
to the source, propagates more slowly. This observation agrees with the earlier
conclusions for the propagation of sinusoidal disturbances.

11.3.4 Dispersion and Absorption

A non-sinusoidal propagating wave is distorted by the dependencies of both the
phase velocity and the attenuation factor on frequency. These two effects can be
separated, at least conceptually, by first considering the hypothetical situation
of the actual varying phase velocity but zero attenuation, and then later the hy-
pothetical situation of constant phase velocity but the acutal attenuation. The
first case is called dispersive bt~t non-absorptive; the energy is propagated
without loss but at a range of speeds depending on the frequency.
To see how dispersion produces distortion, consider the following particular
11.3 WAVE PROPAGATION 833

first ~erm

(a) signal of equation

Oj(O,O= O0(sinWot
+~sin 3~Oot) secona term
all cases:r..= ~3
~oo=I /2 ~,, sum

(b) signal 0.424of the

longer wavelength.
downstream,with "-’~second term~
attenuationneglected

(c) signal 0.848of the

longer wavelength
downstream, with
attenuationincluded

Figure 11.14: Attenuation and dispersion of heat flow in tube

disturbance, which contains two sinusoidal components:

1
01(0, t) = 00 (sin wot+-~ sin 3w0t). (11.65)

This is plotted in Fig. 11.14 part(a). The two componentspropagateat different

speeds. At regular intervals in position the wavepattern at x = 0 reappears,
but elsewhere the pattern is different. The pattern midwaybetween these in-
tervals, correspondingto a relative phase shift of 180° of the higher frequency
components,is shownin part (b) of the figure. If three or more irrationally
related frequencycomponentswere present, the waveprofile at the origin never
wouldbe repeated.
To see hownon-constant absorption produces distortion, presumethat both
frequencycomponentsof equation (11.64) are propagatedwith different attenu-
ation factors. As shownin part (c) of the figure, the ratio of the two components
changes as the wavepropagates downstrean~;ultimately one virtually vanishes
comparedwith the other, leaving a nearly pure sine wave. The particular case
showncorrespondsto the separated dispersion and attenuation of the heat trans-
port problemabove, the property r~o/Tf being set at unity and wobeing set at
1/2rw.
Anyperiodic signal can be represented by a Fourier series, and most aperi-
odic signals by a Fourier integral. Knowledge of the wavenumberand attenua-
tion factor as functions of frequencythen can be used to construct the response
834 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

to these signals.

11.3.5 Group Velocity*

Engineers often are interested in narrow-band signals. Examplesinclude AM
and FMmodulation in communication, and bursts of non-sinusoidal distur-
bances in various media. The velocity at which a modulation or a burst or a
group propagates is not generally equal to the phase velocity for any frequency
within its frequency band. Indeed, the group velocity, defined as the velocity
at which a disturbance propagates in the asymptotically limiting case of zero
bandwidth,can be radically different from the phase velocity.
To see this, consider a wavecomprising two frequency componentsw + A~/2
and w - Awl2 in which Awis very small, and the corresponding wave numbers
k + Ak/2 and k- Ak/2:

0 = 0oRe {e j[(~+Aw/2)t-(k+Ak/2)x] -t- e j[(w-Aw/2)t-(k-Ak/2)x] }

= Re[ej(A~tl~.-Ak x/e) + e-J(A<ot/2-ak x/2)]

= 200 cos(Awt12 - Akxl2)cos(wt - kx). (11.66)

This result is plotted in Fig. 11.15. Thefirst cosine term represents an envelope
of the response with a long wavelength;the secondcosine oscillates at the mean
frequency of the two components. You may have experienced an analogous
phenomenon in the "beating" of two musical tones that are at slightly different
frequencies; musicians often tune their instruments to a knownstandard by
eliminating the beating.
The two propagation velocites represented by equation (11.66) can be found
by holding the respective phase angles in parenthesis constant. The high- fre-
quencywavewithin the envelope propagates at the phase velocity

~ (11.67)

and the envelope propagates at the velocity

very = --. (11.6s)

Ak
The group velocity vg is defined as the limit of this velocity as Aw-~ 0, or as
the wavelengthapproachesinfinity:

v~ = L - (11.69)
~-~o Ak dk"
Returning to the examplegiven in Fig. 11.12 (p. 830), you can see that this
velocity is the local slope of the dispersion plot of w as a function of k, whereas
the phase velocity is the slope of the chord drawnfrom the origin.
11.3 WAVE PROPAGATION 835

AAAAAAAA
~°~°~
VVVVVVVVV
This sine wave

AAAAAAAAAA
~o~o~
VVVVVVVVVVV
plus this...
¯.,. envelope ~.-.

Ill ~ p°siti°n
/Ill
/ ~’" "’,V i/
equalsthis.

Figure 11.15: Conceptof group velocity

836 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

Dispersion implies a difference betweenVp and Vg. If vg > Vp, as with the
exampleof the heated fluid travelling downthe tube, the dispersion is called
anomolous,whereas if vg < vp it is called normal. These terms originated in
the field of optics wherenormaldispersion is the usual case; the non-technical
implication of the terms is misleading in manyother media and structures,
including the particular examplehere.
Had a wave-train been chosen with a more complicated composition within
the same narrow band, the envelope of the wave would have been more com-
plicated, but the short-wavelength oscillation with the envelope wouldremain.
In the limit of vanishingly small bandwidth, this complicated envelope would
travel without distortion at the samegroup velocity as the simpler envelope. For
a somewhatwider frequency band the envelope distorts slowly as it propagates
at virtually the same speed. Thus the group velocity is an important prop-
erty of a distributed mediumor structure. Its importance is enhancedfurther
when,in the following section, the velocity at whichenergy propagates through
conservative distributed-parameter systems is seen to equal the group velocity.

11.3.6 Summary
The use of the derivative (Heaviside) and Laplace operator notations have been
illustrated for a particular degenerate one-powermodel. The simplest version
demonstrates unilateral wavepropagation without energy absorption or disper-
sion; the more general versions demonstrate both absorption and dispersion in
their unilateral waves. Dispersion meansthat the velocity at which a sinusoid
propagates, called the phase velocity, dependson its frequency, and the shape of
non-sinusoids therefore is continuously being distorted. The wavenumberk(w)
of a sinusoid equals 27~/A, where A(w)is the wavelength; the phase velocity
equals o~/k. The group velocity equals do~/dk. The group velocity is the speed
at which the envelope of a narrow-band wave propagates. The propagation of
complicated waveforms can be calculated either by Fourier decomposition or
through the use of Laplace transforms, which are typically of non-polynomial
type.

PROBLEM

11.16 Surface wavesin water of density p and surface tension T in a narrow

tank of uniform depth h can be shownto obey the dispersion relation

where9 is the acceleration of gravity.

(a) "Deepowaterwaves"are said to exist if increasing the depth has very

little effect on the phase or group velocities. Determinean approximate
11.4. ONE-POWER SYMMETRIC MODELS 837

depth necessary for this condition, as a. function of the wavelength, and

find the phase velocity as a function of the wavelength and the parameters.
Also, find the wavelength and frequency for water at room temperature
(p = 1000) kg/m3, T = 0.075 N/m) below which surface tension is more
important, and above which gravity is more important.

(b) The motion of "shallow water waves" penetrates to the bottom without
any decrease in amplitude, unlike deep-water waves which have negligible
motion at the bottom. (See Guided Problem 11.3, pp. 821,824.) Repeat
(a) for this case.

(c) Find the ratio of the group velocity to the phase velocity for four
cases: shallow-water gravity waves, shallow-water capillary waves, deep-
water gravity waves and deep-water capillary waves.

(d) Describe qualitatively what you would would expect if you throw
stone into a deep pond and observe the ripples. Note that the disturbance
is an impulse in both space and time, and therefore contains all wave-
lengths equally. Suggestion: It is helpful to find and plot the phase and
group velocities as functions of the wavelength. Phenomenato consider
also include the attenuation due to spreading and the nonlinear effects of
the shorter wavelengths.

11.4 One-Power Symmetric Models

The fundamental concepts of propagation operator, characteristic impedance
and causal and transmission matrices are introduced or extended is this section
to apply to general one-power symmetric models. Emphasis is placed on the
propagation of waves and on boundary-value problems. Applications are given
to heat conduction, and to pure wave-like behavior as represented by the uniform
rod in torsion. Finally, exponentially tapered systems are. analyzed.

11.4.1 Wave Behavior

The general symmetric uniform one-power model with no internal excitation is,
from Section 11.2.3 (p 820),

Substitution of the second componentequation into the first gives

Ox~" - YZys or O( ~x,/,~-~x)2
0"2ys O~-ys = ys.
(11.71)

The general solution becomes

838 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

in which the propagation operator 7(S) and characteristic admittance

Yc(S), also known as the surge admittance, are defined

~(S)
c(s) = rSVP, (11.73)
and Ysl and ys2 are any functions of time. Equations (11.70), (11.72) and (11.73)
are employedbelow repeatedly. The special case of 1’~ for the pure bilateral wave
delay has been given in Section 11.1 (Equation (11.11), p 803). The reciprocal
of the characteristic admittance, known as the characteristic impedance or
the surge impedance, often is used instead.
For frequency response calculations, the substitution S -~ ja~ gives, as be-
fore, a wave number k and attenuation factor c~:

[3’(jw) jk + ~ . (11 .74)

Thus the phase velocity becomes
w a~
I Vp - -£ - Im ~(jw)" 1 (11.75)

These results also are of considerable general utility.

Example 11.9
Find the propagation operator, characteristic admittance and phase velocity
for the torsion rod of Example11.1 (p. 798). kbu may use the information for
Cj and I j given in that example. Also, observe the nature of the propagating
waves from the results.
Solution: The symmetric and asymmetric variables are, respectively, y~ =
M and ya = ~. From Example 11.1 or Table 11.1 (p. 801),

Z(S) = I’S = (7rr4p/2)S,

Y(S) : C’S = (2/~rr4#)S,

in which r is the radius of the rod, p is its mass density and # is its shear
modulus. With these substitutions, equations (11.73) give the propagation
operator and characteristic admittance as follows:

-- c,/ s --

Yc= C~_ 2
~r4v~. .
11.4. ONE-POWER SYMMETRIC MODELS 839

The ]~ agrees with equation (11.11) (p. 803). Equation (11.75) then
that the phase velocity is a constant (consistent with equation (11.8),
803):

vp- Im3,(j~o) - ~ =

As a result, the operator e-Tx represents a pure time delay, and the operator
e7z represents a pure time advance. Waves travel at the same speed in
both directions; equation (11.72) reveals that the entire behavior can
represented as the sum of such right and left-traveling waves. The model is
non-dispersive, and the group.velocity equals the phase velocity. Further,
Yc is a constant, so waves of ¢ propagate in phase with the corresponding
waves of M.

Example 11.10
Find the propagation operator, characteristic admittance, phase velocity
and attenuation factor for heat conduction. Assume one spatial dimension
with no internal heat source or sink, for which the differential equations can
be written
8

Note that this uses the heat flux q as the asymmetric ~ariable ya, rather
than the flow variable which is the entropy flux, largely because it is more
traditional. The thermal conductivity is ke, and C is the specific heat; both
are assumed to be invariant.
Also, observe the nature of the propagating waves from the results,
including a comparison of the group velocity with the phase velocity.
Solution: Only one energy storage mechanism is present, as indicated by
the single time derivitive operator S =- O/Ot in the given differential equa-
tion. Equations (11.73) give the propagation operator and characteristic
admittance
=
= v%CS.
The phase velocity Vp and attenuation factor a are defined for sine waves.
Letting S -~ ja~,

~/(jw) = Cv@-~/ko = jk + c~; k =a =

The traditional dispersion plot of frequency as a function of wave number

(with the constant coefficient C/ko for the ordinate) is given at the top of
the following page.
840 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

ko
2
1
Cv

°o 0.5 1’.o k
?.5
The phase and group velocities equal the slopes of the chord (w/k) and of
the curve (dw/dk), respectively:

Vp = -~ = -- ,

dw
vg - dk - 2Vp"
Heat conduction behaves very differently from the pure bilateral-wave-
delay model. Since energy cannot slosh back and forth between different
storages, the system is non-oscillatory in the usual sense, and possesses
monatonic(continuously increasing or decreasing) reponses to step distur-
bances. It is highly dispersive and absorptive. The equality of k and c~
implies that the envelopeof the decayingsinusoidal response for unilateral
waves(that is either 01 or O: alone), as shownbelow, falls off by the factor
e -2~ per wavelength.

1.13
0.8 lead ¯
responsesto / envelope
0.6
sinusoidal
0.4
disturbance
atx= 0 0.2
0
-0.2’
T 3- ~ T
The wavelengthis inversely proportional to the square root of frequency.
The heat flux is not in phase with the temperature variations, but leads by
11.4. ONE-POWER SYMMETRIC MODELS 841

a constant 45°, which is the phase angle of ~"~. The ratio of the heat flux
variations to the temperature variations increases with the wave number and
therefore with the frequency, as can be seen b’y the plot of the magnitude of
1~ given below:

magnitude of 1 1 ’~
characteristic
admittance
0 0
0.5 1~.0 k~ 1~.5

Example 11.11
Continue the example of the infinite rod above by finding the temperature
at a location x to the right of the point where an impulse disturbance in
temperature is imposed. Also, find the reponse when the disturbance is a
step in time. The Laplace transform table given in Appendix C may be
used.
Solution: You can examine the rightward propagation of transient waves
by setting the amplitude of the leftward waves in equation (11.72) (p. 837)
to zero. The Laplace transform of the response is

0(x,s)
The responses to the unit impulse (02(s) = 0o) and step (02(8) = Oo/s)
given in Appendix C by transform pairs #38 and #39, respectively:

impulse response : O(x, t) -- O~ 1,/-~q~i_3[2p_Cx2[4kot

- ~ 2 V ~rko

step
v response : 0(x,t) =00erfc

Here "erfc" stand8 for the complementary error function, which is ~videly
tabulated. These results are plotted below. Note that a single dimensionless
curve characterizes each case completely; it can be scaled for any distance
or time. Notice also that the tails of the responses are extremely long. This
feature of many distributed-parameter models cannot be modeled with great
accuracy using only a few lumped elements.
842 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

step response,"~o

/Cx~\
~ I I

4~ 5 6
X

The differential equation given for heat conduction in ExampleI1.10 above,

and also used in Example11.11, also is knownas the diffusion equation. This
classical equation describes the diffusion of the concentration of a component
through a mixture. Specifically, 0 becomesthe concentration per unit length
and q becomesthe flow of the componentof interest. Withthis interpretation,
ko becomesthe permitivity and C becomesunity.

11.4.2 Energy Velocity in Conservative Media*

The time-averaged power propagated through a non-absorptive mediumby a
sinusoidal wavecan be respresented as the product of the time-averagedenergy
density and the velocity of energy propagation, re:

~ = (T + V),~. (il.80)

The overbars imply the time averaging. For non-dispersive media this velocity
equals the phase velocity, vp, which also equals the group velocity, vg. For
dispersive media, however,the energy velocity equals the group velocity, which
can differ markedlyfrom the phase velocity:
(11.81)
~
This relation does not apply in the presenceof dissipation, for whichthe concePt
of an energy velocity has nebulous meaning. For example, the group velocity
11.4. ONE-POWER SYMMETRIC MODELS 843

for light traveling through a material medium7 in a dissipation band is known

to exceed the speed of light in a vacuum,c. Energy, of course, never travels
faster than c.
A proof of equation (11.81) nowwill be given. Since the mediumis conser-
vative, the series impedanceZ(jw) and shunt admittance Y(jw) must be pure
imaginary functions. Therefore, Z(S) and Y(S) can be represented
Z(S) = IS =IoS + I1S3 -t- I2S5 + I3S7 +’", (11.82a)

Y(S) CS= CoS+ C~S3+ C’~S5+ C3S~+’". (11.82b)

Consider the traveling wave

e = e0 sin(wt - kx), (11.83a)

0 = 00 sin(wt - kx). (11.83b)

The series expansions require

/Co -- C1032 ~- C2034 - C3~d6 ~- "-"

0°=1~e°; ]{:=V ~°:/-~’°+/-~--’/-~-~-::’- ’ (11.84)

and the mean power becomes

1
P = e~ = e0~0sin2(wt- kx) = ~eoqo = 1yveS’2 (11.85)

The plan is to solve equation (11.80) for Ve, so the time-averaged energy
density, P + T is needed next. To find ~, the complianceC is excited with an
effort e(t) that, at the initial time, equals zero and has zero derivatives m
dme/dt
for all m_< n, wheren is twice the largest subscript of interest in the expansion
for C given in equation (9.82b). For larger time it is required that

e -~ e0 sin wt; t -~ oo. (11.86)

Sucha function is illustrated in Fig. 11.16. Its details for small values of time
greater than zero nre immaterial; only the conditions at t = 0 and as t -~ c~
matter.
The flow ~ becomes
n
d~+1 e
~ = ~ C~ dt~+. (11.87)
~
This allows the potential energy to be written as

td~+~e
P(t) =te(idt ~- ~f
C~ ]o e d-~JY (11.88)
L i----O

7Leon Brillouin, Wave Propagation and Group Velocity, Academic Press, New York, 1960.
Brillouin shows that equation (11.81) applies when C = C(w) is a slowly varying function of
w, and stroagly implies that it does not hold otherwise. The proof herein shows that it applies
for any real functions C = C(w) and I = l(w).
844 CHAPTER 11, DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

eo

-e
o

Figure 11.16: Function used to find the mean potential energy in the compliance
c = c(~)

The term for i = 0 can be integrated directly. The term for i = 1 can integrated
by parts. The term for i = 2 can be integrated by parts twice, and so on for
larger values of i. The result is

l:(t) = Coe 2 + C~ e dt 2 2 \ dt ] J + C2 e dt 4 dt dt "~ + ~ \-~-~ ]

+C3 edt 6 dt dt 5 + dt "z dt a 2 ~,dt 3] J +"" (11.89)

Substituting the values of e(t) for t = 0 and t --~ ~c, and noting the time averages
for the square of sine waves, there results
1 _., 2.
~ = ~C eo, C* =- Co - 3Clw~ + 5C2w4 - 7C3~v6 +’" . (11.90)

A similar process gives the mean kinetic energy

1 , .~
~ = -~I qS; I* -- Io - 3I~w~ + 5I~4 - 713~v6~ +..’. (11.91)

The substutution of equations (11.85), (11.90) and (11.91) into (11.80),

that the phase velocity is Vp -- 1/v/~, gives

ve _ 2/Vp _ 2
(11.92)
Vp C*/Yc + I*Yc (C*/C) + (I*/I)"
In the nondispersive case C = Co and I = I0, C* = C and I* -- I confirming
that ve =
The general dispersion relation

k = wv/-f~ = w/v~ (11.93)

gives the group velocity
dw 1
v~ - dk - 1 w dv," (11.94)

v~ v~ dw
11.4. ONE-POWER SYMhlETRIC MODELS 845

However,
(11.95)
so that equation (11.94) yields

+ 2-~wdI (11.96)
V p 1 + ~-~w~wdC d--~
(1+ +
The terms in parentheses can be evaluated through the use of the expansion
for C and I; comparison with the definitions of C* and I* show that they are
identical, respectively, to C*/C and I*/I. Therefore the right sides of equations
(11.92) and (11.96) are equal, proving that ve = vg as was to be shown.

11.4.3 Boundary-Value Problems; Transmission Matrices

The response of distributed-parameter systems has been computed thus far in

terms of waves. More commonly, however, you are confronted with certain end
conditions and wish to find the remaining end conditions, with little interest in
the internal b.ehavior. For the problem with hot water transport in Section 11.3,
only one possible input existed -- the inlet temperature -- and the remaining
end condition was in fact a single wave. For the torsion rod and the heat con-
duction or diffusion problem, however, or in fact any non-degenerate one-power
model or indeed any general line~tr two-port system, four different combinations
of independent and dependent end conditions (at x = 0 and x = L) have direct~
causal meaning. E~ch of these can be represented by a causal matrix, as with
lumped models. Placing the independent or input variables on the right and
the de ~endent or output variables on the left, these are

admittance matrix :

impedance matrix : (Z

adpedance matrix :

immitance matrix : (11.97)

Only two more combinations of the variables exist:

transmission matrix : [
y~(O)] = T [ys(L)]
pa(O) [ya(L) J

inverse of T : yo(L) ] T-~ [yo(0)]" (11.98)

846 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

P2

~P~ ~___.~2-port N ~P~

=T~ ; =T~ ; =Tc ; etc.

= T~ ; T~ = T~-T~ .Tc --.

note: same form of result tbr 4-ports, 6-ports, etc.: ~

Figure 11.17: Cascade of two-port elements

These last two relations are acausal in the sense that in a physical experiment
the two variables on the right sides cannot be varied independently; as you have
seen almost from the beginning, it is necessary for one variable to be specified
from the right and another to be specified from the left. These causalities also
have meaning in the assembly of equations for numerical simulation, as you have
seen.
Transmission matrices nevertheless have one very useful property: if two
or more two-port devices are connected end-to-end, the transmission matrix of
the overall cascade equals the product of the individual transmission matrices.
Recall that if the cascade is oriented left-to-right, the order of the matrix factors
corresponds to the order of the corresponding elements, as shown in Fig. 11.17.
The reverse order- applies for the inverse transmission matrices.
In practice it is convenient to compute the transmission matrix representa-
tion of a distributed-parameter model first, and then convert it to one of the
causal forms if necessary. The conversion formulas, which can be derived readily,
are
V= TI~ -TI~ ; Z=~ 1 -Tie ’

G= ~1~ -Tx2 ; H= ~22 -T21 ’

T = [T~l[Tll T:~T~2] ,’ A ~ detT. (11.995)

The transmission matrix for the general model of equation (11.70) (p 837)
c~ be found by evaluating Ys and y~ ~ given in equation (11.72) at x =
and x = L in terms of Ys~ (t) and ys2(t), and inverting one of these relations to
11.4. ONE-POWER SYMMETRIC MODELS 847

eliminate Yst and Ys2. The result, which you should verify, is of considerable
utility:

r
yo(0)] =,~l~sinhr. coshF(1/ ’S)sinhr]r
s(L/]
, [ya(L
i ;
F=yL. (11.100)

transmission matrix, T

Applications now will be illustrated.

Example 11.12
A slab of conducting material of thickness L is insulated on its left surface
and excited on its right surface by a sinusoidally varying temperature:

insulating ~ specified
boundary temperature
q(O) =0 O(L)
=
Find the temperature at the left side of the slab as a function of frequency,
and plot its real (in-phase) part imaginary (90° out-of phase) parts. (Use
a complex plane for a frequency response is knownin the controls literature,
including Chapter 8, as a Nyquist plot.)
Solution: The given information is in the form suitable for using the im-
mittance matrix H:

q(L)] = H = H
[e(n) e(n)
Only H~2 and H2.) are needed, which from equation (11.99)

H,~. = A/T~.~ = sechr; H~.~ = -T2I/T.),~ -= -]~ tanh F.

The following identities are particularly useful for frequency response calcu-
lations:

sinh((~ ÷ jfl) = sinh ~ cos ~ ÷ j cosh ~ sin fl,

cosh((~ + jf~) -- cosh ~ cos B + j sinh ~ sin ~.

~om the solution to Problem 11.11 (p. 841),

F = j~ + ~; ~ = kL = L~.
848 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

Therefore, the ratio of the temperatureat the left to the excitation temper-
ature on the right is

~(O, ja~)
~(L,j~) = sechr 1/coshF = cosh f~cos~ + jsinhflsinFt
sechf~see f~
= e -j tan- 1 (tanh ~ tan f~)
X/1+ (tanh f~ tan
This result is plotted below, using the complexplane or Nyquist coordinates.
Note that the phase lag in the response doesn’t reach 180° until a frequency
at whichthe amplitude has decayedto a small value.

Im

5zr/4 3z/2 = D 0
’ ’ ’ , ~ Re
5z/6# 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
3 z/4’l t z/12
I
O(O,
jta)
-0’
2z/3~ /~16
7n-/12 ~ /

-0.6

Example 11.13
Consider a torsion rod of length L, for which

P = ",/L = (L/VB)S = TS; T = L/vp = Lv’--C-] = LX/-~.

Here, T is the time a wave takes to propagate from one end of the rod to
the other. The rod is terminated in a linear ideal rotary dashpot with a
constant resistance R, so that M(L) R~(L):

IM@~
x=O
...... rotational
~_~ lumped
dashpot

x=L
A constant torque M(0) is suddenly applied at the left end. Plot the con-
sequent angular velocity ~(0) at this driving point as a function of time for
the cases R]~ = 0, 1/3, 1 and 2.
11.4. ONE-POWER SYMMETRIC MODELS 849

Solution: The transmission matrix relation is

[~I((00))] [ =}’~. sinh (1/1~)sinhTS][

[ coshTS TS cosh TS J t R.~(L)].
¢(L)

Solving for ~(0),

4¢0) Y ~ RYcsinh TS+coshTS

cosh TS + sinh~¢’./~ M(0)
.1 + a ....
= } ~ ~ C~

= ]%(1 + 2ae -2TS + 2a2e -4TS + 2a3e -6TS +’" .)M(0),

1-
a~
1 +
The successive operators on the right side of the equation represent pure
delays of, respectively, zero, 2T or one round-trip delay, 4T or two round-trip
delays, 6T or three round-trip delays, etc. The amplitude of each successive
term or wave is attenuated more than its predecessor if R > 0, since then
a < 1. The requested responses are plotted below. Note that for the special
case of R = 1/~), that is when the resistance of the termination equals the
surge impedance, no waves at all are reflected from the termination; a = 0.
It is as if the rod were infinitely long.

Y~M(O)
4

2 RYe= 1
RY~ = 2
1

0o 2 4 6 8 t/T 10 12

Back in the heyday of analog electronics it was very difficult to achieve

pure time delays of electrical signals, and a mechanical torsion rod with the
reflectionless termination sometimes was employed, with appropriate input and
output electromechanical transducers, to do the job. Today, important analogs
to this ideal termination remain in the design of hydraulic and acoustic systems.
850 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIB UTED-PARAMETER MODELS

Example 11.14
A tosion rod is free at its left end and is terminated by a (rather stiff) rotary
spring at its right end:

.... rotational
~M~~ spring
~ lumped
x=O x=L

This system has no damping, and possesses an infinity of resonant frequen-

cies. Determine these frequencies as functions of the spring compliance Ct,
the characteristic admittance ~ for torsion of the rod and the wave delay
time, T. Also, compare the result when the spring is very compliant to that
of a lumped model that neglects the flexibility of the rod.
Solution: For the lumped termination comprising the spring,

Since M(0) -- 0, the transmission relation becomes

[ ~0) =
] I[YcsinhTS
c°shTS (i/Yc)sinhTS1
coshTS J I~(L’)/C~S1
[ ¢(L)
For a non-trivial solution to exist, the first scalar equation requires

coth TS = -CtS/Yc.

This can happen only at the resonant or natural frequencies

coth T ja~i = -j cot Tcai = - Ct ja~i / Yc,

or cot Tcai= Ctcai/Yc.

The two sides of this transcendental equation are plotted on the next page
for three values of the parameter Ct/TY~, which represents the ratio of the
complance of the spring termination to the total rotational compliance of the
rod. Solutions are represented by the intersections. When this parameter
is very small (i.e very stiff termination), the natural frequencies are seen
to approach (n - 1/2)n, n = 1, 2 3..., which is the limit for the shaft
clamped at the right end. Whenthe parameter is very large (i.e. very flexible
termination), the first natural frequency becomes so low that the higher
natural frequencies likely become unimportant. Since cot Ta~l ~ litton, the
first natural frequency approaches 1//x/~-L~t, which is the natural frequency
of the lumped mass-spring model in which the rod is the rotational inertia,
(IL), and the spring is the termination spring (Ct).
11.4. ONE-POWER SYMMETRIC MODELS 851

-1

Virtually identical analyses to the last two examples above can be carried
out for analagous systems represented by pure wave delay models, such as those
highlighted in Section 11.1.

11.4.4 Exponentially Tapered Systems*

The simplest behavior for a non-uniform locally symmetric system occurs when
there is an exponential taper:

Z = ZoeaX; -a
Y x.
= l~be (11.101)

Note that the product YZ is independent of x. Such a model can represent, for
example, a torsion rod or a push rod or an acoustic tube for which the diameter
is exponentially tapered; the nominal wave speed of the mediumis independent
of x. Systems with other tapers might well be approximated by a sequence of
exponential segments.
Elimination of y, in favor of y~ gives

d~y_~£~
2dx = ZoYo ys + a~x " (11.102)

Assumption of the particular solution

y~ = e’Zy~o (11.103)

gives the following eigenvalues and general solution:

#a,2 = ~ =k b; b = + ZoYo; (ll.104a)

0 ebx

Zoya(z, t) = -
(11.104b)
Equation (11.104b) can be inverted to solve for y~l(t) and y~2(t) as functions of
y~(x, t) and Zoy~(x, t). The result then can be substituted back into the special
852 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

case of equation (11.104b) for which x = 0. The final result is the transmission
matrix relation
(ll.105a)
ZoYa(O,t) .ZoYa(X,t) ]
a 1
[coshbx+-~sinhbx ~ sinh bx! 1 [e-’ ~~ eax/~ 0)]
T= |
Z0]~ . ,. a t~/~
[ coshbx- ~-~sinhbxJ
~- s~naox
(ll.105b)
The right-hand matrix factor in equation (ll.105b) represents a transformer
action with transformer modulus e-ax/2. The left-hand term represents both the
delay that would occur in the absence of the taper and the distortion produced
by the taper. The distortion is large for low frequencies and long wavelengths
and small for high frequencies and short wavelengths; note that the distortion
coefficient a/2b --+ 0 as w -~ oc. It is the transformer action that makes water
waves grow as they approach the beach, that concentrates the sound in the
historical hearing tubes, and makes the tool mounted at the small end of an
exponentially tapered rod used in ultrasonic machining vibrate with a much
larger amplitude than the large driven end.
These examples can be modeled by the pure bilateral wave model with
nominal wave celerity Co - 1/v/~-~ = constant and nominal wave number
ko = w/co = ,k0/2~r. For frequency response,
b= 3~ ° 1-
. (11.106)

For frequencies below aco/2 this is a real number; waves do not propagate,
and the distortion is considerable. For frequencies above this critical frequency,
on the other hand, b is an imaginary number, waves propagate and grow or
decay according to the transformer action. The distortion coefficient in equation
(11.105b) becomes

a 1 1
-- -- (11.107)
2b y/1 - (2w/aco)2 V/1 - (2ko/a) 2 V/1 - 2(4~r/Aoa)
This reveals that little distortion exists for aAo< < 4~r. For example, if the taper
is a factor of two in one wavelength, aA0 = in 2 and a/2b = j0.0552, which is
fairly small; shorter wavelengths produce yet lesser distortion.

11.4.5 Summary
The bilateral waves in symmetric one-power models propagate in a similar way
to the unilateral waves in degenerate one-power models. The information on
the speed and attenuation of waves is contained in the propagation operator,
% which can be employed as a temporal or Laplace operator or as a complex
function of frequency. A wave of the anti-symmetric variable is related to the
corresponding wave of the symmetric variable by the characteristic or surge
11.4. ONE-POWER SYMMETRIC MODELS 853

P=Posin~ot ] area A, fluid properties p. fl .~

I
, L q transducer volume

Figure 11.18: System for Guided Problem11.5

impedance, Yc, which if not constant also can be treated as a temporal or

Laplace operator or as a complexfunction of frequency. Energypropagates at
the group velocity whenthere is no dissipation.
Boundary value problems are most commonlyaddressed starting with the
transmission matrix that interrelates the states at the two ends. Matrices for
elementsthat are cascadedcan be multiplied directly to give an overall transmis-
sion matrix. This acausal matrix can be converted, if desired, into any of four
causal matrices, dependingon whichboundaryvariables are specified and which
are to be found. Both operator and frequency approaches and both uniform and
exponentially tapered mediahave been illustrated.
The pure bilateral wavemodelis based on an inertance per unit length and
a complianceper unit length. A variety of systems can be approximatedby this
model, as detailed in Section 11.1; the exampleof a torsion rod has been given
here. The modelfor one-dimensional diffusion or heat transfer is based on a
complianceper unit length and a resistance per unit length.

Guided Problem 11.5

Capacitive-type pressure transducers typically have a significant internal vol-
ume,V, which introduces fluid compliance. Often they are placed at the end of
an instrument line, as shownin Fig. 11.18. Presumethat the pressure of inter-
est is Po sin wt and exists at the opposite end of the line from the transducer.
Also presumethat the line is rigid and has a length L and an internal area A,
the density and bulk modulusfor the fluid are p and ~, and the volumehas no
gas bubbles and is virtually rigid mechanically. Find the ratio of the measured
pressure to the pressure P.

Suggested Steps:

1. Represent the systemby a bilateral pure delay line with a terminal com-
pliance. Relate the complianceto the volumeand the fluid properties.
2. Find the transmission matrix as a function of S -~ jw.

3. Substitute the relation for the flow into the transducer volume,expressed
as a function of the pressure there, into the transmission matrix relation.
854 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

Then, use this relation to find the frequency transfer function between the
two pressures. Report the result as a magnitude ratio and a phase angle.

Guided Problem 11.6

A flexible shaft of radius r = 1.0 in., length L = 40 in., shear modulus p =
11.5 x 106 psi (steel) and weight density pg = 0.283 lb/in 3 is driven at its left
end by an applied moment M = Mo sin wt, Mo = 200 in-lb, and is terminated
at the right end by a flywheel of the same material having a radius of 5.0 in.
and a thickness of 0.10 in.; a viscous damping momentwith resistance R = 2000
in-lb-s is applied to the flywheel. Find the driving-point admittance ~)o(O)/Mo
and the transfer admittance ~o(L)/Mo as a function of frequency. Plot their
magnitudes and phase angles for frequencies up to 6000 Hz.

Suggested Steps:

1. Write the relation between the moment applied to the flywheel to its
angular velocity.

2. Write the transmission matrix relationship between the two ends. Substi-
tute the known applied momentat the left end and the result from step 1
at the right end.

3. Solve for the desired admittances. At this point your work ought to be in
terms of symbols.

4. Evaluate the parameters nmnerically, substitute into the results of step 3,

and plot. Linear axes are suggested rather than the usual Bode axes in
problems dominated by traveling waves.

PROBLEMS

11.17 A uniform linearly elastic tube contains water and has an effective iner-
tance to fluid motion I’, compliance C~ and resistance R~, all per unit length,
which can be assumed to be constants. In addition, the tube is pierced with
manysmall holes to produce a constant leakage conductance, G~, per unit length.
(The resulting model is the same as in Problem 11.13, p. 823.)

(a) Define appropriate variables and find linear describing differential

equations in standard form, neglecting the time-mean velocity and other
second-order or nonlinear effects.

(b) Showthat for given values of ~, C~ and R~, aparticular va lue of G~

causes the characteristic impedance to be constant. Find this value, and
investigate its affect on wave propagation (phase velocity, group velocity,
dispersion, distortion, attenuation).
11.4. ONE-POWER SYMMETRIC MODELS 855

(c) Showthat with the condition of part (b) a particular resistive termi-
nation, Re, eliminates wave reflections. Also, find this

11.18 A steel torsion rod 500 in. long is driven at the left end and terminated
at the right end by a linear viscous damper with coefficient 0.07 in..lb.s. (The
properties of steel are noted in Guided Problem 11.6 above.) The left end starts
at rest and is given a step change in angular velocity to 1800 rpm. Find and
plot the momentin the rod at the driving end and the angular velocity at the
right end as functions of time for rod diameters of (a) 0.250 in. (b) 0.375

11.19 A 0.250 in. torsion rod of the preceding problem is unconstrained at the
left end and terminated at the right end by a linear rotary spring with rate 7.74
in lb/rad. Find the eigenvalue equation for the system and determine the first
four natural frequencies.

11.20 The torsion rod of the preceding problem is driven sinusoidally from the
left end. Determine the ratio of the moment to the angular velocity at the
driving end.

11.21 A long torsion rod of length L, wavespeed c and characteristic impedance

Zc is clamped at its left end and terminates in a flywheel of rotational inertance
I~, at its right end.

(a) Find the eigenvalue equation for the resonant frequencies.

(b) Approximatethe first three natural frequencies in the special case for
which the rotational inertance of the entire rod equals

(c) Evaluate the lowest eigenvalue when the rotational inertance of the
rod approaches zero. Then compare this result with that for a lumped
model that ignores the inertance of the rod in favor of its compliance.

11.22 A coaxial cable is terminated in a parallel combination of a resistance

and a capacitance. The value of the resistance equals the surge impedance, so
that if the capacitance were absent there would be no wave reflections and no
standing waves. The termination can be corrected at any given frequency for
the presence of the capacitance by placing an open-ended stub of the same cable
in parallel with the load, as shown below.

load
terminal end of coaxial cable
856 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

The proper length of the stub, L, depends on the load capacitance, C. This
example of "stub matching" is practical, since most coaxial cables are used only
for a very narrow band of frequencies. (Note: Stub matching has been used
to prevent reflections and resonances due to compliance and inertance in fluid
transmission lines and acoustic ducts, also.)

(a) Consider the stub by itself, with zero current at its open end. Find
the ratio of the voltage to the current at driven end in terms of the length
of the stub and its surge impedance and wave speed.

(b) Place the impedance from part (a) in parallel with the actual load.
the resulting impedance equal to the surge impedance to find the proper
length of the stub.

11.23 The muffler of Problem 11.14 (p. 823) has length L = 2 ft, and joins
together two infinitely long tubes with the same diameter di as the perforated
inner tube within the muffler. The resonant (Helmholtz) frequency of all the
side chambers is w, = 2~r x 100 rad/s, and the ratio of the outer to the inner
diameter is (do/di) 10. A si nusoidal wa ve wi th fr equency w, wave spe ed
c = 1100 ft/s and pressure amplitude P+ is incident to the muffler at one end,
and a consequent wave PL emerges at the other end. Approximating the muffler
as a uniform continuous structure, find and plot the magnitude ratio
as a function of f~ = w/w,~. Commenton the performance of the muffler.

11.24 A magnetostrictive driver oscillates the large end of a steel exponentially

tapered ultrasonic machine tool at the frequency 30kHz. A motion amplification
of 40 is desired, and the large end of the taper has a diameter of one inch. Make
reasonable choices for the length and diameter at the small end of the taper.
The taper should not be unnecessarily long.

SOLUTIONS TO GUIDED PROBLEMS

Guided Problem 11.5

1. P~ D Pt C C = V/3

[ cos Tw ZccosTw
sinh TwJ"
]
2. T= [(1/Z~)sinhTw T= L/c= Lv/~;

3. Qto = CjwPto
The first equation in the transmission relation becomes
P0 = [cos Tw+( Cjw ) j Zc sin Tw] Pto
so that Pto= Po/(cosTw - CwZc sinTw); Pt = Ptosin~t
P,o----
The magnituderatio therefore is -~0
(cosTw-~wZcsinTw)l
11.4. ONE-POWER SYMMETRIC MODELS 857

and the phase angle is 0° when Pto/Po > 0 and 4-1800 when Pto/Po < O.

Guided Problem 11,6

1. M(L) = (Ifs ÷ R)~(L), or Mo(L) = (jlfw ÷ R)~o(L), where If is the moment

of inertia of the flywheel.

2. [~o(O)j= [(j/Zc)sinTw ~°(L)

cosTw J [II’~+R]

1
3. ~o(L)
Mo (Iijw + R) cos Tw+ jZ~ sin Tw

~o(0~ = (Iijw + R)(j/Z~) sin Tw+ cos T~

Mo (Iijw + R) cos Tw + jZ~ sin Tw
With MATLAB it is not necessary to write expressions for the real and imag-
inky p~ts sep~ately, or otherwise simplify the equations above.

1 ~ 1 0.283
~. ~ = ~ = !(~.~)~)~ .(0.~)(~) ~ ~.
= 0.0n0 ~.i...~
2 2 386
R = 2000lb.in..s.
L 0.283
~ =40 386~11.5~
T=~=L 10 ~ = 3.194 x 10-~ seconds
~
a
ra ~(1.0) ~ /0.283~
Z¢ = ~ = ~/~11.5 ~ 10 = 144.2 lb.in..s.

5O

Mois 200lb in
4O
~o(O)......
3O

20[ t ~

0 2 4 5 10 12
Tea
858 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

.angle of (~o(L)/Mo (drops~

~ angle
o of ~o(O)/M

2 4 6 8 10 12
To)

11.5 Multiple-Power Models

Systems such as flexible fluid-carrying tubes, parallel and counter-flow heat ex-
changers and beams with lateral vibrations can be represented by one-dimension-
al distributed-parameter models with more than a single power. The structure
of such models has been given in Section 11.2.4 (pp. 820-821). The general
boun.dary-value problem is addressed here, followed by some examples. (Wave
behavior and internal excitations are discussed in the reference cited in footnote
1 on page 795.)

11.5.1 Symmetric and Anti-Symmetric Variables

and Models

A conjugate pair of symmetric and anti-symmetric variables have been employed

in modeling one-power one-dimensional models. Multiple-power models, except
in degenerate cases, employ a conjugate pair of symmetric and anti-symmetric
variables for each power. Whenthese are chosen as true power-factoring vari-
ables (efforts and flows) the sum of the products of the respective symmetric
and anti-symmetric variables is the total power. This choice is not mandatory,
however, as before: the variables can be merely proportional to the efforts and
flows or their time derivatives or integrals, as long as they satisfy the criteria of
symmetry and anti-symmetry. The symmetric variables are collected together
in a vector, Ys, and the anti-symmetric variables are collected together in a
second vector, Ya~ employing the same order with respect to the powers being
conveyed. Thus, repeating equation (11.35),

Ys ] "
y = y~ (11.108)

The example of a Bernoulli-Euler beam has been given in Guided Problem 11.4
(pp. 822, 824). The general differential equation is, repeating equation (11.36),
11.5. MULTIPLE-POWER MODELS 859

Y~ + Bu(x,

Whenthe model is locally symmetric, W= X = 0. In this case, the trans-

smission matrix can be shown to be

= LY(~) -~ ~i~h ~ co~h ~ ]’ (11.110)

The matrix elements of this partitioned matrix can be found in terms of the
matrix products ZY and YZ and their identical eigenvalues. This can be ac-
complished using Sylvester’s theorem or the Cayley-Hamilton theoremS; the
example of the lateral vibration of the slender beam is carried out below. Note
that for the one-power case, this equation reduces to the familiar form of equa-
tion (11.100) (p. 847).
Another advantage of the ordering of the variables for the symmetric case
results if you wish to examine the propagation of waves, or use wave-scattering
variables. The characteristic values of A are desired. The coefficients of the
odd-powered terms in the characteristic polynomial vanish, as can be seen from
Bocher’s formulas, t° Further, since

trace(ZY) m = trace(YZ) m m = 1, 2, 3 .... ., (11.111)

the 2n (or less) nonzero eigenvalues of A can be shown to be equal to the square
roots of the n (or less) nonzero eigenvalues of ZYor YZ. This relationship
exists regardless of whether Z and Y are square (partial degeneracies). As
result, matrix and numerical manipulations are kept to a minimum.

11.5.2 Case Study of a Degenerate System: A Counter-

flow Heat Exchanger

A totally degenerate model, for which all symmetric or all asymmetric vari-
ables have been purged, has A = X or A = W, respectively, and cannot be
sym~netrical. The simple counterflow heat exchanger shown in Fig. 11.19 can
be represented by such a degenerate two-power uniform one-dimensional model.
The degeneracy results from converting the otherwise variable fluid velocities
into assumed constant parameters, v~ and ve, leaving the temperatures 0t and
0e as the only state variables. To simplify matters it is assumed that the ther-
mal compliance of the fluids per unit length, C~ and C2, are so much larger
than the compliances of the walls that the latter can be neglected. The thermal
conductivity between the two tubes, per unit length, is G. The outer walls are

SSeefootnote5 (p. 821)for a referenceto a derivation.

9See for exampleL.A. Pipes, Matrix Methods]or Engineering,Prentice-Hall, Inc, Engle-
woodCliffs, NJ, 1963.
~Oibid.
860 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

0~(0)
,.v~" .~. ~, ,. 1

k\\\\\\\\\\\\~
b--~x
0

Figure 11.19: Counterflow heat exchanger

assumed to be perfect insulators. The model becomes

d [01] =_ vl Clvl (11.112)

~xx[ J02
[ GF
C2 v2
G/C2 + S 02
v2
"

The Cayley-Hamilton method of evaluating a function of a square matrix

will be illustrated for the transmission matrix exp(-WL). The eigenvalues
W are defined as #1 and ~. A function of an n x n matrix can be expressed
ag a polynomial in the matrix of order n - 1. Since Wis second order,

e -wL = a0I + alW. (11.113)

The problem is to find the coefficients ao and al. According to the Cayley-
Hamilton theorem, scalar equations corresponding to equation (11.113) apply,
in which an eigenvalue is substituted for W. Therefore,

e -~L =- ao + al]ll, (11.114a)

e-N2L ~--- a0 -1- alP2. (ll.l14b)

Inverting this result gives the coefficients:

(11.115)

The causal inputs are 01 (0) and O~(L). The transfer function between the latter
and the output 02(0), for example, is the lower-right element of the transmission
matrix exp(-WL), or T~_2, which

T’22 ---- a0 + al ~/~2 ~--- ~ [(u,. - w2’,)e-"’L - (m- w2~)e-"~L]

¯ (11.116)
The eigenvalues are
#1 = 11 -/2; #2 --- ll + 12, (ll.l17a)
1 [ (~2 V~) G G
11=-~ S - (11.117b)
+ C~v2 C-~,’
11.5. MULTIPLE-POWER MODELS 861

12 = i l’~
’~
G
CiC2v, v2’
(11.117c)

13 = ~ S + (ll.l17d)
+ C~v-~. + "

With ~hese substitutions the transfer function reduces to

0_~(0) -’IL
e
=- Ta2: ~[1.,. . cosh(/2L)- lu sinh(/.,L)]._ (11.118
O~(L)

Should the frequency response be desired, the substitution S ~ jw gives the

result directly. Wor~ble transfer functions for the direct evaluation of tran-
sient responses are harder to achieve, although approximations combining the
ratios of polynomials and pure delays can be made to apply at high frequen-
cies, and ratios of polynomials without pure delays at low i~equencies. Fourier
decomposition might be the best route in complicated cases.

11.5.3 Case Study of a Symmetric Model: The Bernoulli-

Euler Beam
The Bernoulli-Euler model of the slender beam with lateral vibration has
been introduced in Guided Problem 11.4 (p. 822,824). It assumes the classical
relation between the bending momentand the curvature of the centerline of a
slender beam, as presented in elementary strength-of-materials courses, assum-
ing a shear-free rotation of each differential element. It relates the gradient of
the momentto the shear force. Finally, it restricts inertial forces to the product
of the mass per unit length and the lateral acceleration. With the mass den-
sity, Young’s modulus, cross sectional area, and area momentof inertia of the
cross section being defined respectively as p, E, A and I,~, the state differential
equation becomes, ll repeating from the solution to Guided Problem 11.4,

I° °
d 0 0 -1
=- pAs "2 0 " (11.119)
~x 0
[ O~/OxJ 0 - 1/EI~ 0 O~/Ox

Note that W and X vanish, verifying the local symmetry of the beam or, as-
suming the symmetry is known, serving ~ a partial check of the model.
~ ~ A somewhatbetter model, known~ the Timoshenkobeam,results from including the
effects of rotational inertia and shear-induceddeflections. This modelis described by the
following, in whichG is the shear modulusand k2 = Ga2/[E/(1- ~2)] wherep is Poisson’s
ratio anda2 is the Timoshenko shear coefficient:

pls2+k2G~ ’
d 0 0 k2GA
__ EIm Elm
= ~ ~ o .o ?j
862 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

The four eigenvalues of A, which equal the square roots of the eigenvalues
of ZY or YZ, are
(_pAS2. ~ ~/4
(11.120)
P = \ Elm
It is convenient to label the principal eigenvalue, which is positive real if S ~ jw,
as #~. This allows the following nondimensionalization of the state differential
equations:

d [~ 0 0 -1
"i~ I~ [. (11.121)
d-~/~ =-"1 -1 0 0 ~!
GO~ ~
The transmission matrix can be found using equation (11.110), with each quad-
rant evaluated using the Cayley-Hamilton method as illustrated above. (The
reader might well check one of the quadrants.) The result is

~ / 1 ~2 kl ~3 ~4 / ~ (11.~22a)

kX ~ eoSh~l(Z - zo) + cos~l(Z - z0);

k~ ~ cosh ~(z - zo) - cos~(x c ~o);
ka ~ sinh ~(z - zo) + sin ~1 (z - zo);
k4 ~ sinh~x (z - zo) - sin ~l(Z - zo). (11.122b)
You now may substitute whatever boundary conditions are imposed, and solve
for the remaining boundary variables. For an example, see Guided Problem
11.7 below.

11.5.4 Summary

Boundary-value problems for one-dimensional distributed-parameter models

have been addressed generally. Advantages accrue from segregating the sym-
metric and asymmetric elements in the vector of state variables. If the model is
locally symmetric, two of the four quadrants of A vanish, the eigenvalues can be
found from treating a matrix of half the dimension, and the transmission matrix
is simplified. The evaluation of functions of matrices using the Cayley-Hamilton
theorem has been illustrated.
The example of a simple counterflow heat exchanger typifies a totally degen-
erate two-power model, and the example of the Bernoulli-Euler beam typifies a
2multi-powered locally symmetric model)

I’)A fuller understanding of the Bernoulli-Euler example is given in the reference cited in
footnote 1 on page 795, where a new kind of wave is shown to decay spatially while propagating
no power.
11.5. MULTIPLE-POWER MODELS 863

Guided Problem 11.7

Estimate the bending natural frequencies of a slender beam of length L that is

cantilevered at one end and free at the other end.

Suggested Steps:

Since the beam is slender, the Bernoulli-Euler model likely is acceptable

except for the higher modes that have short wavelengths.

Identify which of the boundary variables in equation (11.122a) are zero.

With this information find a 2 × 2 matrix function of #1L which has a
zero determinant.

Write the characteristic equation, and use trigonometric identities to sim-

plify.

Represent the resulting equation as one simple trigonometric function of

#IL equal to another. Then, sketch-plot the two functions and estimate
their intersections, which represent the respective modes.

5. Solve for the modal frequencies in terms of the parameters of the beam.

PROBLEMS

11.25 A slender uniform beamis cantilevered at one end and is free at the other
end, apart from the attachment of a compact mass equal to the total mass of
the beamitself.

(a) Find the first three resonant frequencies of the system in terms of the
dimensions and material properties of the beam.

(b) Compare the first resonant frequency to the frequency found from
simple analysis that ignores the dynamics of the beam altogether, instead
considering it as a pure lateral spring. Showthat the results agree in the
limit in which the mass of the beam becomes insignificant compared to
the mass of the end.

(c) Estimate the effective lumped mass and compliance of the beam using
field luInping technique valid when this mass is small comparedto the mass
at the end. Determine the corresponding natural frequency. Compare this
result with the distributed-parameter answer. Is this an improvement to
the estimate of part (b)?
864 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

11.26 Hydroelectric turbines are fed with water through long tunnels, called
"penstocks," bored through the rock and lined with reinforced concrete so as
to be quite rigid. A sudden reduction in the flow admitted to the turbine
causes a large waterhammer wave to propagate upstream and subsequently to
reverberate. In order to limit the pressures of these waves, the installation
of a relatively small flexible air hose throughout the length of the penstock is
proposed. The compliant hose is kept under enough pressure to prevent its
collapse. It contains frequent porous plugs to restrict the axial flow of air.

(a) Construct an equivalent bond graph model or lumped circuit for

element Ax of the system. Do not include nonlinear or relatively unim-
portant phenomena. Hints: Start with bond graphs or equivalent circuit
diagrams for the water-filled tunnel and the air hose as though they were
not coupled. Neglect the inertia of the air relative to the resistance to
flow from the porous plugs, which can be assumed to be continuously dis-
tributed. Then add the coupling due to the radial flexibility of the tube
walls, noting that the sum of the cross-sectional areas of the water and
the air is constant. Relate the parameters of your model to the density
and bulk modulus of the water, the mean absolute pressure and the ratio
of specific heats of the air, the cross-sectional areas of the tunnel and the
tube, and the compliance and resistance of the tube. The latter two may
be left unrelated to physical parameters for purposes of this problem.

(b) Write a differential equation model for the system. Hints: Identify the
symmetric and anti-symmetric variables, and write the partial differential
equation in the recommended form. Note which elements of the A-matrix
represent the coupling between the tunnel and the tube. Are the elements
of W and X indeed zero?

(c) Find the eigenvalues for wave propagation in terms of frequency and
the parameters of your model. Plot the resulting phase velocity and atten-
uation factors for the special case in which the compliances of the water,
the air and the wall of the tube are equal. Hints: Form the matrix product
ZYor YZ, and find its eigenvalues. The eigenvalues of interest are the.
square-roots of these. Whenthe three compliances are equal, the eigen-
values can be characterized in terms of two time constants (an I/R and
an RC time constant), allowing the definition of di~nensionless eigenvalues
and frequency. Thus a single plot for each attenuation factor and phase
velocity can be made.

(d) Discuss the effectiveness of this solution. Hint: Note the effect of the
air tube on the surge impedance of the system, particularly fdr infinite
frequency or abrupt surges, as well as the propagation characteristics.
Ought the air tube be made larger, or more flexible?
11.5. MULTIPLE-POWER MODELS 865

SOLUTION TO GUIDED PROBLEM

Guided Problem 11.7

1.-2. Cantilevered at left end (x = 0): r/(0) (O~/Ox)(O) =

l~ree at right end: M(L) = F(L)

M/121EIm 1 k’~ ka k3 k4
Therefore, F/#~EIm
= "~ k3
0 ~=0 k4 k3 ~2 ~ (ll~)(O,yO~)

k~ (1/#l)(O#/Ox ~:+L

kl ~ cosh~L + costaL,
ks ~ sinhp~L + sinp~L,
k4 ~ sinh #IL - sinp~L.
3. The determinant of this square matrix must equal zero, or k~ - k3k4 = O.
expanding: cosh2 #1L+2cosh #IL cos #lL+cos2 #~ L-sinh ~ #~L+sin~ #~L = 0.
Useof the identities coshe x - sin~ x -- 1; cos~ x + sin2 x = 1
reduces this result to 1 + coshp~LcOs#lL= O.
1
4.-5. The result above can be cast as cos#~L = coshg~L’

These functions can be plotted (a quick sketch will do) to get approximate
answers:

firsl foureigenvalues

0 2 4 6 8 #~L 10 12
(i - .5)2~r ~" ~
For i _> 4, #IL -~ (i - .5)~r, so that wi L2 V ~-
To resolve the first three eigenvalues accurately, you can use the MATLAB
function fzero. Start with the m-file
funct±ony=beam(x)
y=l+cosh(x).
*cos(x)
866 CHAPTER 11. DISTRIBUTED-PARAMETER MODELS

which you can save as beam.m.Then, the commandxzero=fzero (’ beam’, 1.6)

gives the zero whichis closest to 1.6, namely1.8751. The guess 5 for the second
zero produces 4.7124, and the guess 8 for the third zero produces 7.8548.
The respective frequencies are proportional to the squares of these numbers:
w~ =(#liL) ’2 ~/EI,~/pA.
Chapter 12

Thermodynamic Systems

Irreversibilities were introduced in Section 9.4 with the examples of heat con-
duction and friction. The energy fluxes in these cases are analogous to the
other power flows considered, in the sense that they can be represented by sim-
ple bonds with a single effort and a single flow. Mass transfer complicates the
energy flux, however; a new convection bond is introduced in Section 12.1
to address this. The bond has two efforts and a single flow. It represents the
entropy fluxes as well as the mass flows, and thereby accounts for the thermo-
dynamic availability as well as the conservation of energy. Implementation for
heat interactions and junctions for convection bonds is given in Section 12.2.
Steady-state analysis can be carried out at this point, as illustrated in Section
12.3, analogous to the steady-state analysis of simple systems in Chapter 2 and
parts of later chapters.
Thermodynamicenergy storage is a potential energy representable by a com-
pliance field. For purposes of lumped modeling, the kinetic energy associated
with coherent velocites can be represented by separate inertances. Lumpedther-
modynamiccompliance fields are presented in Section 12.4 This is followed in
Section 12.5 by a detailed consideration of practical ways to represent thermody-
namic state functions for real substances with computational models, foregoing
table look-up alternatives. Examples given include simulations of the unsteady
behavior of an air compressor and a refrigeration cycle. The chapter ends in
Section 12.6 with an introduction to systems with unsteady chemical reaction.

12.1 The Convection Bond and

Compressible Flow
The mechanical energy in the incolnpressible flows considered thus far is decou-
pled from the thermal energy, and the latter has been discounted as "dissipa-
tion." For compressible fiow there is no decoupling, since a change in tempera-
ture changes the density of the fluid and therefore its velocity, etc. As a result,
it becomes necessary to bookkeep both the mechanical and thermal forms of

867
868 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

energy. Sometimesyou might opt to keep track of thermal energy and power
even whenyou presumeincompressible flow.
A new kind of compoundbond, called the convection bond, is introduced
below.This leads to a generalization of the two-port irreversible or RS element,
and later to a special heat interaction element and generalizations of the 1 and
0-junctions. Ultimately, thermodynamicenergy is represented by a multiport
C element, and is extended to accomodatechemical reaction.

12.1.1 Flow Through a Port

Consider a micro-port of area dA through which a compressible or incompress-
ible fluid is flowing. The volumeand massflow rates, respectively, are
dQ = v dA, (12.1a)
dm= pv dA, (12.1b)
wherev is the fluid velocity and p is its mass density. The total energy flux
whichcrosses a fixed control surface that cuts this micro-port is the surn of a
"flow-work"powerand a transport of energy. The flow-workpoweris

dT~l -= Pv dA= Pdrh, (12.2)

P
in whichP is the local absolute pressure. This is the samepowerthat, a piston
with force P dA and velocity v wouldtransmit. The energy transport comprises
the transport of internal energy (per unit mass: u), kinetic energy (per unit
mass: v’2/2) and gravity energy (per unit mass: gz), assuming the absence of
capillarity and electric and magneticfield effects:
dT)t = (u + v~-/2 + gz)drh. (12.3)
Thetotal energy flux is therefore
d7) = dT) l + d7)t = + u + -~ + gz, dA. (12.4)

The total powerfor a complete flow channel or port of cross-sectional area

A is the central interest. Equation(12.4) is integrated across the channel
evaluate this power. The simplest .assumptions are that P, p, u, v and z are
constants over the cross-section. In this case, the integral becomes

7) = + u + --~ + gz ~h. (12.5)

Withone exception these assumptionsare usually acceptable, particularly if the

area of the cross-section is not large as in pipe flow, etc. The exceptionis the
velocity, v. If the meanvelocity is defined as ~, the integral can be written as

7)= + u + c~-~ + g z rh

= (P + pu + c~p~ + pgz)Q, (12.6)

12.1 THE CONVECTION BOND AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 869

Table 12.1 Effort and Flow Analogies (Extended)

generalized force generalized velocity
or effort, e or flow, 4
Fluid, incompressible:
general pu + P + apf~2 /2 + pgz Q
less thermal P’+ apf;2 /2 + pgz Q
approximate P Q
micro-bond any of above v
Fluid, compressible:
general ho + gz
approximate h rh
micro-bond either above pv
Mechanical, longitudinal:
general Fc + pAv2 /2 v =
approximate Fc v =
micro-bond a + pv2 /2 v =
Mechanical, transverse:
rotation M
translation (shear) Fs vs
micro-bond ¯ T v~.
Electric circuit: e i
Thermal, conduction:

where a depends on the shape of the velocity profile. The lower right-hand
term in parentheses appears as the effort in the expanded list of effort and flow
analogies given in Table 12.1, while Q appears as the flow; this is the usual choice
for incompressible flow if thermal energy is to be included in the bookkeeping.
Thetransportof kinetic energyis f-~pv ~ 2vdA =½v~p~2Q.
Sinceq = ~A,this
gives
f v3 dA
(12.7)
a- ~3A
A flat or slug-like profile, with v = ~, gives a = 1. A parabolic profile in a
round tube, such as occurs in fully developed laminar flow, gives a = 2. Nearly
all other cases are intermediate between these values; turbulent flow in most
channels is apt to give a value closer to 1. "
The enthalpy, h, is defined as Pip + u. The stagnation enthalpy, h0,
is h + ~aw. This is the enthalpy that the stream would have if its velocity
were slowed reversibly until the kinetic energy term (½ag’~) became negligible.
Therefore, the power can be written in the condensed form

7~ = (ho + gz)~. (12.8)

The gravity term is omitted below, since in most instances it has little or no
significance. It can be reintroduced easily.
870 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

The density of a compressible flow may change from point to point along
a streamline, particularly if it is in a channel of varying area, even if the flow
is steady. In this instance the volume fiow rate Q = ~h/p varies from point to
point also. This discourages the choice of Q as the flow or generalized velocity,
unlike with assumed incompressible flow. The mass flow rate, rh, on the other
hand, is constant along a channel if the flow is steady. Thus, rh is chosen as
the flow variable when compressibility is assumed. It also can be used when the
flow is considered incompressible, if you so prefer.
Equation (12.7) indicates that, neglecting gravity effects, the proper effort
or generalized force to be paired with ~h is the stagnation enthalpy, ho, giving

ho

These effort and flow variables are added to Table 12.1. Several authors have
used this representation, but it contains a very significant ambiguity that de-
mands resolutfon. An explanation follows.

12.1.2 The Convection Bond

The conjugate pairs of effort and flow M and ~, F and ~, P and Q, and e
and i describe work interactions. The conjugate pair 0 and ) describes a heat
interaction. The problem with the pair h0 and ~n is that it describes a sum of
a work interaction and a heat interaction, with unspecified proportions. Heat
~
and work are not universally convertable. The meaning thus is non-unique.
Complete description of the interaction requires two variables in place of the
single h0, assuming that no electrical, magnetic, capillary, chemical or other
special effects exist. Recall the state postulate in thermodynamics: the state
of a pure substance in the absence of these special effects is specified uniquely
by two independent intensive variables. The most commonlyused pair is tem-
perature and pressure, although these are not independent in the two-phase
liquid-vapor region. Other commonlyused variables include density (or specific
volume), quality (in the liquid-vapor two-phase region), enthalpy, entropy
the Gibbs function. Discussion of the Gibbs function is deferred to Sections
12.4 and 12.6, where it will be used in connection with thermal and chemical
energies. The available enthalpy, h~, and the unavailable enthalpy, h~,
are a conceptually satisfying pair of efforts or generalized forces, but they are
~
not so computationally convenient and are not emphasized.
1 The same is true when the internal energy u is allowed to appear in the effort for incom-
pressible flow, as it does in one row of Table 12.1. Recall, however, that in past chapters u
was dropped with the explanation that it is decoupled from the work, and conversion from
work to heat was labeled as "dissipation."
2 Availability is defined as the useful work potential of the fluid, which is the work delivered
when the fluid undergoes a reversible process from its current state to the state (temperature
and pressure, for example) of the environment. The available enthalpy, more conventionally
known as the stream availability, is shown in elementary thermodynamics textbooks to be

ha = (ho - h~) - O’(s - s*),

12.1 THE CONVECTION BOND AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 871

The choice of which pair of intensive variables to use in describing the state
of a pure fluid substance is ultimately a practical matter which depends on com-
putational requirements and the availability of state data. For most purposes
the most convenient pair is Po, ho. The fact that a convection bond has two
independent variables to describe the effort while a single variable describes the
flow is indicated by adding a dashed line on the effort side of the bond:

P0, ho

Note that P0 is not directly an effort, because the product P0rh is not an energy
flux. a Rather, h0 is the proper effort, and the value of P0 qualifies the character
of this effort. Knowledgeof P0 and h0 is sufficient to define other stagnation
state properties, including density. Whencombined with the mass flow rate (rh)
they are sufficient also to define the velocity and all the actual (non-stagnation)
state properties.
The choice of Po and ho to describe the effort is based partly on considera-
tions of causality, which become critical when unsteady behavior (Sections 12.4
and 12.5) is addressed. One of these, together with rh, must form a bilateral
causal pair. The enthalpy h0 is physically causal only in the actual direction
of the flow, unlike the usual effort variables on simple bonds. It could be said
that the causality of enthalpy moves with the flow; it reverses wheneverthe flow
reverses. The pressure P0, fortunately, suffers no such limitati~)n. Therefore,
P0 and the mass flow rh form the needed bilateral causal pair, like the P0 and
volume flow Q of a bond for incompressible flow,; the traditional causal stroke
is used to indicate the causalities of P0 and rh only. For example, the causal
stroke in the example
Po, h0

indicates that rh is specified from the left and P0 is specified from the right. No
indication of the causality of h0 is indicated or needed.
The convection bond is compatible with the previously existing stable of
bond graph elements, although certain logical generalizations are needed. In
particular, two new primitive elements are necessary. Certain additional com-
binations of primitive elements also will be defined as new macro-elements, for
purposes of computational convenience. The result will be a comprehensive al-
though simple scheme for representing lumped models of thermofiuid and hybrid
systems.

12.1.3 The RS Element for Fluid Flow

The RS element is used in Section 9.4 to represent a thermal resistance and
a mechanical resistance with thermal power included. Its application is now
where the asterisk (.) indicates the state of the environment. The product hath is the theoret-
ical maximumrate of work the flow could produce. The balance of the enthalpy, ho - ha, is the
unavailable enthalpy, hu. The energy flux hurh represents only part of a heat interaction.
3When it is desired to break h0 into two actual components or efforts, the Gibbs function,
g, and the product Os appear to be the best choice, as discussed in Section 12.6.
872 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

extended to the flow of a fluid through a valve, or any other device, that drops
its pressure without any heat interaction or storage of energy:

/~01, h0~_ RS P02, ho

The stagnation enthalpy and the total power remain constant, but the total
pressure drops, i.e. if rh > 0, then P01 > P02. The unavailable enthalpy increases
at the expense of the available enthalpy. Further, the rate of entropy generation,
which is the difference between the entropy effiux and the entropy influx, must
be positive:
:~g = (s2 - sl)rh > (12.9)
The fundamental property relation

0 ds = dh - dP/p (12.10)

often is helpful in computing an entropy change.

It is awkwardto carry the subscript 0 wherever it applies, so this subscript
is dropped below, and stagnation properties are assumed.
The actual calculations are made the same way you treated flow through a
valve in your study of thermodynamics. Usually, the enthalpy and the pressures
are known, so all other properties can be computed. The flow rh would have to be
computed from knowledge of the mechanics of the flow, expressible functionally
as
rh = fn(P,,P2,hl). (12.11)

Finding such functions in general is beyond the scope of this text, but two
cases are used repeatedly. The first is incompressible inviscid flow through an
idealized orifice, for which Bernoulli’s equation model gives
~h = dm x/2p(P1 - P~), (12.12)

where Amis the effective minimumarea of the orifice or the vena contracta. The
second is compressible flow of an ideal and inviscid gas with constant specific
heats through a converging orifice, which is given in Guided Problem 1.1 below.
Sometimes the mass flow rate, the upstream enthalpy and one of the two
pressures are specified and the other pressure is to be found. This also is readily
accomphshedin most cases once the details of equation (12.11) are established.

12.1.4 Summary
The state of a pure substance is specified by any two independent intensive
variables. Specification of the state of a flowing fluid requires a third variable
to describe the rate of flow. The mass flow rate is chosen for this third variable,
since in steady flow it is invariant along a channel of non-uniform area. The
two intensive variables describe the effort associated with the flow. For most
purposes the stagnation enthalpy and the stagnation pressure are chosen..The
stagnation enthalpy is the true effort; its product with the mass flow rate gives
12.1 THE CONVECTION BOND AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 873

the overall energy flux (neglecting any gravity effects). The pressure serves not
only to properly qualify this effort, but also acts as the causal effort variable. A
convection bond is distinguished from a simple bond by the addition of a dashed
line to its effort side.
Flow through a restriction or throttle drops the stagnation pressure and gen-
erates entropy but leaves the stagnation enthalpy unchanged. This irreversible
process is represented by a convection-bond adaptation of the RS element.

Guided Problem 12.1

In this problem you will compare the flows of an inviscid incompressible fluid
(as given by equation (12.12)) and an inviscid compressible ideal gas through
the same simple, smoothly convergent nozzle. The latter is given in textbooks
on compressible flow as

[A,nP1/k 2 ]{k+l)/(k-1) P.2

if ~ S r,
---~ V [~--~J ’

where P1 and 01 refer to the upstream stagnation state, R is the gas constant
and k is the ratio of spedfic heats, cp/cv, whi& is ~sumedconstant. P2 refers
to the absolute static pressure at the throat, which equals the downstreamstag-
nation pressure since the walls expand abruptly (without "pressure recovery")
downstream. The dimensionless mass flow rate, as determined by the above
equation, is plotted as a function of P2/P~ in Fig. 12.1 for air (k = 1.4). For
pressure ratios below the indicated critical ratio, the flow is independent of the
downstre~ pressure, and is said to be choked.

(a) Place equation (12.12) %r incompressible flow into the same %rm,
plot the result for air directly onto the graph in Fig. 12.1%r comparison.
Observe the nature of the error.

(b) Expand the compressible-flow function for small (first-order) differ-

ences in the pressure drop, &P = ~ - P~, and show that this approxima-
tion agrees with equation (12.12).

{c) Find the rate of entropy generation for the ideM g~.

(d) (Optional.) Find the reduction in the available enthalpy across

nozzle, ha~ - ha2. Assume the temperature of the environment is the
same as 01, and the pressure of the environment is the same as P2.
874 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

1.0
rh for ideal gas (k= 1.4)
A,~P~/ , ~-~
0.5

0.5 p2/p I 1.0

0
0

Figure 12.1: Inviscid compressible flow through a nozzle

Suggested Steps:

1. Factor out from equation (12.12) the term A,~P1/x/-~, noting that P1 =
pRO1. The result is a simple function of P’2/P1. Roughly plot this into
Fig. 12.1 to compare this relation for incompresible flow to that for com-
pressible flow.

2. Replace P2 in the equation given for compressible flow by P~ - Ap. Get

each of the pressure-ratio terms under the square root into the form (1
aAP)~, which for small Ap can be approximated as 1 - xaAP. Simplify
and compare, again using P = pRO if necessary.

3. To find the rate of entropy generation, start by finding 02, knowing that
h = h(O) for an ideal gas, and hi = h2 for a steady-flow nozzle. Then
employ equation (12.10), noting also the ideal gas law.

4. Use footnote 2 and the results above to find the reduction in the available
enthalpy.

PROBLEMS

12.1 Consider incompressible flow in a long uniform tube of area A in which

the velocity profile can be approximated as parabolic.

(a) Verify that the factor a in Table 12.1, as computed using equation
(12.7), equals

(b) The inertance of the fluid per unit length, relative to the volumeflow,
can be written as 7p/A. The factor 7 is not in general equal to a, even
though both factors are based on the same profile. Develop a formula for
7 in terms of the velocity profile v(r), where r is radius, and show that
the parabolic case "r -- 4/3.
12.1 THE CONVECTION BOND AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 875

12.2 Air flows at 100 psig through a channel with a 10-foot change in elevation
at velocities (i) 10 ft/s and (ii) 1000 ft/s and at temperatures of (a) 70°F
(b) 470°F. Compare the magnitudes of the four terms that contribute to the
effort in equation (12.6). Commenton the significance of uncertainty regarding
the factor a. (You will need some data on the thermodynamic state. It is
important that you evaluate the efforts relative to some reasonable reference
environmental state, which can be taken as 0 psig and 70°F.)

SOLUTION TO GUIDED PROBLEM

Guided Problem 12.1

1. incompressible approximation:

= = =
As shownin the plot below, this approximationis fairly accurate for (P21P~)
0.9, but increasingly overestimates the flow for smaller pressure ratios.

1.0f
~h [ideal gas (k=1.4)".~",~.
incompressible
/ approximation

°; °.5 2,p,
2. For smallAP/P~, ~ = 1- ~] =1
k P~

= 1-~ =1 k Pa
P~I

Therefore, A~P~ _
__~ [(1 ~] - k ~)]
2

This approximationis idengical ~o the incompressible result of step 1.

a. Since h~ = h~ and h = h(O), 0~ = 01 (constan~ ~em~erature).
ds_dhdP dP (P~)
0 p8 =O-R~;integrated, thisgives~2=s~+Rln
Finally, ~g = ~(se - s~) = ~Rln

4. h~ = h~ - h* -~(s~ - s*) = -O~(s~ -

h~ = h2 - h * -8~(s~ - s*) = -~(s2 -
876 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

P,
of
note:
04
z h P, h
~e
P
e hz ~ HS
P, h
--~ ~
m m m m
(a) special reversible element (b) general irreversible element

RS
o

P~,hz
--~
m
RS~P2
m
h~
HS P2, h2
m
~
(c) addedirreversibilities fromfluid friction andheai conduction

Figure 12.2: Heat interaction elements

Therefore, h~ - h~ = 01(s~ - sl) =R01In ~-~

12.2 Heat Interaction and Junctions

The RS element applied to the flow of a fluid has a pressure drop but no heat
transfer. Anotherelement with two fluid ports is nowintroduced that has just
the inverse, heat transfer (through a third port) but no pressure drop. It can
used to represent an ideal heat exchanger. There are two versions: a special
case that is reversible, and a general case that is not. In the secondcase the
irreversibility is kept to a theoretical minimumconsistent with the boundary
conditions.
The 0 and 1-junctions are used with convection bonds in Mmostthe same
way as they are used with simple bonds. The presence of two effort variables
for a convection bond introduces complications, however. The merging of two
fluid streams, for example,is in general an irreversible process, and therefore
cannot be represented by a 0-junction alone.

12.2.1 The Reversible Heat Interaction Element

This element, abbreviated as the H element, is shownin Fig. 12.2 part (a).
There are convectionbonds for the inlet and outlet flows and a simple bondfor
the heat conductedto or fromthe fluid. Reversibility requires, in addition to the
absenceof friction, that heat is transferred across no morethan an infinitesimal
temperature difference. Thus this element is very special: the temperatures
for the three bonds must be virtually the same. There are two ways this can
occur. In the first case, only an infinitesimal amountof heat is transferred. This
12.2. HEAT INTERACTION AND JUNCTIONS 877

describes a micro-element: an infinite number of such elements would be needed

to represent a significant heat interaction. In the second case, the entering and
leaving fluids are liquid-vapor mixtures, and since the pressure doesn’t change
the two fluid temperatures would be the same even if a rather large quantity of
heat is transferred. It is still necessary, however, for the temperature at the heat
conduction port or bond to be no more than infinitesimally different from the
fluid temperature. The element therefore implies infinite thermal conductivity
for the heat conduction path.
For the first case in which only an infinitesimal amountif heat is transferred,
the entropy flux becomes infinitesimal, i.e. ~ -+ d~, ~2-~ ~ d~, h.~-hl ~ dh,
etc. The conservation of energy requires

rh dh = O d~. (12.13)

Reversibility requires that the change of entropy flux of the fluid, m ds, equals
the entropy flux of the heat transfer:

/ads =d~. (12.14)

Combining these relations gives

dh=Ods. (12.15)

The thermodynamic identity

dh = dP/p + ~ ds, (12.16)

when compared to equation (12.15), gives the important result

dP = 0, (12.17)

proving that the input and output pressures are identical.

12.2.2 The General Heat Interaction Element

An ideal heat exchanger usually has a varying temperature along its length,
and can be represented by this more general element, abbreviated as the HS
element and shown in Fig. 12.2 part (b). This element is irreversible, since
the two fluid boundary temperatures are unequal. The conduction-bond tem-
perature, labeled 0out, is defined to equal whichever of ~ or t?2 represents the
temperature of the downstream or outlet flow. (The flpw could move in either
direction.) Additional irreversibilities can be added in the form of RS elements.
In Fig. 12.2 part (c), the element RSI on one of the fluid ports represents fluid
friction with its pressure drop, and the element RSo on the heat conduction
port represents resistance to conduction with its temperature drop.
The HS element can be understood better by decomposing it into an infi-
nite cascade of infinitesimal H elements with coupled RS elements, as shown in
Fig. 12.3. The first conclusion 4 is that the stagnation pressure Pin equals the
878 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

m m

Figure 12.3: Decomposition of an HS element into infinitesimal H and RS

elements

stagnation pressure Pout, since for each H element, dP = 0. The second con-
clusion is that the irreversibility and its associated entropy generation results
from the assumption of a single bond with a single temperature for the heat
interaction with the environment. Since this temperature is at one end of the
interval between 0in and t?out, the heat fluxes through the various RS elements
and through any added external RS element are all in the stone direction, in or
out.
Assuming the fluid is not in the two-phase region, only the specific heat of
the fluid, cp, is needed to represent the H and HS elements computationally.

4The sophisticated reader familiar with the classical Rayleigh line solution mayinitially
wince at this result. The Rayleigh line assumes zero wall shear, for which heat transfer indeed
forces both the static and stagnation pressures to change along the flow path whenever the
Mach number is .significantly different from zero. The same result would follow from the
present analysis, moreover, if the static temperature were used in place of the stagnation
temperature in the equations for energy balance and reversibility. Proper use of an entropy
balance and proper use of momentumbalance are redundant (see Guided Problem 12.2).
Thus, momentumbalances are not needed in energy-based modeling, although sometimes
they are convenient, particularly for finding the forces of constraint.
The question thus becomeswhether the static or the stagnation temperature should be used
for the modelof a reversible heat exchanger. The author considers the stagnation temperature
to be far more useful, since the walls of a real adiabatic channel are at that temperature. The
Rayleigh model corresponds, as it were, to walls which moveat the same velocity as the bulk
fluid. With stationary walls, irreversibility demandsthat wall shear result from heat transfer.
In cooling, for example, the molecules that give up part of their kinetic energy to the walls
also impart an impulse force to them.
A real heat exchanger has additional wall shear associated with the friction irreversibility.
This effect can be represented by placing an RS element in series with the H or HSelement,
as shown above. Conventional analysis of a channel with heating or cooling and wall shear
uses a friction factor for the latter, resulting in a wall shear that is essentially independent
of the heat transfer but a pressure drop that is not independent. The model recommended
here is rather the reverse: in the simplest case, the pressure drop is independent of the heat
transfer but the wall shear is not. The pressure rise in cooling indicated by the Rayleigh line
never even becomesa theoretical possibility, and the analyst is not mislead.
12.2. HEAT INTERACTION AND JUNCTIONS 879

Since the total pressure is constant,

dh = CpdO. (12.18)

Thusif Cp is assumedto be constant over the temperature range 01 to 02, where

the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the inlet and outlet, respectively,

h2 -- hi -=Cp(02-- (12.19)

The conservation of energy requires

(h2 - hl)~t -- ~82. (12.20)

In practice one usually knowshi, P and rh and either ~ or 382. (Other cases
are discussed later.) If ~0e is known,equation (12.20) is the only computation
necessary. If ~ is known,you can combineequations (12.19) and (12.20)
solve for 02:
8e - ¯ (12.21)
1-
Therefore,
he = hi + (~/~)81 (12.22)
1 - ~/Cpfn"
It is necessaryin this case to find 81, whichis a state function of hi and P.
Therate of entropy generation, definedas ~g, ma~vbe of interest, particularly
if you wishto understandthe irreversibility or loss of availability. Thebalance
of entropy fluxes is
s2~ = s~ + ~ + ~. (12.23)
Solving the aboverelations for ~ gives

~=Cp~ ~-l-ln (12.24)

= ~ E-1 .

12.2.3 The HRS Macro Element

The RS element in a modelof a real heat exchanger likely generates more en-
tropy than the HS element with its ~g from equation (12.24). The combination
of the HSelement with a conductionRS elementis so nearly universal that it is
practical to represent it with a macroelement, called here the HRSelement.
As shownin Fig. 12.4, the HRSelement allows the boundary temperature for
the heat conduction, 8c, to be muchdifferent from either 81 or 8.~. Further,
8¢ can be taken as an assumedor independent variable, in place of ~ or the
product 82~ as assumed above. The parameters now are Cp and the thermal
conductance of the RS element, which is defined as H. The conservation of
energygives the results
h~. = h~ + 8c~c/¢n, (12.25)
880 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

m m m m

Figure 12.4: The HRSmacro element

1 - O1/Oc
~c = 1/H + 1/cpfa’ (12.26)

~g ~- Cp~Z ~2 -- 1 - In (12.27)
[01 (0~)] +H (0~" =-0"9)2
The first term in the equation for the entropy generation, ~e, comesdirectly
from equation (12.24) for the HS componentwithin the HRSelement, and the
second term, for the RS component, comes from equation (9.34) (p. 719).
before, it is necessary to use property data to find 0~ and 0~, from knowledgeof
the enthalpies and the pressure, before equation (12.27) can be evaluated. Also
as before, the total pressures at the inlet and outlet are equal, i.e. P2= P1.
EXAMPLE12.1
A flow of 2801bm/secof exhaust gas from a gas turbine enters a water boiler
at 800T. Saturated liquid water (already preheated) enters at a pressure
500 psia and temperature of 467T. Subsequent pressure drops can be ne-
glected. If the effective integrated heat transfer coefficient is 300Btu/s.T(in-
dependent of the flow rate), at what rate should the water be pumpedin so
it leaves as saturated vapor? The specific heat of the gas is 0.280Btu/lbmR,
and the enthalpy of vaporization of the water is 756Btu/lbm.Organize your
work with a bondgraph. Also, find the rate of entropy generation.
Solution: Youcan start by drawing a bond graph comprising an HS ele-
ment, an RS element, an H element ~d bonds, and labelling the input and
output variables. Then, as shownon the right below, combine the HS and
RS elements to form an HRSelement:

Pg, hg~ Pg,

gas: ~ ~ ~ "7-HS~ "-:" -- -r--
rhg
0~l,~ mg
RS

water:-- Pw,
~ --hw~ P~., hw2
.--- n ---:- -- -7--
/n w m
w
12.2. HEAT INTERACTION AND JUNCTIONS 881

The conduction entropy flux at the water temperature can be found using
equation (12.26):

:~c= 1 -(l/H)
091/0u,
= 1 - (800+ 460)/(467
+ 460) + (1/0.260 x 280) = 21.04
Btu/R
s
(1/cpgmg) (1/300)
The heat transfer nowcan be found, followed by the flow of the water and
the temperatureof the effiux gas:

Q = 0w~c= (467 + 460)21.04 : 19,510 Btu/s

~hu, = lbm/sec
;~ = 25.8
O~e = 0~ - Q/cv~m~ = 800 - 19150/0.260(280) = 532°F
Finally, you can find ~,:
~
(0~ - 0~)

= 0.260(280) L~460
k~ 460]J
~
(532 - 467)
+ 300 (532 + 460)(467 + 460)

= 3.~0 Btu/R s

12.2.4 The 0-Junction for Convection Bonds

This junction is defined such that all bonds joined to it represent a common
thermodynamicstate; both the enthalpy and the pressure are common.As with
simple-bonded0-junctions, energy is neither dissipated nor stored; the powers
on the respective bonds, with signs indicated by the power-conventionhalf-
arrows, sumto zero. A mixture of simple and convection bonds is not allowed
for any 0-junction.
The junction represents the mergingand/or dividing of separate convection
channels. The dividing of a flow from one into two or more channels is the sim-
plest case, since all the flows necessarily have a commonpressure and enthalpy.
As sho~vnin Fig. 12.5, this is the samestructure as a junction for an incom-
pressible flow represented by simple bondsand a 0-junction. (In both cases the
dynamicpressures for the separate channels can be different, requiring special
treatment; these differences are neglected here.)

12.2.5 Merging Streams: the 0S Junction

The merging of two or more streams is inherently more complicated. In gen-
eral, the merging streams will have the same pressure (again neglecting any
882 CHAPTER 12. THERMOD}WAMIC SYSTEMS

Figure 12.5: Use of a 0-junction to represent bifurcating flows

Figure 12.6: Mergingflows with irreversibility

differences in the dynamic pressure or head), but they will not have the same
enthalpy or temperature. Consequently, a zero-junction alone cannot represent
this merging except for the very special case in which the’ streams happen to
have a commonstate. The merging of two streams at different temperatures is
irreversible. Mixing with heat transfer takes place, and entropy is generated.
A bond graph can represent the merger of two streams by separating the
heat transfer operation from the mixing operation. As shown in Fig. 12.6 part
(a), an HS element is used to equalize the two temperatures which, since the
two pressures are constrained to be equal, equalizes the two states. (Whentwo
streams at different pressures are to merge, at least one of them must first pass
through a resistance to equalize their pressures; for incompressible flow this
resistance is a 1-junction with a shunt R element, and for compressible flow it
is an RS element.) The 0-junction then can be used to represent the physical
mixing. If you don’t know in which directions the three flows may be heading,
three HS elements can insure proper accounting of the irreversiblility, as shown
in part (b). The HS element(s) attached between outflow bonds simply have
5no effect, since the associated temperature differences are zero.
The combination shown in-Fig. 12.6 part (b) occurs so frequently that the
macro 0S junction is created to represent it. The 0S junction, shown in part
(c), applies for any number of joined bonds and channels. This, the second
the macro elements, has the added advantage of simplifying computation. The

5This is one reason for defining the effort on the thermal conductionbondof HSelements
as the temperatureof the outlet fluid stream.
12.2. HEAT INTERACTION AND JUNCTIONS 883

P__.£~,m_hl~,~
l~P2’hz’ s P~,h, s~_v_~..1S~P~’h" s2
~
m m m m

(a) reversible junction (b) irreversible junction

Figure 12.7: Reversible and irreversible 1-junctions

conservation of energy gives

hour-- ~ rhinhin (12.28)

The entropy generation can be deduced from the HS elements of the more
primitive graph. Equation (12.26) applies for each HS element therein, if the
subscripts are adjusted accordingly.

12.2.6 The 1-Junction and 1S-Junction with Convection

1-junctions are defined to force a commonflow on all attached bonds. Since
the convection bond has only a single flow variable, unlike its effort variables,
the problem experienced with the 0-junction does not exist. Two types of 1-
junctions are useful, nevertheless. The basic 1-junction is reversible; the en-
tropies of the convection bonds are equal. The 1S-junction is irreversible; the
pressures on the convection bonds are defined as being equal. In both cases,
shown in Fig. 12.7, simple bonds as well as convection bonds can be joined to
the junction. This is the essential way in which you tie together parts of systems
represented by simple bonds with other parts represented by convection bonds.
The vertical bonds in the examples of Fig. 12.7 are simple bonds; they have
no enthalpy or pressure or thermodynamic state associated with it, but rather
scalar potentials equal in magnitude to the enthalpy difference ~ hi - h2.
An ideal (lossless, reversible) motor or turbine operating.with a compressible
flow can be represented by a combination of the 1-junction and a simple-bonded
ideal machine, as shown in Fig: 12.8 part (a). Losses are added in the bond
graphs of parts (b) and (c). In part (b), the losses are represented in a summary
fashion; in part (c), losses are detailed according to their physical origin. The
power convention arrows shown give positive moduli for the various elements
when the machine is acting as a turbine. The arrows can be left as is when the
machine acts as a compressor, although you probably would rather retain postive
moduli by inverting the arrows on certain bonds. In both cases, the IDEAL
MACHINE element could be replaced by a simple transformer if overall behavior
6Thescalar potential on the simplebondcan also be said to equal the difference of the
available enthalpies, h~l - ha2. This followsfromthe inherent reversibility of the junction,
whichrequires the unavailableenthalpies, hul and hu2, to be equal.
884 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

IDEAL IDEAL
MACHINE MACHINE

~P~’h~ ! ~--.~P2’
h2 0
m m

(a) ideal
/\
h,.._...~_,~.
m m m
s~
(b) with knownadiabatic efficiency

1 ~ RSf,.
(c) withirreversibilities

IDEAL
MACHINE

PI,hl~..
O__~ 1 =--~--~RSI~-~’-OS-=--~--~HS P2 h2
~

(d) unspecified P~, ~ PUMP

or P~, h~
-- --~ TURBINE ~

Figure 12.8: Pumpor turbine for compressible flow

12.2. HEAT INTERACTION AND JUNCTIONS 885

resembles that of a positive-displacement machine; the effects of mechanical and

fluid friction and fluid leakage are represented elsewhere.
Were the model of part (b) 100%efficient, the transformer modulus T would
be unity and the elements 1S and Ts would be removed. The state of the fluid
leaving the compressor, particularly its enthalpy he --- h2, would be determined
by the requirement that its entropy equal sl and its pressure equal P2. The
product of the enthalpy drop (for a turbine) and the mass flow would equal
the output mechanical power. If the IDEALMACHINE is represented by a
transformer of modulus Tin, the torque on the shaft would be the product of the
enthalpy drop and Tin, and the speed of the shaft would equal rh/T,~. Thus, the
modulus Tm would be the ratio Dive, where D is the volumetric displacement
per radian of shaft rotation and v~ is the specific volume of the fluid entering
the machine.
An actual machine will suffer mechanical losses due to mechanical friction,
fluid losses due to fluid friction (i.e. pressure drops through orifices, etc.) and
fluid losses due to internal leakage. Heat interactions with the surroundings
also can produce irreversibilities, but the present discussion assumes that these
are being treated separately, which is relatively easy to do. Instead, the overall
machine is treated as being adiabatic. In the summary model of part (b), the
considered overall losses are described conventionally by the adiabatic effi-
ciency of th~ machine, written here as *~ad. This efficiency is the ratio of the
output power to the input power; for the turbine, this means the ratio of the
actual turbine work to the isentropic work, or

hi - h2
?~ad-- hl - hc (12.29)

The irreversibility occurs exclusively within the IS element. Following the efforts
from the 1-junction through the two transformers to the IS-junction, you can
see that
1
T-~s(h~ - hc) = h2 - hc = (-h~ - h2) + (h~ - (12.30)

Substitution of equation (12.29) gives the result

(12.31)
~ = 1 + r~aa.
An additional condition must be specified in order to determine the individ-
ual values of T and Ts. This condition depends on the nature of the machine.
A postive-displacement-like motor can be described partly by its volumetric
ettlciency, r~v, that is defined as the ratio of the actual shaft speed to the speed
it would have if there were no fluid leakage or slippage. In this case the effort
and flow on the bond between the 0-junction and the transformer Tm equal
(h~ - h,.)/~v and rh, rh , respectively. Thus~(T - 1ITs) = rl~, and

1
T=fl-2-~ ; T~ - (12.32)
~,~d r~v(1/r~d - 1)
886 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

The model shownin part (c) of Fig. 12.8 details the causes of lossesin a tur-
bine, allowing the adiabatic efficiency to vary depending on the state. Leakage
passes through the element RSi. Were the machine a pump or compressor, the
0S element would be placed on the inlet side rather than the outlet; you might
also prefer to reverse some of the power convention half-arrows. For a positive-
displacement machine, the simple-bonded ideal machine would be a transformer
with constant modulus. The element RS~n represents mechanical friction, and
the element RSI represents frictional losses in the fluid. Note that the heat
generated by friction is carried off in the fluid. For most dynamic machines the
7siinple-bonded ideal machine does not resemble a fixed-modulus transformer,
but nevertheless can be defined by.a transformer hedvily modulated by two
independent variables: either Mor ¢ and either hi - h2 or rh.
In some cases it may be better to employ overall eInpiricM relations regarding
the behavior of a fluid machine, and leave the bond graph model in the general
form of part (d) of the figure. Most of these matters are beyond the scope
this text. Nevertheless, the model of part (b) is used in the example below,
and the model of part (c) is given within a case study in Section 12.3. Guided
Problem 12.2 below serves in part as preparation for the case study.
EXAMPLE 12.2
A piston compressor has a volumetric displacement D per radian, and is
knownto give an adiabatic efficiency of 80% and a volumetric efficiency of
95%. Drawa bond graph of the system, give the moduli of its transformers,
and find an expression for the output enthalpy in terms of variables that
could be found from knowledge of the state of the inlet fluid and the outlet
pressure.
Solution: The bond graph of Fig. 12.8 applies, except that the power flows
in the opposite direction through four of the bonds, because that graph deals
with a turbine instead of a compressor. The power direction arrows on these
bonds have been reversed in order to keep their moduli positive:

G(h~-h~)l~/G
0
/\
r rs

7The simple-bonded ideal dynamicmachine maybe represented better by a modulated

gyrator. The element RS~is not needed. Details for ]’2ulerian turbomachineswith incom-
pressible flow have been given by H.M.Paynter, "The Dynamicsand Contro! of Eu|erian
Turbomachines,"d. DynamicSystems, Measurementand Control, ASMETrans., v. 94 n. 3
pp. 198-205,1972.
12.2. HEAT INTERACTION AND JUNCTIONS 887

The flow on the bond below the ideal positive displacementtransformer T,~
wouldbe #t if the volumetric efficiency were 100%.The flow actually is
larger, specifically rh/~?v, since the shaft has to rotate faster to supply the
leakage as well as the through-flow.Since the conservationof energyrequires
the total mechanicalpowerto equal the total changein fluid energy increase
per unit time, the effort on this bond is ~,(h2 - hi). The modulusof
is the ideal ratio of the mass flow pumpedto the shaft speed; this equals
the volumetric displacementper radian, as in an incompressible-flow pump,
times the density of the flow that enters the compressor,whichis l/v1.
Thedefinition of the adiabatic efficiency (the inverse of equation(12.29)),

(the inverse of that given in equation (12.29)) gives the workingformula

h2 - hC~ad (~ld--1) hl’

where hi is given and hc is found from its knowentropy Sc = sl and known

pressure Pc = P2. Further, the effort side of the transformers T and Ts give

T- ~,,(h2 - h~) _ ~
he - hi ~ad’

Ts- ~(h~ - h~) _(h2 - ~(h~ - hl) _

h~ - hc h~) - (he -h~) --1----2~d"
The relations for the flow sides of the transformers confirm these results.
As a partial check, note that whenboth efficiencies equal unity, T -~ 1 and
Ts ~ ec. This wouldeliminate the path for Ts, which it should.

12.2.7 Summary
Heat conduction has been represented previously by the simple-bonded RS el-
ement. A meansalso is needed to transfer heat betweena flowing fluid and a
solid. This transfer is represented by the H, HS and HRSelements. All three
have two convection bonds, representing the inlet and outlet flows, and one
conduction bond. The H element is reversible; all three bonds have the same
temperature, whichimplies either that the heat is transferred at an infinitesimal
rate or that the fluid enters and leaves in the two-phaseregion. The irreversible
HSelement allows the fluid to enter and exit at different temperatures, but like
the H element assigns the temperatureof the fluid efflux port to the conduction
port also. Additional thermal resistance to heat conduction can be represented
by bonding a conduction RS element to the conduction port. The HRSmacro
element represents this combination.
Causal strokes can be added to the bonds, consistent with the constraints,
and the causal output variables computedas functions of the causal input vari-
888 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

z~choked nozzle, ~
,
P,,O, ~.~ ~.~area A motor,
--~ ’~J displacement D
th mixing ] m~
I 2 +m
chamber

Figure 12.9: The configuration of GuidedProblem12.3

ables and the parameters of the element. The rate of entropy generation, which
never is negative, also can be computedas a measureof the irreversibility.
1-junctions, in which all bonds have a commonflow, can be used to join
systems described using simple bonds with systems described using convection
bonds. This allows the 1-junction to represent the reversible heart of a fluid
machine. The net power flow on a single simple mechanical bond of the 1-
junction equals the net power flow on its convection bonds. A transformer
on this simple bond represents the ratio of the mass flow and the mechanical
generalized velocity. Friction and leakage losses can be addedwith proper use
of R, RS, HS and additional junction elements. Irreversibilities also can be
represented by use of the 1S-junction, which has a pair of convection bonds
with equal pressures rather than equal entropies.
0-junctions require identical efforts on all their bonds, and therefore cannot
be used with mixed simple and convection bonds, since convection bonds have
two effort variables rather than one. A convection0-junction can directly rep-
resent a. flow which is being divided betweentwo or more output channels. The
mergingof two streams, however,is an irreversible process. It can be ~nodeled
by adding HS bonds to a convection 0-junction, or by employing the macro
equivalent 0S junction.

Guided Problem 12.2

A knownmass flow rhl of air at a knowntemperature 01 is augmented in a
mixing chamberby a mass flow of air rh~, as shownin Fig. 12.9. This second
mass flow first passes through a simple nozzle of throat area A with known
upstream temperature 02 and a knownpressure P2, which is high enoughrelative
to P1 to produce choked flow. The flow leaving the mixing chamber passes
through a positive displacement motor with knownvolumetric displacement per
radian, D, relative to its inlet.’ Thetorque on the shaft, M, is known.Thexnotor
can be assumedto behave isentropically, and has a knownexhaust pressure, Pe
(which should be atmospheric pressure). The air maybe approximated as
ideal gas with invariant specific heats.
Youare asked to find relations for the pressure P1, massflow ~h2, shaft speed
~ and outlet temperature, 0e.
12.2. HEAT INTERACTION AND JUNCTIONS 889

Suggested Steps:

1. Represent the system model with a bond graph and label all the perti-
nent variables on the bonds~ recognizing when different bonds have the
same generalized efforts or flows. Place causal strokes on all bonds on the
graph, consistent with the given information. This graph should guide
you through the following steps.

2. Find the transformer modulus for the motor in terms of known quantities
except for an unknown temperature and pressure.

3. Use the result of step 2 to relate the ratio of the inlet and outlet temper-
atures of the motor to the known shaft moment, M.

4. The ratio of the inlet to outlet temperatures of the motor also is related to
the knownratio of inlet to outlet pressures, since the machine is assumed
to be isentropic. Determine this relationship.

5. Combinethe results of steps 3 and 4 to find the inlet pressure, P1-

6. Find the mass flow rate through the nozzle, vh2, using the choked flow
relationship given in Guided Problem 12.1.

7. Find the temperature of the flow leaving the mixing chamber.

8. Find the outlet temperature, Oe.

9. Find the shaft speed, ~.

PROBLEMS

12.3 A complicated distributed-parameter model is required to represent the

dynamics of a counterflow heat exchanger. For most modeling purposes a much
simpler steady-state model suffices, however. You are asked to find the basic
equations for such a model. The mass flows in the two directions are the same;
so are the specific heats. There is a thermal conductivity G per unit length
between the two streams. Longitudinal heat conduction may be neglected, as
may pressure drops.
890 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

(a) Drawa bond graph representing an element of the heat exchanger dx

long. The complete heat exchangerrepresents an infinite cascade of such
micro elements. Define variables on your graph.

(b) Write equations whichgive the output enthalpies in terms of the input
enthalpies, the massflow and fixed parameters. This is your basic model.

(c) Write an expression ibr the rate of entropy generation. (This need
be in a simple form, but could contain integrals.)

(d) Introduce frictional pressure drops to your model. Does this affect
your answers to both parts (b) and (c)?

12.4 An open feedwater heater for a steam power plant mixes a small amount
of steam tapped from an interstage of the turbine with cold water pressurized
by a pump, to give hot water. The pressures in the mixing process may be
approximatedas constant, but as a practical matter the flow of steam must be
regulated by a valve, introducing someadditional irreversibility to what you
likely considered in an introductory thermodynamics course. In .practice, also,
the state of the output hot water will not be saturated liquid, unlike what you
mayhave assumedpreviously, but will lie in the compressedliquid region. It
is desired to develop a computational model that can readily adapt to small
changesin the operating states.

(a) Drawa bond graph that models the valve and the mixer, using RS
and 0S elements. Reticulate the 0S element into a combination of HS and
0 elements.

(b) Write expressions for the changes in the enthalpies of the water and
the vapor in terms of the temperature downstreamof the valve Or, the
temperatures of the cold and hot water 0c and ~h, the specific heats of the
vapor and the liquid (cp~, and %t) and the enthalpy of vaporization, hyg.

SOLUTION TO GUIDED PROBLEM

Guided Problem 12.2

CASE STUDY WITH QUASI-STEADY FLOW 891

R03 RO3
(b 1
2. T- ~n, ~ -~ P1D (o 3 _~)
p~Q3 = p3D = P~D - P~D
1 R
3. M =(T"h3 - he) = Cp(0~
T - ~4) _ (1 - l/k) no~

(~ - ~/~
4. Isentropic flow: ~

1
5. Equate ratios 0~/0~ : ~ =1
( Pe ) (~-~/~) DP~-1/kM

Therefore, M = DP~[1- (p~/p~)(~-~/k)] which can be solved for P~.

~ - ~/k
6. ~=~V kk+l]

~0~ + ~0~
7. ~omequation (12.28), 0a -
(Note that the air leaving the nozzle h~ the same sgagnation enthalpy as the
air entering, and thus also h~ ~he same temperature, 0~.)
8. Substitute tge P~ found ~oma numerical evaluation in step 5 into the equation
from step 4 go find 0~.
ROa, . + ~) (All desired results nowcan be evaluated.)

12.3 Case Study with Quasi-Steady Flow

The double-rotor two-lobed compressor pictured in Fig. 12.10, often called a
"Roots blower," is a very simple positive-displacement machine that is used
to increase gas pressures up to a factor of about two) It typically runs dry with
no oil mist. Metal-to-metal friction is avoided without excessive leakage by
using a small clearance between the two rotors, and between the rotors and the
housing. External gears provide the necessary synchronization. In position (A),
the chamberon the right side of rotor A is still in communicationwith the inlet
port. By position (B) the chamber has been isolated from both the inlet and
the outlet, but remains at constant volume and thus at constant pressure. In
position (C) a surge of high-pressure fluid flows back into the chamber, charging
it to the outlet pressure. In position (D) the fluid that was in the chamber
being pushed out, or discharged through the outlet.

12.3.1 Bond Graph Model

The bond graph of Fig. 12.11 can be used to model the time-average behavior
of the compressor. It is adapted from Fig. 12.8(c), which is primarily for a mo-
sstaged Rootscompressorssometimesproduceair pressures in excess of 100 psi.
892 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

Figure 12.10: Operatingcycle of a two-impeller straight-lobe rotary compressor

’ p2, h2@
S~ m

convection bond number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

pressure P~ P2 P~ P4 P2 P2 P~ P~
enthalpy hI h2 h3 h,~ h4 h4 h4 h4
temperature O~ 02 O~ 04 04 04 O~ 04
mass flowrate rh rh rh+rhi ~+~hi th+rhi rh rhi th~

Figure 12.11: Bondgraph for the rotary compressor

CASE STUDY WITH QUASI-STEADY FLOW 893

tor rather than a pump, by reversing the power-convention arrows through the
transformer to avoid confusion, and by interchanging the 0S and 0-junctions
since the leakage flow through the RSs element is from the right (outlet)
the left (inlet). The inlet bond is labeled with the subscript 1 and the out-
let bond with the subscript 2. Other bonds are labeled with circled numbers
which also are used as subscripts. The table below the graph explicitly identifies
constraints between bond variables which are implicit in the definitions of the
various elements; the number of variables is reduced from the outset by using
these identifications. The information which follows will be interpreted to quan-
tify the elements T, RSIm, RSi and RSI, and to predict the mass flow, outlet
temperature and shaft torque as a function of the shaft speed, inlet conditions
and outlet pressure.
The machine displaces D = 25.0/2~r fta/rad (its overall size is little over
a cubic yard), draws in atmospheric air (P1 = 14.7 psia, 01 = 70°F, R
0.3704 psia.fta/lbm.R, k = 1.4) which can be considered an ideal gas, and
normally operates in the range 200-600 rpm. The torque loss due to gear and
bearing friction is Mo= 173 ft.lb plus the fraction ] = 0.05 of the balance of
the moment. The fluid leakage around the rotor from the outlet to the inlet is
controlled mostly by viscosity, since the leakage passages are relatively slender
and long. As a result, the leakage is almost proportional to the pressure drop;
it is determined to be 51 scfm for each psi. ("scfm" means standard cubic feet
per minute, i.e. volume flow at atmospheric pressure and temperature.) This is
all the quantitative information that is needed.
The transformer modulus equals the volumetric displacement per radian
times a density. Since the given displacement D corresponds to the density in
the inlet chamber, the density P3 should be used, giving

T = paD = P1D
-~3’ (12.29)

from which

rh + rhi =T~= P~D~ (12.30)

R03 ’

ha)
M = M0 + (1 + f)T(h4 ha) = Mo+ ( 1 f)P iD(h4
RO.~
1)
= .. RID(04/03
:77g
-
(12.31)

The fluid 1-junction implies the isentropic relation

04 -- h4 _ (k-I)lk
¢P4~
(12.32)
03 ha
894 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

12.3.2 Irreversibilities
The mechanicalfriction energy is converted to heat in the element RSfm at the
rate

1 + f ’ (12.33)
causing the air to increase its enthalpy and temperature in the HS element
according to:

0,2 h~ (Mo + fM)~ (1 - 1/k)(Mo + fM)~

- = 1 + - 1 + (12.34)
04 h4 (1 + f)h4rh (l + f)RO4#t
The leakage flow through the element RS~ is given in the form
51 ft3/sec;
rhi = p~a(P2- P~); a = ~-~ P~ = ~-~. (12.35)

The mixing of this flow with the air from the intake increases the temperature
and enthalpy according to equation (12.28):

03 __ h3 _ dn + (h4/h~)dni _- ~h + (04/0~)~i
(12.36)
01 hi rh + r~i rh +
As a pumping chamber begins to communicate with the discharge port,
which is at a lower pressure, flow surges from the chamberto the port. This
presents an inherent irreversibility representable as a frictional or throttling
loss. The steady-flow equivalency for this irreversibility occurs in the bond-
graph element RSI. It can be approximated by the classic problem in which
a constant-volume chamber,with initial conditions indicated by the subscript
0, is charged through a restriction by a mass mc with conditions indicated by
the subscript c, until equilibrium is reached at mass mo + mc and conditions
indicated by the subscript f. The conservation of energy for the chamberas a
control volume requires AE =hcmc, or

(~0 + m~)uf -- moUo= m~hc. (12.37)

Since du = c~dOand dh = c~d0, this gives

mock,(01- 0o) m~(cpO~ - cv0f). (12.38)

The enthalpies h~ and hI are equal, so that 0~ = 0I. Solving for the ratio of the
temperatures and noting the definition of k, this gives
0I _ 1
(12.39)
0-~- 1 - l} - 1).~/.~o
The ideal gas relation requires
mc +mo _ Pf _ P~Oo
(12.40)
mo Po PoO]
CASE STUDY }VITH QUASI-STEADY FLOW 895

The final state, indicated by the subscript f, is the state on bonds5, 6 and 7,
so that 0~, = 04 and Pf = P2. The initial state, indicated by subscript i, is the
state on bond 3, so that 00 = 03 and P0 = P1. Combiningequations (12.39)
and (12.40) nowgives
04 = 1 + (k - 1)P2/P1 (12.41)
’
where P] and Pi are the corresponding pressures.

12.3.3 Computation of Results

Equations (12.30), (12.31), (12.32), (12.34), (12.35), (12.36) and
prise seven equations in the seven unknowns ~h, ’#ti, 0_%03, 04, P4 and M. The
variables P1, P2, 01 and ~ and the parameters D, a, M0, f, R and k are as-
sumedto be given. Equation(12.35) gives ~hi directly. Substitution of equation
(12.41) into (12.31) gives the torque on the shaft:
M= Mo+ (1 + f)D(P2 - P1). (12.42)
The mass flow rh can be found by solving equations (12.30) and (12.41) for
and 04, respectively, and substituting the results into equation (12.36) to give
the quadratic

#t 2 ¯
1 ~n
[a(P.-~-P1) ](~-~i)-~ a(p2D---_C-p1)k[l+(k-1)-~11-k] =0. (12.43)
Equation(12.34) nowcan be solved for 02, with the help of equation (12.41):

02= . PID~ [1 +(k- 1-:-~P2]

+ (fM + M0)(1 1/ k)~b (12.44)
kR(rh+ ~hi) )/-’1J (1 + f)Rrh
The efficiency, ~, of the machineis of special interest. Efficiency is defined
as the ratio of the powerthat wouldbe required to achieve the same massflow
rate and output pressure if the machinewere reversible, to the actual power
required. In the reversible machinethe balance of mechanicaland fluid powers
requires

Rm01
reversible power= (h2 - hl)rh ]- --- ~02
i-~/k\~ - " 1) (12.45)

The isentropic relation of equation (12.32) applies, with 02 = 04 and 01 = 03.

Thus,
(l-l/k>
R’/YtO ]
[(P2~
1
~ = (1 - 1]k)M$ [\PlJ - 1 . (12.46)
The massflow, shaft torque, inlet temperature and efficiency for the given
parametersare plotted in Fig. 12.12 for two shaft speeds. Youmust pay careful
attention to the units for the various variables in carrying out this type of com-
putation. The results closely resemble data from an actual Roots compressor.
896 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

1.4 I I I I I

T~ +200, °F,
200 rpm
h+10, Ibm/s, 400 rpm
1.2

1.0
+200, °F,
400 rpm

0.8
400 rpm

r/, 200rprr
0.6

rh+ 10, lbm/s,

0.4

0.2 fl-lb

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Pz-P~,psi

Figure 12.12: Modelresults for the rotary compressor

12.4. THERMODYNAMIC COMPLIANCE 897.

The entropy generation in the elements RSIm, HS, RSf, RS{ and 0S can be
computed and compared. This information could aid a designer interested in
potential improvements. The irreversibility in RSf, for example, is inherent in
the design and could not be removed, for example, whereas the others could be
mitigated.
The tools now at your disposal should allow you to represent and reduce most
lumped engineering models for the steady-state behavior of thermodynamic en-
ginering systems. Consideration of models of unsteady or dynamic systems is
next. This will have a side benefit of allowing equilibria to be calculated without
solving numerous simultaneous algebraic equations, as to some extent had to
be done above.

12.4 Thermodynamic Compliance

The coherent kinetic energy of a substance is represented by inertance elements.
The incoherent kinetic energy of the molecules plus the energy due to inter-
molecular forces is the thermodynamic energy. From the classical macroscopic
viewpoint, taken here, this energy can be represented as a function of gener-
alized displacements. Thus it becomes a potential energy described in bond
graphs by compliance elements. In particular, the thermodynamic energy of
a pure substance in a control volume, neglecting the effects of capillarity and
electric and magnetic fields, can be changed by heat transfer, mass transport
and the work of volume change.

12.4.1 Application of a Simple ThermalCompliance

The simplest model for thermodynamic compliance refers to a fixed mass; there
is no convection. Also, work interactions with the environment are negl’ected,
which implies either that the volume of the body is constant or its surrounding
pressure is negligible. This leaves only a heat transfer interaction. This degen-
erate thermodynamic compliance was called a thermal compliance in Section
9.4.6 (pp. 724-726), and it was represented by a standard one-port compliance:

The thermal regenerator pictured in Fig. 12.13 illustrates a use of the simple
thermal compliance in the presence of fluid flow. This device comprises a porous
mass m~ of metal or ceramic which is heated or cooled by fluid passing through
the pores. In a typical application to a thermal engine, the material is heated
by hot exhaust gases during one portion of the cycle, and in turn heats cool
inlet gases during another portion of the cycle. The mass of the gas within the
pores is probably small enough to allow neglect of its thermal capacity.
A bond graph model for the regenerator is given in part (b) of the figure.
This model assumes that the entire mass of metal or ceramic is at a uniform
898 CHAPTER 12 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

IP, h ,,_, 2P, h

(a) schematic (b) bond graph

Figure 12.13: Thermal regenerator

temperature, 8. Considering the HRS element and the causal stroke on the
compliance, the differential equation become~(from equation (12.26), p. 880)

(12.47)
dt 1/H + 1/cp~n’

in which 01 is the known temperature of the inlet gas,

81 =01(h~), (12.48)

H is the heat transfer coefficient, Cp is the specific heat of the gas, and rh is the
mass flow. From equation (9.37) (p. 724), 8c

(s-S
t?c °)
= /m’c,
8oe (12.49)

in which c is the specific heat of the mass mr. The enthalpy of the outlet gas
is, from equation (12.25) (p. 880),

h2 --- hi - -=- -- h~ (12.50)

rn gn/H + 1/Cp"

The flow through the regenerator is driven by a small pressure drop. This
likely could be represented by a single RS element placed on either side of
the HRS element; one on each side would improve the accuracy of the model
slightly by making it symmetric. These elements do not change the enthalpies.
For the whole regenerator, then, the independent variables are P1, P3 and h~.
The system is first order.

12.4.2 Causality
The introduction of compliance leads to differential equation models; as always,
causal strokes are very helpful in constructing such models.
Convection bonds have two effort variables; the choice used here, as noted
in Section 12.1.2 (pp 870-871), is P, h (the stagnation pressure and enthalpy)
and rh. Recall that the enthalpy h is causal physically in the actual direction
of the flow. (There is a special exception with theoretical rather than practical
12.4. THERMODYNAMIC COMPLIANCE 899

significance. 9) Since at any point in a simulation this direction is kn~,wn, no

further specification of its causality is needed. This leaves the other effort vari-
able, P, which together with the flow, rh, form a bilateral causal pair just like
the effort and flow of a simple bond. The direction of the causality is indicated
on a bond graph by the usual causal stroke. Thus, for example,

h,P

indicates that rh is specified from the left and P is specified from the right.
The elements introduced earlier in this chapter impose various constraints
on causality. The convection RS element imposes the same mass flow on both
bonds, therefore allowing three possible causal combinations:

The thermal conduction bond of the H and ttS elements must have ~ as its
causal input, since the temperature is constrained by the specification of the
enthalpy on the convection bond with the incoming flow. This leaves only two
possible causalities for these elements:

..~--._~/-/S -~.=_~

On the other hand, the HRS macro element allows the conduction temperature
to be set independently; either Oc or ~c could be the causal input:

~ HRS ~ ~ HRS ~
Note that the causality of the convection bonds on these graphs can be reversed
to give two more possibilities.
The pressure of the 0 and 0S junctions can be specified by only one bond,
just like the simple 0-junction.

12.4.3 General Thermodynamic Compliance

The more general thermodynamic energy of a system or control volume in which
the volume and/or the mass can change is now addressed. The state of the
substance will be assumed to be homogeneous throughout the control volume.
If its volume, V, changes by an amount dV, the system does work PdV on its
surroundings. If mass dm enters, the system energy increases by h din, where
9For a e-element with a convection bond, the enthalpy h is causally determinedby the
elementitself regardlessof the direction of rh. In practice, however,the C-elementis replaced
by the C~S-element,describedin Section 12.4.4 below,whichdoes not suffer this anomaly.
900. CHAPTER 12 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

h is the stagnation enthalpy. If heat is conducted across the control surface

into the control volume, the energy increases by 0 dsc where dsc is the inward
entropy displacement due to the heat. Denoting the total energy by )~, the first
law of thermodynamics requires

dF hrh + 0~c P~.

(12.51)
dt
This form suggests a three-port compliance element with one convection
bond for the mass transport and two simple bonds for the heat and work,
respectively:

h,P
rh
I -P
V
If the practice with simple compliances is followed, the generalized displacements
are used as the state variables. The time integral of the mass flow ~ is the total
mass, m; the integral of I? is the volume, V. The integral of the conduction )c
is only part of the entropy of the system, however, since additional entropy is
t.ransported along with the mass flow rh. Thus the implied third state variable
is the total entropy of the system, S:

S =/(~c + s~h)dt. (12.52)

The total compliance energy therefore becomes a function of S, V and m:

V = ]?(S, V, m), (12.53)

from which
d~ c9~ dS c9~ dV c9~ drn
- + +
dt OS dt OV dt Orn dt

(12.54)

A comparison of equations (12.51) and (12.54) reveals 1°

0= O(~) (12.55a)

~°Thedefinition of Gibb’sfunction
g_~ h-Os
allows equation(12.55c)to be recast
OV
12.4. THERMODYNAMIC COMPLIANCE 901

-p= (12.55b)
), 0(~1~
~’,rn

In practice it is simpler to use the specific quantities

F 1 V S
u ~ ~ s ~, (12.56)
m p m m

so that
u = u(s, p), (12.57)
and equations (12.55) are replaced

O=O(~s)
p

P
h = u + -- (12.58)
P
Although this computational scheme is ideal theoretically , its direct imple-
mentation assumes the availability of analytic state functions of the form of
equation (12.57). They are not generally available, however. As a result, it
necessary to guess the entropy and iterate until the error is sufficiently small.
This iterative method is not presented here in favor of an alternative procedure
based on a different set of state variables. This new procedure is aided by the
definition of a particular macro element, described next.

12.4.4 The CS Macro Element

The general thermodynamic C element virtually always occurs in combination

with other primitive elements. As a practical matter, a particular combination of
elements called the CS (macro) element can be employed as the basic building
block for dynamic models. This approach is used to eliminate the iteration
associated with the primitive C element, by using temperature, 0, as a state
variable in place of S. The other two state variables, m and V, are unchanged.
Consider a fluid-filled chamber with an input port and an output port, such
as the cylinder of an engine shown in Fig. 12.14. A bond graph model is shownin
part (b) of the figure. The input flow ~h~, which enters at the lower left, is likely
at a different temperature from the fluid in the cylinder, so an HS element is
needed to equalize the temperature. The resulting entropy flux ~mis combined
with whatever external entropy flux is associated with heat conduction (~q at
the upper left) to give ~0. The output flow rh2 is at the lower right, and the
mechanical bond for volume change is at the upper right.
902 CHAPTER 12 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

Oi, P th~ m
(a) schematic (b) bondgraph

RS

h~,P -~ h~,P
~----~---~- CS ~
m~_plkf, m~

(c) macroelement

Figure 12.14: Fluid chamberwith interactions

12.4. THERMODYNAMIC COMPLIANCE 903

This combination of elements occurs repeatedly in the modeling of thermo-

fluid systems. Usually, a thermal conductance RS element is added to the upper
0-junction to recognize conduction resistance and allow temperature causality
for the heat conduction. Provision often is wanted to allow the material flows to
reverse direction, also. The result is an expanded combination, shownin part (c)
of the figure. This is the combination designated as the CS macro element.
The causal strokes on both the detailed and the macro representations imply
that 1;~ and ~ = rhl - rh~ are integrated to give the state variables V and m,
respectively. The causal strokes on the primitive C element do not dictate S
as the third state variable, although they suggest its use. In the associated
differential equation, which is consistent with equation (12.52), ~ = ~ + s~,

~ + + (~n - ~o~t)s. (12.59)

~
The subscripts "in" and "out" refer to either bonds 1 or 2, depending on the
direction of the flow. The causal thermal input at the top could be either
~, ~ = 0~, or ~, so no causal stroke is shown.
The un-elaborated CS element, on the other hand, does not by itself suggest
that S should be a state variable. It allows the temperature, 0, to substitute,
which is precisely what is needed to allow the practical computation of ther-
modynamicstate properties from available analytical state functions (d~duced
from empirical data). The other two state variables (m, and when the volume
varies, V) remain.
There are two commonlyavailable forms for empirically-based state formu-
las of a single-phase pure substance. The most widely available are "P-v-T"
formulas of the form
IF= P(v, O),J (12.60)
that are used in conjunction with specific heat relations at zero density (p
1Iv = 0) using the form

These %rmul~ are closely ~sociated with the fundamental experiments. Some
commonsubstances, including water, ammoniumand certain refrigerants, are
available in the alternative %rmof the Helmholtz kee energy, ¯ ~ U - ~S, as
a function of density and temperature:

Note that both equations (12.60) with (12.61) and (12.62) employ the same
independent variables (v and 0), and therefore the two forms can be treated
similarly.
Expressions for the properties of pressure, entropy, internal energy, and en-
thalpy can be deduced from either of these forms, as will be shown in Section
12.5. Thus, for example, equations of the form

u = u(v, ~) (12.63)
904 CHAPTER 12 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

can be deri~ed, where v = 1/pm. Since v = V/m, this equation requires

fi=~vv ~m +NO.

The conservation of total energy, U, can be expressed as

~7 = rn~ + u~ = Q - PI;" + ~ h.i~i. (12.65)

i

The substitution of equation (12.64) into equation (12.65) gives, after

manipulation including use of the definition h ~ u + Pv, ~
the major result

(12.66)
dt .~Ou/OO~ + i~(hi - h)~ + P + ~ .
Equation (12.66) applies also to an incompressible substance (approximation
of a liquid or solid) if the term Ou/O0(in the denominator) is set equal to the
specific heat, c, and the term Ou/Ovis set equal to zero.
To treat the saturated mixture region, formulas of the form

[ P =- P~t = Psat(O) ] (12.67)

have been deduced for many substances from the basic relations of equations
(12.60) and (12.61) or (12.62). Using the thermodynmnic identities

h = ho - (sg - s)O, (12.67a)

sg-s=(v~-v) (@), (12.67b)

h = u + Pv, 12.67c)
(the second being the Clapeyron relation), where the subscript g refers to sat-
urated vapor, gives

- dP~t \(v - v).

u = u~ + Psat - 0--~-) o (12.68)

To evaluate the term Vg, state formulas of the form

[Vg = Vg(0) (12.69)

also have been deduced for many substances, based also on the fundamental
relations. The term u0 can be deduced in the form

~o = ua(vg, O) (12.70)
11The development from equations (12.60) through (12.72), and Figs. 12.22 and 12.23
the application to a refrigeration system, are taken from the author’s paper "Non-Iterative
Evaluation of Multiphase Thermal Compliances in Bond Graphs," which was submitted for
publication to the Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers PartI for publication
in late 2001, with permission from Professional Engineering Publishing, Ltd.
12.4. THERMODYNAMICCOMPLIANCE 905

by combiningequation (12.69) with equation (12.63). The time derivative of

equation (12.68) nowcan be written

- ~ Psat
- ~(v~ - v)& (12.71)

Substituting this result into equation (12.65) and solving for ~ gives the desired
differential equation for the time derivative of the state variable, 0:

denom=m \Ov~ + P~at-#--~-) -~- +-~---"--~--tv9 ¯ (12.72)

The temperature (8) and pressure (P) are nominally assumed to be

form over the volume, consistent with lumpedmodeling; for mixedsaturation
states, u, h and s need not be uniform, but for examplecould be affected by
gravity separation. Moregeneral approximationsare possible, but can lead to
computationalinstabilities, and are beyondthe scope of the presentation here.

12.4.5 Computations for the Ideal Gas

A simple very special case is the ideal gas with assumedconstant specific heats,
for which
s-s0=c, ln ~-0 -Rln . (12.73)

The subscript 0 refers to any convenient reference state. Thus, s is knownin

terms of v and 8, and no iteration is needed to carry out the schemein which
S is a state variable. In place of equation (12.58) (p. 901) there results

O=O°exp [ s-s°+ c~R ln(vo/v) ] , (12.74a)

P = RS/v, (12.745)
h = c,(0 - 00) Pv. (12.74c)
These equations can be used to address the following case study.

12.4.6 Case Study: A Piston-Cylinder Compressor

A one-cylinder air compressor, shownin Fig. 12.15, has an assumedsinusoidal
piston motion. For simplicity of presentation, the inlet and outlet valves are
assumedto open to their full extent wheneverthe pressure on their left side
exceeds that on their right side, and to be closed otherwise, thus passing flow
906 CHAPTER 12 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

Figure 12.15: Piston-cylinder compressor and model

only in the rightward direction, like ideal check valves. Whenopen, the pressure
drops across them are assumed to be represented by the equations given in
Guided Problem 12.1 (p. 873). In the bond-graph model shown in part (b)
the figure, these valves are represented by the two convection RS elements. The
magnitude of the friction force between the piston and the cylinder is modeled
as a constant, giving an equivalent pressure, PF, that heats the piston and
cylinder walls, which are assumed to be uniform in temperature. Heat flows
between the gas in the cylinder and the metal of the piston and cylinder, with
an assumed constant heat conductance associated with a thin thermal boundary
layer. A separate larger constant heat conductance is applied between the walls
and the surroundings. The inlet and outlet pressures are assumed to be given
and constant.
The internal energy of the fluid in the cylinder and the thermal conductance
of the boundary layer is represented by the CS element. The thermal com-
pliance of the metal is represented by a C element. The frictional conversion
of mechanical power to thermal energy is represented by a simple-bonded RS
element; the fact that thermal fluxes to the C element can come from both the
fluid and the friction, at the same temperature, is represented by a 0-junction.
The synchronization of the motions of the valves and the piston is indicated by
dashed lines.
The causal strokes to the CS element produce the first-order state differential
12.4. THERMODYNAMIC COMPLIANCE 907

equations

dV
V(0) = V0, (12.75a)
d’-~- = V1sin(~)t);
dm
-- = rhl - ~2. (12.75b)
dt
In this example, the third state variable for the CS element is chosen to be S,
rather than 8 (either would be a good choice), so the third differential equation
becomes, from equation (12.59) (p. 903),

The final state differential equation is associated with the energy storage in the
walls of the cylinder, namely the C element:

W= V~-I -He I-V~ + 8---[-

Before these can be evaluated, the variables rhl, ~h2, 81, 8, 8c, ~1 and s need
to be related to the state variables. The mass fluxes are associated with the RS
elements. The flow ~h~ is set at zero when P > P~, and ~h2 is set at zero when
P < P2. Otherwise, assuming unchoked flow (this condition can be checked
after simulation and corrected if necessary), from Guided Problem 12.1:

(12.76b)

P: = pROa. (12.76c)
Temperatures are unchanged across convection RS elements, since enthalpy is a
function of temperature. The other two temperatures are given by the standard
relations for constant specific heats:

8 = 8o exp Is- so1+[~ln(p/po)

cv ’
(12.77a)

8c= 80 exp [~] , (12.77b)

The entropies so and Sco are defined at the arbitrary reference temperature
and may be set equal to zero. The density Po also is defined at that temperature
and the pressure P1; the density p is
m
P = V’ (1~.78,~)
 908 CHAPTER 12 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

volumeof cylinder x 104, m3 air temperature.-’ 100, K

4
2 l\..v "z, \ - , "/, \ .:.,- /,
0
-2 pressure, bars
i~
-4 0 net massflow
x 100, kg/s
-6 (positive:inlet;
negative:outlet)
-8
-10
-12
0 O.b2 O.b4 ’ O.b6 ’ O.b8 ’ 0.10
time, seconds
Figure 12.16: Simulationresults for piston-cylinder compressor

Similarly,
S
s = --. (12.78b)
m
Results of a particular simulation are plotted in Fig. 12.16. Sucha simula-
tion can give good estimates of the amountof flow compressedand the energy
efficiency of the process. It can showhowthe valve areas affect this performance,
and what timing of the valves ought to be used. It can predict howhot the parts
will becomedue to friction, and howboth friction and heat transfer betweenthe
gas and the metal and the surroundings affect the performance. Morerefined
questions can be addressed by elaborating the modelto include profiles of the
valve openingas a function of the position of the piston, substituting a morere-
alistic slider-crank geometrical constraint, improvingthe friction model, adding
an output tank, applying a torque rather than a velocity and adding a modu-
lated inertia (including, presumably,the effect of a flywheel), etc. Noneof these
.modifications are beyondthe scope of what you have done before, although as
a systems engineer you might wish to consult with specialists to establish some
of the parametersof the model,such as friction and heat transfer coefficients.
The inlet and output pressures are 1.0 bar and 4.0 bar, respectively. The
maximum and minimumvolumes of the cylinder are 0.1 and 0.6 liters, respec-
tively. The shaft turns at 185rad/s, the inlet air is at 293K, the effective areas
of both valves are 4.0 cm2, the heat transfer coefficient H and He are 0.012
and 0.120 Joules/m2/K, respectively, the massof the walls is 1.0 kg and their
specific heat is 0.45 Joules/kg K. Theinitial temperatureof the walls is 744 K,
close to equilibrium under the given circumstances of an assumedfriction force
of 10 N. (Moreexternal cooling would be desirable.) The initial condition
3,
the cylinder is minimumvolumewith the air at 440 K and density 3.15 kg/m
12.4. THERMODYNAMIC COMPLIANCE 909

hout-hin~
hin, Pin, Sin hout Pideal Sin t hout, Pout

m m

Figure 12.17: Simple model for the joining of the convection and mechanical
bonds of a quasi-steady compressor

which is close to the steady-state values for that part of the cycle.
The plotted results actually modeled the air as a mixure of nitrogen, oxygen
and argon with very accurately modeled properties, as described in Section
12.5.3 below. This fancier simulation is detailed in Guided Problem 12.4 at the
end of the next section. (It adapts equation (12.66) with temperature as
state variable rather than equation (12.75c) which uses entropy. Using entropy
with the more accurate model of the air would have required repeated iteration
in the evaluation of state properties.) The assumption of an ideal gas with
constant specific heats, as in the equations above, is considerably simpler to
implement, and does not produce results different enough to justify a separate
plot.

12.4.7 Treatment of a Quasi-Steady-State Fluid Machine

The piston-cylinder system above treats a fluid machine as a device that goes
through a cycle for each revolution of its shaft. Often the cycle time for one
revolution is a minute fraction of the time required for a major change to occur
in the thermodynamic properties of a system outside of the fluid machine. An
example, to be detailed in Section 12.5.6 is a refrigeration system. The shaft
makes thousands of revolutions while the refrigerant masses and temperatures
gradually change during start-up. If these changes are the center of interest,
rather than the rapid changes over each rotation of the shaft, it makes sense
to employ a quasi-steady model for the compressor. Quasi-steady models for
turbines and compressors were introduced in Section 12.2.6 (pp. 883-887), and
the example of a Roots blower was developed in Section 12.3 (pp. 891-897).
Consider the simple model of a compressor shown in Fig. 12.17, in which
the irreversibilites are restricted to those of an equivalent virtual series flow
restriction that is represented by the element RS. Internal and external leakage
is neglected, and any mechanical friction losses are assumed to occur to the right
of the ideal compressor element T,~, and not to affect the flow. The transformer
modulus is the volumetric displacement of the machine per radian of. rotation
times the specific volume of the upstream fluid. The mass flow is computed as
the product of the shaft speed and this modulus, and the torque is computed as
the the product of the difference hour - hi,~ and this modulus. The enthalpy hi,~
910 CHAPTER 12 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

is causal from the upstream part of the system, but howis hour determined?
The 1-junction is a reversible as well as conservative element. Therefore, the
entropies s of the upstream and downstreamflows are the same. Further, the
pressure Pideal can be found from knowledgeof rh and Pout, the latter being
a result of the state of the compliance element. Therefore, the state of the
fluid for the convectionbondto the right of the 1-junction is to be found from
knowledgeof its entropy and pressure. This is awkward,since the available
state functions assume knowledgeof the temperature and the specific volume
(or density) instead.
Example12.2 in Section 12.2.6 (pp. 886-887) gives an alternative model,
which the volumetric and adiabatic efficiencies of the compressorare assumed
to be known.In this case, it was found that
hour=hc/~ad-- (1/~c,d -- 1)hin, (12.79)
in which hin is known,and he corresponds to a fluid state having the known
entropysin and knownpressure Po~,t. Poutis different from(less than) the Pide~,t
of Fig. 12.17, but the task of finding hc is essentially the sameas the task of
finding hour; only the simple step of equation (12.79) is addedto find hour.
This situation generally requires iteration: one starts with a guess of the
proper temperature and specific volume(probably using the most recent known
values), and computes the associated entropy and pressure. A comparison of
these values with the actual values producesa seconditeration.
The iterative procedure may be expedited by makinguse of the gradients
OP/Ov, OP/O0,Os/OPand Os/O0, all of which can be computed as functions
of v and 0. A Newton-Raphsoniteration becomes

i+l= 0 i-[OslOv OslO0 si ’

in which the thermodynamicidentity 8s/Ov =- OP/O0can be used to reduce
computation.Since the partial derivatives are usually nearly constant over the
narrowrange of consideration, only one such iteration is usually necessary to
reduce the errors to within acceptable limits. Equation (12.80) does not work
under all circumstances, however. The entropy of a saturated vapor depends
largely on temperature, and the second or later iterations maywork better if
the terms Os/Ov=- OP/O0in equation (12.80) are set equal to zero.
The process, including the iteration, is illustrated in Example12.5 (on p.
926) and in the case study given in Section 12.5.6 (on p. 935).
EXAMPLE 12.3
The compressorof Example12.2 (pp. 886-887) operates on an assumedideal
gas with inlet temperature0~,~ and a pressure Pi,~ and outlet pressure Pout.
Find the outlet enthalpy, ho,t, as is necessary in simulating a systemthat
includes such a compressor.
Solution: The plan is to find the temperature 0c, use this to find hc, and
then employequation (12.79) to find hout. The state c has the sameentropy
12.4. THERMODYNAMICCOMPLIANCE 911

as the inlet, and an isentropic process satisfies Pvk =constant, where k =

cp/cv, and Pv = RO. Therefore,

Fromequations (12.74b) and (12.74c) (p.

h~ = cv(Oc- 00) + Pcvc = (c, + R)Oc- C~0o= c~0~- c~0o,

where 0o is the reference temperature for which s = 0. Finally, equation

(12.79) gives

~a--~ [\’~-/~ ] - 1 + 1 - ~-0o.

EXAMPLE 12.4
The compressorof Fig. 12.17 operates on ideal gas, and the RS element is
based on a virtual orifice of effective area A. The flow throughthis orifice
can be assumednot to be choked. Developa procedurefor finding ho~,t given
Po,~t, ~, D and the inlet conditions. (This procedure is morecomplexthan
that found in the previous example;you are not asked to carry it out, which
in practice wouldbe done numerically.)
Solution: The mass flow is given by rh = (D/V/n)~, and the pressure PideaL
must be found from the orifice relation

\ Pideal
L\ Pidea; ]

The isentropic process across the 1-junction requires (as in equation (12.32),
p. 894, for the case study of a rotary compressor),

Substituting ~his into ~he previous eqna~iongive~ a re~nl~ in ~e fo~m

~ = ~(~de~, ~n, Po~, constants).

Since everythingin this equation except 8i~ea~ is known,it can in principle
be solved for 0id~, after which the answeris

hour : hideat ~ CpOideal -- CvO0.

In practice, 0id~ must be found iteratively, presumablythrough the use of

a Newton-Raphsonprocedure.
912 CHAPTER 12 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

Figure 12.18: Approximatelumpedmodel of a channel with unsteady flow

12.4.8 Fluid Inertance With Compressible Flow

The incoherent kinetic energy of fluid molecules has been included in the fluid
compliance.The coherentkinetic energy of a fluid is represented in an inertance.
The use of stagnation properties for the pressure, enthalpy and temperature
suppresses most problems associated with fluid inertia in steady flow. In un-
steady flow, the kinetic energy of a compressible flow is muchless apt to be
significant than ihe kinetic energy of an incompressibleflow, since its density
typically is less and its thermodynamicor potential (compliance) energy dom-
inates. This is fortunate, since if the fluid in a channel has both significant
kinetic and potential energies, wavepropagation results. Lumpedmodelingis
then apt to becomeeither inaccurate or quite complex, as has been shownin
Chapter 11.
A lumped model comprising alternate C and I elements with 0 and 1-
junctions nevertheless can be constructed, as shownin Fig. 12.17. The greater
the numberof C and I elements, the more accurate the model. Note that the
bonds between the I elements and the 1-junctions are simple bonds; the only
efforts thereon are the changesin Pip due to fluid acceleration. Note also that
the nominal 3-port C element is treated here as a degenerate 1-port element,
consistent with constant volumeand reversibility. This allows the methodsof
Chapter 11 to apply, approximately. The ultimate computational method is
finite-element analysis. This method, once fully developed, will allow analysis
in two and three dimensions, including phase changes, etc.

12.4.9 Pseudo Bond Graphs for Compressible

Thermofluid Systems
The convection bond graph is a new development. At the time of this writing,
the major bond graph representation for compressible thermofluid systems in
the literature was an extension of the pseudo bond graph described in Section
9.4 (p. 727). The concept was proposed by Karnopp.12 A pseudo bond graph
for a variable volumewith heat and massfluxes followedby a fluid restriction is
shownin part (b) of Fig. 12.19; a convection bondgraph for the samemodel
shownin part (c). The term pseudorecognizes that the products of the indicated
12Karnopp, Dean C., "State Variables and Pseudo Bond Graphs for Compressible Ther-
mofluid Systems," Trans. ASME, J. Dynamic Systems, Measurement and Control, 101(3),
Sept 1979.
12.4. THERMODYNAMIC COMPLIANCE 913

(a) schematic

m~ a B rn2 ~ m P’ hl~ CS P’ h’.~RS P~’ h~

~ ~/ ~, 2 mj m2
E~ ~ E3 k m2
k

S
1.---~R

S
(b) pseudo bond graph (c) convection bond graph

Figure 12.19: Comparison of pseudo and convection bond graphs

efforts and flows are not the actual energy fluxes, unlike true bond graphs. The
energy flux into the compliance is /~, which includes the mechanical power
-/~m = -P1? that is communicated through the modulated flow source Sy and
the diagonal bond, not the horizontal bond with flow ~. Karnopp writes, "This
signal interaction is the price we pay for connecting a pseudo bond graph with
a true bond graph."
The purpose of the graph is to aid in the writing of state differential equa-
tions, not particularly to explicate the energy fluxes. The causal strokes indicate
that the state variables for the compliance are the mass m of the fluid therein,
the total energy E of this mass, and the volume V. Dividing m and E by V
gives the density, p and the specific energy, u, which are sufficient to define the
thermodynamic state. The implication of the graph is that the pressure, P, and
the temperature,/9, are deduced from the knowledge of p, u. The available state
formulas, as noted in Section 12.4.4 above (p. 903), unfortunately, use 0 in place
of u as an independent variable. Thus, the same kind of iteration needed for
dealing with p, s as independent variables must be employed. It is largely for
this reason that pseudo bond graphs are not emphasized in this book. Their
relative complexity and awkwardness in joining with other parts of a model
represented by true bond graphs also contributes to this decision.
Pseudo bond graphs for non-compressible media do however have an ad-
vantage over true bond graphs when dealing with the special case of constant
specific heats and constant thermal conductivities, as pointed out in Section 9.4.
914 CHAPTER 12 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

12.4.10 Summary

The thermodvnamicenergy in a relatively uniform region of space is represented

by the compliance element C. For the special case of a virtually incompressible
solid or liquid body of fixed identity, its entropy suffices as the only independent
variable needed. Thus the compliance has only one port, entropy is the gener-
alized displacement, entropy flux is the generalized velocity, and temperature
is the generalized effort. The generalized energy of heat flux, represented by a
simple bond, is the product of the temperature and the entropy flux. This topic
was addressed in Section 9.4.
A body of a pure substance with fixed identity but changing density also
has its volume as its second generalized displacement, and rate of change of
volume as its corresponding generalized velocity. The associated effort is minus
its pressure. Thus a second simple bond is added to the compliance. Whenthe
mass of the pure substance is no longer fixed, that. is when there is a control
volume with mass entering or leaving, a third generalized velocity is added: the
rate of change of mass. This requires a convection bond with enthalpy as its
power-factor effort.
Irreversibilites due to heat transfer and fluid mixing can be represented in
a bond graph by adding HS, 0 and conduction RS elements to the C element.
This combination is so commonly useful it is represented by the CS macro
element. Irreversibilites due to throttling can be appended by adding convection
RS elements. Causal strokes can be applied to the bonds; on the effort side of
a convection bond, the causality refers to the pressure. Causally, enthalpy and
entropy are causal in the direction of the flow, so no special causal mark for
them is needed on the bond graph.
The thermodynamic energy of a pure substance can be represented, on a
continuum basis per unit mass, as a function of any two independent variables.
The most natural pair is specific volume (or its reciprocal, mass density) and
entropy. All other continuum intensive variables, such as temperature, pressure
and enthalpy, can be deduced therefrom. This scheme works well for ideal gases,
but for more accurate models of most substances it requires an awkwardcompu-
tational iteration. It is better to substitute temperature for the entropy as the
state variable (making entropy a derived variable). The associated differential
equations for a CS element have been found, but their evaluation depends on
the details of the representation of the properties of the substance. This is the
subject of the next section.
The joining of a fluid flow to a mechanical machine such as a compressor or
turbine involves a 1-junction across which the entropy is common.Knowledgeof
entropy rather than enthalpy requires an iterative procedure for which a strategy
is given. In some cases a 1S junction is helpful to represent the irreversible
aspects of the coupling. The pair of convection bonds for this junction have the
same pressure.
The inertia of a compressible flow in a channel can be approximated by one
or more combinations of a 1-junction and a simple-bonded inertance, as with
incompressible flow. Unsteadiness plus compressibility can result in significant
12.4. THERMODYNAMIC COMPLIANCE 915

Outlet

Inlet
Valve

Figure 12.20: Piston-cylinder compressors of Guided Problem 12.4

Reprinted courtesy o] Parker-Hannifin Corporation

gradients in the mass flow along the channel, however, possibly requiring an
excessive number of cascaded pairs of inertance and compliance elements (inter-
connected with junctions) for adequate accuracy. In these cases, which involve
wave motion, distributed parameter and finite-element models such as those
presented in Chapter 11 may be more appropriate.

Guided Problem 12.3

Piston-cylinder compressors (see Fig. 12.20) often have two stages with an inter-
stage cooler to improve the efficiency of the process. You are asked to develop
a model including a set of state differential equations for this system. Makeas-
sumptions similar to those for the single-stage compressor modeled above, and
add an externally insulated load tank. P~eplace the air with helium for simplic-
ity. Apply a momentto a crank shaft rather than a particular motion. You are
not asked to work out the details of the geometry, however; simply note general
transformer relations and a general modulated inertia.

Suggested Steps:

1. Draw a bond graph for your model. It is suggested that you ignore the
volumeof fluid within the intercooler. Apply causality.
916 CHAPTER 12 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

2. Label the graph with the appropriate variables, noting that enthalpies re-
main constant across convection RS elements and pressures remain con-
stant across CS and HRS elements.

Write three differential equations for each CS element (two for fixed vol-
ume), one differential equation of each one-port C element and two dif-
ferential equations for the variable inertia element, in terms of convenient
variables.

4. Relate the "convenient variables" of step 3 to the state variables. This

requires appropriate constitutive relations for the non-storage elements,
consistent with the indicated causality, plus state relations for an ideal
gas.

PROBLEMS

12.5 Show that, when equation (12.66) (p. 904) is applied to an ideal (Pv
R8 and constant specific heats) for an isentropic expansion, the classical formula
Pvk .= constant results.

12.6 A fixed-volume chamber containing an ideal gas is connected to a cylinder

with piston of area Ac to form a catapult that accelerates a mass me. Draw a
bond graph, define state variables, and write state differential equations. Neglect
all effects of friction and heat transfer.

12.7 Repeat the above problem, placing a flow restriction of effective area Ar
between the chamber and the cylinder.

12.8 Repeat Problem 12.6 when the chamber is charged with a saturated steam-
water mixture. Assume the needed properties of the fluid are known; do not
evaluate the associated partial derivatives in equation (12.72) (p. 905).

12.9 Repeat Problem 12.7 when the chamber is charged with a saturated steam-
water mixture. Gravity separation allows only vapor to enter the orifice. Assume
the needed properties of the fluid are known; do not evaluate the associated
partial derivatives in equations (12.66) and (12.72). (pp. 904,

12.10 Repeat Example 12.3 (p. 910), considering the machine to be a turbine
rather than a compressor.

12.11 Solve Example12.4 (p. 911) in the case where the virtual orifice is known
to be choked (implying rather large losses). (See Guided Problem 12.1, p. 873,
for the orifice flow equation.)
12.4. THERMODYNAMIC COMPLIANCE 917

SOLUTION TO GUIDED PROBLEM

Guided Problem 12.4

1-2.

Po ho P~ ho P~ h~ P~hz P~ h~ P~ h3 P~h~ P~h4

SOURCEm, ~ RS~ CS~HR~ RS~ CS~ RS~ CS~ LOAD

MOTOR
CS1 thermodynamic eompli~ee, mixing and heat conductance, g~ in
cylinder
ghermodyn~ie compliance, mixing and
cylinder b
ghermodynamiccompliance and mixing, g~ in sgorage gank
flow resisgance, inlet valve
flow resistance, interstage valve
RSa flow resistance, outleg valve
interstage heat exchanger wigh conducgance
"Se environmental thermal reservoir
thermal compli~c~, walls of cylinder a
thermal compli~ce, wMlsof cylinder b
thermal compliance, walls of tank
inertance of moving p~ts (modulated)
frictional "dissipation," cylinder
frictional "dissipation," cylinder b
slider-crank constraint, piston
slider-crank constraint, piston b

3. g~, cylinder a: dV~ = T~(¢)~

dt
dmm
dt

dt
cylinder b:
dt
dmb
dt
dS~
-
dt
918 CHAPTER 12 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

d~Ttc
gas, tank: -- = rh3 - ~h4
dt
dS_~ = -~cc + cp(1 - 03/04)~h3 + ~s~
dt
walls, cylinder a: dS~ = ~ + Rio [T.~[
dt

walls, cylinder b: dSc~ = ~ + Pf~[T~[

dt O~b
¯
dSc~ = ~cc
walls, tank:
dt
inertance:
d~
d~ _ 1 [M- ~dlq~ 2- Pfa~T~ + Pfb]n~]
therefore:
[ dt
also: ~ = $
There ~e therefore 13 state v~iables (~, ~, ma, rob, mc, S., Sb, S~, Sca,
&~, &~, ~, ¢). The p~ameters T.(¢), Tb(¢), Cp, PI. and P~ (p res sures
required to balance friction), lq(¢) and M~e presumed known. This leaves
17 other v~iables for which algebraic relations ~e needed: ~, ~,
S~,~, ~, s~, s3, s4, P~, P2, ~, ~2, ~3, ~4, Oca and Oc~.
4. 10 state relations (R, po, ~o, m~., m~b, c., c, SO, S~o, S~o and. S~¢o are
presumedknown;the l~t four are probably set at zero):
P~ = p~R~ = m~RO~/V~
~2 = p3ROa = m~ROa/B~
Sl = &/m.; s~ = &/m~;s, = S~/m~

=Ooex
L mcac
]
o]
~ mcbC
The outlet valve of cylinder a and the inlet valve of cylinder b ~e redundant
in this model, since the energy of the small m~sof g~ in the intercooler is
~ neglected. Thus there ~e three valve relations (k, At(C), A~(¢), A3(¢)
0o are ~sumed known):
12.5. EVALUATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 919

]ntercooler relation (E, c~ ~d 8~ ~e ~su~edk~ow~;gSe~bse~ceof

compliancecan be criticized):

~ = ~ + . ~ =
.,~%’ (:In) + (:/~)
Three conduction relations (H~, Hb ~nd Hc ~e ~sumed known):

This completes17 equations. Newv~iables P3 and8cc have beenintroduced,

whichhavethe following state relations (mcc~ndSccO~e ~sumed
to be known;
the l~tter probablyis set at zero):
Pa = pRe~ = m¢RedV¢

L mccC J

12.5 Evaluation of Thermodynamic Properties

The thermodynamic properties of a wide variety of substances are available
in analytical forms that represent fits to experimental data. The most widely
available form is that of the "P - v - T" relation and the specific heat relation, as
given in equations (12.60) and (12.61), repeated below as equations(12.81)
(12.82). The next most widely available form is that of the Helmholtz relation,
equation (12.62) (equation (12.94) below). This section presents practical
by which either of these forms can be used to calculate other thermodynamic
properties such as internal energy, entropy, enthalpy, etc. The state is assumed
implicitly to be in thermodynamic equilbrium. Illustrations and details are
given for oxygen, nitrogen, air and a commonrefrigerant. A case study gives
the complete simulation routine for the start-up of a refrigeration system.

12.5.1 The Most Commonly Available Analytical Form

for State Properties
Thermodynamicstate functions were originally developed and are still available
largely as "P-v-T" relations of the form

lP = or P = = 1/p,J
plus specific heat relations at p = 0 of the form

[c~° =
I c~°(0). (12.82)
The first consideration below is the calculation of specific entropy, s, from these
functions. It uses the density p rather than its reciprocal, the specific volume,
v (but could be transformed to use v).
920 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

gas /saturated mixture\ liquid

p,_eo _ A
P

Figure 12.21: Path of integration in the evaluation of entropy or internal energy

The fundamental "T ds" relation

= + (12,s3)
with substitutions for the definition of c,, and the identity
Ou OP
(12.84)
gives

ds = dO- ~5. P" (12.85)

The entropy is defined to be zero at somearbitrary state Po, 80, whichoften is

taken at the triple point with 100%liquid (e.g. 0°C for liquid water). Equation
(12.85) must be integrated along any path from this state to the desired state
p, 8 in order to get the desired s. Since c, is knownonly for zero density,
integration is chosen along the path shownin Fig. 12.19 for which temperature
change occurs only at zero density. Addingand subtracting a term -R In p
from equation (12.84), this integral becomes

s -- fo: ~dO-R
fPdP+
fOl [pR-(~)o]odP.]oo-~
]o

Note that the second integrand also is integrated from p to 0 on the lower leg
and from 0 to p on the upper leg, but these two (infinite) terms precisely cancel
each other and thus are not represented. The remaining term can be integrated
outright. The right-most integral minus the term R lnpo is a constant, and is
represented here as -s0. Thus,

(12.87)
0 fp
12.5. EVALUATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 921

This is the desired result, the implementation of which is discussed below. The
integrand of the second integral vanishes for the special case of an ideal gas,
leaving a formula which may be familiar.
The corresponding equation for the specific internal energy, u, can be found
by starting with the expression u = u(O, l/p), taking the derivative, substituting
equation (12.84), and integrating as was done for s, to give

The P-v-T relations apply only in the single phase region. This includes, on
its boundary, both the saturated vapor and saturated liquid states. These states
can be identified from a relation in the form of equation (12.81a) because, at any
particular temperature, they are the only two states having the same pressure.
It is nevertheless awkwardto have to cNculate the saturation states this way
every time they are needed. Fortunately, equations of the forms

ps=;s(0),

are widely available.

The pressure, P, is given directly as a function of the density or specific
volume. The specific enthalpy, h, can be computed from its definition

h = u + Pv=_ u + P/p. (12.90)

The plan for evaluating s in the two-phase or saturation mixture region starts
with finding sg, namely the value of s when p = pg at the desired temperature,
by substituting the density p~ from equation (12.89b) as the limit of integration
in equation (12.87). The balance of the answer, s - s~ (which is negative)
theri added. This final term is based on the Clapeyron relation

s - s~ OP
(12.91)

which is derived in most thermodynamics textbooks. Equations of the form

[Psat = Psat(O) ] (12.92)

have been deduced from the P-v-T relations and are widely available to expedite
the evaluation of the right side of equation (12,91).
Changes in enthalpy in the two-phase region associated with changes in
density at constant temperature simply equal the changes in entropy times the
temperature. Thus, in the two-phase region,

h = hg + (s - s~)O. (12.93)
922 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

W.C.Reynolds13 has collected and interpreted data on manysubstances in

the form of equations (12.81), (12.82), (12.89a) and (12.92). Stewart
has done the same for manyregrigerants and several other substances. These
equations are generally very complex, involving manycoefficients with many
significant digits. Relations of the form of equation (12.89b) are conspicuously
missing from Reynolds,but are included in Stewart, whoalso carries out the in-
tegrations to give the entropy (equation (12.87)) and enthalpy (equation (12.90)
with equations (12.8t) and (12.88) substituted) for specific substances.

12.5.2 Helmholtz Analytical Formfor State Properties

The properties of a few substances, including water, ammonium and certain
commonrefrigerants, are available in the form of the Helmholtz free energy
@-- U - 0S as a function of the density and the temperature:

: = ¢(p, 0). ] (12.94)

The arguments of this formulation are the same p, 0 use in the ’P-v-T’ and
c°~ formulation. The Helmholtz form is more convenient, however, since the
entropy, internal energy and pressure are given by simple derivatives (without
the confusion of constants of integration):

o~

r= 1/0 (12.9a)
Thesereplace equations (12.87), (12.88) and (12.81), respectively.
Application to water is given in Section 12.g.6 below. Application to R12,
R22~5
and R123is given by various a’uthors.

12.5.3 Application to Gases

The specific heats c°v of noble gasses such as argon, helium and neon are con-
stants. For nitrogen and oxygen, Reynoldsgives
7
o (12.96)
cv = Z GiOi-4 ÷ a~e~°(\e~/O:
)" "

13William C. ]~eynolds, ThermodYnamic Properties in SI, Department of Mechanical En-

gineering, Stanford University, Stanford CA, 1979.
~4R.B. Stewart et al., ASHRAE Thermodyanrnic Properties of Refrigerants, American So-
ciety of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers, 1988.
15Fluid Phase Equilibria, v 80 (1992), Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam.
12.5. EVALUATION OF THERMODYNAMICPROPERTIES 923

in which the coefficients are constants included in the MATLAB

file Gasda~a.m
that appears in Appendix D. For the pressure-volume-temperature relation,
Reynolds gives

P =pRO+ p’~ AIO + A~O~/~ + ~ AiO 3-i + p3 ~ Ai07-i

i=3 ~ i=6
12
~-~ + pSA~3 + p6(A~4/0 + A~5/~2) + p7At6/O
+ p4 ~ A~O
i=10
pS(A~/O+ A~s/O2) + p9A~9/O~ + [p~(A~o/O2 + A2~/03)
p~(A~2/O~ + A~/O4) + p7(A~/O~ + A~/O3) + pg.(A26/~~ + A27[04)
+ p~(A28/O ~ + A~/e ~) + p~(A~o/e~ + A~/e ~ -~
+ p~
A~2/Oa)]e

(12.97)

This relation also applies to hydrogen, methane, oxygen, nitrogen and air; the
coefficients for oxygen,nitrogen and air are given in gasdaga.m.
For temperatures well above the saturation state, equation (12.97) can
approximatedas an ideal gas, whichmeansneglecting all terms beyondthe first
on its right side. Thesecondintegral in equation (12.87) also vanishes, leaving
for the entropy

~/0 ~/0o + ~ ~ In
+Gs e~/0_l + so.
e~/°o-1 0 00 ~Z~)
(12.98)
The internM energy becomes, from equation (12.88),

~(0~ -o~)+~(0~-0~)
+ ~,(0-0o)+ (12.99)
G~ 4
[: - 1]
e~/oo + uo.

The inclusion of more than the first term in equation (12.97) augmentsthe
relations for entropy and internal energy as follows:

~
s=s~-p. .4~
A~+2~ 0A4 As
( 2A5)
0a -~p~( A~ 0~ 2~)
;~ ( ~l~h.+;~ (~ ~l~h~ al~
~
~kA~°-~/ ~ko +~]+~o~
924 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

U =Uh + p * + A3 + "~- + + "-~ AT + --~- + -~-/

p7 (2~ +3Als~+pS3A~°+~ [3A2o+4A~

+
~. o ~ ~) ~ ~ t~ ~)
[Ae2+5X~3~ [3A2~ 4As5~ [3A~ 5A~v~

[3A2s 4A29~ (3Aso 4A3~ 5A~2~ (12.101a)

1 (1-e-~°~) (12.101b)

Wi+~ ~+~
=~-0 e-~0 l<i<g (12.101c)

The term sm is the entropy of mixture, related to ~he reference state.

Equations (12.98)-(12.99) for an ideal gas at low (literally ~ero) pressure
are evalutated in the MATLAB function file ga~.~ given in AppendixD. The
derivatives Os/OTand O~/OTalso are evaluated, to aid in the evaluation of the
terms in equation (12.80) and similar endeavors.
G~eous Nr usuNly c~ be treated ~ a m~ture of nitrogen, oxygen and
argon. ~he entropy and internal energy can be eMculated by summingthe con-
tributions of each component,using equations (12.98) and (12.99) as com~uted
using gaa .m. Since equation (12.97) applies to the g~ mixture of air, the cor-
rections of equations (12.100)-(12.101) can be applied directly to the mixture
rather than to the individual components.Proper constants sm and ~ for the
mixture should be added, re~lacing the individual s0 and u0. A function m-file
a~r.m, given in AppendixD, uses the equations above and their derivatives to
compute P, u, h = u + P/p, s, Ou/OT, Ou/Ov, Os/OT, Os/Ov ~ OP/OTand
OP/Ov,~ functions of 0 and p. Note that the first two partial derivative terms
are needed to evaluate the differentiM equations for temperature, as given by
equation (12.66), and the additional derivatives can be very useful in evaluating
a state whena ~air of variables other than 0 and 0 (or v = l/p) are known,
such ~ P and ~, for they allow the terms of a Newton-Raphson iteration to be
12.5. EVALUATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 925

evaluated analytically, giving rapid convergence. This procedure is discussed in

Section 12.4.7 (p. 909) above; the derivatives are used in equation (12.80).
that air.m can be used for pure nitrogen or oxygen, also, by setting the mass
weighting coefficients Fo, Fn and the gas constant t~ appropriately.
A separate script file spech.m computes the specific heat of the air mixture,
given the temperature, needed for estimating the flow through a restriction.

EXAMPLE 12.5
A piston-cylinder compressor draws in atmospheric air (temperature 293 K,
density 1.205 kg/m3) and charges an insulated tank from its initial atmo-
spheric state. The tank has volume 0.1 m3. The compressor is driven at
1750 rpm, has a volumetric displacement of 1 × 10-5 m3/rev, an adiabatic
efficiency of 80%, and a volumetric efficiency of 95%. Simulate and plot the
resulting pressure and temperature in the tank for 60 seconds.
Solution: The system can be represented by the bond graph below:

Sy M _

Two state variables are needed, one for the mass of air in the tank and
the other for its temperature. Calling the shaft speed ~, the volumetric
displacement per radian D and the specific volume of the atmospheric air
~in, the first differential equation becomes

dm
dt 0.95Vin

The second differential equation is adapted from equation (12.66) (p. 904):

d~ 1[ ( d~v~]dm
dt - mOu/O0 hour-h+ P + dv ]] ~

The enthalpy of the air leaving the compressor, hour, is found from equation
(12.67). The other terms in the differential equation are fluid properties
in the tank that depend on the state variables m and ~. They can.be
determined by running the routine air.m with the appropriate coefficients
given by gasda~a, m. A function file that computes the differential equations
and the master program follow:

~ction ~=compdi~e(t,x) % diff. equations fo~ compressor/~k

~ charging from atmospheric air
g~oba~ V DPH0 D v~n sin bin vc TC
926 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

gasdata;
v=V/x(1); Z specific volume of air in tank
[P]=air(x(2),l/v); Z call Calf’ just to get the pressure,
~ Then call Cair’ to get the properties of state c:
[Pc,uc,hc,sc,dudTc,dudvc,dsdTc,dsd~c,dPdTc,dPdvc3=air(Tc,1/vc);
E=(P/Pc-l)’2+(sin/sc-l)~2; ~ self-scaled error index
n=O; ~ start a count of the number of iterations
while E>le-8 ~ iterate until error is acceptably small
if n==O ~ that is, for the first iteration only
M=[dPdvc dPdTc;dPdTc dsdTc]; ~ matrix for Newt.-Raphson
q=M\[Pc-P;sc-sin];
vc=vc-q(1); ~ improved estimate, spec. volume, state
Tc=Tc=q(2); ~ improved estimate, temperature, state
else ~ following the suggestion on page 910
vc=vc+(P-Pc)/dPdvc;
Tc=Tc+(sin-sc)/dsdTc;
end ~ Now the revised estimate of the state c is found:
[Pc,uc,hc,sc,dudTc,dudvc,dsdTc,dsdvc,dPdTc,dPdvc]
=air(Tc,i/vc);
E=(P/Pc-l)~2+(sin/sc-l)’2; ~ new (reduced)
n=n+l
end
hout=hc/.8-(1/.8-1)*hin; Z from equation (12,67)
f(1)=DPHO*D/vin*.95; Z first differential equation
f(2)=((hout-h+(P+dudv)*v)*f(1))/x(1)/dudT; second diff. eqn.
f(3)=P; ~ to enable plotting of P
f=f’;
t ~ to see the progress of the simulation on the screen

~ comptank.m, master program for simulation of an air

~ compressor charging a tank from atmospheric air
~ x(1) is the mass of air in the tank; x(2) is its temperature
global V DPHO D vin bin sin vc Tc
V=.I; DPHO=I750*2*pi/60; D=le-4; vin=I/l.205; T0=293;
vc=l; Tc=300; ~ non-critical trial values to get started
gasdata ~ imports the many coefficients that describe air
[P,u,hin,sin]=air(TO,1/vin); ~ finds the needed hin and sin
[t,x]=ode45(’compdife’,[O 60],[V/vin TO 0]);
k=size (t);
i=k(1); ~ for use below to find the pressure,
for j=l:i-i
dt(j)=t(j+l)-t(j); ~ values of time increments
P(j)=(x(j+~,3)-x(j,3))/dt(j) Z P is time deriVativeof
tl(j)=(t(j+l)+t(j))/2; center times of time intervals
end
plot(t,x(:,2),tl,P/lO00).~ plots the temperature and pressure
12.5. EVALUATION OF THERMODYNAMICPROPERTIES 927

The plot that results fromthe final instructions aboveis given below(anno-
tations added). The high temperature reached showsthe importance of the
omitted heat transfer.
4000 , , ,

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

temperature,K_.~.~._.

~ooO~oo ~

,~ ~’0 30 ,0 ~’0 60
time, seconds
The model or air used above above is dry. Atmospheric air normally is
considered a mixture of dry air and water vapor. The ratio of the massof water
vapor to the mass of the dry air is called the absolute or specific humidity,
TP~
~ =v . (12.102)

Assuminga perfect gas, the specific humidity also can be expressed in terms of
the total pressure, P, and the partial pressures of its components,Pa and P~,:

~z= Pv/R~,
Pa/Ra -0"622~ = p_p~.
p~ 0.622P~ (12.103)

Whenthe partial pressure of the water, P,,, equals the saturation pressure of
water, Pg, the air is said to be saturated; it can hold no more water. The
relative humidity, ¢, is the ratio of the actual massof water in the air to this
maximum, or
¢ = my _ P~, _ wP (12.104)
m~ P~ (0.622 + ~)Pg
Should the temperature of a given mixture cool beyond the temperature at
which the relative humidity reaches 1.00, or 100%,knownas the dew point,
the excess water condensesout.
Extensive properties such as the total entropy and enthalpy equal the sumsof
the contributions from the various componentsof the mixture, including water
vaporand, whenit exists, liquid water. A treatment for water is given in Section
12.5.5.
928 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

12.5.4 Application to Refrigerants

Refrigerants changephase in their useful applications. Manyrefrigerants, in-
cluding R-12 (the "freon" workhorse that is nowoutlawed for new equipment
due to its alleged effect on ozone in the upper atmosphere), R-22 (a somewhat
less offensive halogenated hydrocarbonthat is scheduled to be phasedout over
the next 30 years) and R-134a(an emergingpopular refrigerant 16 that does not
attack ozone) have been characterized by the Martin-Houequation of state, in
whichthe specific volumev is the reciprocal of the density, p:

p = R~ ~ 1 (Ai + Bi~ + Cie -K0/~) -k A6 -t- B6~ e-

+ K~/~
C6
v~-b ~
+~ 2 (v -b) e"V(l+ ~v)
ce
(12.105)
The saturation pressure for most refrigerants is given by the single equation

3lnPsat =F1 + F~. F3

-~- + ~ + F~lnO + F~0 + Fo02 + FTO

+ Fs (F9 - 8)ln[(F9 - tg)F~o], (12.106)

in which logi0 sometimesis substituted for ln. The density of the saturated
liquid for most refrigerants is given by
5

Pl = Z DiX(i-l)/3 + D6X1/2 "4- D7X2; X =- 1 - O/Pc. (12.107)

i~1

The density of the satm:ated vapor for most refrigerants is given by

lo "
Pg=pc(O/Oc)E=sexp[~ki=- Ei+11Xi/3] (12.108)

The specific heat for manyof these refrigerants, including R-12 and R-22,
has been given in the form
4
0
Cv = Z GiOi-1 + G50-2 -t- G604.
(12.109)

A slight variation has been used for R-134a:

2 + C~4~
%o= ’Cp° _ R = Cv~- R + Cv.,. 8 + Cv3~ ~ + Cv~/~. (12.110)

To compute the entropy, a procedure similar to that used to give equa-

tion (12.87) (p. 920) can be used. Instead of adding and subtracting the
~6Properties of R-134a are given by D.P. Wilson and R.S. Basun in "Thermodynamic Prop-
erties of a New Stratospherically Safe Working Fluid - Refrigerant 134a," ASHRAE Trans-
actions v. 94 Pt. 2 (1988) pp. 2095-2118.
12.5. EVALUATION OF THERMODYNAMICPROPERTIES 929

-R lnp, however, R ln(v - b) is added and subtracted, the term pR in the in-
tegrand is replaced by R/(v - b), and dp/p2 becomes-dv. Note also that the
partial derivative of P with respect to ~ for constant v must be computedfrom
equation (12.105).
The entropy for the vapor states of substances described by equations (12.105)
and (12.109)

s=JRln(v-b)+ J6A., Bi (v_b)~_~_j av

1- i ae
5 Ci(v - b)~ - i
i~2

+ G3~/2 + G~3/3 - G~/(20 ~) + G~a/4 + ~ (12.111)

and for substances described by equations (12.105) (with B~= 0) and (12.110)
is

s =Rln ( (V -~:~ - ~ l - iB~ (v _ b )~~

~ C~(v - ~-i
b) +Cp~lnO+Cp~O
+~Ke-Ke/e~ i 1
~ 8 ~ C~
+ Cp3~ + Cp4 3 0 + l; (12.112)
whereY is a constantof integration that includes the datumstate entropy,
s0. Entropystates for the saturatedvapor,s~, are calculatedusingthe specific
volume,v~. Entropystates for a saturated mixture then can be computed from
the C]apeyronrelation,

s=s~-(ve-v) ~ (12.113)

in whichdPsa~/dO is foundby differentiating equation(12.106).

The enthalpy for the vapor states of substancesdescribed by equations
(12.105)and(12.109)
5

h = ~ J[A~(v- ~)~1-~/(i_ ~)1jA~/(u~.~)

i=2

-~°/°~ ~ C~(v b)(1-~}

+ J(1 + KO/O~)e ~ + JPv+alO
i=2

+ G~O~/2+ GaOl/3 + G40~/4- G~/O+ G~O~/5+ X, (12.114)

and for substances
describedby equations(12.105)and (12.110)

h ~ Ai(v - ~-~
b)
i 1 + Pv - RO
i~2
930 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

-~ 1 -1- If e--KO/O¢
( ~) S ECi(v-b)(1-il
;-_. ~
-1- CplO -}- Cp202/2

+ Ca~3/3+ C4~4/4+ C,s ln0 + X, (12.115)

where X is the constant of integration that includes the datumstate enthalpy.

In the two-phase saturated mixture region, the enthalpy is computedfrom

h = ha - O(sa - s). (12.116)

Reynoldsgives the coefficients for evaluating equation (12.107) for the density
of the saturated liquid. Fromthe Clapeyronrelation,

s f = sa - -~ ua - ,

so that
hI = ha - O(sg - sf), (12.118)
and the quality becomes
(12:119)
sa - s f"
Thesecalculations are included in the master function file propre~ .m.
Parameters for R-22 and R-134a are given in AppendixD.

12.5.5 Application to Water

The Helmholtz free energy for water has been given by Keenanet a117 in the
form

¢ = ¢0(0) + R0[ln p + pQ(p, T)], (12.120a)

6

¢o = E Ci/Ti-1 + C7 ln0 + Cs lnO/T (12.1205)

i=1

j-
Q ~"
= (v -- To) E(T -- raj) Aij (p - pay)i-’ -E~
+e i-~
Aijp
j=l i=1
(12.120c)
7 ~ 1000/0. (12.120d)

Althoughthe International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam

(IAPWS-IF1997) h~ replaced this modelas the international standard for cal-
~s
culations in the powerindustry with a vastly morecomplexset of formulations,
17J.H. Keenan et al, Steam Tables, Int. ed. 2d ed, Wiley, New York, 1978.
~SWolfgang Wagner, Properties of Water and Steam, Springer-Verlag, 1998.
12.5. EVALUATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 931

the Keenan model should suffice for most purposes. Substitution into equations
(12.95) and (12.92) gives

P=pRO l+pQ+p 2 ~p , ,

s=_R[lnp+pQ_pT(O~p) ]p d¢OdO, (12.121b)

OQ + l + pQ + p~
h = RO pT ~ P
+ dT

The partial derivatives above are best carried out anMytically.

The saturated mixture region can be addressed by using equations (12.116)-
(12.119), which apply to any substance. The needed relations for the satura-
tion pressure, density of the saturated liquid and approximate density of the
saturated vapor are

p~ = p~ ~ + D~[~- 0/0~)~/~ , (~.~b)

p~ =~) exp Ei 1- . (12.122c)

Coe~cients for equations (12.120) and (12.122) ~re given in the program
~aterdat.m at the end of Append~ D. The equations are evaluated in the
program prop~at, which calls the program ste~.m. Equation (12.122b)
due to Reynolds (footnote 13 p. 922), and equation (12.122c) is due to the
thor. This l~t equation is accurate within 0.06% compared to the core model,
producing modest errors in the derived properties. It could be improved.

12.5.6 Case Study: a Refrigeration Cycle

A crude model for the dynamics of a refrigeration cycle is given in Fig. 12.21.
The evaporator is represented by the compliance element CS1, the heater (which
in practice assures that the compressor does not pmnpliquid) by element
the normally superheated inlet region of the condenser by elements CS3 and
and the normally saturated-mixture region of the condenser by CS5. Thermal
compliances for the metal shells of these components are omitted, for simplic-
ity, but in practice could easily be added. Knowntemperature reservoirs are
assumed for the hot and cold sides, and the heater power is given. An ori-
fice, represented by the element RS~, is assumed to accomplish the expansion
process. Elements RS~, RS4 and RS5 also are treated as virtual orifices (with
932 ,CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMICSYSTEMS

hot thermalreservoir
(a) schematic
/ condenser ~
expansion valve ~ .~mpressor
evaporator ~ heater
cold thermalreservoir

(b) convectionbondgraph Sen

3CSs~RS45~ CS4~RS34~CS
T . m45 /1145 m34 m34
p3, h3nlrh23.
P,,h.~orh~[m,~
RSs~ 1S ~_

ds ~RS ~ CS~
O~
l h~
q~ T~=D/v2; T= q~/q~ ; Ts= ~/(1-~)
’1
S,~ S,~

Figure 12.22: Simplemodelof a refrigeration cycle

12.5. EVALUATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 933

muchlarger throat areas) to represent small frictional flow losses. The com-
pressor is driven by a constant-speed shaft, and the moduli T and Ts are set
to give a constant adiabatic efficiency, as described in Example12.2 (pp. 886-
887) and Section 12.4.7 (pp. 909-911). The refrigerant is R-12, the properties
which are given in the computer file "dataR12" in Appendix D. The evaporator
is assumed to emit only saturated vapor, because of gravity separation. The
condenser emits only saturated liquid whenever there is any, also assuming a
gravity separation, but when the chamber is in the superheated region it emits
vapor at its xnean state. The assumed parameters of the system are listed in
Table 12.1.

Table 12.1 Parameter values, refrigeration cycle

parameter symbol value

mass of refrigerant MT 6 kg
specific heat ratio K 1.3
volumetric displacement, compressor D 2.305 × i0 -4 m3/rad
shaft speed,compressor DPH0 28 rad/s
adiabatic efficiency, compressor Eta 0.75
volume, chamber 1 V1 30.0060 m
volume, chamber 2 V2 30.0003 m
volume, chamber 3 V3 30.0006 m
volume, chamber 4 V4 30.0006 m
volume, chamber 5 V5 30.0060 m
heat cond. coefficient, chamber 1 CH1 622 W/K
heat cond. coefficient, chamber 3 CH3 4.07 W/K
heat cond. coefficient, chamber 4 CH4 13.895
heat cond. coefficient, chamber 5 CH5 a49.3 w/~
temperature of cold reservoir TEL 260 K
temperature of hot reservoir TEH 295 K
heater power HH 588.4 W
area, expansion valve A51 1.246 x 10-6 m
’~
area restriction, chambers 1 to 2 A12 2.385 x 10-4 2m
area restriction, chambers 3 to 4 A34 3.762 x 10-4 2m
area restriction, chambers 4 to 5 A45 3.790 x 10-4 m

The state of the system before start-up has a uniform pressure throughout.
Since the evaporator is at the temperature of the cold reservoir, this means
that all liquid is located there; it was blown through through the expansion
valve when the c6mpressor was last shut off. After start-up, however, consider-
able refrigerant slowly migrates through the compressor to the condenser, which
finally enters the saturated mixture region and approaches the steady-state equi-
librium. The temperatures are seen to approach their equilibrium values more
quickly.
934 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

The main MATLAB program for the simulation, called refgmst, is given
below. It defines the parameters, including running dataR12, establishes initial
conditions and calls the basic MATLAB integrator ode23. The state variables
comprise the refrigerant ~nasses in each of the first four chambers (the mass
in the fifth equals the known total mass minus the first four masses) and the
temperatures in each of the five chambers.

~ refgmst.m,master program for simulatingrefrigeratorstart-up

~ Five lumped thermal compliancesassumed: one for the evaporator,
Z one for the heater, and three for the condenser.
~ The state variablesare:
~ x(1) is the mass in the evaporator
~ x(2) is the mass in the heater
~ x(3) is the mass in the condenser,superheatedinlet section
~ x(4) is the mass in the condenser,.superheated exit section
~ The mass in the condenser,nominal saturated mixture section,
~ is m5 which equals the total mass minus the sum of the above.
~ x(5) is the temperaturein the section with mass x(1)
Z x(6) is the temperaturein the sectionwith mass x(2)
~ x(7) is the temperaturein the section with mass x(3)
~ x(8) is the temperaturein the.sectionwith mass x(4)
~ x(9) is the temperaturein the section with mass
~ The compressorruns at a constant speed DPHO, and has a fixed
~ adiabaticefficiencyEta.
~ The expansion comprises flow through an orifice, either liquid
~ (Bernoulli’sequation)or unchoked compressibleflow.
global MT K C D DPHO EO0 TEL TEH Vc Tc Eta
global HH V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 A12 A34 A45 A51CHI CH3 CH4 CH5
A12=2.385e-4; A34=3.762e-4; A45=3.79e-4; A51=1.246e-6; C=.35506;
Vl=6e-3; V2=.3e-3; Y3=.6e-3;~Y4=.6e-3; VS&6e-3; Eta=.75; HH=588.4;
vh=.099513; vg=.08539; x2=V2/vg; x3=V3/vh; h4=V4/vh; x5=VS/vh;
xl=(MT-x2-x3-x4-xS); K=l.3; C=.355; D=2.305e-4; DPH0=28; E00=le-12;
CH1=622; CH3=4.07; CH4=13.895; CH5=849.3; TEL=260; TEH=295; MT=6;
Tc=260; Vc=.08; ~ values to start the simulation
dataR12 ~ gets the coefficientsthat describe the refrigerant
xO=[xl x2 x3 x4 TEL TEL TEH TEH TEH]; ~ initial conditions
[t,x]=odefBs(’refrigde’,[O 14],x0); ~ integratorfor stiff systems

The bulk of the programming for the refrigerator resides in the function
m-file refrgde, which gives the differential equations. This program starts by
computing the five specific volumes from the mass state variables. It then com-
municates these values and the corresponding five temperatures to the routine
propre~, and receives back all the needed (and some unneeded) derivative state
variables for each of the five chambers. The mass flow rate through the com-
pressor (dm23) then can be computed:
12.5. EVALUATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 935

function f=refrgde(t,x) Z differential equations for refgmst.m

global MT E C D DPHO EO0 TEL TEH Vc Tc Eta
global HH V1 ~2 V3 ~4 V5 AI2 A23 A34 A45 A51CH1CH2 CH3 CH4 CH5
m5=MT-x(1)-x(2)-x(3)-x(4) ~ mass in chamber
vl=Vl/x(1);v2=V2/x(2);v3=V~/x(3);v4=V4/x(4);v5=V5/m5;
[Pl,hl,hgl,sl,sgl,vfl,vgl,hfl,dsdvl,dsdTl,dudvl,dudTl,dPsl,d2Psl,
dvdgl,dsgl,dugdvl,dugdTl,dPdvl,dPdTl]=propref(vl,x(5));
[P2,h2,hg2,s2,sg2,vf2,vg2,hf2,dsdv2,dsdT2,dudv2,dudT2,dPs2,d2Ps2,
dvdg2,dsg2,dugdv2,dugdT2,dPdv2,dPdt2]=propref(v2,x(6));
[P3,h3,hg3,s3,sg3,vf3,vg3,hf3,dsdv3,dsdT3~dudv3,dudT3,dPs3,d2Ps3,
dvdg3,dsg3,dugdv3,dugdT3,dPdv3,dPdT3]=propref(v3,x(7);
[P4,h4,hg4,s4,sg4,vf4,vg4,hf4,dsdv4,dsdT4,dudv4,dudT4,dPs4,d2Ps4,
dvdg4,dsg4,dugdv4,dugdT4,dPdv4,dPdt4]=propref(v4,x(8));
[Pl,h5,hg5,sS,sgS,vf5,vg5,hf5,dsdv5,dsdT5,dudv5,dudTS,dPs5,d2Ps5,
dvdgS,dsgS,dugdvS,dugdT5,dPdvS,dPdT5]=propref(v5,x(9));
dm~=D*DPHO/v~~ the flow pumped by the compressor;
The program continues with the tricky job of finding the enthalpy hideal ~hc
that would exist downstream of the compressor were that machine operating
reversibly. As described in Section 12.4.7 (p. 910), the entropy and the pressure
of this state equal s2 and Pa, respectively; a Newton-Raphsoniteration with
full evaluation of derivatives in the appropriate state regime (superheated or
saturated mixture) is carried out. The actual enthalpy h3n of the outflow ~om
the compressor, resulting ~oman adiabatic efficiency of 75%, is then computed:

~ Start by using values of Vc and Tc from the previously

~ determinedstate as the first trial:
[Pc,hc,hgc,sc,sgc,vfc,vgc,hfc,dsdvc,dsdTc,dudvc,dudTc,dPsc,d2Psc,
dvdgc,dsgc,dugdvc,dugdTc,dPdvc,dPdTc]=propref(Vc,Tc));
E=(Pc-P3)’2*le-12+(sc-s2)’2~le-4 ~; weighted error value
vc=Vc;
while E>E00 ~ iterate to get vc and Tc for Pc=P3 and sc=s2
M= [dPdvcdPdTc; dsdvcdsdTc];
q=M\[Pc-P3; sc-s2]
vc=vc-q(1)
Tc=Tc-q(2);
[Pc,hc,hgc,sc,sgc,vfc,vgc,hfc,dsdvc,dsdTc,dudvc,dudTc,dPsc,
d2Psc,dvdgc,dsgc,dugdvc,dugdTc,dPdvc,dPdTc]=propref(vc,Tc));
E=(Pc-P3)^2,le-l~+(sc-s2)’2~le-4;
end
h3n=hc/Eta+(l-1/Eta)*h2;~ compressorenthalpy (eqn. (~2.67))

The gravity separation that sometimes takes place at the outlet of the con-
denser is then recognized. Next, the program orifice is called repeatedly to
compute the flows through the four actual or virtual fixed orifices, including
the expansion valve. (This program, given in Appendix D, is more general than
936 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

is needed for the present simulation; it permits the inflow to be a saturated

mixture or a compressed liquid as well as a saturated liquid or a superheated
vapor.) This leads directly to the differential equations for the rates of change
of mass in chambers 1 - 4, that is the first four state variables (note that the
rate of change in the fifth chamber equals minus the sum of the other four):

if v5<vg5
h5e=hfS; ~ sets the enthalpy of condenser outflow to that for
~ saturated liquid
else
hSe=hS;
end
[dml2]=orifice(Al2,Pi,P2,vl,v2,vfl,vf2,vgl,vg2,x(5),x(6));
[dmS4]=orifice(A34,P3,P4,vS,v4,vf3,vf4,vg3,vg4,x(Z),x(8));
[dm45]=orifice(A45,P4,P5,v4,v5,vf4,vf5,vg4,vg5,x(8),x(9));
[dm51]=orifice(A56,PS,P6,v5,v6,vf5,vf6,vg5,vg6,x(9),x(5));
f (i)=dm51-dml2
f (2) =dm12-dm23
f (3) =d~23-4m34;
f(4)=dm3~-dm45;~ Completes first four differentialequations.
fS=-f(1)-f(2)-f(3)-f(4); ~ rate of change of mass in chamber
% (The mass in chamber 5 is not a state variable)

Finally, the five differential equations for the chamber temperatures are
given. Recall, from Section 12.5.4, that different equations are used for the
superheated vapor and saturated mixture regions. Which to use is determined
by comparing the specific volume v with the specific volume for saturated vapor
vg at the same temperature:

den=x(1)*((dugdvl+Pt-x(5)*dPsl)*dvgl+dugdTl-x(5)*d2Psl*(vgl-vl));
f(5)=(CHl*(TEL-x(5))+(h5e-hl)*dm51-(hgl-hl)*dm12
+x(5)*dPsl*vl*f(1))/den;
if v2>vg2
f(6)=(HH+CH2*(TEL-x(6))+(hgl-h2)*dml2+(P2+dudv2)*v2*f(2))
/dudT2/x(2);
else
den=x(2)*((dugdv2+P2-x(6)*dPs2)*dvg2+dugdT2
-x(6)~d2Ps2~(vg2-v2));
f(6)=(CHl~(TEL-x(6))+(hgl-h2)~dml2+x(6)~dPs2~v2~f(2))/den;
end
f(7)=(CH3~(TEH-x(7))+(h3n-h3)~dm23+(P3+dudv3)~v3~f(3))/dudT3/x(3);
f(8)=(CH4~(TEH-x(8))+(h3-h4)~dm34+(P4+dudv4)~v4~f(4))/dudT4/x(4);
if v5>=vg5
f(9)=(CH5*(TEH-x(9))+(h4-h5)*dm45-(h5e-h5)*dm51
+(PS+dudvS)*vS*f5)/dudT5/mS;
else
12.5. EVALUATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 937

heat in
asymptote
5
heat, heat ~
power,
¯ 350
ratio, 4
/__~.~ emperamre, chamber 3

mass5 325
K
temperature,

//
asymptote
/" /

~ tem~rat~e, chamber 5 ’ - 300

’ ~ hot reservo"~

fref~iger~t mass, temperate, cola reservoir"

eh..~._~_~r5, kg,% chamber 1 \
0
0 2 4 6 8 I0 12 4
time, seconds

Figure 12.23: Start-up of the refrigeration system

den=m5*((dugdv5+P5-x(9)*dPs5)*dvgS+dugdT5-x(9)*d2PsS*(vgS-vS));
f(9)=(CHS*(TEH-x(9))+(h4-hS)*dm45-(hSe-hS)*dmS1
+x(9)*dPsS*vS*fS)/den;
end

Vc=vc;

Selected results are plotted in Fig. 12.23. Temperature equilibrium is ap-

proached long before mass equilibrium; only the former occurs (virtually) in the
14 seconds shown. The condenser reaches saturation state at about three sec-
onds, and holds there for awhile, rapidly alternating between discharging liquid
and vapor. After eight seconds the discharge is pure liquid. Were less refrig-
erant used, mass equilibrium would occur sooner, and the blow-down process
following shut-down also would be faster.

12.5.7 Application to the Liquid Region

There are two different approaches to evaluating properties in the liquid region.
The first uses either the ’P - v - T’ or the Helmholtz formulation, which may
or may not apply in this region for a particular substance, depending upon
the data used in its generation. The second approach uses a simple model
including a specific heat and a bulk modulus. The first approach is most apt
for states near the critical point, where the specific heat and bulk modulus are
938 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

far from constant. The second approach is usually quite satifactory for lower
temperatures.
Direct use of a ’P-v-T’ equation can give an inaccurate pressure, since in
the liquid region pressure is extremely sensitive to small changes in density
or specific volume. For a discussion and procedure to increase accuracy, see
19
Reynolds.
The simpler model gives the pressure as the sum of the saturation pressure
at the same temperature plus a pressure difference due to compression with a
constant bulk modulus, ~:

P = P~r+ ~ln (vsa,~. (12.123)

The internal energy, u, equals the internal energy of the saturated liquid at the
same temperature, defined ~ ui~, plus the work done in compressing the liquid:

u=uyo+ Pdv=u]o+~ v-vi+vln ~ . (12.124)

The entropy is unchanged in an assumed reversible process, and the enthalpy

can be found from its definition h = u + Pv. The term Ou/O~, necessary for
differential equation for temperature (equation (12.66), p. 904), is assumedto
a constant specific heat, c, values of which usuMlyare available. The values of cv
and c, are assumed to be the same, which is exactly true only for incompressible
substances.
The value of the bulk modulus may not be so readily available, but it can be
estimated from data for saturated liquid. If the internal energy at the saturated
state having the same specific volume, v, (rather than ui0 , which is at the same
temperature) is defined as ui~ , the internal energy is approximately

u = ufv + c(0 - 0i~), (12.125)

where 0]~, is the temperature of that saturated state. Equating the two equations
for the internM energy given by equations (12.124) and (12.125) gives, Mter
little algebra,

fl = 2[u]~, - ui8 ~
+ c(O - O]v)] (12.126)
v(1- v/v]o)
A sample calculation uses tabular data for refrigerant R12 at the tempera-
tures of -20°C and 20°C:

Z =2117,
~~ 720 - 54,440 + 977(20 - 720)
~~~0~) = 0.689 ~ ~0" P~ = ~6,000 psi.
(~2.127)
This value is almost half that of water, showing that the liquid is nearly in-
compressible for most purposes. As a practical matter, a simulation involving
occ~ional compressed liquid states with this bulk modulus Coul~ have differ-
ential equations so "stiff" that solution is significantly impeded. Little error
~gSee footnote 13 (p. 922).
12.5. EVALUATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 939

would be introduced by the expedient of decreasing the assumed bulk modulus.

One could also recognize that, in reality, the effective bulk modulus is apt to
be significantly lower than the theoretical value, because of the effects of the
expansion of the container due to pressure-induced stresses, and. the microscopic
vapor bubbles that usually abide in surface cracks.

12.5.8 Considerations of Reversing Flows

The differential equations for temperature include terms for the enthalpy fluxes
entering and leaving the control volume. Whena flow reverses, the differen-
tial equation itself needs to be changed, since the source of one or more fluxes
changes. The switching can be implemented simply through the use of i/state-
ments.
Sometimes these//statements can result in a false simulation, however. This
occurs when the different evaluations of a flow rate within a single time step, as
organized by the Runga-Kutta integration algorithm, produce different signs.
This would not be meaningful physically. You are urged to keep a vigil for
this phenomenon, and take special corrective steps should it occur. The first
telltale sign may be a distinct sensitivity of a result to the step sizes (or error
index) used. You also can display the running values of a flow on the screen,
and directly witness a rapidly alternating sign.
A simple remedy for this phenomenon is to put the the flow rates or the
enthalpy fluxes themselves through a simple smoothing filter. The chamber has
a residence time, so the model is reasonable as long as the assumed time constant
for such a filter is shorter than this time. For the time constant to be effective,
on the other hand, it should be larger than the time steps. This procedure does
not guarantee total elimination of the phenomenon,but it radically curtails any
errors than might otherwise accrue.

12.5.9 Summary

The thermodynamic properties of substances are measured in terms of pressure-

volume-temperature relations and specific heat relations, the latter at asymp-
totically small pressures. The independent variables are temperature and spe-
cific volume (or density). Pressure, enthalpy, entropy and internal energy are
treated as derivative properties. The data for a wide variety of pure substances
is available in the form of complex algebraic equations, with manycoefficients
but far less data than required by a table of properties. This permits direct
computation to replace table look-up with its interpolation. The data for sev-
eral commonsubstances have been converted to a Helmholtz formulation, from
which the derivative properties can be deduced in a similar but somewhat sim-
pler manner. This section has presented the necessary basic analytical equa-
tions. Applications to ideal gases, with air as a specific example, multiphase
pure substances with refrigerants as a specific example, and compressed liquids
have been discussed. MATLAB coding is given in Appendix D for the cases of
air (or its components oxygen or nitrogen), refrigerant R-12 and water.
940 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

The assumption of thermodynamicequilibrium overlooks certain highly com-

plex dynamicprocesses that occur in very rapid phase change. The bubble nu-
cleation and growththat limits the rate of flashing (rapid boiling) is an example.
Examplesof an air compressorand a refrigeration system have been used.to
illustrate the completeprocess of writing differential equations and evaluating
the various terms, including MATLAB coding.

Guided Problem 12.4

The simulation equations for the air piston compressor presented in Section
12.4.6 (pp. 905-909) assumes an ideal gas with constant specific heats. Carry
out a moreprecise simulation by representing the air as a mixture of nitrogen,
oxygenand argon, as described in Section 12.5.3 (pp. 922-924). The script files
gasdata.m and spech.m and the function file a±r.m, all of which appear in
Appendix D, may be used.

Suggested Steps:

1. Define a set of state variables, using the bondgraph given in Fig. 12.15
(p. 906) as a guide. Use the temperatures of the gas and the walls, rather
than their entropies that were used in Section 12.4.6. Usingthe gas tem-
perature, in particular, precludes the need for iteration in dealing with the
properties.
2. Writethe correspondingset of state differential equations.
3. Codethe differential equationsin a function m-file that calls on the avail-
able property files as necessary.
4. Write a master programthat calls the integrator ode23s, which in turn
calls your function file for the differential equations. The master program
can call the file gasdata.monce, and transfer the results via a ’global’
statement. System parameters and initial conditions are given on the
samepage as the results plot.
5. Carry out a simulation for the same 0.1 seconds shownin Fig. 12.16 (p.
908), and plot the results. The results should be the same, since this is
the procedure used to producethat figure.
PROBLEMS

12.12 A tank charged with oxygen discharges into the atmosphere through
nozzle of effective area 0.0001 m3. The tank has a volumeof 0.5 m3 and is
equipped with a check valve that prevents reverse flow. The initial pressure
of the gas is 5.0 MPaabsoute (about 720 psi gage), and its temperature is
equilibrium with the 300 K surroundings, to give a specific volumeof 0.01516
mU/kg. Heat flows into the tank with the conduction coefficient 1.0. W/K.
Simulate the discharge for a period of 120 Seconds.Plot the resulting massand
12.5. EVALUATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 941

temperature as a function of time. Check to make sure that the oxygen remains
in the gaseous phase. (The condition at the moment the check valve closes is
the greatest threat to this assumption; you could merely print out the running
specific volume on the screen and compare its values at that instant to those in
a table or plot of properties.)

12.13 The refrigerator simulated in Section 12.5.6 is running at equilibrium

when it is shut off. You are asked to find the mass distribution and the tem-
peratures until equilibrium is reached. To simplify the model and simulation,
ignore all volumes and masses except for the principal condenser and evaporator
(which contain almost all of the refrigerant anyway). Since the compressor
not running, its flow is zero; the problem is essentially a blow-downfrom one
tank to another through a fixed orifice. You may assume that the two tanks
have the same volume of 0.006 m3, and start with equal masses of 3 kg. The
condenser starts at 304.3K and the evaporator at 251.5K.

12.14 Model.a steam catapult for use on an aircraft carrier as a single variable
chamber that acts on a piston of area 0.024 m~ to push an aircraft of mass
16000 kg. The aircraft engine is producing a thrust of 100,000 N. The chamber
initially contains saturated mixture at 600 K with specific volume 0.002 m3/kg.
Assumethe take-off is so fast that no water enters or leaves the chamber, and
there is negligible heat transfer. Assumean equilibrium flashing process, and
neglect friction. Simulate the take-off for the length of the catapult, which is
100 m. Determine the necessary initial size of the chamber if the final velocity
is to be 55 m/s. (Note: Problem 12.8, p. 916, is a start.)

12.15 A fluid chamber is normally in the saturated-mixture region, but some-

times enters the compressed-liquid region. Show what coding changes or addi-
tions would be needed, using the coding for the refrigeration cycle in Section
12.5.6 as reference.

12.16 The flow dml2 normally entering a chamber 2 from chamber 1 and the
flow din23 normally leaving chamber 2 to enter chamber 3 may reverse direction.
Assume that chamber 2 is in the saturated mixture region, and that the port
from chamber 1 is above the level of the liquid and the port to chamber 3 is
below that level. Write code for the differential equation for the temperature of
chamber 2.

SOLUTION TO GUIDED PROBLEM

Guided Problem 12.4
1. The first two state variables can be the same as before: the volume of the
cylinder, V, and the massof the air therein, m. Thenext two state variables are
chosen as the temperature of the air in the cylinder, 8, and the temperature of
the walls of the cylinder, ~. (Alternatively, you could stick with the entropy of
the walls of the cylinder, So, but for the air the use of equation(12.66) (p. 904),
which precludes the need for iteration, demandsthe use of its temperature.)
942 CHAPTER 12. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

dt
dO ~ H(Oc-O)+(h~-h)~,l+ P+
--
dt mOu/O8 ’
~ = F ¯ I~1 + H(~- ~).
dt
The flo~ through the valves, ~ and ~2, ~e given by equations (12.76) (p.
907, not reproduced here), which are approximations since they ~sume a con-
st~t value for the specific heat. This value, for the mixture of air, is computed
in a script m-file Spacheat.m which is given in Appendix D.

function f=aircompd(t,x) ~ derivatives for simulation of

X air compressor
~ x(1) is the volume of the cylinder
~ x(2) is the mass of the air in the cylinder
~ x(3) is the absolute temperature of that mass
~ x(4) is the absolute temperature of the cylinder wall
~ dml and dm2 are the mass flows into and out from the
~ cylinder, respectively
global Pl T1 H1 P2 Cm C Hc Hc0 Dphi PF V1 al R E1 E2 A0 T
rho=x(2)/x(1); ~ density of the
[P,u,h,s,dudT,dudv]=feval(’air’,x(3),rho); ~ finds air properties
T=x(3); specheat; ~ finds cvm (slightlyvarying specific heat)
k=R/cvm+l:E3=2/k; E4=l+l/k; A=al*sqrt(2*k/(k-1)/K);
Prl=P/P1; Pri=P2/P; ~ pressure ratios across valves
if Prl<l; dml=AO*Pl*sqrt((Prl’El-Pri’E2)/Tl);else;dml=O;end;
if Pri<l; dm2=A*P*sqrt((Pr2"E3-Pri~E4)/T); else; dmi=O;
f(1)=Y1*Dphi*sin(Dphi*t)~ ~ first differentialeqn., for volume
f(2)=dml-dm2;~ second differentialequation, for mass
f(3)=(Hc*(x(4)-T)+(Hl-h)/T*dml+(P+dudv)*(f(2)/rho-f(1)))/x(2)/dudT;
f(4)=(Hc*(T-x(4))-Hco*(x(4)-Tl)+PF*abs(f(1)))/Cm/C;
f(5)=P; ~ to enable the prin~ing or plotting of P (see below)
f=f’;
t ~ to let you see the progess of an extended simulation on screen

The various constants are defined in the master program below; values are
taken from those listed on pages 908-909. The fifth differential equation is
given to enable the plotting of the pressure, P. (Since P is the derivative,
simple numerical differentiation of x (5) is necessary. This is a way of plotting
muy variable other than a state variable without having to recompute it as a
function of state ~ariables.)

~ file aircompm.m,the master program for a simple piston air

~ compressor
global PI T1 HI P2 Cm C Hc Hco Dphi’ PF VIal R El E2 AO T
Pl=le5; TI=293; HI=452540;Pi=4e5; Cm=l; C=.45; Hc=.012; Hco=.12;
Dphi=185; PF=2000; Vl=2.Se-4;al=4e~4; VO=le-4; mO=3.15e-4;
12.6. SYSTEMS WITH CHEMICAL REACTION* 943

T=T1; gasdata;
specheat; kl=l+R/cvm; El=2/kl; E2=l+l/kl;
gO=al*sqrt(2*kl/(kl-l)/K);
[t,x]=ode23(~aircompd’,[O .1],[VO mO 440 744 0]);

Theplots of Fig. 12.16 (p. 908) result fromthe followingpost-simulationMAT-

LABprogram:

tl=t(l:size(t)-l);Z time vector shortened one

P=diff(x(:,5))./diff(t);Z P is the derivativeof
dm=diff(x(:,2))./diff(t);Z mass flow is the derivativeof
plot(t,x(:,l)*le4,t,x(:,3)/lOO,tl,P/leS,tl,dm*lO0)
Z plots volume,
temperature,pressure and mass flow, respec%ively,as scaled

12.6 Systems with Chemical Reaction*

The dynamicsof chemical reactions ("chemical kinetics") depends on transport
phenomenasuch as mixing and diffusion mechanismsas well as the local prop-
erties of composition, temperature and density. This section introduces the
subject, with emphasis on lumpedmodels, which implies the ideal case of well
2°
mixedreactants. Muchof the bondgraph notation used is that of the author.

12.6.1 Energy of a Pure Substance

The thermodynamicenergy of a pure substance has been represented by a three-
ported compliance, as shownin Fig. 12.24 part (a), where~q is the conduction
entropy flux. Recalling equations (12.53), (12.55) and footnote 10 (pp. 900-901),

Y = Y(S, V, m), (12.128)

(OY)
0 = OS v,,~ (12.129a)

_p = 0(_~=~..),
(12.129b)
S,m
h = Os + g, (12.129c)
g -- . (12.129d)
V,S

Whenchemical reactions are involved, focusing on the Gibbsfunction g is espe-

cially helpful. This can be done in a bondgraph by separating the terms 0s and
g with a 1-junction, as shownin part (b) of the figure. The bondwith effort
and flow ~h is then connected to a bondwith effort 8 and flow srh by an ideal
2°F.T. Brown, "Convection Bond Graphs," Journal of the Franklin Institute, w 328 n. 5/6,
1991, pp. 871-886.
944 CHAPTER 12 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

8-
& T.__s.
~Ie~v
,h=g+~s~ -p , .h=g+&~. g ~_ _p
~ l ~ C ~m V
t=--==~.’~.’-.’-~ ¯
(a) previousversion, (b) reticulated version,
pure substance pure substance

(c) C element, more ~ (d) vector bond version

one species of (c)

Figure 12.24: Thermodynamicenergy storage

transformer having modulus s. This moduluscma change in time, but may not
changedrastically.
The flow srh is the convection entropy flux due to the mass transport into
(or out of) the system. Whenthis is added to the conduction entropy flux ~q
through the use of a zero junction, the result is the total entropy flux, ~. The
product Os~his the energy flux directly associated with the convection entropy
flux. The product grh is the total "free energy" flux which conveys work but
no entropy whatsoever. Note that its Bondand the bond for the effort Os are
simple bonds.

12.6.2 Energy of Multiple Species

Whenmore than one substance is present, equation (12.128) is modified
V = V(S, V, ml, m2, m3,...), (12.130)
so that

0= 0(~_~) , (12.131a)

-P= O(’-~V)s , (12.131b)

O(~-~m/) (12.131c)

The C element of part (c) of the figure represents this relationship, in which
each ~i is a partial Gibbs function known~ a chemical potential, although
the constraints betweenS ~d ml, ..., mnare not as yet shown.
12.6. SYSTEMS WITH CHEMICAL REACTION* 945

A bundle of bonds of similar type is represented widely in the literature by

a vector bond, drawn with two solid parallel lines:

This notation permits the graph of part (c) of Fig. 12.24 to be represented
shown in part (d). The vector nature of ~ and ~ is acknowledged through the
use of bold-faced type.

12.6.3 Stoichoimetric Coefficients and Reaction Forces

A chemical reaction of arbitrary complexity can be described by

li~P ~- ~ ~ Pi, (12.132)

i=1 i=1

where fii is the molar density and l/~ and li~’ are the stoichoimetric coetilcients
for the ith species. For example,

3H ~ He + H

gives li~ = 3, li~ = 1, li~2 = 0, li~2 = 1. Similarly,

2NO + 02 ~ 2NO.~

It02 : 1, l/tt02 -~ O, I ItN02

giveslifo= 2, UN Or!~- O, I --~ 0, l/NO
:’’ = 2. Thefirst
consideration here is a reaction in a closed chamber (no mass flows across its
boundaries) of volume V, which could vary in time. A cylinder of an engine
with its valves closed is an example. The molar densities are thus
rn~
~i = V Mi ’ (12.133)

where the Mi are the respective molar masses.

A reaction rate 7~ is defined such that for each species,

rhi = Mi(li~’ - l/~)~: (12.134)

Note that the signs are chosen so that if 7~ is positive, the reaction proceeds
from left to right. Note also that the stoichoimetric coefficients are constrained
to satisfy the conservation of mass
n
=o.
946 CHAPTER 12 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

TI = Mj(v~"-v~’)
//o.- ~ ml
~ = M~(~"-v~’)
~ 1/...~.-.-r:~:
T~=M~(v~’
’- 3 ’)
:~ m~

(a) simple bonds (b) vector bond

Figure 12.25: Stoichoimetric coefficients and reaction force

The constraints of equation (12.134) are represented by the bondgraph of Fig.

12.25, in which part (b) gives a vector-bond-graphshorthand for part (a).
effort e, knownas a reaction force or chemical al~nity, results naturally:

(12.136)
i=l i-~l

The reaction force will be evaluated for the ideal gas and the ideal solution. For
the ideal gas,
Pi = ~i - 0gi, (12.137)
in which the enthalpy ~i is a function of temperature only, while ~ is also a
function of pressure. Further, the T ds relation

0 ds = dh - v dP (12.138)

mandates
(12.139)
OP~)o 0 Pi
so that, assumingalso the equation of state Pivi = ROi,

= #~ + RO _o___
Pi #~ + RO In , (12.140)

in which/2/0is the value of/2~ at temperature0 and reference pressure Po, which
usually is taken as one atmosphere.A similar result applies to the ideal solution:

#~=#/0+ RO
in . (1~.141)
HerePi is the molardensity of the ith species of solute or solvent, and p~0is the
value of/2i at temperature0 and concentration t~0.
12.6. SYSTEMSWITH CHEMICALREACTION* 947

The reaction force or affinity for the ideal gas nowbecomes

u i -ui tt~+R~ln

= _ E(,~ , --oROln[~(~)
" - ~)~ / (12.142)

The product e~ is an energy flux that generates entropy, nnd is a me~sureof

irreversibility.

12.6.4 Chemical Equilibrium

For chemicalequilibrium at temperature 0, no entropy ~s generated even in the
presence of a virtual displacement5~, so that ~ = 0. Thus,

~(~ , -o ln/~f’ ~¢I / (12.143)

wherethe subscript ¢ imitates equilibrium, With the definitions

K~ ~ ~l~) , (12.144a)

K.e ~tE) (12.144b)

’

substitution of equation (12.143) into (12.142) gives

~ = -R~(InK -lnK~) -RO ln (~) (12.145)

or

K~ = exp - . (12.146)
The subscript g h~ been dropped from K~ ~d K~e here, because the same
result follows for the ideal solution if one substitutes the followingK~and K~,
respectively:

K~ ~ ~(~(~’-’~} (12.147a)
~o/ ’

K~ ~--~(~(~7-G) (12.147b)

K~ (and Kse and K~) is knownus an equilibrium constant. It is a readily

calculablg function of temperature based on the thermodynamicproperties of
948 CHAPTER 12 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

the components. For the ideal gas, for example, inverting equation (12.143)
gives
1 E(u~ _ u,i,)p
Kge = exp ~-~ (12.148)

Knowledgeof the equilibrium constant permits calculation of the partial pres-

sures or concentrations of the components at equilibrium. In general this is
awkward, as the direct computation of the equilibrimn of any type of system
often is awkward because of the simultaneous nonlinear algebraic equations.
The approach here, as with non-chemical systems, is to simulate the behavior
in time. Equilibrium is achieved ultimately in the absence of disturbances; if
the details of the dynamics are of no interest, convergence to the equilibrium
state can be hastened by assuming artificially high reaction rates.

12.6.5 Reaction Rates

The actual reaction rates are given at least approximately by the law of mass
action, which specifies that for a one-step reaction

- ~
7~ = V kf fil ~’’ , (12.149)
L i=l \pO] -- b

in which kf and kb are the forward and backward specific reaction-rate co-
efficients, respectively. The reaction rate vanishes at equilibrium, so that the
ratio of these two coefficients is

where,as before, ~he subscrip~e designates ~he equilibrium condition. As no~ed,

employin~~he definition of K~ from equ~kion{1~.147a), ~here results

~ = VhyH(~ 5 (1- K~ {12.151)

The same form results %r the ide~ g~,

(12.1~2)

and the subscripts s and g may be removed.

Like Ke, k.f is a function of temperature which depends on the particular
reaction. Normally it is given the form
-E/
kf RO
= .BOO~e (12.153)
12.6. SYSTEMS WITI-I CHEMICALREACTION* 949

T~

T tt ~Ca -P

Figure 12.26: Reaction in a closed container

E is called the activation energy; the Arrhenius factor e -E/RO is the fraction
of the total numberof molecularcollisions betweenthe reacting chemicalspecies
for whichthe energy is sufficient to induce a reaction. The balance of the right
side is proportional to the numberof collisions. Along with the frequency
factor B and the quantity a, E is a constant parameter determined by the
nature of the reaction. They are commonlydetermined empirically; a is most
frequently ~et equal to 0, =k½or 1.
Substitution of equation (12.146) into (12.151) for the solution or (12.152)
for the ideal gas reveals, respectively,
~
/ = Vkfi=lLOo
- e-~/n° , (12.154a)

~=~kP0]
~
as the constitutive relation whichdetermines the reaction rate ~ as a function
of the reaction force or affinity, the temperature and the densities or partial
pressures of the componentspecies. Note that the factor in square brackets
vanishes for ~ = 0, equals e/ROfor values thereof very small comparedto unity
(near equilibrium), and reaches unity asymptotically for large values of e/RO.

12.6.6 Models of Reactions Without Mass Flows

The energy flux eT~ is converted irreversibly to heat, muchlike mechanical
workis converted to heat by friction. Like the friction example,therefore, this
conversion is represented in our bondgraph by an RS element, as shownin Fig.
12.26. The generation of entropy is determinedby the required conservation of
energy: ~7~-= 0~. The boundarybondon the top of the graph permits.,heating
or cooling of the system. The boundarybond on the right permits the volume
to change,as in the cylinder of an engine.
It has been assumedtacitly that the chemicalreaction is a one-step process.
Mostimportant reactions are not. For example, the reaction
2NO + 2H~ ~ N~ + 2H~O
taken withv~o=2, U~o =0,H2 v’ =2, Ha u" =O,u’
N2 =O,u"
N2 =l,u’H~O =0,
u{}2o= 2 gives an incorrect reaction rate if interpreted with the equations above.
950 CHAPTER 12 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

Figure 12.27: Multi-step reaction in a closed container

Twoseparate reactions in fact take place, for whichthe results apply separately:

2NO+ He ~ N2 + H2G~2

HeO2 + He ~ 2HeO
The secondreaction takes place muchfaster .than the first; often it is assumed
to be in equilibrium. Anynumber of elemental reactions can be accomodated
without such an approximation,, however, by implementing the bond graph of
Fig. 12.27. One reaction rate T/j and corresponding element RSj is used for
each elemental reaction.
The actual reaction rate in a combuster, for example, can be muchslower
than the equations abovewouldgive, because the properties are not uniform over
the volumedue to diffusion and mixing phenomena.In such cases empirically
determinedrate coefficients might be used. Frequently, also, reactions occur so
quickly that it matters little whatcoefficients are used, as long as they are not
too small. In these cases it is the rate of the massflows into and out of the
system that controls the dynamics.

12.6.7 Models of Reactions With Mass Flows

A systemwith two in-flows and one out-flow is shownin the bondgraph of Fig.
12.28. The HS elements are employed as in a non-reacting CS element. The
rates of change of masses in the control volumeare ~hv, and the mass fluxes
undergoingreaction are rhr; in the absence of in-flows or out-flows these would
be the same. The heart of the graph - the C and the loop with the two zero
junctions, the two transformers and the RS element - is not affected by the mass
influxes or effiuxes. Causal strokes are applied in the usual mannerto direct
the routine writing of state equations. The addition of further mass fluxes can
be accomodateddirectly.
The output bond with a solid line between two parallel dashed lines is a
generalization of the convection bond for two or more componentspecies. An
12.6. SYSTEMS WITH CHElVlICAL REACTION* 951

Figure 12.28: Single-step reaction with two in-flows and one out-flow

absence of internal diffusion is assumedin the definition. The numberof state

variables equals two plus the numberof species present, or five in the example
shown, including the three mass flows, pressure and one convected property.
The causal stroke applies to the massfluxes and the pressure. Note that this
bond can be reduced to a simple convection bond if the species are assumed
to retain their proportions subsequently due to an absence of further chemical
reaction or phase change.
The system as represented can be defined as a single macro-elementfor com-
putational purposes. A complicated system could include several st/ch macros.
Distributed-parameter systems, such as a single spherical lump of coN, might
be represented by several such macro-elements. The discussion above plus the
examplesgiven in Section 12.5 for non-reacting systems indicate howthis can
be done, but the detailed developmentof software is left as unfinished business.

12.6.8 Summary
The energy of a system comprising a well-mixed pure substance has been rep-
resented as a function of its total entropy, total volumeand total mass. When
a mixture of potentiMly reactive substances is involved, the only difference is
that the massesof the individual species are needed. The effort on the convec-
tion bond remains the total enthalpy, but this is decomposedinto the thermal
term Osand the free energy term ~-~i #i, where#i is the partial Gibbsfunction
(O~/Omi)v,s,m~e,.The stoichoimetric coefficients that constrain the changes in
the composition, assuminga knownreaction, can be represented by a family of
transformers that relate the individual #i and rhi to a commonreaction rate
and reaction force (~). The product ~7~represents the irreversible generation
of heat and entropy. The assumption 7~ = 0 allows the conditions for chemical
equilibrium to be deduced.
A dynamicmodelfor a single reaction in a closed container is completed
952 CHAPTER 12 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

by adding an RS element to regulate the rate of the reaction and provide a

location for the entropy generation. The most commonlyassumed model has
been presented: the law of ~nass action. Multi-step reactions can be modeled
by introducing separate families of transformers, each with its ownRS element
to control the rate of its particular reaction. Influx and effiux of reactants and
product can be treated in the samewaythey have been for non-reacting systems.
The assumption of well-mixedspecies ma~vnot apply in practice except for
small spatial domains. Individual trays in a distillation columnoften are de-
signed to makethe assumptiona fair estimate. At the other extreme, a combus-
tion process usually is controlled largely by complexturbulence and diffusion
phenomenathat are well beyond the scope of this introduction to chemical
kinetics.
Appendix A

Introduction to MATLAB

MATLAB 1 is a commercial interactive software package that is widely used for

numeric computation, data analysis and visualization. Its basic data element is
an array that requires no dimensions, making it easy to use. It is especially well
suited for the analysis of linear models. It performs symbolic math, although this
feature is not used explicitly in this book. The most recent version at the time of
writing is Version 6 (Release 12). Innumerable applications of MATLAB appear
in a large number of "Toolboxes" that are marketed separately. The Student
Edition is claimed to be full-featured regarding the basic MATLAB; several of
the toolboxes also are available for use with this edition, with some restrictions.
Some of the commands in this book may require the Control Systems Toolbox
or the Signal Processing Toolbox, depending on the version of MATLAB being
used. The on-line help within Version 12 of MATLAB is extensive. A wide
2selection of texts present applications of MATLAB.
Most of the use of MATLAB in this book regards simple-to-use commands
described in a largely self-contained wayin the following sections:
Topic Sections
nonlinear simulation 3.7.2, 5.1.4
transfer function transformations 5.3.6, 6.2.3, 6.2.6
linear simulation 5.3.7, 5.4.8
roots,.factorization, eigenvalues, eigenvectors 6.1.1, 7.3.8, B.2.5
step, impulse responses; partial fraction expan. 6.1.9, 6..3.1, 6.3.2
Bode plots 6.2.2, 6.2.7
discrete convolution 6.4.3
Fourier analysis 7.1.4
root locus, Nyquist and Nichols plots 8.1.6, 8.3.2-8.3.5
thermodynamic properties and system simulation 12.5.6, Appendix D
1Aproduct of The MathWorks,Inc., 24 Prime Park Way,Natick, MA01760.
2A list of hundreds of MATLAB-based books is maintained on the MathWorksHome
Page, w~.raa~h~o~:l~s.c~a., including MathWork’sownLearning MATLAB, Release ~2, F~.
B. Magrabet al, An Engineers Guide to MATLAB, Prentice Hall, 2000, and A. Biran and
M. Breiner, MATLAB
5 .for Engineers, 2nd Ed., Addison-Wesley,1999.

953
954 APPENDIX A

A brief primer on the ruidments of MATLAB

follows.

Scalar Calculations
MATLAB can be used like a simple calculator. For example, to evaluate
(5/7r 2) sin(3) you enter, in response to the MATLAB
prompt (>>),
>> 5/pi’2*sin(3)

0.0715
The answer is placed in a. default variable "arts", and is placed on the screen
as shown. Expressions are evaluated from left to right with power operation
having the highest order of precedence, followed by multiplication and division,
and trailing with addition and substraction. The elementary math functions
treated are given in Table A.1

Variables
Variables, such as the x, y used in the table above, can be defined by expressions.
For example, the same answer as above results from
>> omega=3 ;
>> T=I ; ¯
>> x=5/pi ~ 2. s in (omega*T)
except that it is stored in the variable x. The semicolons at the ends of the
first two statements inhibits printing of their numerical values. The subsequent
typing of
>> omega,T,x
givestheresponse

omega =

T=
1
X----
0.0715
Thevariablesthathavebeendefinedat any pointin yoursession
willbe
displayed"
if youenter
>>who
Your variables are
omega T x
Theinstruction <whos>alsogivesdetails regarding thenatureof thevariables.
Variables are case sensitive, must start with a letter, and are limited to 19
characters.
INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB 955

Table A.1 Elementary Math Functions

abs(x) absolute value or magnitude of complex number
acos (x) inverse cosine
acosh(x) inverse hyperbolic cosine
angle (x) angle of complex number
asin(x) inverse sine
asinh (x) inverse hyperbolic sine
atan(x) inverse ta.ngent
atan2(x,y) four quadrant inverse tangent
atanh (x) inverse hyperbolic tangent
ceil(x) round towards plus infinity
conj (x) complex conjugate
cos(x) cosine
cosh(x) hyperbolic cosine
exp (x) ~)
exponential (e
fix(x) round towards zero
floor(x) round towards minus infinity
imag(x) complex imaginary part
log(x) natural logarithm
loglO(x) common logarithm
real(x) complex real part
rem(x,y) remainder after division of x/y
round(x) round towards nearest integer
sign(x) signum (sign) function; returns 1, 0 or
sin(x) sine
simh hyperbolic sign
sqrt(x) square root
tan(x) tangent
tanh(x) hyperbolic tangent

Complex Numbers
If you enter

>> a=2; b=3; c=4;

>> y= (-b+sqrt (b^2-4*a*c))/2/a;
the response to typing <y> is
y=
-0.’~500 + 1.1990i
where i is the unit imaginary number. Imaginary numbers can be entered by
using the identifier <i> or <j >, as in standard mathematical notation:
p=5+2i; q=6-3j*sin(2)
Starting with Version 4, MATLAB does not require an asterisk between a num-
ber and the i or j.
Other predefined variables are <Inf> (for co) and <NAN> (for 0/0).
956 APPENDIX A

Arrays and Matrices

A row array can be entered as

r=[l 2 3];
and a column array as either of the forms
>> c=[1;2;3];
>> c=[1 2 3]’;
The prime (’) denotes transpose. Entry of a general array is illustrated
A=[1 2 3;4 5 6]
A=
1 2 3
4 5 6
Elements in matrices may be imaginary or complex.
When arrays are added, substracted, or multiplied with <+>, <->, <*>,
they are treated as conventional matrices. On the other hand, array mul-
tiplication, array division and array power, indicated by the commands
<.*>, <./>, <.’>, simply perform the indicated operation on the respec-
tive elements in the array, ~. e.
p=[4 5 6]; q=[3 2 1];
>>p. *q
=
allS
12 10 6
>>p./q
=
8_*1S
1. 3333 2. 5000 6. 0000
>>p.-q
=
axis
64 25 6
The dot and vector products are given by, respectively,
>> p*q’
=
8.D.S
28
>>x=p’*q
=
X
12 8 4
15 10 5
18 12 6
The commandsize(A) returns a two-element vector stating the numbers of
rows and columns in the matrix A, respectively. Thus, if A is any 2 × 3 matrix,
size(A) returns the vector 2 3, size(A, 1) returns the 2 and size(A,2) returns
the 3. Further, the statement
y=x(size (A, 1),
INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB 957

in which x is the 3 × 3 matrix defined above, returns the row vector

y=
15 10 5
The size argument indicates the second row of x, and the wild card (:)
indicates all columns.
To save time, the special matrices illustrated below are Offered. AssumingA
has been defined as a 3x3 matrix and B as a 2x4 matrix,
>>zeros (size (A))
=
D/IS
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
>>ones(size(B))
=
aiis
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
>>eye(size(A))
D/IS=
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0

The linear matrix equation

Ax = b,
with A and b known, can be solved for x two ways, assuming A is square and
nonsingular:
>>x=inv
(A)*b
>>x=A\b;
For example, if

A= 5 ; b= 32 ,
8 23
either commandwill give

X---
1. 0000
2. 0000
3. 0000
The determinant of A is readily found, also:
>>det (A)
=
ans
958 APPENDIX A

The use of the backslash operator \ is preferred. It employs LUfactorization,

which is a modification of Gaussian elimination and produces greater accuracy
with fewer internal multiplications.
When there are more equations than unknowns, so A has more rows than
columns, the command/~\b gives the least squares solution. This can be ex-
tremely useful. The command±nv(A)*b, on the other hand, produces an error
message.

Evaluating and Plotting Functions

The array operations on vectors are very useful in evaluating and plotting func-
tions. As an example, the time response

x = (1/cos¢)e-;~’* cos(~/~- ~2 wnt + ¢); ¢= - tan-l(~/v~-

with ~" = 0.2 and Wn- 2~r and 101 values of t evenly spaced between 0 and 4,
can be evaluated as follows:

>>z=0.2;om=2*pi;
>>omd=sqrt(l-z’2)*om;
phi=-atan(z/sqrt(l-z’2));
>>t=[0:.04:4];
>>x=exp(-z*om*t).*cos(omd*t+phi)/cos(phi);

Notice that only one array operation is needed; this operation is unnecessary
for multiplying or dividing a scalar and an array.
The 101 resulting values of t and x are stored in the row arrays t and x, and
will be displayed by entering these variables. You can secure a plot of x versus
t as shown at the top of the next page:

>>plot(t,x)
>>xlabel(’t’);ylabel(’x);
>>title(’homogenous
responsewith zero intial velocity’)

Semilog and log-log plots to the base 10 also can be made; the commandsare
<semilogx(x,y) >, <semilogy(x,y) >, and <loglog(x,y) >. The command
<grid> draws grid lines, and the command <text(pl,p2, ’text’, ’sc’)>
places the word "text" (or your substitute) at (pl,p2) in screen coordinates
where (0.0,0.0) is the lower left and (1.0,1.0) is the upper right of the screen.
INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB 959

homogeneous
response
withzeroinitiol velocity
t

0.8

0,6

0.4

x 0.2

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6 ’
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Fitting Curves to Data

The characteristic of~a source, load, compliance, etc. often is observed experi-
mentally, and you wish to represent it with a polynomial expansion for use in
simulation, or perhaps just for curve plotting. This is an example of a task for
which the MATLAB help feature, particularly in Version 6, is a sufficient guide.
You find the information by clicking on "MATLAB Functions Listed by Cat-
egory," then "Mathematics," then "Polynomial and interpolation functions,"
then "Polynomials," and finally "polyf it polynomial curve fitting." You learn
that the command

[p] =polyf it (x,y,

fits the coefficients of a polynomialp(x) of degree n to the data, p(x(i)) to y(i),

in a least squares sense. The result is a row vector of length n + 1 containing
the polynomial coefficients in descending powers:

p(x) = plx ’~ + p~x"-1 + ... + Pnx + Pn+~.

A complete example is given. You also learn how to use the command

f=polyval (p, z)

to compute the values of the polynomial for values of a vector z, which could
be considerably longer than the vector x. The illustration includes use of the
plot commandfor both the original data points and the resulting polynomial
curve. You also are told that the algorithm used by polyfit makes use of the
backslash operator, \, as described above.
The meaning and use of further optional output arguments of polyfit also
are described.
960 APPENDIX A

Control Flow Commands

Statements can be executed conditionally with the ±f command. The simplest
form is as follows:
±f condition statement;
action statements;
end;
A more complicated form is as follows:
if condition statements;
action statements;
elseifcondition statements;
else action statements;
end;
The for commandallows statements to be repeated a specifed number of
times. It is most commonlyused relative to indices, and often is used in con-
juction with the ±f command. An example using for, if, else and
follows:
n=5;
for i = l:n
for j = l:n
if j > i
A(i,j) = 2;
elseif j == i
A(i,j) 1;
else
A(i,j) = 0;
end;
end;
end;
The resultisthematrix

122
A= 0 1 2 ,
001
000

(which is small enough to have been entered directly with less fuss.)

Script Files
When interactions with MATLAB are not particularly short or are repetitive,
it is desirable to write programs off-line. Files executable by MATLAB are
called M-files, since they must have the extension .m. The toolboxes such as
the signals and systems toolbox and the symbolic math toolbox that may come
INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB 961

with the student version comprise a collection of Mofiles; these subprograms

represent most of the ultimate power of MATLAB.
A script is one type of M-file. Scripts are ordinary ASCII text files and can
be created off-line with nearly any text editor and stored on your disk. You will
need to make sure that MATLAB has a path to the location of your file, which
you might transfer to or write in the location C: terap. This can be accomplished
within MATLAB by clicking on f±le and then set path. The procedure from
here depends on the version of MATLAB.Back in the CommandWindow of
MATLAB, you can open an existing m-file or write a new one after clicking
file. The MATLAB Editor/Debugger should appear, and you should save the
file to the location C:temp (or whatever location you have placed in the path).
Subsequent transfers between the Editor/Debugger and the CommandWin-
dow are executed merely by clicking on their windows. Don’t forget to save any
changes you make in a file before attempting to run it. A script file can be run
merely by typing its name, without extension or location, into the Command
Window, and pressing Return.
Test the system by entering the following program:

x=[1:360] ;
z=exp (j*pi*x/180)
plot (imag (z), real (z))

If you name the program myprog, m and type "myprog" in response to the MAT-
LABprompt, you should see an ellipse; the imaginary part of the argument is
plotted versus the real part. The plot can be annotated to your taste. The
subsequent command

plot(x,imag(z))
plots one cycle of a sine wave.

Data Files
The command
save ]~lename x,y,A
writes the content of the variables x, y A into a binary file with the name
filename .mat. If no variables are specified, all workspace variables are saved.
If no filename is specified, the default file nameis matlab .mat.
The command
load ]ilename x, A
retrieves the indicated data. The same defaults apply.

Function Files
There are two types of M-files: the script files described above, and function
files. A function file is identified by the the word " function" at the beginning
962 APPENDIX A

of its first line, followed by a statement in equation form that includes the name
of the file. The example given in Section 3.7.3 starts with

functionf = pendulum(t,x)

Unless special provisions are made, the arguments t ,x are the only variables
communicated from the main progra~n to the function. The variable f is the
only variable returned to the main program. All other variables defined in
the function file are hidden from the main program. If more than one output
variable is to be computed, the list should be placed in square brackets. As an
example,

function [y,x,t] = step(num,den)

(see Section 6.1.9) is the first line of one of the hundredsof function M-files built
into MATLAB. The variable names y, x, t can be changed when the function is
called.
Functions can be evaluated through the use of the command

[yl ..... yn] = feval(’]unction file name’ ,xl ..... xn)

The variables xl ..... xn are communicatedto the function file, and the vari-
ables yl ..... yn are communicated back to the calling file (or the command
window). The left side can be omitted if no returns are intended.

Communication Between Files

An M-file can call another M-file. The statement in Section 3.7.3

It,x]= ode23(’pendulum’
,O, [O 3],[0 pi/18]);

calls the built-in function M-file ode23, which in turn calls the user-written
function M-file pendulum. In this example, the parameter values L, W and I
are redefined every time pendulumis called. This is not efficient.
Repetitive definitions or calculations can be eliminated through the use of
global variables. Those functions that declare a particula~ name as a global
variable, and the base workspace if it makes the same declaration, share a single
copy of that variable. The simulation described in Section 3.7.3 becomes more
efficient, therefore, if you write a script M-file named "pendulumsim" and a
shortened function M-file as follows:
Y. ScriptM-file ’pendulumsim’;
global L W I Y. global variables
L = 1; W = 1; g = 32.2; I=L^2*W/(3*g);
It,x] = ode23(’pendulum’,[0 3],[0 pi/18]);
plot(t,x(: ,2).180/pi)
xlabel( ’time,seconds ’
title(’Angleof swinging pendulum’)
INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB 963

function f = pendulum(t,x)~ Function M-file computes

global L W I ~ global variables
~ The two differentialequationsfollow:
f(1) = -W*(L/2)*sin(x(2));
f(2) = x(1)/I;
f=f’;

The entire computation and display follows from entering the name of the script
M-file into the commandwindow in response to the coInmand prompt. The use
of global also allows variables to be communicatedfrom the function file to the
commandwindow or the script file, which can expedite data output.
Sometimes you will like to plot the derivative of a state vector, but the
function f’ is not communicated to the controlling script file. Further, the
function M-file evaluates f several times per time interval; a plot of all these
points would display undesired and misleading scatter. The best you can do is
to plot the differences between successive values of the state variable, divided
by the corresponding differences in time. The simplest way to accomplish this
is by using the MATLAB function diff. For example, to plot the moment on
the pendulum above, namely dxl/dt, you could enter the command

plot(t(l:size(t)-l),diff(x(:,l)/diff(t))

Note that if the vector x(:, 1) contains n elements, the vector diff(x(:,l)
contains n - 1 elements. The vector for the abcissas of the plot, which is the
time t, must be shortened by one element for the plot routine to work. This
explains the use of the size (t) command.

PROBLEMS

A.1 Use MATLAB to find the magnitude and phase angles of the complex
numbers (a) 3- 4j, (b) 0.5 +

A.2 Find the real and imaginary parts of the following complex numbers:
e-’75j=, (b) j(-5=/4).

Give MATALB
coding for the following (but do not run):

(a) If d < 3, set r = 0; otherwise, set r = 2d.

(b) If x- y > 2, print x and

(c) If the natural logarithm of x is between 2 and 10, increment the index
m by one.
964 APPENDIX A

A.4 Enter the following matrices into MATLAB:

A= 1 ; B= ; C= -1 ; b= .
1
. 0
-1.
(a) Using MATLAB,
compute the matrices AB, BC’, and ((A’C)
(b) Using MATLAB,
solve the equation Bx = b for

A.5 Plot the characteristic of the hydraulic source as given in Problem2.15 (p.
55). On a second graph, plot the powerproduced by this source as a function
of flow.

A.6 The IC engine in Problem 2.16 (p. 55) has the nonlinear torque-speed
characteristic plotted in Figure 2.39. (p. 75).

(a) Read a few values of the shaft speed and the associated torque, and
plot these points using the ’o’ argument, of the plot command.Holdthis
plot.

(a) Makeand plot three polynomial approximations to this characteris-

tic: (i) a linear model(equation); (ii) a second-order(quadratic)
(iii) a third-order (cubic) model. Plot these polynomialsas essentially
continuous curves on the same axes as the data points from part (a).
(b) Locate the points for whicheach of the modelsin part (b) give maxi-
mumpower. Hint: Type "help max" in the commandwindow.
Appendix B

Classical Vibrations

Longbefore the state-space methodsfor modelingand analyzing dynamicsys-

tems given in this textbook were promulgated,engineers addressed the relatively
narrowclass of modelscomprisingvibrating inertias interconnected by springs.
Important applications were made to structures and machines. The methods
that evolved are simple and insightful, and still have relevence today. On the
other hand they do not extend your capabilities, and therefore maybe consid-
ered optional.
The approach in the tradition of dynami
c systems, emphasizedin this book,
treats linear modelswith the first-order matrix differential equation
~ = Ax + Bu(t).. (B.1)
The approachin the tradition of classical vibrations, on the other hand, treats
linear modelswith the second-order matrix differential equation
Mi~ + C~ + Kx = F(t). (B.2)
This latter approach has the advantage of dealing with matrices and vectors
with half the dimensionof those used in the correspondingfirst-order models.
Also, Mand K and often C are symmetric matrices, further simplifying the
analysis, whereasA generally is asymmetric.
The purpose of this appendixis to explain and illustrate the application of
equation (B.2). This is done for modelswith two or moredegrees of freeedom(of
fourth or higher order), since the differences for modelswith one degree of free-
domare not significant. Usually it is assumedthat the matrix Mis invertable,
whicheliminates first, third and higher odd-orderedmodelsfrom consideration,
a serious restriction that motivates the tradition of dynamicsystems to use
equation (B.1) instead.

B.1 Models With Two Degrees of Freedom

The vibration absorber analyzed in Example6.9 (pp. 416-418) is repeated
Fig. B.1 with the displacementsof the centers of mass, Xl and x~_, indicated as

965
966 APPENDIX B. CLASSICAL VIBRATIONS

Figure B.I: System with vibration absorber

the principle variables. Direct application of Newton’s law gives the equations
of motion
ml q- m~ 0 ~1 [ kl -~ k2
0 m3 5~ [ -k2 k~ x~

The first square matrix in this classical representation is known as the mass
matrix; no dynamical coupling exists in this example since this matrix is di-
agonal. The second matrix is known ~ the stiffness matrix; the non-diagonal
terms here ~e said to impose static coupling. Were there no such coupling,
the problem could be treated as two independent single-degree-of-freedom prob-
lems.

B.1.1 Normal Mode Vibration

In the unforced case (Fe = 0) the model can oscillate sinusoidally:

Substitution of these assumed motions into equation (B.3) gives

The determinant of the square matrix must vanish, giving the characteristic
equation

A =_ (ml + m~)m3w4 - [(kl + k~)m3 + k,~(ml + m~)]w2 + klk.2 = 0. (B.6)

This equation is quadratic in terms ofw’-), giving two real roots. The two natural
frequencies are the two square-roots of these roots, which are called wl and w2
below, and are presumed to be positive.
B.1. MODELS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM 967

The sinusoidal motionsassumedabovedo not represent the general solutions,

but rather are special cases called normal modes. If you substitute w = Wl or
w = w~. into equation (B.5) you get the amplitude ratios

(~xlo
~ :
x_~o/~ k~ + k2 - (ml + rn2)w~
-
~ m3~
~
k2 ’
(B.7a)

(Xlo~ =
k.2
-
x20/~: kl + k2 - (ml + m2)w~
(B.Tb)

Thusthe amplitudesof the two displacementshave a fixed ratio that is different

for the two modes, and along with the respective frequencies serves to define
the modal motions.
The general unforced motion comprises a sum or superposition of the two
modalmotiofls:

Xl = Xll sin(wit + ¢1) + x~2sin(~v2t + (B.8a)

x2 = x21sin(wit + (~1) -[" x22 sin(w2t+ ¢2) (B.8b)

| xl0 } , ~lX:21;
Xll \ x~° X12 X22 (B.8c)

Thus there are two independent undetermined amplitudes, which can be taken
to be x12 and x2e, and two independent phase angles, ¢1 and ¢_~. These am-
plitudes and angles are determinedby the initial conditions Xl(0), 5:1 (0), x2
and 2(0).
Unlike the general analysis above, the results of Example6.9 are specialized
to the case of ma -- 0.2(m~+ m2) and ko_ -- 0.2k~. In this case, the natu-
ral frequencies are w~ -- 0.80109worad/s and w~ -- 1.24830wotad/s, where
wo = v/k~/(ml +ra~). The modal shape ratios are (x~o/X2o)~ = -2.209
and (xlO/X2o)~: -6.791. Th is means th at if thesyst em is s et oscillating
at 0.80109worad/s, the larger massexhibits simple sinusoidal motion 180° out-
of-phase with the smaller mass, and with an amplitude 2.209 times larger than
that of the smaller mass. At 1.24830w0,the motionis similar except the ratio of
amplitudes is 6.791. In general, the unexcited motionrepresents a sumof these
two modesand two frequencies, with proportions to suit the initial conditions.

B.1.2 Forced Harmonic Motion

The particular solution of the system described by equation (B.3) corresponding
to the forcing function
Fe = m~r~2 coswt (B.9)
has the sameform as the special solutions of equation (B.4),
968 APPENDIX B. CLASSICAL VIBRATIONS

although w is nowthe forcing frequency rather than a natural frequency. Sub-

stitution of this solution into equation(B.3) gives

(B.11)
A k2 J
where A is the determinant defined in equation (B.6). The result for Xl(t)
corresponds to the G(S) used in Example6.9, but allows any set of physical
parameters.
In the numerical examplediscussed above and plotted in Example6.9, the
motion of xl ceases whenthe excitation frequency is precisely V~’2/m3= wo.
This is the purpose of the vibration absorber.

B.2 Higher-Order Models

B.2.1 Modal Motions
The general linear undampedand unexcited vibration problem with n degrees
of freedom can be represented by the matrix equation

M~ + Kx = 0, (B.12)

in which Mis the inertia matrix and K is the stiffness matrix. The matrices
Mand K are symmetric. Premultiplying equation (B.12) by -1,

ii + Ax = 0, A = M-1K. (B.13)

As with the two-degree-of freedommodel, special modalsolutions of this equa-

tion exhibit simple in-phase sinusoidal motions at the frequencies wi, where
i = t,...,n. The assumption

x(t) xisinwit, (B.14)

wherex~ is a vector of constants and ~9i is a constant, gives uponsubstitution

into equation (B.12)
(A - o~I)xi = 0. (B.15)
The characteristic equation

~ -- IA- ~II = 0 (B.16)

gives n eigenvalues w~. Substitution of an eigenvalue into equation (B.13) gives
the proportions of the corresponding eigenvector, xi. That is, the eigenvector
can have any magnitudebut the ratios of its membersare fixed. The eigenvector
describes the modalshape of the vibration at the special frequency wi.
B.2. HIGHER-ORDER MODELS 969

It is convenient to fix the length of the eigenvector xi at somevalue, and then

represent smaller or larger versions of the same eigenvector as cixi, where ci is
the appropriate coefficient. This practice is e~nployed below. Sometimes, the
first element in x~ is set equal to 1, and the other elements scaled accordingly.
At other times, particularly in standard software packages such as MATLAB
that handle the extra computation easily, the length of the eigenvector is set
equal to 1; this length is the square-root of the scalar product, x~xi, where the
prime (’) means transpose. This second option, unlike the first, handles the
special case in which the first element in xi is identically zero. Either scheme
can be applied to the results below.
A model given an initial position corresponding to a particular ~node shape,
with zero velocity, or an initial velocity corresponding to the modeshape with
zero position, Will experience the motion of that modeexclusively. An arbitrary
initial condition, on the other hand, likely excites all the modes, some more
than others.
The eigenvectors possess a very important property that now will be estab-
lished. For x equalling the ith eigenvector, equations (B.12) and (B.14)

w~Mxi = Kx~. (B.17)

Premultiplying both sides by the transpose of x~,

2i
wi x~Mx~-- x~gxi. (B.~8)
Taking the transpose of this equation, noting the general theorem that the
transpose of a product of three conformable matrices equals the products of
the respective inverse matrices in reverse order, and noting that Mand K are
symmetric,
w~x’~Mxj = x’~Kxj (B.19)
Equation (B.18) also can be written with the roles of i and j reversed:

w~xiMxj ---- x~gxj. (B.20)

Equation (B.20) is now subtracted from equation (B.19) to yield

(w~ - w~)xiMxj = (B.21)

As long as wi and wj are two different natural frequencies, it follows that

x~iMxj-- O. (B.22)

By the same approach it can be shown that

x~Kx/= 0. (B.23)

It is said that the eigenvalues are orthogonal with respect to M and K.

On occasion, an eigenvMue is repeated. In this case there are two eigenvec-
tors associated with a commoneigenvalue; no unique mode exists corresponding
to this frequency.
970 APPENDIX B. CLASSICAL VIBRATIONS

Finally, whenj = i the terms corresponding to the left sides of equations

(B.22) and (B.23) do not vanish. Instead, we define the generalized mass,
/~fi, and the generalized stiffness,/(i, as follows:

Mi = x~Mxi, (B.24a)
Ki = x~iKxi. (B.24b)

B.2.2 The Initial Value Problem

The general solution to the initial value problemis given by the sumof all its
modalcomponents,each with its modalamplitude ci and phase angle ¢i, or its
componentsof amplitudes ai and hi:

x = Exicisin(wit+¢i) = xi(aisinwit+bicoswit). (B.25a)

i=1 i=l

bi )
¢i = tan -~ ~ (B.25b)

The initial conditions are

x(0) = b~xi, (B.26a)

i=1

:~(0) = E coiaixi. (B.26b)

i=1

The solution of equation (B.25) is completed by evaluating ai and bi, i =

1,.-.,n, as functions of x(0) and ~(0). This is accomplished by multiplying
both sides of equations (B.26) by x}M:

x}Mx(0) = E bix}Mxi (B.27a)

i=1
n

x M(0) = ia x}Mxi
i=l

In view of the orthogonality relation of equation (B.22) and the definition

equation (B.24a), the right sides of equations (B.27a) and (B.27b) equal,
spectively, bjMj and wjajMj. Therefore, the desired result is

bi = ~,-~/x~gx(0), (B.28a)
1
ai = --x~M~(O). (B.28b)
B.2. HIGHER-ORDER MODELS 971

B.2.3 Forced Response

The coupled set of differential equations in the presence of a forcing function

F(t) is written
M~ + Kx = F(t). (B.29)
The solution is expedited by tranforming the variables so as to achieve a set
of uncoupled differential equations, one for each mode. The complete solution
then becomes the sum of the individual modal solutions. The transformation is
written
x = Py. (B.30)

To make this idea work, P has to be a very special matrix, called the modal
matrix. The n columns of P are the n eigenvectors, xi:

P = [x~ x2 ...xn]. (B.31)

Note that the transposed matrix P’ comprises the same eigenvectors arranged,
instead, in rows.
Substitution of equation (B.30) into equation (B.29), and subsequent
~
multiplication by P’, gives

P’MP~ + P’KPy = P’F. (B.32)

The element on the ith diagonal element of P~MPis identically Mi, and all off-
diagonal elements are identically zero. Similarly{ the element on the ith diagonal
element of P~KPis identically Ki, and off-diagonal elements are identically zero.
These results follow directly from the orthogonal properties and definitions given
above. Thus, equation (B.32) represents n uncoupled second-order differential
equations
Mi~/i + Ki~/~ = [P’F(t)]~; i = 1,...,n. (B.33)
Oncethese equations are solved, the desired response x(t) is found by substitu-
tion into equation (B.30).

B.2.4 Modal Damping

The equation of motion with linear damping introduced becomes

M~ + C~ + Kx = F(t). (B.34)

Use of the modal matrix P and transformation x = Py based on zero damping

gives
P’MP~} + P’CP:9 + P’KPy = P’F(t). (B.35)
1Theparallel use of the modalmatrix in Section 7.3 for the first-order model~ -- Asem-
ploys the inverse matrix p-1 in place of the present transposematrix P’. Onlyin the present
case is the matrix A. generally symmetric;as a consequenceof this and the normalizationof
the componenteigenvectorsin P, there results P-1 = P’. Herein,P’ is used, since it is easier
to find than P-~.
972 APPENDIX B. CLASSICAL VIBRATIONS

The matrices P~Mpand P~KPare diagonal, as before, but in general P~CPis

not; the result is modalcoupling due to damping.
In manycases, nevertheless, P~CPis indeed diagonal, and the modelis said
to have proportional damping. This happens when

C = aM + ~K (B.36)

for any values of the constants a and ft. The non-zero diagonal elements are

[P’CP]i = aMi + ~3Ki, (B.37)

so that the separate modesare described by

~liiji + (aMi+ ~3Ki)~+ K0’i : [P’ F(t)]i, (B.38)

or

(B.39a)
’~;Yi + fli + Yi = [P’F(t)]i,

wi = X/’-~i/M~; ~i = -~ +/3wi ¯ (B.39b)

Manysystems are lightly damped. Light damping does not produce much
modalcoupling, even if equation (B.36) does not apply. Nevertheless, damping
can be of critical importancein limiting the amplitudeof resonances. It is often
reasonable, therefore, to approximate dampingby a proportional model. You
should understand, however, that the approach of the dynamicsystems tradi-
tion~ whichis based on matrix first-order differential equations allows, perfect
modaldecoupling regardless of the form of the linear damping.

B.2.5 Example Using MATLAB

A ten-story building is shakenby horizontal groundmotion; the resulting motion
is sought. The building, pictured in part (a) of Fig. B.2, is modeledby ten
masseseach equal to m= 5 × 105 kg, ten springs for lateral displacements each
equal, to k = 1 × 109 N/m, and ten corresponding dampingcoefficients each
equal to c = 1 × l0T N s/m. The ground is assumedto have infinite stiffnesses
in translation and rotation. The equation of motionfor the first floor is

miil + 2cicl + 2kxl = c~2 + kx2 + c~.o ÷ kxo. (B.40)

For the top floor the equation is

mY~lo+ c5:~o+ kx~o = c~:9 +kxg, (B.4~)

and for floors 2 < i < 9 it is

m~,i + 2c’,~i + 2kxi : c(~i+l + xi-1) + k(Xi+l .-b xi-1). (B.42)

B.2. HIGHER-ORDER MODELS 973

10
9
8
7
floor
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-0.4 0 0.4
(a) structure (b) modes

Figure B.2: Ten-story building and lowest-frequency mode shapes

The matrices M, C and K therefore become

M=mI (B.43a)
-1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 -1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-1 2 -1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 -1 2 -1 0 0 0 0 0
0 -1 2 -1 0 0 0 0
K=k (B.43b)
0 0 0 0 -1 2 -1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 -1 2 -1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 -I 2 -I 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -i 2 -i
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 I
C = (c/k)g. (B.43c)

Thisin~rmationcanbeenteredintoaMATLABm-filebu±ld.mas~llows:
m=5e5; k=le9; c=leT;
M=m*eye(10);
K=k*[2 -1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;-1 2 -1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;
0 -I 2 -i 000000;00 -i 2 -I 0000 O;
000-12-10000;0000-12-1000;
00000-12-100;000000-12-10;
0000000-12-i;00000000-11];
974 APPENDIX B. CLASSICAL VIBRATIONS

C=c/k*K;
A=inv(M)*K;
[P,W]=eig(A);
GM=P’*M*P;GK=P’*K*P;GC=P’*C*P;GF=P’(I,:)’;

Notice the commandsfor the inverse of a matrix and ~r the modal matrix, P,
and eigenvalue matrix, W. The matrix Wis square and diagonal. If upon running
MATLAB you respond to the prompt as follows,

>>build
>>diag(W)’
the responseis
1.0e+003 *
Columns 1 through7
2.0000 1.0678 0.3961 0.0447 3.1099 4.2989 5.4614
Columns 8 through iO
6.4940 7.3050 7.8223

The lowest-frequency mode is the fourth in the order chosen by MATLAB, the
second lowest mode is the third, and the third lowest modeis the second. 2 The
frequency of the losest mode, in Hz, can be found by entering
EDU>> sqrt (W(4,4))/2/pi
8/23 =
1. 0638

The eigenvec~ors corresponding to these three modes can be found by entering

>> [P(:,4)P(:,3) P(:,2)]

0.0650 0.1894 -0.2969

0.1286 0.3412 -0.4352
0.1894 0.4255 -0.3412
0.2459 0.4255 -0.0650
0.2969 0.3412 0.2459
0.3412 0.1894 0.4255
0.3780 0.0000 0.3780
0.4063 -0.1894 0.1286
0.4255 -0.3412 -0.1894
0.4352 -0.4255 -0.4063

These modeshapes are plotted in part (b) of Fig. B.2.

2Theorderofthe modesvariesdependingontheversion of MATLAB.
B.2. HIGHER-ORDER MODELS 975

The elements Mi, Ki and C~ of the generalized mass, spring and damping
vectors are the diagonal elements on the square diagonal matrices GM,GKand
~¢. The values for the lowest three modes can be displayed as follows:

>> [GM(4,4)GM(3,3)
8_n.S =

1.0e+005 *
5. 0000 5. 0000 5. 0000
>> [GC(4,4) GC(3,3) GC(2,2)]
a.D.S =

1. Oe+O06*
O. 9.234 1.9806 5. 3390
>> [GK(4,4)GK(3,3)GK(2,2)]
D/2S =

l. Oe+O08*
O. 2234 1. 9806 5. 3390
>> [GF(4) GF(3) GF(2)]
allS =

0.0650 0.1894 -0.2969

The information above can be assembled as follows to give the equations of

motion for the first three modes:

5 × 105#1 + 0.2231 × 1069~ + 0.2234 × 10Syl = 0.0650(109k0 + 107Xo)

5 x 105~)o. + 1.9806 x 106~2 + 1.9806 x 10Sy2 = 0.1894(10950 + 107x0)
5 x 105#3 + 5.3390 x 106#3 + 5.3390 x 10Sy3 = -0.2969(109~0 + 107xo)
(B.44)

Thee actual displacements at the various floor levels are

10
xi = xo + Z PijYj (B.45)

The behavior of the modes as a function of frequency can be seen from Bode
plots; the lowest three modesare given in Fig. B.3. The first of these plots will
be displayed as a result of following commands:
>> nl=[0.0650e9 0.0650e7]
>> dl= [5e5 0.2234e6 0.2234e8]
>> bode(nl,dl)
>> hold
976 APPENDIX B. CLASSICAL VIBRATIONS

5o I I IIIIIII I I IIIIIII I I IIIIIII I I I1~111,, I 1611111

I I I flllll I I I Illlll I I I IIIIII I I J,,~lll~l,,,../ I,,,,’N~P’~LIIII
I .I I IIIIII I I ,llliH I I I Ill~k.l~~l .~
I I IIIIIII I I I IIIIII~..,~-~"~~ I IIIIII I
I I IIIIII
I I I IIIIII I I I_~J.,I-~1"I"~~IIIII I IIIIII I
I I I IIIII
I I I IIIII~~ I I IIIIII I IIIIII I
I I I IIIII
I I I l~i~lllll I IIIIII I
I I I IIIII
! ! ! ! ::~__~-,~] I IIIIII I I I IIIIII I IIIIII Ii I I IIIII
-..50 , , ,,~illl ~ I II IIIII I I IIIIIII I I IIIIIII !i ~ I 1,111
-~
10 10-2 lO-t 100 101 I 10
Frequency (rod/sec) II

°.
note: Thephaseofy~shouldbe shiftedby 180
100
I I Jllllll I~.L..LLIIIII ’, I I’,;;;’,’, ’, I ’~.~I’.I’.~LY~I IIIIII
I i i iiiii1~,---1--i i Iiiiii I I i iiiiii i i i1~1111 -~1~1 iiiiii

I I I IIIIII I I I Illlll I I IIIIIII I I I1|111 It, I~[ IIIII

~. -lOO___I_J. JALIIII__L.J_LIJII.U___L_L.I_LIIUL_J_J._ALI __
I I I IIIIII I I I IIIIII I I I IIIIII I I IIIIII I
_
I IIIIII
I I I IIIIII I I I IIIIII I I I IIIIII I I IIIIII I I I IIIII
I I I IIIIII I I I IIIIII I I I IIIIII I I IIIIII I I I IIIII
-200 "---I-~ 7 7 Tl-rlT--F-i-f-i7 TiTI---~-i-T TITRr--i--f--, ~ T~T~T--r-i-i-I-~ T,T
10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 10
Frequency(rod/sec)

Figure B.3: Bodeplots for the three lowest vibrational modesof the building

The commandhold allows the subsequent Bode plots to be superimposed on

the first. Repeatingthis command releases the plots. Note that if the frequency
content of an excitation does not exceed the resonant frequency of the third
mode,there is little need to include morethan the three modesin the solution.

B.2.6 Mode Reduction

The response of a high-order modelis found routinely using digital computa-
tion, as the above examplesuggests. If the order is very high or there are a
large numberof cases to address, however, the computation can be costly. If
the computation is done on-line in a controller, time and complexity become
important. Moreover, often only a few modes are important, most often the
lowest-frequency modes. These cases are candidates for modereduction.
The essential idea is to employ the reduced modal matrix of dimensions
n x mcomprising the m < n (usually m << n) eigenvectors of interest:

Xll X21 Xml

(B.46)

Xln X2n Xmn

In the exampleabove the three lowest-frequency modesas given could be used.

B.2. HIGHER-ORDER MODELS 977

The vectors y and P~x become of reduced length 3, and the matrices P~MP,
P~CP and P’KP become of reduced size 3 × 3. The analysis is carried out
as before, and the transformation x = Py restores the full displacement vector
corresponding to the neglect of the missing modes.
In the example, the result of this reduced calculation would be identical to
the truncation of equation (B.45) at i = 3 and the use of equations (B.44).
MATLABwas not directed to use the reduced matrices P~MP, P~CP and
P~KPsimply because the full computation required an insignificant amount of
computer time. Were the order much higher and the matrices M, C and K
fuller, however, or the calculation repeated a large number of times, the saving
might be worthwhile.

PROBLEMS

B.1 A torsional system has three identically compliant shafts with stiffness K
and three identical disks with inertance I.

(a) Find the mass and stiffness matrices.

(b) Using MATLAB,

find the natural frequencies and mode shapes.

(c) A torque M(t) is applied at the free end. Find the modal equations of
motion, and relate the displacement of the free end to these modes.

(d) Present a Bode plot for the response of the free end when M(t) is a
sinusoidal function.

B.2 The ten-story building considered above is buffeted by wind rather than an
earthquake. The force on each floor is sinusoidal, due to the shedding of vortices,
with an amplitude of 1 kN and frequency of one cycle in three seconds. Find
the displacement amplitude of the top floor. Note: Only the lowest frequency
modeis very significant, so consider only two modes.
Appendix C

Laplace Transform Pairs

The following is a highly selective list. For more extensive pairs, see, e.g.,
Paul A. McCollum and Buck F. Brown, Laplace Trans]orm Tables and Theo-
rems, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., NewYork, 1965 a~d Ruel V. Churchill,
Operational Mathematics, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1958. See also
Table 6.1 for selected basic relations.
Note: n is a positive integer.

f(t) F(s)

1 ~(0) 1

2 ~(t) -
1
3 t 28

tn--1 1
4
(n- 1)!
1
5 8~-a

6 re-at
2(s+a)

1
7 n(8 + a)
(n - 1)! tn-le-at

979
980 APPENDIX C

f(t) F(s)
w
8 sin wt
s2 +
2w

9 cos wt
82 2+ w

10 sinh wt

8,
11 cosh wt

12 1(1 - -at)
e
a s(s+a)
1 (e_at_e_bt)
13
b-a (s+a)(s+b)
1 (be_bt_ae_at)
14
b-a (s+a)(s+b)

15
l[l+a--~b(be-at-ae-bt)]ab s(s+a)(s+b)
i6 ~-:~(11_ e_at_ ate_at 2
s(s+a)

17 -~(at - 1+ -at)
s 2 (s + a)

18 e -at sin wt 2
(8-4-a)2+w

s+a
19 e-at COS o2t
2(s-4-a)2-4-w

20 ~e-( ~t sin w,~v/~ - (2t

s 2 + 2(w.~s + w.2

21
1V/~_ ~2e ( smn(w~X/]-- (2t - s ~ + 2(w~s

¢ = tan -~ ~-

22
s(s ~ + 2~s + ~2)
LAPLACE TRANSFORM PAIRS 981

/(t)
022
23 1 - coswt
s(s2+022)
023
24 wt - sin wt 2)
s~(s2+02
25 sin wt - wt cos wt

1
26 -- t sin wt ~
2w (s~+w~)
82 2_ 02
27 t cos wt 2(82-~-~d2)

1
28 (cos w~t,-
" cos.~t)
02~ -- 0212 (82 ~t- ~d12)(82 .~- 0222)

28
29 ~-~ (sin wt +wt cos wt)

1 e_at 1 -bt
e.
30
(b- a)(c- a) + (a- b)(c-
1
e_Ct
~ (a - e)(b- (s+a)(s+b)(s+c)
~a b
31 ~-at e-bt
(b-a)(c-a) (a-b)(c-b)
C
e_Ct
(a-c)(b-c) (s+a)(s+b)(s+c)

32 A e-~t + ~/(b - a) ~ + w~ e_at sin(wt - ¢)

(s + b)[(s + a +02u]

.4 = (b - a)~ + ~ ¢ = tan-~

33 Ae-ct + Be-at sin(wt + ¢)

(s+c)[(s+a) 2 +w
2]
-c 1 / a 2 2+ w
(a - c)2 + 022B= ~V(c- a)2 + ~-~
982 APPENDIX C

I(t)
1
34 le-at sinh wt
(s + a)2 2-- w
1 1
35

1
36
s~/~
ta--1 1
37
r(a) a > 0 (F is Gammafunction)
38 e-°’z (a > 0)

39 erfc a (complementaryerror function) -e -- a >_ 0

8

40 Le-a2/4t
--~e ~- a > O
41 J0(2v/-~) (Bessel function) le-a/~
8

1 --a/s
42 v~COS 2V~
1 cosh 2v~
43

44
[t~\/|_~](b-1)/2ib__l(2V~) (modified Bessel fn.) s--gel ~/~. b>0
Appendix D

Thermodynamic Data and

Computer Code

Complete programs that find the state variables corresponding to a specified

density and entropy are given below for dry air as a mixture of nitrogen, for
oxygen and argon, for refrigerant R-12, and for water. These files, along with
programs from Example 12.5 (pp. 925-926), Section 12.5.6 (pp. 934-936),
Guided Problem 12.4 (pp. 942-943), may be downloaded from the author’s page
at the website www.lehigh.edu/~inmem. The data necessary for treating refrig-
erants R-22 and R-134Aalso are given below.

D.1 Programs and Data for Air and Compo-

nents
The following files are discussed in Section 12.5.3:

function [s,dsdT,u,dudTS=gas(gl,g2,g3,g4,gS,g6,gT,gS,b,sO,T0g,u0,
T)
~ Evaluates the entropies s and dsdT and the internal energies u
~ and dudT of an ideal (zero-pressure) gas, given the temperature.
~ Based on equations (12.98) and (12.99).
y=b/T;
y0=b/T0g;
ey=exp(y)-l; ey0=exp(y0)-l;
T2=T*T; T3=T2*T; T4=T2*T2; T0~=T0g*T0g; TO3=TO2*TOg; T04=TO2*T02;
s=-gl/3*(1/T3-1/TO3)-g2/2*(1/T2-1/TO2)-g3*(1/T-1/TOg);
s=s+g4*log(T/TOg)+gS*(T-TOg)+g6/2*(T2-TO2)+gT/3*(T3-T03);
s=s-gS*(y/ey-yO/eyO+y-yO-log(ey/eyO))+sO;
dsdT=gl/T4+g2/T3+g3/T2+g4/T+gS+g6*T+gT*T~-gS/T*(y/ey)~*(l+ey);
u=-gl/2*(1/T2-1/TO2)-g2*(1/T-1/TOg)+g3*log(T/TOg)+g4*(T-TOg)+uO;
u=u+gS/2*(T2-TO2)+g6/3*(T3-TO3)+gY/4*(T4-TO4)-gS*b*(1/ey-1/eyO);

983
984 APPENDIX D. THERMODYNAMIC DATA AND CODE

dudT=gl/T3+g2/T2+gS/T+g4+gS*T+g6*T2+gT*T3+gS*exp(y)*(y/ey)’2;

function [P,u,h,s,dudT,dudv,dsdT,dsdv,dPdT,dPdv]=air(T,rho)
~ Computes the indicated functions for air as a mixture of nitro-
~ gen, oxygen and argon, given the values of temperature and
~ density. "n", "o" and "a" designate nitrogen, oxygen and argon,
~ respectively. Based on equations (12.97), (12.100) and (12.101).
global Gln G2n G3n G4n G5n G6n GTn G8n Bn SOn TOn T2n T3n T4n UOn
global Glo G2o G3o G4o G5o G6o G7o G8o Bo SOo TOo T2o T3o T4o UOo
global Cva SOa TOa UOa Sm R Fn Fo eyOn eyOo
global Gamma A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 AIO All AI2 AI3 AI4 AI5
global AI6 AI7 AI8 AI9 A20 A21 A22 A23 A24 A25 A26 A27 A28 A29 A30
global A31 A32
~ Note that dsdv=dPdT (an identity), so one of these (presumably
~ dsdv) can be removed. They are left as a check; the coding is
~ different.
r=rho; r2=r*r; r3=r*r2; r4=r2*r2; r5=r2*r3; r6=r3*r3; rT=r3*r4;
rS=r4*r4; rq=r4*r5; rlO=r5*r5; rll=r5*r6; r12=r6*r6; r13=r6*rT;
r14=rT*rT;
er=exp(-Gamma*r2);
W=ones(6); dW=ones(6);
W(1)=I/2/Gamma*(l-er);
dW(1)=r*er;
for i=1:5
W(i+l)=(-r^(2*i)/2*er+i*W(i))/Gamma;
dW(i+l)=(r’(2*i)*(Oan~aa*r-i/r)*er+i*dW(i))/Samma;
end
T2=T*T; T3=T*T2; T4=T2*T2; T5=T2*T3; T6=T3*T3;
yn=Bn/T; ynO=Bn/TOn; yo=Bo/T; yoO=Bo/TOo;
eyo=exp(yo)-l; eyn=exp(yn)-l;
P=r*R*T;
p=p+r2.(AI.T+A2*sqrt(T)+A3+A4/T+AS/T2)+r3*(A6*T+AT+A8/T+Aq/T2);
P=P+r4,(AIO,T+AII+AI2/T)+r5*AI3+r6*(AI4/T+AI5/T2)+rY*AI6/T;
P=P+r8*(AIZ/T+AI8/T2)+rq*AIq/T2+(r3*(A20/T2+A21/T3);
p=p+r5.(A22/T2+A23/T4))*er+(rT*(A24/T2+A25/T3)+rq*(A26/T2+A2?/T4)
P=P+rlI*(A28/T2+A29/T3))*er+rI3*(A30/T2+A31/T3+AS2/T4)*er;
[sn,dsdTn,un,dudTn]
=feval(’gas’,Gln,G2n,G3n,G4n,G5n,G6n,GTn,G8n,Bn,SOn,TOn,UOn,T);
[so,dsdTo,uo,dudTo]
=feval(’gas’,Glo,G2o,G3o,G4o,G5o,G6o,GTo,G8o,Bo,SOo,TOo,UOo,T);
u=Fn*un+Fo*uo+(l-Fn-Fo)*(Cva*(T-TOa)+UOa);
u=u+r.(A2/2.sqrt(T)+A3+2*A4/T+3*A5/T2)+r2/2*(AT+2*A8/T+3*Aq/T2);
u=u+r3/3.(AII+2*AI2/T)+r4/4*AI3+rS/5*(2*AI4/T+3*AI5/T2);
u=u+r6/6*2*KI6/T+rT/7*(2*AIT/T+3*AI8/T2)+r8/8*3*AIq/T2;
u=u+W(1)*(3*A20/T2+4*A21/T3)+W(2)*(3*A22/T2+5*A23/T4);
D.1 PROGRAMS AND DATA FOR AIR AND COMPONENTS 985

u=u+W(3),(3,A24/T2+4*A25/T3)+W(4)*(3*A26/T2+5*A27/T4);
u=u+W(5),(3,A28]T2+4*A29/T3)+W(6)*(3*A30/T2+4*A31/T3+5*A32/T4);
h=u+P/r;
s=-R*log(r)+Sm+Fn*sn+Fo*so;
s=s+(1-Fn-Fo)*(Cva*log(T/TOa)+SOa);
s=s-r*(AI+A2/2/sqrt(T)-A4/T2-2*AS/T3)-r2/2*(A6-AS/T2-2*Ag/T3);
s=s-r3/3*(AlO-A12/T2)+r5/5*(A14/T2+2*A15/T3)+r6/6*A16/T2;
s=s+r7/7*(A17/T2+2,A18/T3)+rS/8*2*A19/T3+W(1)*(2*A20/T3+3*A21/T4);
s=s+W(2)*(2*A22/T3+4*A23/T5)+W(3)*(2*A24/T3+3*A25/T4);
s=s+W(4)*(2*A26/T3+4*A27/T5)+W(5)*(2*A28/T3+3*A29/T4);
s=s+W(6)*(2*A30/T3+3*A31/T4+4*A32/T5);
dudT=Fn*dudTn+Fo*dudTo+(1-Fn-Fo)*Cva;
dudT=dudT+r*(A2/4/sqrt(T)-2*A4/T2-6*AS/T3)-r2/2*(2*AS/T2+6*A9/T3);
dudT=dudT-r3/3*2*A12/T2-r5/5*(2*A14/T2+6*A15/T3)-r6/6*~*A16/T2;
dudT=dudT-r7/7*(2*A17/T~+6*A18/T3)-r8/8*(6*Aig/T3);
dudT=dudT-W(1)*(6*A20/T3+12*A21/T4)-W(2)*(6*A22/T3+20*A23/T5);
dudT=dudT-W(3)*(6*A24/T3+12*A25/T4)-W(4)*(6*A26/T3+20*A27/T5);
dudT=dudT-W(5)*(6*A28/T3+12*A29/T4);
dudT=dudT-W(6)*(6*A30/T3+12*A31/T4*20*A32/T5);
dudr=A2/2*sqrt(T)+A3+2*A4/T+3*A5/T2+r*(AT+2*AS/T+3*A9/T2);
dudr=dudr+r2*(All+2*A12/T)+r3*A13+r4*(2*A14/T+3*A15/T2)+rS*A16/T;
dudr=dudr+r6*(2*A17/T+3*A18/T2)+r7*3*A18/T2;
dudr=dudr+dW(1)*(3*A20/T2+4*A21/T3)+dW(2)*(A22/T2+5*A23/T4);
dudr=dudr+dW(3)*(3*A24/T2+4*A25/T3)+dW(4)*(3*A26/T2+5*A27/T4);
dudr=dudr+dW(5)*(3*A28/T2+4*A29/T3);
dudr=dudr+dW(6)*(3*A30/T2+4*A31/T3+5*A32/T4);
dudv=-r2*dudr;
dsdT=Fn*dsdTn+Fo*dsdTo;
dsdT=dsdT+(1-Fn-Fo)*Cva/T;
dsdT=dsdT+r*(A2/4/T^(1.5)-2*A4/T3-6,AS/T4)-r2/2,(2,A8/T3+6,A9/T4);
dsdT=dsdT-2/3*r3*A12/T3-rS/5*(2*A14/T3+6*A15/T4)-r6/3*A16/T3;
dsdT=dsdT-rT/7*(2*A17/T3+6*A18/T4)-rS/8*6*A19/T4;
dsdT=dsdT-W(1)*(6*A20/T4+12*A21/TS)-W(2)*(6*A22/T4+20*A23/T6);
dsdT=dsdT-W(3)*(6*A24/T4+12*A25/TS)-W(4)*(6*A26/T4+20*A27/T6);
dsdT=dsdT-W(5)*(6*A28/T4+12*A29/T5);
dsdT=dsdT-W(6)*(6*A30/T4+12*A31/T5+20,A32/T6);
dsdr=-R/r-(AI+A2/2/sqrt(T)-A4/T2-2*AS/T3)-r*(A6-AS/T2-2*A9/T3);
dsdr=dsdr-r2*(AlO-A12/T2)+r4*(A14/T2+2*A15/T3)+r5,A16/T2;
dsdr=dsdr+r6*(A1Z/T2+2*A18/T3)+rT*2*A19/T3;
dsdr=dsdr+dW(1)*(2*A20/T3+3*A21/T4)+dW(2)*(2,A22/T3+4,A23/T5);
dsdr=dsdr+dW(3)*(2*A24/T3+3*A25/T4)+dW(4)*(2,A26/T3+4,A27/TS);
dsdr=dsdr+dW(5)*(2*A28/T3+3*A29/T4);
dsdr=dsdr+dW(6)*(2*A30/T3+3*A31/T4+4*A32/TS);
dsdv=-r2*dsdr;
dPdT=r*R+r2*(AI+A~/2/sqrt(T)-A4/T2-2*AS/T3)+r3*(A6-AS/T2-2,A9/T3);
dPdT=dPdT+r4*(AIO-A12/T2)-r6*(A14/T2+2*A15/T3)-rT,A16/T~;
986 APPENDIX D. THERMODYNAMIC DATA AND CODE

dPdT=dPdT-r8*(A17/T2+2*A18/T3)-r9*2*A19/T3;
dPdT=-r3*(2*A20/T3+3*A21/T4)*er-(r5*(2*A22/T3+4*A23/T5);
dPdT=dPdT-rT*(2*A24/T3+3*A25/T4))*er-(r9*(2*A26/T3+4*A27/TS);
dPdT=dPdT-rll*(2*A28/T3+3*A29/T4))*er;
dPdT=dPdT-r13*(2*A30/T3+3*A31/T4+4*A32/TS)*er;
dPdr=R*T+2*r*(AI*T+A2*sqrt’(T)+A3+A4/T+AS/T2);
dPdr=dPdr+3*r2*(A6*T+AT+AS/T+A9/T2)+4*r3*(AIO*T+All+A12/T);
dPdr=dPdr+5*r4*A13+6*rS*(A14/T+A15/T2)+Y*r6*A16/T;
dPdr=dPdr+8*rT*(A17/T+A18/T2)+9*rS*A19/T2;
dPdr=dPdr+(3*r2-2*Gamma*r4)*(A20/T2+A21/T3)*er;
dPdr=dPdr+(5*r4-2*Gamma*r6)*(A22/T2+A23/T4)*er;
dPdr=dPdr+(Y*r6-2*Gamma*rS)*(A24/T2+A25/T3)*er;
dPdr=dPdr+(9*rS-2*Gamma*r10)*(A26/T2+A27/T4)*er;
dPdr=dPdr+(ll*rlO-2*Gamma*r12)*(A28/T2+A29/T3)*er;
dPdr=dPdr+(13*r12-2*Gamma*r14)*(A30/T2+A31/T3+A32/T4)*er;
dPdv=-r2*dPdr;

~ script file gasdata.m: data for ideal gasses. "n", "o" and "a"
~ designate nitrogen, oxygen and argon, respectively.
global Gln G2n G3n G4n G5n G6n GTn G8n Bn SOn TOn T2n T3n T4n UOn
global Glo G2o G3o G4o GSo G6o G?o G8o Bo SOo TOO T2o T3o T4o UOo
global Cva SOa TOa UOa Sm Fn Fo eyOn eyOo g Ser
global Gamma A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 AIO All AI2
global AI6 AI7 AI8 AI9 A20 A21 A22 A23 A24 A25 A26 A27 A28 A29 A30
global A31 A32 E
Gamma=5.97105475117183e-6; R=287.0686; AI=I.5562309840913?E-I;
A2=l.25288666202326el; A3=-2.92541568638838e2;
A4=4.29432480725523e3; A5=-5.58450959675108e5;
A6=3.92054480883008e-4; AT=-4.4098564188134?e-2;
A8=5.8638?178724129e-4; Ag=?.97411385439405e4;
AlO=9.88045320906742e-9; All=2,97999237261289e-4;
A12=-6.817830409590?Oe-2; A13=2.02551630992042e-?;
A14=-l.6272428184949?e-7; A15=-l.O6340143152999e-4;
A16=~.51428501875049e-lO; AlT=-l.?O388092279449e-13;
A18=5.91103444646786e-ll; Alg=-l.O5363473794348e-14;
A20=-Z.32?326SlI96979e4; A21=-5.42674649S24748eS;
A22=-4.489354S6142735e-I; A23=2.81453138446295e2;
A24=-8.83132042?91851e-?; A25=-l.32229814838386e-5;
A26=-2.16521865046609e-12; A2?=-l:47835008246593e-9;
A28=-6.9321984930150Ie-19; A29=6.06?43598768355e-l?;
A30=-3.20538718135891e-24; A31=-4.73178337355130e-23;
A32=3.83950822306912e-22;
Gln=-218203.473713518; G2n=lO157.3580096247; G3n=-165.50472165724;
G4n=?43.17599919043; G5n=-5.1460562354SO25e-3;
G6n=5.18S47156760489e-6; G?n=-l.O5922170493616e-9;
D2. PROGRAMS AND DATA FOR REFRIGERANT R-12 987

G8n=298.389393363817; Bn=3353.4061;
S0n=3288.2374; T0n=63.15; U0n=196622.81;
Glo=-1294427.11174062; G2o=59823.1747005341;
G3o=-897.850772730944; G4o=655.236176900400;
G5o=-l.13131252131570e-2; G6o=3.49810702442228e-6;
GTo=4.21065222886885e-9; G8o=267.997030050139; Bo=2239.18105;
S0o=3271.4925; T0o=54.34; U0o=228267.4;
Cva=312.192; S0a=2270.67;T0a=83.8;U0a=149355.4; Sm=174.519;
Fn=0.7553; Fo=.23146;Ser=0.001;
T2n=T0n*T0n; T3n=T0n*T2n; T4n=T2n*T2n; T2o=T0o*T0o; T3o=T0o*T2o;
T4o=T2o*T2o; y0o=Bo/T0o; y0n=Bn/T0n;
ey0o=exp(y0o)-l; eyOn=exp(y0n)-l;
g=Fn*[Gln G2n G3n G4n G5n G6n GTn];
g=g+Fo*[Glo G2o G3o G4o GSo G6o GTo];

~ file specheat.m;computes the specific heat of air,

~ given its temperature.Oxygen and nitrogen components based on
~ equation(12.96).
global Gln G2n G3n G4n G5n G6n GTn G8n Bn Fn T
global Glo G2o G3o G4o G5o G6o GTo G8o Bo Fo Cva
cvn=Gln/T\’{}3+G2n/T/T+G3n/T+G4n+G5n*T+G6n*T*T+GTn*T\’{
}3;
cvn=cvn+G8n*exp(Bn/T),(Bn/T/(exp(Bn/T)-l))\’{
cvo=Glo/T\^{}3+G2o/T/T+G3o/T+G4o+G5o~T+G6o,T~T+GTo*T\’{
}3;
cvo=cvo+G8o~exp(Bo/T)~(Bo/T/(exp(Bo/T)-l))\’{
cvm=Fn~cvn+Fo~cvo+(l-Fn-Fo)*Cva;

D.2 Programs and Data for Refrigerant R-12

The following files are discussed in Section 12.5.4:

~ program dataRl2.m~ data defining model of refrigerantR-12

global A2 A3 A4 A5 B2 B3 B4 B5 C2 C3 C4 C5 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5
global E6 Ell E13 E22 E23 E24 F1 F2 F3 F4 SO UO TO TC R B Ck
global D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 ~c VC Pe
A2=-91.6210126;A3=.I01049598;A4=-5.74640225e-5; A5=O;
B2=.0771136428;B3=-5.67539138e-5;B4=O; B5=4.08193371e-ll;
C2=-1525.24293;C3=2.19982681;C4=0; C5=-1.66307226e-7;
DI=558.0845400;D2=854.4458040;D3=O; D4=299.40771103;DS=O;
D6=352.1500633; DT=-50.47419739;.Rc=4.616*120.91;
G1=33.89005260; G2=2.507020671; G3=-.003274505926;
G4=l.641736815e-6; GS=0;
E6=.788904825e-5; El1=-.1900330949; E13=-5.947813469;
E22=-512.6536438; E23=1142.99428; E24=-690.5751515;
F1=93.3438056; F2=-4396.18785; F3=-12.4715223; F4=.0196060432;
S0=894.48764; U0=169701.87; T0=200; TC=385.1Z; R=68.7480;
988 ¯APPENDIX D. THERMODYNAMIC DATA AND CODE

B=4.06366926e-4; Ck=5.475; VC=.0017004;

function[P,h,hg,s,sg,vf,vg,hf,dsdv,dsdT,dudv,dudT,dPs,d2Ps,dvg,dsg
dugdv,dugdT,dPdv,dPdT]=propref(v,T) ~ end
~ Program that finds propertiesof refrigerantR12 given v, T.
~ Calls program onephase.mbelow, and uses equations
~ (12.106)-(12.108), (1~.1~3) and (~2.~6)-(12.1~9).
global DID2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 T02 T03 T04 Ck TC A2 A3 A4 A5
global C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 E6 Ell El3 E22 E23 E24
global RI Rc R B UO T2 T3 T4 ft ftO ft2 ft3
dataRl2
T2=T*T; T3=T*T2;T4=T2*T2;
TO2=TO*TO;TO3=TO*T02;TO4=TO2*T02;
ft=Ck/TC*exp(-Ck*T/TC); ftO=Ck/TC*exp(-Ck*TO/TC);
ftl=ft*TC/Ck;
ft2=(I+Ck*T/TC)*exp(-Ck*T/TC);
ft3=-ft*Ck*T/TC;
vOl=l.369-B;vO2=vOl*vOl;vO3=vOl*v02;vO4=vO2*v02;
x=I-T/TC;
if x<.Ol ~ supercriticaltemperature(with some allowance)
[P,h,s,dudv,dudT,dsdv,dsdT,dPdv,dPdT]=onephase(v,T);
else ~ subcritical temperature
y=E6*x’(-5/~)+Ell+E13*x’(2/3)+E22*x^(ll/3)+E23*x’4;
y=y+E24*x’(13/3);
vg=l/~c*exp(-y);
if vg<=v ~ superheated
[P,h,s,dudv,dudT,dsdv,dsdT,dPdv,dPdT]=onephase(v,T);
else ~ saturated mixture or compressedliquid
x2=x’(1/3);
x3=x~*x2;
x5=x2*x;
rf=Dl+D2*x2+D3*x3+D4*x+D5*xS+D6*sqrt(x)+DT*x*x;
~ density of liquid phase
vf=I/rf;
X=(v-i/rf)/(vg-I/rf); ~ quality of mixture
vlg=vg-B; v2g=vlg*vlg;v3g=vlg*v2g;v4g=v2g’2;v5g=v2g*v3g;
P=exp(FI+F2/T+F3*Iog(T)+F4*T);
hg=GI*(T-TO)+G2/2*(T2-TO2)+G3/3*(T3-TO3)+G4/4*(T4-T04)-;
hg=hg-G5*(i/T-i/TO)+(A2+ft2*C2)/vlg+(A3+ft2*C3)/2/v2g;
hg=hg+(A4+ft2*C4)/3/v3g+(A5+ft~.C5)/4/v4g+P*vg+UO;
dPs=P*(-F~/T~+F3/T+F4);
d~Ps=P~(~*F~/T3-F3/T2)+dPs~(-F~/T~+F3/T+F4);
sg=GI.log(T/TO)+G~.(T-TO)+G3/2.(T~-TO~)+G4/3.(T3-T03)
sg=sg-G5/~*(1/T~-l/TO~)+~log(vlg/vO1)+B2~(1/vO1-1/vlg);
sg=sg+B3/~*(i/vO2-1/v~g)+B4/3,(1/vO3-1/v3g);
sg=sg+B5/4*(I/vO4-1/v4g)+C~(ft/vlg-ftO/v01);
D2. PROGRAMS AND DATA.FOR REFRIGERANT R-12 989

sg:sg+C312,(ftlv2g-ftO/vO2)+C4/3*(ft/v3g-ftO/v03);
sg=sg+CS/4,(ft/v4g-ftO/v04)+915.1;
ug=GI,(T-TO)+G2/2,(T2-TO2)+G3/3*(T3-TO3)+G4/4*(T4-T04);
ug=ug-GS,(llT-11TO)+(A2+C2*ft2)/vlg+(A3+C3*ft2)/v2g/2;
ug=ug+(A4+C4*ft2)/v3g/3*(A5+C5*ft2)/v4g/4+UO;
hg=ug+P*vg;
sm=(vg-v)*dPs;
s=sg-sm;
sf=sg-(vg-i/rf~dPs;
h=hg-T*sm;~ enthalpyif saturated mixture
sf=sg-dPs*(vg-I/rf); ~ entropy of saturated liquid
hf=hg-T*(sg-sf);~ enthalpy of saturated liquid
u=h-P*v;~ internal energy if saturated mixture
dvg=l/TC*vg*(-5/3*E6*x’(-8/3)+2/3*E13*x^(-1/3));
dvg=dvg+vg*(ll/3*E22*x’(8/3)+l]TC*(4*E23*x’3+13/3));
dvg=dvg+vg*E24*x’(lO/3);
dsg=(R/vlg+B2/v2g+B3/v3g+B4/v4g+BS/vSg)*dvg;
dsg=dsg-ft*(C2/v2g+C3/v3g+C4/v4g+C5/v5g)*dvg;
dsg=dsg-Ck/TC*ft*(C2/vlg+C3/2/v2g+C4/3/v3g+CS/4/v4g);
dsg=dsg+G1/T+G2+G3*T+G4*T2+GS/T3;
dugdv=-(A2+C2*ft2)/v2g-(A3+C3*ft2)/v3g-(A44C4*ft2)/v4g;
dugdv=dugdv-(AS+C5*ft2)/v5g;
dugdT=GI+G2*T+G3*T2+G4*T3+GS/T2;
dugdT=dugdT+ft3*(C2/vlg+C3/2/v2g+C4/3/v3g+C5/4/v4g);
dsgdv=R/vlg+B2/v2g+B3/v3g+B4/v4g+B5/vSg;
dsgdv=dsgdv-ft*(C2/v2g+C3/v3g+C4/v4g+CS/vSg);
dsdT=dsg-dvg*dPs-(vg-v)*d2Ps;
dPdv=O;
dPdT=dPs;
dsdv=dPs;
end
end

function [P,h,s,dudv,dudT,dsdv,dsdT,dPdv,dPdT]=onephase(v,T)
~ Program that finds the propertiesof vapor phase refrigerant
~ given its specific volume and temperature.
~ Called by program propref.mabove.
~ Based on equations(12.105), (12.109),(12.111) and (12.114).
global B2 B3 B4 B5 TO2 TO3 TO4 TC TO A2 A3 A4 A5 Cl C2 C3 C4
global C5 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 K B UO T2 T3 T4 ft fro ft2 ft3 Ck
ftl=ft*Tg/Ck;
vOl=l.369-B;vO2=vOl*vOl;vO3=vOl*v02;vO4=vO2*v02;
vl=v-B; v2=vl*vl; v3=vl*v2;v4=v2*v2; v5=v2*v3;v6=v3*v3;
s=GI*Iog(T/TO)+G2*(T-TO)+G3/2*(T2-TO2)+G4/3*(T3-T03);
s=s-G5/2*(i/T2-1/TO2)+R*log(vl/vOl)+B2*(I/vOl-i/vl);
s=s+B3/2*(i/vO2-1/v2)+B4/3*(i/vO3-1/v3);
990 APPENDIX D. THERMODYNAMIC DATA AND CODE

s=s+B5/4*(1/vO4-11v4)+C2*(ft/vl-ftO/vO1)+C3/2*(ft/v2-ftO/v02);
s=s+C4/3*(ft/v3-ftO/vO3)+CS/4*(ft/v4-ftO/v04)+915.1;
P=R*T/vl+(A2+B2*T+C2*ftl)/v2+(A3+B3*T+C3*ftl)/v3;
P=P+(A4+B4*T+C4*ftl)/v4+(AS÷BS*T+CS*ftl)/v5;
h=GI*(T-TO)+G2/2*(T2-TO2)+G3/3*(T3-TO3)+G4/4*(T4-T04);
h=h-GS*(1/T-1/TO)+(A2+ft2*C2)/vl+(A3+ft2*C3)/2/v2;
h=h+(A4+ft2*C4)/3/v3+(AS+ft2*CS)/4/v4+P*v+UO;
dPdT=R/vl+(B2-C2*ft)/v2+(B3-C3*ft)/v3+(B4-C4*fZ)/v4;
dPdT=dPdT+(B5-C5*ft)/vS;
dPdv=-R*T/v2-2*(A2+B2*T+C2*ftl)/v3-3*(A3+B3*T+C3*ftl)/v4;
dPdv=dPdv-4*(A4+B4*T+C4,ftl)/v5-5*(AS+BS*T+C5,ftl)/v6;
dudv=-(A2+ft2,C2)/v2-(A3+ft2*C3)/v3-(A4+ft2*C4)/v4;
dhdv=dudv-(A5+ft2*CS)/v5+P+v*dPdv;
dudT=GI+G2*T+G3*T2+G4*T3+GS/T2;
dhdT=dudT+ft3*(C2/vl+C3/2/v2+C4/3/v3*CS/4/v4)+v*dPdT;
dsdv=R/vl+B2/v2+B3/v3+B4/v4+B5/v5-ft*(C2/v2+C3/v3+C4/v4+CS/vS);
dsdT=-Ck/TC*ft*(C2/vl+C3/2/V2+C4/3/V3+C5/4/v4)+G1/T+G2+G3*T;
dsdT=dsdT+G4*T2+GS/T3;

function[dm] =orifice(A, Pu, Pd,vu,vd, vfu,vfd,vgu,vgd,Tu,Td)

~, Computesthe flow throughan orifice based on equationp. 873.
~
global C K
r=Pd/Pu;
if r<=l
dmvap=A*C*Pu*sqrt ( (r" (2/K)-r"(1+I/K))/Tu)
if Tu>381
dm=dmvap;
elseif vu>=vgu
dm=dmvap;
else
xu= (vu-vfu) / (vgu-vfu)
dmliq=A*sqrt (2/vfu*(Pu-Pd))
dm=xu*dmvap+ (1-xu)*dmliq;
end
else
r=l/r;
dmvap=-A*C*Pu*sqrt ( (r~ (2/K)-r^ (I+1/K))/Td)
if vd>=vgd
dm=dmvap;
else
xd=(vd-vfd) / (vgd-vfd)
dmliq=-A*sqrt (2/vfd*(Pd-Pu))
dm=xd*dmvap+ (l-xd)*dmliq;
end
end
D.3. DATA FOR REFRIGERANT R-134A 991

D.3 Data for Refrigerant R-134A

Equation of state Ideal gas heat capacity
equation (12.94) equation (12.99)

R = -5
0.814881629 x 10 Cpl = -2
-0.5257455 × 10
b = -3
0.3455467 × 10 Cp2 = -2
0.3296570 x 10
A2 = -0.1195051 C~3 = -7
-0.2017321× 10
B2 = 0.1137590 -3
× 10 C~4 = 0.0
C2 = -1
-0.3531592 × 10 C~5 = 0.1582170x 102
A3 = -3
0.1447797× 10
B~ = -7
-0.8942552 × 10 saturated liquid density
C3 = -2
0.6469248 × 10 equation (12.96)
A4 = -s
-0.1049005 x 10
A5 = -0.6953904 -1
× 310 D1 = 0.5122 × 103
B5 = -14
0.1269806 × 10 D2 = ~
0.819.6183× 10
C5 = -l°
-0.2051369 × 10 D3 = 0.1023582x 104
K = 5.475 D4 -- -0.1156757x 104
D5 = 0.7897191x 103
All parametersI above and below have units compatible with the critcal
parameters below; pressure is in kPa, density in kg/m3, energy in kJ/kg and
temperaturein K. Coefficients not listed are zero.
Critical Parameters:
Critical pressure: Pc = 4067 kPa; Critical volume: vc = 1/512.2 m3/kg
Critical temperature: 0c = 374.25 K; Constants X and Y: not specified
Saturation pressure Saturation vapor density
equation (12.95) equation (12.97)

F1 = 0.248033988× 102 not given

F2 = -0.3980408 × 104
F~ = -1
-0.1336296 × 10
F5 = -4
0.2245211 × 10
Fs = 0.1995548
F9 = 0.3748473× 103
F10 = 1.000

D.4 Data for Refrigerant R-22

Critical parameters:
Critical pressure: Pc = 4977 kPa; Critical volume: vc = 0.16478 L/mol
Critical temperaure: 0c = 369.16 K; Molecular weight.= 86.469
1Taken from D.P. Wilson and R.S. Basun, "Thermodynamic Properties of a NewStrato-
spherically Safe Working Fluid - Refrigerant 134a,"ASHRAETransactions v. 94 Pt. 2 (1988)
pp. 2095-2118.
992 APPENDIX D. THERMODYNAMIC DATA AND CODE

entropy constant: .Y = 46.8883 J/mol-K; enthalpy constant: X = 25990.02

J/mol

All parameters2 have units compatible with the critical parameters above;
pressure is in kPa, density in mol/L and temperature in K. Coefficients not
listed are zero. The value of J in equations (12.100) and (12.102) is 1000.
equation of state ideal gas heat capacity
equation (12.94) equation (12.98)

R = -2
0.83136998378x 10 G1 = 0.10183212 2× 10
b = -1
0.10796166646x 10 G2 = 0.14697171
A2 = -0.87466122549 G3 = -4
-0.76354723x 10
B
2 = 0.87054394311× -310 G4 = 0.0
C2 = -0.88533742184 x 10 G5 = 0.28754121 x 105
A3 = -1 -0.18939998642 x 10 G5 = 0.0
B3 = -3
0.14890632572x 10
C3 = 0.16091656668x 10 saturated liquid density
A4 = -1
0.13524290185x 10 equation (12.96)
B4 = -4 -0.37996244181× 10
C4 = 0.0 D1 = 0.6068821 x 10
A5 = -0.11768746066 -2 X 10 D2 = 0.1012108 2× 10
B5 = -5
0.30463870398× 10 D3 = 0.6807772 x 10
C5 = -2 -0.58307411777× 10 D4 = -0.4129719 × 10
A6 = s0.94001896962x l0 D5 = 0.3792696 x 10
Be - = -0.20757984460x 104
C~ = 0.0
K = 4.2
u = 0.10155456431x 103
c = 0.0
saturation pressure saturated vapor density
equation (12.95) with log10 equation (12.97)

F1 = 0.25189356867x 102 E7 = -4
-0.1680024749 x 10
F2 = -0.21362184178 × 104 En = 0.1344723347
F3 = 0.0 El2 -- -0.2845461873 x 10
F4 = -0.78610312200 x 10 E14 = 0.1292966614
Fs = -2
0.39436902792x 10 E20 = 0.3106835616x 104
F~ = 0.0 E21 = -.01189422522 x 105
F~ = 0.0 E22 = s0.1914759823x l0
Fs = 0.44574670300 E23 = -0.1472081631 x 105
F9 = -3
0.38116666667× 10 E24 = 0.4527640563x 104
1.8 E25 = ~
0.1306817379x 10
Flo =

2TakenfromR.B. Stewart et al., ASHRAE ThermodynamicProperitesof Re]rigerants,

American
Societyof Heating,RefrigerationandAir-Conditioning
Engineers,1988.
 D.5. PROGRAMS AND DATA FOR WATER 993

D.5 Programs and Data for Water

The coefficients Ci and Aij for the Helmholtz free energy (equation (12.120),
930) are given in the script M-file below, and the properties are computed using
this data in the two subsequent function M-files.

~ file waterdat.m, data for the properties of water, from

~ Keenan (footnote 17, p. 930); units in cgs
global C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 R E tc
global All AI2 AI3 AI4 AI5 AI6 AI7 A21A22 A23 A24 A25 A26 A27
global A31 A32 A33 A34 A35 A36 A37 A41 A42 A43 A44 A45 A46 A47
global A51 A52 A61 A62 A67 AT1 A72 A81 A82
global Agl A92 A93 A94 A95 A96 A97
global AIOI AI02 AI03 AI04 AI05 AI06 AI07
global D E1 E2 E3 E4 E7 EIO El3 El4 El5 F PC rc
CI=1857.065; C2=3229.12; C3=-419.465; C4=36.6649; C5=-20.5516;
C6=4.85233; C7=46; C8=-I011.~49; R=.46151; E=4.8; tc=1.54491~;
AII=29.492937; AI2= -5.1985860; A13=6.8335354; A14=-0.1564104;
A15=-6.3972405; A16=-3.9661401; A17=-0.69048554;
A21=-132.13917; A22=7.7779182; A23=-26.149751;
A25=A24=-0.72546108; 26.409282; A26=15.453061; A27=2.7407416;
A31=274.64632; A32=-33.301902; A33=65.326396; A34=-9.2734289;
A35=-47.740374; A36=-29.142470; A37=-5.1028070;
A41=-360.938~8; A42=-16.254622; A43=-26,181978; A44=4.3125840;
A45=56.323130; A46=29.568796; A47=3.9636085;
A51=342.18431; A52=-177.31074; A61=-244.50042; A62=127.48742;
A71=155.18535; A72=137.46153; A81=5.9728487; A82=155.97836;
A91=-410.30848; A92=337.31180; A93=-137.46618; A94=6.7874983;
A95=136.87317; A96=79.847970; A97=13.041253; AI01=-416.05860;
A102=-209.88866; AI03=-733.96848; AI04=I0.401717;
AI05=645.81880; AI06=399.17570; AI07=71.531353;
D=[3.6711257 -28.512396 222.65240 -882.43852];
D=[D 2000.2765 -2612.2557 1829.7674 -533.50520];
El=f3; E2=-1.393188; E3=-6.418663; E4=18.46092; E7=-35.25809;
EI0=219.5021; E13=-2199.413; E14=3765.631; E15=-1809.692;
F=[-741.9242 -29.72100 -11.55286 -0.8685635];
F=[F 0.1094098 0.439993 0.2520658 0.05218684];
PC=22.088; rc=0.3170;

function [P,h,vg,dvg,dudT,dudv,dugdT,dugdvg,dPs,d2Ps] Z cont.

=propwat(v,T) Z end
Z Computes the properties of water sufficient for equations
Z (12.66) and (12.72), (pp 904, 905). Irrelevant outputs
994 APPENDIX D. THERMODYNAMIC DATA AND CODE

~ be spurious. The program requires that the script file

~ waterdat.m be run first. Also canoutput quality X,
~ specific volume of liquid vf, entropies s and sg, enthalpy
~ hg and energy ug. Easy to add some others, including u, uf,
~ sf, hr. Note that units are different from those for
~ refrigerant RI2; pressures are in MPa, energy densities are
~ in ~ kJ/kg), and specific volumes are in m’3/kg.
global C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C? C8 R E tc
global All AI2 AI3 AI4 AI5 AI6 AI7 A21 A22 A23 A24 A25 A26 A27
global A31 A32 A33 A34 A35 A36 A37 A41 A42 A43 A44 A45 A46 A47
global A51 A52 A61 A62 ATI A72 A81 A82
global Agl A92 A93 A94 A95 A96 A97
global AIOI AI02 AI03 AI04 AI05 AI06 AI07
global D El E2 E3 E4 E7 EIO El3 El4 El5 F PC rc
t=lOOO/T; Tc=lOOO/tc;
x=l-tc/t;rho=i/v;
if x<.Ol ~ supercritical temperature (with some allowance)
[P,h,dudT,dudr]=steam(rho,T);
dudv=-dudr/v/v;
else ~ subcritical temperature
y=E2*x’(I/3)+E3*x’(2/3)+E4*x+EY*x*x+ElO*x’3+E13*x’4;
y=y+El~*x’(13/3)+E15*x’(14/3);
vg=.OO3155*(t/tc)’(E1)*exp(-y);
~ specific volume of saturated vapor at T
if v<=vg ~ saturated mixture or compressed liquid
xl=x’(i/3);x2=xl*xl;
xO=[xl x2 x x*xl x,x2 x*x x*x*xl x*x*x2];
rf=rc*(l+D*xO’)*lO00;
vf=i/rf; ~ specific volume of saturated liquid at T
if v>=vf ~ saturated mixture
X=(v-vf)/(vg-vf); ~ quality of mixture
tO=.65-.Ol*T+2.7316; tO2=tO*tO; tO3=tO~*tO;
tO4=tO2*t02; tOS=tO3*t02; tO6=tO3*tO3;
tl=[1 tO tO2 tO3 tO4 tO5 tO6 tO4*t03];
t2=-.Ol*[O 1 2*tO 3,t02 4,t03 5,t04 6,t05 7,t06];
t3=.O001*[O 0 2 6*tO 12,t02 20,t03 30,t04 42,t05];
P=PC*exp(.OI*(Tc/T-1)*F*tl’); sa turation pr essure
dPs=P*.OI*(-Tc/T/T*F*tl’+(Tc/T-1)*F*t2’);
~ derivative of Psat with respect to T
d2Ps=P*.OI*(2*Tc/T’3*F*tI’-2*Tc/T/T*F*t2’;
d2Ps=d2Ps+P*.Ol*(Tc/T-l)*F*t3’)+dPs’2/P;
~ second derivative of Psat with respect to T
dvg=(-El/T+i/Tc/3*(E2/x2+2*E3/xl+3*E4+6*ET*x))*vg;
dvg=dvg+i/Tc/3*vg*(9*ElO*x*x+12*El3*x’3);
dvg=dvg+i/Tc/3*vg*(13*El4*x’(lO/3)+14*ElS*x-(ll/3));
~ derivative of vg with respect to T
D.5. PROGRAMS AND DATA FOR WATER 995

[P,hg,sg,dudT,dudr]=steam(1/vg,T);
ug=hg-P*lOOO*vg; ~ internal energy of vapor component
sm=(vg-v)*sg;
h=hg-T*sm; ~ enthalpy of mixture
s=sg-sm; ~ entropy of mixure
dugdT=dudT-dudr/lOOO/vg/vg*dvg;
~ derivativeof ug with respectto T
dugdvg=dugdT/dvg; ~ derivativewith respect to vg
else ~ single phase (vapor or liquid), use steam.m
[P,h,dudT,dudr]=steam(rho,T);
dudv=-dudr/v/v;
end
end
end

function [P,h,s,dudT,dudr]=steam(rho,T) ~ computesproperties

~ of single-phasewater. Requires that script file waterdat.m
~ be run first. Intended as sub-program for propwat.m.
~ If used directly,note some use of cgs units.
~ Units of energy are J/g = kJ/kg.
global Cl C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 R E tc
global All AI2 AI3 AI4 AI5 AI6 AI7 A21 A22 A23 A24 A25 A26 A27
global A31 A32 A33 A34 A35 A36 A37 A41 A42 A43 A44 A45 A46 A47
global A51 A52 A53 A54 A55 A56 A57 A61 A62 A63 A64 A65 A66 A67
global AT1 A72 A73 A74 A75 A76 A77 A81 A82 A83 A84 A85 A86 A87
global A91 A92 A93 A94 A95 A96 A97
global AIOI A102 AI03 AI04 AI05 AI06 AI07
t=lOOO/T;r=rho/lO00;~ density in g/cm’3
tl=t-2.5;t2=tl*tl;t3=tl*t2; t4=t2*t2;t5=t3*t2;
rO=r-.634; rO2=rO*rO; rO3=rO*r02; rO4=rO2*r02;
rO5=rO3*r02; rO6=rO3*r03; rOT=rO4*r03;
rl=r-1; r2=rl*rl; r3=rl*r2; r4=r2*r2; r5=r3*r2; r6=r3*r3;
rY=r4*r3; EO=exp(-E*r); tcc=t-tc;
al=All+A21*rO+A31*rO2+A41*rO3+A51*rO4+A61*rOS+ATl*r06;
al=al+A81*rO7+EO*(Agl+AlOl*r);
a2=A12+A22*rl+A32*r2+A42*r3+A52*r4+A62*r5+A72*r6+A82*r7;
a2=a2+EO*(A92+AlO2*r);
a3=AI3+A23*rI+A33*r2+A43*r3+EO*(A93+AIO3*r);
a4=A14+A24*rI+A34*r2+A44*r3+EO*(A94+AIO4*r);
aS=AIS+A25*rI+A35*r2+A45*r3+EO*(A95+AIOS*r);
a6=AI6+A26*rI+A36*r2+A46*r3+EO*(A96+AIO6*r);
aT=AIT÷A27*rI+A37*r2+A47*r3+EO*(A97+AIO7*r);
Q=al+tcc*(a2+t1*a3+t2*a4+t3*aS+t4*a6+tS*aT);
dal=A21+2*A31*rO+3*A41*rO2+4*ASl*rO3+5*A61*rO4+6,ATl*r05;
dal=dal+7*A81*rO6+EO*(AlO1-E*(A91+A10I*r));
996 APPENDIX D. THERMODYNAMIC DATA AND CODE

da2=A22+2*A32*rl+3*A42*r2+4*A52*r3+5*A62*r4;
da2=da2+6*A72*r5+7*A82*r6+EO*(AlO2-E*(A92+AI02*~));
da3=A23+2*A33*rI+3*A43*r2+EO*(AIO3-E*(A93+AIO3*r));
da4=A24+2*A34*r1+3*A44*r2+EO*(AIO4-E*(A94+AIO4*r));
da5=A25+2*A35*rI+3*A45*r2+EO*(AIO5-E*(A95+AIO5*r));
da6=A26+2*A36*rI+3*A46*r2+EO*(AIO6-E*(A96+AIO6*r));
daT=A27+2*A37*rI+3*A47*r2+EO*(AIOT-E*(A97+AIOT*r));
dQdr=dal+~cc*(da2+~l*da3+~2*da4+~3*da5+~4*da6+~5*daT);
d~d~=a2+(~l+~cc)*a3+~l*(~l+2*~cc)*a4+~2*(~l+3*~cc)*a5;
dQd~=d~d~+~3*(~l+4*~cc)*a6+~4*(~l+5*~cc)*aT;~
pO=Cl+C2/t+C3/t/t+C4/t’S+C5/t’4+C6/t’5+CT*log(T)+C8*log(T)/t;
dpOdT=(C2/Z+2*C3/t’2+3*C4/t’3+4*C5/t’4+5*C6/Z^5+CT)/T;
dp0dT=dp0dT+C8/t*(log(T)+l)/T;
dpOtdt=Cl-C3/t/t-2*C4/t’3-3*C5/t’~-4*C6/t’5+C?*log(T)-CT-CS/t;
P=r*R*T*(l+r*Q+r*r*dQdr); Z in N/cm’2 = MPa
u=R*T*r*t*dQdZ+dp0Zdt;
s=-R*(log(r)+r*Q-r*t*d~dt)-dp0dr;
h=u+P/r;
d2Odt~=~*aS+(4*tl+~*tcc)*a4+(2*tl*(tl+S*tcc)+4*t~)*aS;
d2Qdt2=d2Qdt2+(3*t2*(~l+4*~cc)+5*t3)*a6;
d2Qdt2=d2Qdt2+(4*t3*(tl+5*tcc)+6*t4)*aT;
d2pOtdZ2=2*C3/t’3+6*C4/t’4+12*C5/t’5+20*C6/t’6-CT/t+C8/~/t;
dudT=-R*r*t*t*d2Qdt2-t/T*d2p0tdt2;
d2~dtdr=da2+(Zl+tcc)*da3+tl*(tl+2*tcc)*da4+t2*(~l+3*tcc)*da5;
d2Qdtdr=d2Qdtdr+t3*(tl+4*tcc)*da6+~4*(tl+5*tcc)*daT;
dudr=lO00*R*(dQdt+r*d2~dtdr);
Index

Accumulator, hydraulic 166-167, 755- for poles and zeros at origin 418-
756, 759 419, 424
Activation energy 949 for real poles and zeros 418-422
Actuator, hydraulic 63-64, 69, 72 for right-half plane zeros 418-420,
Admittance,characteristic or surge 797, 440-441,445-446, 458-459
803, 838 Bond 21
shunt, per unit length 819 activated 570, 657, 682-692
Aircraft arresting engine 257, 671-672, convection 867, 870-871
679-680, 681 micro 36-38
Amplifiers, electronic 684-685, 690-693 vector 945
Amplitude ratio 410 Bond graph 4, 7
Analog computer 174 equivalences of 242-253
Analog-to-digital converter 493 pseudo 363, 727-728, 912-913
Analogies, effort and flow 38-39, 720, reduction of 247-253
869 word 21
Analyzer, dynamic or spectrum 493- Brake, mechanical 46-47
494, 500-501,507 thermal runaway of 730, 733-734
Arrhenius factor 949 Break frequency 421
Arresting engine for aircraft 257, 671- Breedveld, P.C. 16n, 784n, 785-786
672, 679-680, 681 Briener, M. 953n
Atter~uation factor 829 Brenan, K.E. 321n
Brillouin, Leon 797n, 843n
Balance, electromechanical 767 Brown,F.T. 249n, 560, 795, 821, 858,
Basun, R.S. 928n 859n, 904, 943
Beam, Bernoulli-Euler model of 822, Bulk modulus 95
824-825, 861-863, 865-866
Timoshenko model of 861 Cable, coaxial 801,855-856
Beating phenomenon404, 408 Cadsim Engineering 134n
Beranek, Leo L. 746 Campbell, S.L. 321n
Biran, A. 953n Cannonical form, congruence 784
Block diagrams 345-346 Capacitor, capacitance 94
Block, floating 96-97, 99, 154, 159 variable geometry753-755, 757,
Boat, thrust and drag 25-26, 28-29, 52- 758, 759
53, 56, 367, 797-709,711-712, Cauchy theorem 631
715-717 Causal strokes 135, 281-282, 871,899
Bode plots 411-413, 419-439, 444-445 Causality 134-143, 281-302, 898-899
for combinedpoles and zeros 424- with activated bonds 686-688
441 admittance 135
for complexpoles and zeros 422- of compliancesand inertances 137-
.424 138

997
998
with dependentenergy storages 309-
313, 326, 328-329
differential 136, 137, 309-313
for differential equations 139-141,
281-303, 309-331
of effort and flow sources 134-135
impedance 136
integral 136, 137
of junctions 135-139
with meshes 321-327
of over-causal models282, 309-313,
320-327, 328-329
of under-causal models 282, 309,
313-320, 329-331
for thermodynamicelements 898-
899
of transformers and gyrators 292-
295
Celerity (of wave) 802
Cellier, F.E. 16
Channel, fluid, end corrections for in-
ertance 745-746
Characteristic 20-22
Characteristic admittance and impedance
797, 838
Characteristic equation and polynomial
390
Characteristic length 745
Characteristics, methodof 813n
Chargeor displacement, electrical 32,
94
Chemicalaffinity 946
Chemical equilibrium 947-948
Chemical kinetics 943-952
Chemical potential 944
Chemical reactions 949-951
Chokedflow 873-875
Circuits 191-200, 205-209
electric 192-194,205-207,690-’692,
696-697
fluid 194-195, 198-200,207-209,221-
223, 225-228
mechanical 195-198
regenerative hydraulic 208-209
Coffer dam749-750, 751-752
Coil device, translating 68, 70, 72
Complexplane 409-410, 424-425, 497-
498, 510, 588-591, 593-599,
607, 616, 619, 629-650
Compliance 91, 93-99, 162-166
INDEX
chordal 163-164, 170-171
electrical (capacitance) 94, 753-
755, 757-759
fluid, compressiblity 95-96, 166-
167, 919, 922
fluid, gravity 94-95, 108, 164-165
generalized 93-94, 162-164, 752
incremental or tangential 362-363
mechanical(gravity) 99, 100, 108,
172
mechanical (spring) 92-93, 162-
163~ 182-184
multiport 752
thermal 724-726, 897
thermodynamic 897-916
thermodynamic C-element 900-
901
thermodynamic CS-element 901-
9O5
Compressor 883-887, 891-897 "
piston-cylinder 905-909, 915-916,
917-919, 925-927, 940, 941-
943
Conductance 119
Conductivity 738
Conductors, electric 31-32
Conformal mapping 740
Constraints, electrical 116-117,120-121
fluid 117-118, 120-121, 207-210
geometric 63, 115, 122, 213-219
holonomic 760-762, 765-768
nonholonomic 762-764
Constitutive relation, 93
Control (automatic) 583-650
bang-bang 611-612
design by pole placement for 611
digital 621-622, 647-648
with disturbances 592-593
dynamic compensation for 605-650
feedback 587-650
frequency-response methods for
629-650
modeling for 7-8
open-loop 583-587
optimal 584-587
position 584-590, 592, 594, 606-
608, 610-612, 615-620
suboptimal 586
Control mass, surface, volume18
Controllab Products B.V. 134n
INDEX
Controller, phase lag 618-620, 642-643
phase lead 615-618, 640-642, 649-
650, 653-656
phase lead-lag 620-621
process or three-mode 614-615,644,
645-647
proportional 587, 639
proportional-plus-derivative (PD)
610-613, 644
proportional-plus-integral (PI) 606-
610, 644
proportional-plus-integral-plus-
derivative (PID) 614-615,644,
645-647
Control mass, volume and surface.18
Convolution 470-481,509-510
continuous 477-479, 480-481
discrete 471-476
integral 477, 509-510
Coulombfriction 46-47
Coupled and uncoupled behavior of el-
ements 135-139
Couplers, irreversible 718-731
linear 704-707
passive 706
reciprocal 705
symmetric 706
nonconservative 697-711
CS macro element 901-905
Cylinder, hydraulic 63, 84-85, 207-209
Damping,critical 153
proportional 972
Dampingratio 149-153, 155
Dashpots 44-46, 300-302~308
DASSL321
Dauphin-Tanguy, G. 16
Decibel scale 412
Decrement, logarithmic 158
Degrees of freedom 416, 965
Delta model 746-747
Derivative, material or substantial 825
Derivative operator 345
Derivative time 610
Design process 1-5
Determinant, graph 563
Dewpoint 927
Differential-algebraic equations (DAE’s)
309, 313-321
Diffusion equation 842
999
Dimensional analysis 700-702
Dimensions, treatment of 10-12
Dirichelet principle 741-742
Dispersion and absorption of waves 831-
836
anomolous and normal 836
Displacement(variable) 30n, 32, 34, 92,
93
Displacement (volumetric) of pump
motor, 64, 885
Distributed-parameter models 795
boundary problems in 845-851
comparison to lumped models
796-798
degenerate one-power 820
exponentially tapered 851-852,
856
globally symmetric one-power 820
locally symmetric one-power 820
multiple-power 820-821,858-863
one-dimensional 817-822
one-power 819-820, 837-854
uniform 817
Disturbances, response to 592-593
Drive, chain and sprocket 61
cam659-662, 670, 676, 678, 680
epicyclic gear 219
friction 721-722, 674
mechanical modulated 657-658
rolling contact 59-60, 674
Scotch yoke 676, 677
sheave (pulley) 60, 77-80, 216-218,
227
sheave (pulley), variable 674
timing belt 61
toothed or gear 61, 73, 219, 688
Ear, drain tube for 202-203, 334, 447,
575, 579-580
Efficiency, adiabatic 885
volumetric 885
Effort 30-39, 718-719
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors 528-529,
538, 540-544~966-967, 968
from MATLAB 543-544, 923-976
matrix of 529
Energy, internal, evaluation of 921
Enthalpy, stagnation 869
available and unavailable 870-871,
883n
1000
Entropy, evaluation of 920
Entropy flux 719
Equilibrium 17, 23-24, 258-271, 368-
377
meta-stable 371, 373
with resistances and compliances
262-263
unstable 17, 23-25, 265-269, 373-
374, 424
Equilibrium constant 947
Error, steady-state 588
Euler integration 179
Existence and uniqueness theorem 390
Exponential inputs 395-396
Feedback, unity 587-588
Feedwater heater 890
Field, compliance, conductanceand sus-
ceptance of 740
discrete compliance752-757, 784-
785
discrete inertance 760-762, 765-766,
786
discrete multiport 771-789
discrete resistance 697-705
energy storage 735
field, nodic 737-750
multiport vector 746-748
planar vector 740-744
three-dimensional vector 744-
746
rigid body 736
scalar 736
transmittance of 740
Field lumping 735-750
Final value theorem 519
Flow, in bond graph 30-39, 718-719
of incompressible fluid 33-34
coefficient (discharge) of
Flywheel, adjustable 763-766, 770
Force, generalized 30-31, 38.
Form factor 740
Fourier analysis 485-501
for wavelike behavior 805-808
Fourier series 486-491,497-501
Fourier series pair 488-489
Fourier transform 491-499, 507-508
Frequency response 408-446, 546-548
for undamped models 413-418
Friction, by RSCoupler 721-722
INDEX
Gain 411
path 563
Gain margin 636-637
Gas, ideal 905
Gawthrop, P. 15
Gibbs function 870, 900n, 943
Ground-effect machine 316-319, 329-
331,335, 337-341
Gyrator, abstract 59
cascaded 73-74
connecting source to load 81-82,
213-214, 246-247
coupled to R, C or I elements 246-
247
¯ mechanical67-68
transducing 68-70
H element 877
Half-arrows (power convention) 21,
Heat conduction 719-721,827-832,839-
842, 847-848, 877-881
Heat engine, ideal 723, 729, 731, 732-
733
Heat exchanger, counterflow 859-861,
876-881,889
Helmholtz free energy 903, 922, 930
Helmholtz resonator 448
Hindmarsh, A.C. 321n
Hodograph plane 808-812, 814
Holonomicconstraints 760-762, 765
Homogeneoussolution 146-147, 151-
155, 390-393
HRS element 879-881
HS element 877-879
Humidity,absolute or specific and rel-
ative 927
Hydraulic systems 3-5, 77-80, 117-118,
199, 207-210, 221-223, 225-
229, 230, 231, 239, 240, 275-
277, 300, 307
bleed-off, meter-in and meter-out
198-200, 205, 270-271, 280-
281
wave behavior in 810-812
Hysteresis 52
IC engine 74-77, 273-274
Identification, experimental 436-439,
444-446, 748
INDEX 1001

Impedance,characteristic or surge 838 derivative relations 510-512

self 706
series, per unit length 819
source and load 50
transfer 705
Impulse function 393, 496, 513
responses to 399-403, 459-462
Inductance 104-105, 168, 761-762
mutual 772-773
Inertance 91,102-108, 168-171
chordal 171
compressible flow 912
dependent 664-669
displacement modulated 760-766
electrical (inductance) 104-105,108,
168-169, 761-762
fluid channel 105-106, 912
generalized 103, 168-171
mechanical(mass and inertia) 102-
104, 108
mutual 771-776
nonlinear 168-171
rotational 104
Inertia, mass momentof 104
Inertia matrix 968
Initial value problem398-399, 515-516,
527, 970
Initial value theorem 518
IRC models 122-123
Jet, fluid 274-275
Jumpeffect 182-184, 187-189
Junction, generic 91, 110-111, 122-124,
2O5
0-junction 110-111, 118-122, 123,
124, 166-168, 723, 881
0S-junction 881-883
1-junction 111-118, 123, 124, 166-
168, 723, 883
1S-junction 883-886
Junction structure, 205
Karmakar, Ranjit 16
Karnopp, D. 15, 727, 912
Keenan, J.H. 930
Kierzenka, J.A. 321n
Kinetic energy 102-103, 169-171
Laplace transform 459, 463-464, 507-
522
definition 510
inverse 510
one-sided 508
of output variables 514-517
of singularity functions 512-513
tables 461, 511,979-982
two-sided 508
Laplace’s equation 738
Leakage, internal and external 210
Learning styles 8-10
Lever or link, floating 218, 774-776
Limit-cycle 259, 266-268, 269, 286-291,
374-377
Linearity 341-354
and differential equations 343-345
differentiation and integration
properties with 401
stationary, non-stationary 344
Linear media, generalized 781-783
Linearization 358-381
and bond graphs 359, 360, 363
of compliance 362-363
of differential equations 368-371
for one variable 361-363, 378-379
of resistance 358-361
stick-slip example374-377
for two variables 365-367, 380-381
Load, bond graph 21-22
LODSI 321
Loop rule 560-576
Loops, flat 567
Loops, open 569
Lorens, C. 561
Lorens Simulation S.A. 134n
Machine, compressible fluid, 883-887,
909-911
ideal 58-70, 205-219, 657-659
Magnetostrictive transducer 781, 856
Magnitude ratio 410
Magrab, B. 953n
Margolis, D. 15
Mass, generalized 970
Massaction, law of 948
Mass matrix 966
MathWorks,Inc., The 953n
MATLAB953-963
arrays and matrices 956-958
Bodeplots 413, 433, 975
classical vibrations 972-976
1002
complex numbers 955
control flow commands960
convolution 474-476
curve fitting 959
data files 961
eigenvalues, eigenvectors 392,543-
544, 974-975
factorization, pole-zero 425-426
function files 175, 961-962
Fourier analysis 497-498
global variables 962
impulse 401-403
M-files 175, 960-963
Nichols charts 639, 643, 646, 654,
655
Nyquist plots 630, 635
Pade approximants 440n
partial fraction expansion460-461,
462, 467, 469
plotting 958-959
responses to steps, impulses 401-
403
root locus 595-599, 604-605, 608,
627-628
roots 392
scalar calculations 594
script files 175, 960-961
simulation, linear 349-354, 375-377,
528
simulation, nonlinear 175-178, 925-
927, 934-937, 962-963
step 401-403
with thermodynamic data 983-996
transfer function equivalences 348-
349, 517
variables 954
Matrix, admittance and impedance 705
transmission 82-83, 250-252, 845-
852
Matrix exponential 352, 527, 542 ¯
Matrix methods 526-553
Mesh stub 569
Meshes, bond graph 247-250, 321-327
even, odd, neutral 249, 569-570
Meta-stability 371
Microphone, capacitance 788-789, 793-
794
Minimumand nonminimum phase lag
434
Minsky, Marvin vi
INDEX
Modal damping 971-972
Modal matrix 533, 540
Modalvariables, shape 534, 536, 968,
973-974
Mode~normal 967
of motion 528
Modereduction 976-977
Modeling,and engineering science. 5-6
for control 7-8
guidelines for 220-223
languages for 6-7
misconceptions in 223-224
process of 2-5
Momentum,generalized 103
MOSFET53-54, 57
Motion, constraints on 213-219
lateral 35-36
longitudinal 32-33
rotational 34-35, 216-219
Motor, DCelectric 68-69, 81-82, 210-
212, 228-229, 233, 234, 241
capacitor start 26-27, 29
electrostatic 759
hydraulic 66, 209-210, 659, 698
induction 18-21, 26-27, 29, 378-
379, 386-387
synchronous 43
Muffler, acoustic 823, 856
Mukherjee, Amalendu 16
Nailer, hydraulic 305-306
Natural frequency 149-150, 154, 391
damped 151~ 391
Nichols charts 638-648
Nyquist plots 629-637, 654, 847-848
Nyqui~tstability criterion 630-635,649-
65O
Nonholonomicconstraints 762-764
Nonlinearity, essential 364=365
Norton equivalent 242-244
Nozzle flow 46-47, 358-360, 873-875
Operator notation 345
Order of models, differential equations
139, 295-298
first-order 145-148
increase due to modulation 661-
664
minimum-order 296
second-order 148-155
INDEX
Orifice flow 46-47, 358-360, 873-875
Orthogonal functions 488
Over-causal models 282, 309-313, 328
Overshoot 588
Pade approximants 440
Partial fraction expansion 459-467,517-
518
Particular solution 390, 397-398
Passivity 48, 245-246, 269
Paynter, Henry vi, 7, 106, 111, 741,
886n
Pendulum172, 177-178, 962-963
coupled 550-551,552-553,554, 556-
558, 559-560
inverted, control of 623-624, 627-
628, 649-650, 653-656
Penrose, Rogervi, 8
Penstock, hydraulic 160, 407, 864
Percolation operator 831
Periodic excitations and responses 486-
491
Permeability 749
Perturbations 360, 361
Petzoid, L.R. 321n
Phase angle, shift or lag 409-410, 434
Phase margin 636-638
Phase plane 290, 291,371-372
Phasors 410
Pipes, L.A. 859n
Piston-and-cylinder 63, 207-209, 905-
909, 915-919, 925-927
Pitch surface, radius, diameter 61
Planing of boat 52-53, 367
Plant, example of 584-585
Polar plots for frequency response 629-
637
Pole placement, design by 611
Pole-zero excess 436
Poles 418, 424
Port, energy 19, 21
Potential energy 94, 169-171
Power 19, 30
Power-law waveforms 396
Propagation operator 838
Propeller drive 707-709, 711-712, 715-
717
Pseudo bond graphs 727-728, 912-913
Pulley system 216-218
Pump, displacement of 64-65
1003
dielectric 769
dynamicor impeller 48, 67, 697-
704, 751
fixed positive displacement 63-66,
209-210, 884-885
variable positive displacement 659
Pure-delay model and operator 439,
826, 839
Rayleigh line 878n
Ram,hydraulic 63, 84-85, 89, 207-209,
407
Rampwaveform or function 394
Reaction force, chemical 946
Reaction rates, chemical 948
Reciprocity 705
Reduction, steady-state models, 250-
252, 259-262, 263-265
Refrigeration cycle 931-937
Regenerator, thermal 897-898
Reichelt, M.W.321n
Residues 464, 508
Resistance (R element), chordal
linear 43-46
linear biased 44, 47
linearized or tangential 360
mutual 705, 774
nonlinear 46-48
Resistivity 738
Reticulation 18
Reversing flows 939
Reynolds, W.C. 922, 930, 931
Robustness 636
Rocker 667-669, 678-679
Rod, longitudinal distributed 799, 801,
851-852
torsional distributed 798-799,838-
839, 848-852, 854, 857
Root-locus plots 588-591,593-599, 604-
605, 607, 616, 619, 627-628,
632
Roots blower 891-897
Roots of characteristic equation 390-
393
Rosenberg, R. 15, 134n, 727
Routh-Hurwitzstability criterion 600
RS element 720-723, 871-872
Runge-Kutta integration 178-181
S-plane 424-425,508, 548-549, 588-591,
1004
593-599, 607, 616, 619, 629-
650
Sample-data, sample-and-hold 621-622,
647-648
Saturation, magnetic 168-169
Saturation element 611, 612
Servomechanism, hydraulic 713-714
Settling time 588-590
Shaft, rotational waves 796-799, 801
variables 19-21
Signal-flow graphs 560-567
Similitude, Eulerian 702
Simulation, analog 174
MATLAB 175-178, 349-352, 962-
963
numerical 175-181
piston-cylinder compressor907-908,
925-927
refrigeration cycle 931-937
Runge-Kutta 178-181
Singularity waveforms393-395, 512-513
Sinusoidal waveforms395-396
Sinks, effort or flow 41-43
Shampine, L.F. 321n
Slider-crank mechanism660-661, 662-
666, 672-673, 681-682, 758
Smith, L. 16
Snubber, mechanical 300-302, 308
Solenoid 761-762
Source 18, 41-43 :..
effort and flow 41-43
Source-load synthesis 22-25, 48-54
Spectral analysis, digital 493-499
Springs 92-93, 162-163, 265, 553
Sprinkler system 21-24, 77-80
Stability 17, 23-27, 258-259, 261-262,
265-269, 371-377, 600, 630-
635
Stability, relative 636-638
State, thermodynamicequations of 903,
919, 922
for gases 922-925, 983-987
for liquids 937-938
for refrigerants, 928-930, 987-993
for water 930-931,993-996
State postulate 870
State space 134, 174, 344-349 527, 533
trajectories in 290-291,371-372
transition to/from scalar form 346-
349
INDEX
State transition matrix 527
State variables 140, 142, 174,
Stationary vs. nonstationary systems
344
Steady-state 17, 22,
Steady-state error 588
Steady-state response 409
Step waveformor function 393
responses to 147-149, 152-153, 401-
403, 462-463
Stewart, R.B. et al 922
Stick-slip instability 265-268, 286-291,
374-377, 385
Stiffness, generalized 93, 171,970
Stiffness matrix 966, 968
Stoichoimetric coefficients 945
String, stretched, wave motions 800-
801, 804-808
Superposition 148-149, 156, 341-343
Surge admittance 797, 801, 838
Susceptance, generalized 122, 171
Susceptivity 738
Synthesis, source-load 22-27, 48-54, 213-
214
System 18
Tachometer 68
Tank, liquid storage 94-95, 164-165,182,
185-186, 299, 358-361, 362-
363, 529-535, 566-567, 601-
602
Tee model 746-747
Tetrahedron of state 106-107
Thermal expansion coefficient 779
Thermal systems 718-731,867-952
control of 609-610
Therr~odynamicproperties, evaluation
of See State, thermodynamic
equations of
Thermoelastic rod 779-781
Thevenin equivalent 242-244
Thoma, J. 16
Thompsonprinciple 741, 743-745
Three-tank system 529-535, 601-602,
604-605
Time constant 145, 391
Time-delay operator 439, 514,826, 839
Time-derivative operator 3.45, 512
Time, integral 606
Time-integral operator 512
INDEX 1005

Toilet 689-690, 696 methodfor 320, 329-331,340-

Tool chatter 277-278 341
Transducer 62, 68 Undetermined coefficients, method of
magnetic pick-off 792 397-398
piezoelectric 776-779 Units, treatment of 12-15
piezomagnetic (magnetostrictive)
781-782, 856 Valve, adjustable hydraulic 365-366,
Transfer function 344-345,409, 508,515 380-381, 713-714
expansion 459-467 relief 200
factorization 424-426 reverse check 275
frequency 409 spool 380-381,388, 713-714
matrix 345, 515 Variables, 17
Transformers, abstract 58-59 linearized or perturbation 360-361
cascaded 72-73 state 140
connecting source to load 74-81, Vehicle drive 74-77, 694-695
247-248 Vehicle dynamics 321-326,539-545,694-
electric 62, 74, 771-774, 776-777, 695
790-791 Velocity, angular 19
mechanical 59-61 of energy propagation 842-845
modulated 657-672 generalized 30-31, 39
electrical 674, 675 group 834-836
hydraulic 675 phase 826
locally 659-661, 664-667 Vibration absorber 182-184, 187-189,
remotely 658-659 416-418, 453, 505, 965-968
Vibration isolator 131, 144, 158, 285,
multicoil 776-777
oil-cooled 790-791 370-371, 414-415, 442, 447-
transducing 62-67 448, 454-455, 552, 558-559
Vibration of building 453-454, 554-555,
Transient responses, general 463-464
972-976
Transient solutions 151
Vibrations, classical 965-977
Transistor 55
Virtual work, theorem of 752
Transmission, vehicle, hydraulic 694-
Viscometer, drum 125-126, 133, 156,
695
160
Transmission matrix 82-83, 250-252, Viscous damper, untuned 453
845-852, 859
Tube, acoustic 800, 801,809-812, 851, Wagner, Wolfgang 930n
853-854, 856 Water skiing 56
Tube, hot fluid wave propagation in Wavedelay model, bilateral 797, 798-
825-832 804
Two-tank system 299, 306 Fourier analysis for 805-807
Type-zero, -one, -two, -minus-one Wave number 826
models 435-436 Wavepropagation 825-836
pure transport model of 825-826
U-tube
126-127, 133,143,145,157 Wavespeed 801, 803, 826, 839
Under-causal models313-328, 329-331 Wavetravel time 439, 797
algebraic reductionfor313-316 Wavelength 826
commerical software for 321 Waves,dispersion and absorption 832-
differentiation methodfor 316-319, 836
329-331, 337-341 gravity or surface in liquid 821-
non-zero virtual energy storage 822, 824, 836-837
1006 INDEX

in one-power symmetric models Z-transform 622

837-842
reflected and transmitted 813, 816
Wheatstone bridge 193-194
Wilberforce spring 553
Wilson, D.P. 928n
Zeros 418-426
at origin 418-419, 435
in left-half plane 418-420,434-436,
445-446
in right-half plane 418-420, 434-
436, 439-442, 445-446, 458-
459