Line & Feeder Protection 2003 Mexd With Lecture PDF

National Electric Power Co.
Program’s outlines:
- Introduction to protection.
- Importance of protection.
- Main components of protection circuit.
- Instrument transformers.
- Classifications of Relays
- Principle of operation of common relays.
- Design criteria of protection system.
- Characteristics of protective devices.
- Protection coordination
- Line & feeder protection.
- Distance protection schemes.
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Importance
Principles of operation
It’s devices
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Introduction
• Electric energy is one of the fundamental resources of the modern
industrial society
• Electrical power is available to the user instantly, at the correct voltage
and frequency, at exactly the amount needed.
• Yet the power system is subject to constant disturbances:
– Random load changes
– Faults by natural causes
– Equipment or operator failure
• The power system maintains its steady state mainly because of the
correct and quick remedial action taken by the protective relaying
equipment.
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Introduction
• The response of the protection system must be automatic, quick, and
should cause a minimum amount of disruption to the power system.
• To accomplish this is necessary:
– Examine all possible types of faults
– Analyze the required response and design the protective
equipment necessary
– Provide for a back-up protective function to prevent failure of the
protection itself
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Definitions (IEC 60255-20)

Protective Relays:
Relays are compact analog, digital, and numerical devices that are connected
throughout the power system to detect intolerable or unwanted conditions
within an assigned area.
It is the basic unit in protection system, it Contains one or more windings & contacts, OCR, OVR, EFR,
Protection Equipment:
a collection of protection devices (relays, fuses, etc.). Excluded are devices
such as CT’s, CB’s, Contactors, etc.
NEPCO
Definitions (IEC 60255-20)

Protection System:
a complete arrangement of protection equipment and other
devices required to achieve a specified function based on
a protection principal.
It is one or more of protection relays, cooperate together in order to execute a protection ame.
(OCP, OVP, DEFP, DISP,….)
Protection Scheme:
a collection of protection equipment providing a defined
function and including all equipment required to make the
scheme work (i.e. relays, CT’s, CB’s, batteries, etc.)
It is a grope of protection systems, cooperate together to protect an electrical machine or device.
(Tr. Port. Scheme, Gen. Prot. Scheme, …..)
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Importance of protection
1- Quality of electrical power.

U = const. f = const. Availability
2- Minimize the fault effects in el. system
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Elements of Protection Circuit
Protected circuit
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Elements of a Protection System

1 4
2.1
5
2 A D
2.2
2.4 μP
F.A. 2.3
3
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Instrument Transformers. 1
• Their function is to provide current and voltage signals to the relays, to

detect deviations of the parameters watched over. They monitor and
give accurate feedback about the healthiness of a system.
• Current Transformer.
• Voltage Transformer.
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• Relays are the logic 1

elements which initiate the
tripping and closing
operations.
They convert the signals
from the monitoring devices, 2.1
and give instructions to
open a circuit under faulty 2 A D
conditions or to give alarms
when the equipment being 2.2
protected, is approaching μP
2.4
towards possible
destruction. F.A. 2.3
3
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• Circuit breakers isolate the 1 4

fault by interrupting the
current.
They are also used to make
circuits carrying enormous
currents, and to break the
circuit carrying the fault
currents for a few cycles 2
based on feedback from the
relays.
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• Tripping power, as well 1 4
as power required by
the relays, is usually
provided by the
station battery
because is safer than
the ac faulted system.
5
2
They are an uninterrupted
power source to the relays
and breakers that is
independent of the main
power source being
3 protected.
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Elements of Protection Circuit
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Function of protective relaying

• DETECT THE ELEMENT THAT STARTS TO OPERATE IN
AN ABNORMAL MANNER
• REMOVE THIS ELEMENT FROM THE POWER SYSTEM AS

QUICKLY AS POSSIBLE
• SIGNALING, LOGGING AND REPORTING
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Classifications of Relays
Relays can be divided into six functional categories:
1. Protective relays.
2. Monitoring relays.
3. Reclosing relays.
4. Regulating relays.
5. Auxiliary relays.
6. Synchronizing (or synchronism check) relays.
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In addition to these functional categories, relays may be
classified by input, operating principle or structure, and
performance characteristic. The following are some of
the classifications and definitions described in
ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.90
• Inputs
• Operating Principle or Structures
• Performance Characteristics
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• Inputs • Operating Principle or Structures
– Current, – Electromechanical
– Voltage, – Thermal
– Power – Solid state
– Pressure, – Static
– Frequency – Microprocessor
– Temperature
– Flow
– Vibration
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• Performance Characteristics
– Differential
– Distance
– Directional overcurrent
• Inverse time
• Definite time
– Pilot
• Phase comparison
• Directional comparison
• Current differential
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Also Relays can be classified:
• By design mode:
• By mode of Detection of faults :
– Electromechanical
– Level detection
• Plunger type
– Magnitude comparison
• Induction type
– Differential comparison
– Thermal
– Phase angle comparison
– Solid state
– Pilot relaying
– Computer type
– Harmonic content
• By parameter controlled:
– Frequency sensing
– Current
• By operating time:
– Voltage
– Instantaneous
– Power
– Time delay
– Impedance (distance)
• Independent delay
– Direction
• Dependent delay
– Frequency
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• Relays are generally classified by their speed as follows:
• Instantaneous
– These relays operate as soon as a secure decision is made.
– No intentional time delay is introduced to slow down the relay response
• Time delay
– An intentional time delay is inserted between the relay decision time and the
initiation of the trip action
– This time delay can be dependent on some parameter (usually inverse time
dependent) or independent
• High speed
– A relay that operates in less than a specified time (usually 3 cycles)
• Ultra high speed
– This term is not included in the Relay Standards but is commonly
considered to be operation in 4 milliseconds or less
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Design Criteria
In all cases, the four design criteria (Sensitivity,
Selectivity, Speed & Economy) are common to any
well-designed and efficient protective system or system
segment.
Since it is impractical to satisfy fully all these design criteria
simultaneously, the necessary compromises must be
evaluated on the basis of comparative risks.
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Design Criteria
Reliability
Speed Simplicity
Well Designed
Protection
System Should
have the
Stability Selectivity
following
criteria
Sensitivity Economic
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Design Criteria
Reliability:
System reliability consists of two elements: dependability and
security.
¾ Dependability is the degree of certainty of correct operation in
response to system trouble.
¾ Security is the degree of certainty that a relay will not operate
incorrectly.
Unfortunately, these two aspects of reliability tend to counter one
another; increasing security tends to decrease dependability
and vice versa. In general, however, modern relaying systems
are highly reliable and provide a practical compromise
between security and dependability.
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Design Criteria
Speed:
The function of protection systems is to isolate faults on the power
system as rapidly as possible. The main objective is to safe guard
continuity of supply by removing each disturbance before it leads to
widespread loss of synchronism and consequent collapse of the
power system.
Rapid operation of protection ensures that fault damage is minimized,
as energy liberated during a fault is proportional to the square of the
fault current times the duration of the fault (E= If2 x t). Protection
must thus operate as quickly as possible but speed of operation
must be weighed against economy. Distribution circuits, which do
not normally require a fast fault clearance, are usually protected by
time-graded systems. Generating plant and EHV systems require
protection gear of the highest attainable speed.
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Design Criteria
Speed:
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Design Criteria
Stability:
The term ‘stability’ is usually associated with unit protection schemes
and refers to the ability of the protection system to remain
unaffected by conditions external to the protected zone, for
example through load current and external fault conditions.
Selectivity:
When a fault occurs, the protection scheme is required to trip only
those circuit breakers whose operation is required to isolate the
fault. This property of selective tripping is also called
'discrimination' and is achieved by two general methods.
1.Time Grading. 2. Unit System.
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Design Criteria
Selectivity:
1. Time Grading:
Protection systems in successive zones are arranged to
operate in times that are graded through the sequence of
equipments so that upon the occurrence of a fault,
although a number of protection equipments respond,
only those relevant to the faulty zone complete the
tripping function. The others make incomplete operations
and then reset. The speed of response will often depend
on the severity of the fault, and will generally be slower
than for a unit system.
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Design Criteria
Selectivity:
2. Unit System:
It is possible to design protection systems that respond
only to fault conditions occurring within a clearly defined
zone. This type of protection system is known as 'unit
protection'. Certain types of unit protection are known by
specific names, e.g. restricted earth fault and differential
protection. Unit protection can be applied throughout a
power system and, since it does not involve time
grading, is relatively fast in operation. The speed of
response is substantially independent of fault severity.
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Design Criteria
Economy:
Relays having a clearly defined zone of protection provide
better selectivity but generally cost more.
Economics is always an important factor. In the case of

protection, an investment decision should take into
account the cost of the protected equipment and the cost
of a power system collapse. In this sense, protection is
like insurance: we need to define the level of protection
and the protection cost according to the economic loss
that the protection system may prevent.
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Design Criteria
Simplicity:
As in any other engineering discipline, simplicity in a
protective relay system is always the hallmark of good
design. The simplest relay system, however, is not
always the most economical. As previously indicated,
major economies may be possible with a complex relay
system that uses a minimum number of circuit breakers.
Other factors being equal, simplicity of design improves
system reliability—if only because there are fewer
elements that can malfunction.
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Design Criteria
Sensitivity:
Sensitivity is a term frequently used when referring to the minimum
operating level (current, voltage, power etc.) of relays or
complete protection schemes. The relay or scheme is said to be
sensitive if the primary operating parameter(s) is low.
With older electromechanical relays, sensitivity was considered in
terms of the sensitivity of the measuring movement and was
measured in terms of its volt-ampere consumption to cause
operation. With modern digital and numerical relays the
achievable sensitivity is seldom limited by the device design but
by its application and CT/VT parameters.
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Design Criteria
The application logic

of protective relays
divides the power
system into several
zones, each
requiring its own
group of relays.
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Design Criteria
Selectivity and zones of protection
• All power system elements must
be encompassed by at least one
zone.
– The more important
elements must be included in
at least two zones
• Zones must overlap to prevent
any element from being
unprotected.
– The overlap must be finite
but small to minimize the
likelihood of a fault inside
this region.
– Such a fault will cause both
protections to operate
removing a larger segment
of the system from service NEPCO
Zones of protection
DEFINED REACH UNDEFINED REACH
CLOSED ZONE PROTECTION OPEN ZONE PROTECTION
PROTECTION REACH PROTECTION REACH
ZONE OF PROTECTION ZONE OF PROTECTION
87
50/51
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Abnormal of the Power System
• Over Voltage
• Over loads
• Unbalanced Operation
• Power Swings
• Transformer Inrush Currents
• Faults
– Short Circuits
– Short Circuits with Ground
– Open Conductors
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4
em
st
sy
.
5
El
in
ts
ul
Fa
2
3
1
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Impact of Short Circuit

Short circuits comprise by far the most dangerous and
frequent type of fault in a power system. These faults
produce a high over current that imposes mechanical
and thermal stress in power system elements. Short
circuits also create voltage sags that impair power
quality and jeopardize power system stability.
As a result, there are two levels of protection against short

circuits: primary protection and backup protection.
Protection against abnormal conditions generally
warrants only primary protection.
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Primary and back up protection

• It is essential that provision be made to clear the fault by some alternate
protection system in case of the primary protection could fail.
– These are referred to as back up protection systems
– On EHV is common to use duplicate primary protection systems
• Back up relaying may be installed locally, in the same substation, or
remotely
– Remote back up are completely independent of the relays, CT,
breakers, etc.
– Remote back up may remove more sources that can be allowed
– Local back up use common elements and can thus fail to operate as
the primary protection
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Primary & Backup Protection

Primary Protection:
Short-circuit protection includes two protection systems: primary
and backup protection.
Primary protection is the first line of defense. The following figure

shows the one-line diagram of a power system section. We
may observe that we use breakers to connect adjacent
system elements. Using the breakers in this manner permits
the protection system to completely isolate a faulted element.
An exception is the case of the generator-transformer units.
Generators have dedicated step-up transformers in this

arrangement, and we may omit the breaker between them.
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Primary Protection:
Primary protection
operation should be
as fast as possible,
preferably
instantaneous, for
stability and power
quality reasons.
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Teletrip
2
TELETRIP
86
87
TELETRIP
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Backup Protection:
This protection is only used in case of primary protection failure,
The following figure shows the one-line diagram of a power
system and helps illustrate the concept of backup protection.
The tie circuit breaker (T) is assumed to work normally closed.
For a fault at CD, Line Breakers 5 and 6 should operate as
the primary protection. If Protection 5 fails to operate, with
existing technology, we have two possibilities for cutting the
fault current contribution from A, B, and F: open Breakers 1, 3
and 8; or open Breakers 2 and T. In any case, backup
protection needs time delay. The primary protection needs to
be given an opportunity to operate before using the decision
of a backup operation.
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Backup Protection:
The tie circuit breaker (T) is assumed to work normally closed. For a fault at
CD, Line Breakers 5 and 6 should operate as the primary protection. If
Protection 5 fails to operate, with existing technology, we have two
possibilities for cutting the fault current contribution from A, B, and F:
open Breakers 1, 3 and 8; or open Breakers 2 and T. In any case, backup
protection needs time delay. The primary protection needs to be given an
opportunity to operate before using the decision of a backup operation.
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Local Backup Protection:
Breakers 2 and T represent local backup protection, which is located in the
same substation as the primary protection. Local backup protection is
more expensive than remote backup because additional equipment is
needed. Advantages of local backup over remote backup are greater
sensitivity, greater selectivity, and faster operation speed.
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Back up protection locally at the same position
REACH OF PROTECTION 21P

REACH OF PROTECTION 21B
21P
21B
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Back up protection locally at different positions

REACH OF PROTECTION 50/51 OF THE TRANSFORMER
REACH OF PROTECTION 50/51 OF BUS TIE BREAKER
REACH OF PROTECTION 21
21
50/51
50/51
A B NEPCO

Remote Backup Protection:
Breakers 1, 3 and 8 are located in a remote substation. This is the remote
backup protection. An advantage of remote backup protection is low cost:
the remote backup protection comes from protection equipment that is
needed for primary protection functions of adjacent system elements.
Therefore, there is no need for additional investment.
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Remote back up protection

REACH OF PROTECTION 21B
REACH OF PROTECTION 21A
21 21
SUBSTATION B SUBSTATION A
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Relay operating principles

Level detection. Over-current relays
This is the simplest of all relay operating principles.
The relay operates for values of the parameter above or under what is called
pick up setting.
Examples of this type are over-current relays and under-voltage relays
50/51
t
t 50 (ANSI)
Curva trafo
Relé tiempo inverso Relé tiempo independ.

Relé tiempo independ.
t0
t0
In n*In i NEPCO In n*In i

Directional overcurrent protection

It is triggered when the current exceeds the reference value and also the energy or
power flow has the determined direction.
An overcurrent element controls the current magnitude
L.P.N
A directional element controls the direction of the power flow
Abrir Cerrar
V IV I ΦI V
Magnetic L.P.M (- α = 90º L.P.M
ΦV core ) (+)
L.P.M. : Línea Par
IV Máximo
Cylinder II ΦV L.P.N. : Línea Par
II Nulo
I ΦI L.P.N ΦI
L.P.M (+)
I
ϕ V
IV α
IV
ΦV
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Magnitude comparison
• This operating principle is based upon the comparison of one or more
operating quantities with each other.
• A current balance relay may compare the current in one circuit with the
current in another circuit, which should have equal or proportional
magnitudes under normal operating conditions.
– The relay will operate when the current division in the two circuits varies by
a given tolerance
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Differential relaying for transformer protection

It compares the current entering the transformer with the current
leaving the element.
If they are equal there is no fault inside the zone of protection
If they are not equal it means that a fault occurs between the two ends
87
With internal fault Id > 0 ⇒ Trip
With external fault Id = 0 ⇒ No trip
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Differential comparison
Alternatively one could form an algebraic sum of the two currents
entering the protected element, which could be termed as differential
current (Id), and use a level detector relay to detect the presence of a
fault.
In general this principle is capable of detecting very small
magnitudes of fault.
Its only drawback is that it requires currents from the extremities
of a zone of protection
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Phase angle comparison

External fault = IA e IB are in phase = No trip
IA IB
A B
Internal fault = IA e IB are in phase reversal = Trip
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Circuit breaker failure protection

The breaker may have a mechanical failure if it is not able to open any
of the poles when it is ordered to do so, or even an electrical failure if
although open, is not capable of breaking the current, which will keep
on flowing as an arc.
This implies a current flow that keeps on feeding the fault which
can be used to detect the breaker failure itself.
In those applications which even though the mechanical failure
exist, the current could not be high enough to be detected, the
opening must also be verified by means of breaker auxiliary
contacts.
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A tripping order for the 21

circuit breaker initiates
the time delay count I falta
down for the protection.
87B+FI
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Once the time delay is 21
over , if the breaker is
not yet open, the I falta
protection sends a
tripping order to all the
adjacent breakers, TELEDISPARO
including those at the

end of the lines if
necessary.
87B+FI
Sometimes two time
delays are used, the
first one to repeat the T ≅ 250 ms
tripping order for the
breaker itself, and the
second for the other
breakers.
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Relay
Symbols
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Line & Feeder

Protection
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Introduction
Alternating-current lines are commonly classified by function, which
is related to voltage level. Although there are no utility-wide
standards, typical classifications are as follows:
Distribution (0.4 to 34.5 kV). Circuits transmitting power to the final
users.
Sub transmission (13.8 to 138 kV). Circuits transmitting power to
distribution substations and to bulk loads.
Transmission (69 to 765 kV). Circuits transmitting power between major
substations or interconnecting systems, and to wholesale outlets.
Transmission lines are further divided into:
Low Voltage (LV): LV ≤ 1 kV
Medium Voltage (MV): 1kV < (MV) ≤ 66
High-voltage (HV): 66kV < (HV) ≤ 375 kV
Extra-high-voltage (EHV): 375kV < (EHV) ≤ 750 kV
Ultra-high-voltage (UHV): greater than 750 kV
NEPCO
Introduction
Transmission lines Protection must be compatible with the Protection of all
the equipment they connect.
Requires co-ordination of settings, operation times, etc.
Directionality associated with the design of the power system
A radial system (only one source) can have fault current flowing only one
direction
A network can have fault current flowing in either direction
Length of the line has direct effect on the setting of the relays
Relays are applied to protect a given line segment and back up adjacent line
segments
Difficult to distinguish between a fault at the end of a line and the beginning of
the next
Voltage class must be also considered when applying a relay system
The higher voltage levels would have more complex relay systems
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Introduction
There are several protective techniques commonly used for line
Protection:
Instantaneous over current
Time over current
Step time over current
Inverse time distance
Directional instantaneous and / or time over current
Zone distance
Pilot relaying
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Protection Type Selection

Several fundamental factors influence the final choice of the Protection
applied to a power line:
Type of circuit. Cable, overhead, single line, parallel lines, multi
terminals, etc.
Line function and importance. Effect on service continuity, realistic and
practical time requirements to isolate the fault from the rest of the
system.
Coordination and matching requirements. Compatibility with equipment
on the associated lines and systems.
To these three considerations must be added economic factors and the
relay engineer's preferences based on his or her technical knowledge and
experience. Because of these many considerations, it is not possible to
establish firm rules for line Protection.
We will focus on basic application rules and coordination procedures to aid
the engineer in the selection of proper protective systems for both phase
and ground faults.
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Lines Classifications
¾ Radial Lines or Feeders
Only one positive-sequence source.
Distribution lines without synchronous motor load.
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Lines Classifications
¾ Looped Lines
Positive-sequence sources at both ends.
Trip both ends.
One end grounded: radial line for ground faults.
Transmission and some distribution lines.
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Protection Types
We use four Protection principles for distribution and transmission lines.

Over current Protection, the simplest and most economical of these
principles, is limited to radial lines.
Over current Protection has found widespread use in distribution utility

and industrial systems. The addition of directionality extends the
application of over current Protection to looped lines.
We use distance Protection in many transmission lines. In order to

increase operating speed, we may use a communications channel to
exchange information between directional or distance elements.
This type of arrangement is directional comparison pilot Protection.
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Protection Types
Finally, we may apply the differential principle to transmission lines over

a communications channel. This arrangement offers the best
Protection.
A variant of the differential principle is the phase comparison principle,

in which we compare the phase angles of the currents at both line
ends.
Historically, the current-balance principle served to protect parallel

transmission lines. This principle involved comparing the
magnitudes of the currents of both lines. A fault at one of the lines
created a difference between these currents.
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Over Current Protection
Current Relays
Over Current Relays (OCR)
Deferential Relays
Unbalance Relays
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Current Relays
Primary relays
- No need any accessories (CT’s, VT’s or DC supplies)
- It is easy to set.
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Current Relays
Secondary relays
+ -
K k
L l
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The forms of old version secondary current relays
I d
I b b
a f
c
a c φ1
a
φ2
b
d
d
φ1
b
I
e φ1
φ2
f
a a
f b
φ2
φ+ 1
c
φ2 e
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Principle of operation
Contacts
Spring =
Stopper
Coil
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The Old Virgin of OCR

Timing 246
dial
Φ
Lagging
coil
Current Braking
taps
Φ1 Φ2
Induction
disk
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Classification of OCR by characteristics

Overcurrent Relay Types Based on Operating Time Characteristics
The operating time characteristic of an overcurrent relay is normally defined by

the time vs. current curve (or T-I curve).
Overcurrent relays can be instantaneous (50, 50N), or they can have an
intentional time-delay (51, 51N) for backup Protection purposes.
There are two types of time-delayed overcurrent relays. In definite-time relays,
the operation time is fixed. In inverse-time relays, the operating time
diminishes as the relay current increases. There is an inherent adaptive
behavior in inverse-time elements: they operate faster for closer faults, or
when the fault current is higher.
Instantaneous (50) Inverse (51)

Definite Time (51 or 50) Mixed (50-51)
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Classification of OCR by characteristics
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In instantaneous relays normally use timers if need.

Time relay
R
S
T
B
K k
N
L l
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Thermal protective relay, principle of operation

T
L
4
1
Advantage:
Disadvantage : It has dependant char.
Couldn't be reset before reducing the temperature.
NEPCO

Most of the faults on power lines can be detected by applying over
current relays, since the fault currents are normally higher than the
load current.
Radial circuits can be protected by non directional over current relays.
Because the circuit is radial, each section requires only one circuit
breaker at the source end.
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Because the circuit is radial, each section requires only one
circuit breaker at the source end.
To clear a fault at (1) and other faults to the right, then, only the breaker
at R needs to be tripped.
To clear faults at (2) and (3) and in the area between them. the breaker
at H must be tripped.
Likewise, to clear faults at (4) and (5) and between them, the breaker at
G must be tripped.
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However, none of the relays at the breaker locations can distinguish
whether the remote fault is on the protected line, the remote bus, or an
adjacent line.
The relays at H, for example, cannot distinguish between faults at (1) and
(2), since the current magnitude measured will be the same in either case.
Opening breaker H for fault (1) is not desirable, since it would interrupt the
load at R unnecessarily.
Two techniques are available to solve this problem: time delay or pilot
relaying. The later requires a communication channel between the two
stations.
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Time relaying delays the operation of the relay for a remote fault, allowing
relays and breakers closer to the fault to clear it, if possible.
In the example, relays at H will delay for faults at (1) or (2).
If the fault is at (1), this delay will allow the R relays and breaker to operate
before H.
Thus, although H would not open for a fault at (1) (unless the R relays or
associated breaker failed), it would operate for a fault at (2).
This technique, called coordination or selectivity, is designed to combine
minimum operating time for the close-in faults with a long enough delay for
remote faults.
The relays and breaker at R must coordinate or select with those to the right
(not shown), H must coordinate with R, and G with H.
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Overcurrent Relay Types Based on Operating Time Characteristics
The operating time characteristic of an overcurrent relay is normally defined by

the time vs. current curve (or T-I curve).
Overcurrent relays can be instantaneous (50, 50N), or they can have an
intentional time-delay (51, 51N) for backup Protection purposes.
There are two types of time-delayed overcurrent relays. In definite-time relays,
the operation time is fixed. In inverse-time relays, the operating time
diminishes as the relay current increases. There is an inherent adaptive
behavior in inverse-time elements: they operate faster for closer faults, or
when the fault current is higher.
Instantaneous (50) Inverse (51)

Definite Time (51 or 50) Mixed (50-51)
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Overcurrent Relay Setting
• 51 Elements
– Pickup setting
– Time delay setting
• definite time: time setting
• inverse time: curve selection
• 50 Elements: Pickup Setting
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• Protecting Radial Lines With Overcurrent Relays
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• Protecting Radial Lines With Definite Time OC Relays
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• Protecting Radial Lines With Inverse Time OC Relays
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• Protecting Radial Lines With Inverse Time & Inst. OC Relays
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Radial Line Protection Problems
1. Pickup Setting
– A conflict can occur with the application of phase overcurrent relays in
lines where the minimum fault current is below the maximum load.
– Solutions to this problem include application of negative-sequence
overcurrent elements or supervision of the phase overcurrent element
with a distance element.
– Ground overcurrent elements respond to the zero-sequence current.
These elements need to be set above the maximum unbalance of the
protected line.
2. Maximum Load Condition

– Phase relay pickup settings need to consider the maximum load that
may be present.
– Ground relays need to consider the maximum unbalance that can occur.
NEPCO

Ground Fault Relay
A circuit may be protected with a single, non
directional over current ground relay.
Positive and negative sequence currents are
balanced out at the current transformer neutral,
so only 3I0 currents pass through the ground
relay (50N/51N).
Since, under normal balanced conditions, 3I0
is at or approaches 0, a very low pickup
current is used, typically 0.5 to 1.0 A.
Although ground-fault currents on distribution
circuits are generally higher at the substation
than phase-fault currents, they decrease at a
much greater rate with the distance from the
substation because X0 is considerably larger
than X, for the feeder circuits.
NEPCO
V IV
Magnetic
ΦV core
Cylinder II
V
II Φi
I
ΦI
I Φv
φ ψ iv
IV
ψv
α
φi ∝ I φu ∝ V
M = k1 IV sin(ψv - ϕ)
M = k φiφvsinψ
M = k1 IV cos(ϕ + α)
ψv = 90 - α
NEPCO
IV
Torque on the rotor depends upon el. Power.
V
Magnetic
ΦV core
II
Cylinder II Mr = KVr ir Cos(φ + α) - Mm
I
ΦI
Mr - Resultant moment.
ϕr - Angle between (I & V).
α - Internal angle for relay.
K - Constant depends upon relay Connection.
IV Mm – Contra moment (resistive moment).
Mr = 0 or >0 or <0 Depends on (ϕr + α)

To be Operate K Vr ir Cos(ϕr + α) ≥ Mm
NEPCO
In order to obtain the maximum sensitivity external reconnection should be made
Reconnections can be made by connecting the current circuit on One phase wile
the voltage circuit on the other phase, also by mixing phase & line voltages &
currents together.
Vr
Ir Ir
30
ϕ ϕ
Vr
Ir
0
ϕ
0
90
0 Vr
β=0 β= - 90
β>0 , Lagging β<0 , Leading

β= - 30
NEPCO
Choosing the suitable connection in order to obtain the suitable internal

Angle well obtain the max sensitivity for any required fault angle φ
Depending on the internal angle usually These relays has the
following types :
P - relays
α + β = 0° (W)
α + β = 90° (VAR) Q - relays
α + β = 30° - 180° (VA) S - relays
α + β = 180° Reverse Power relays
Depending on it’s construction these relays can be divided into :

- Induction relays,
-Electrical Balance Relays.
NEPCO
Electrical Balance Relays.

P = IV cos (ϕ + α) + (V/2)2 + (I/2)2 - (V/2)2 + (I/2)2
P = (V/2)2 + (VI cos(ϕ + α))/2 + (I/2)2 – (V/2)2 - (V/2 cos(ϕ + α))/2 + (I/2)2
P = V/2 + I/2 2 - V/2 - I/2 2
|V + I|2 |V - I|2
NEPCO
Electrical Balance Relays
Tr2
ii Tr1
ii ii
V iv
iv
iv + ii iv - ii
ir
R
NEPCO
Electrical Balance Relays
ii
V
iv
i v + ii iv - ii
ir
R
NEPCO
< i v + ii
| iv + ii | - | iv - ii | If the P. Direc. Be changed
The polarity of ir changed
iv ⇒ M will change its direction
Lagging iu by ϕ
iv - ii
ϕ ii
<
iv
Power Direction as
| iv + ii | - | iv - ii |
same as Bus Direction
i v + ii
Power Direction in the

180° opposite Bus Direction
NEPCOii
Characteristics of directional relays

The basic elements which effect on the characteristics are:
- The internal angle (α) (0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 80°, 90°, 180°)
- Angle obtained by connection (β )usually(0° or 90°)
-Angle error : the deference between actual & measured values
-Sensitivity : the minimum value for one of the quantities in relay

within normal value for other quantity.
-Active quantities : it is normally (1 or 5 )A & (110 or 110/√3)V
NEPCO
The Memory in Directional Relay
R X
C LR C LR L
Voltage on relay
SC
NEPCO
Directional Over Current Protection

Necessary for multiple source circuits when it is essential to limit
relay tripping for faults in only one direction.
Requires 2 inputs, the operating current and a reference or polarizing
quantity.
Two approaches to providing directionality to an overcurrent relay:
Directional control
The overcurrent element will not operate until the directional
element operates
Directional overcurrent
Independent contacts connected in series with the tripping coil
NEPCO

Directionality extends the application of the overcurrent principle to
looped and parallel lines.
Directional ground overcurrent Protection inherits the high sensitivity

of non-directional ground overcurrent elements.
However, directional phase overcurrent elements (67) responding to

the line currents need to be set above maximum load, and this
requirement limits their sensitivity.
Directional overcurrent Protection settings must be revised as the

system topology changes to avoid coordination problems.
NEPCO

Need For Directional Elements
The application of directional overcurrent relays is typically
unnecessary in radial systems due to the fact that the load
contribution from one feeder to its neighbor is generally negligible.
NEPCO

If the non-directional overcurent relays are applied to a non-radial
system, there will be coordination problems.
NEPCO

It is desirable that Relay 1 does not detect faults at F2 and Relay 3
does not detect faults at F1. This is possible if the relay is modified
such that it will only operate when a fault occurs on its line. In other
words, the over current relay needs to be directionally sensitive.
NEPCO

The addition of a directional element eliminates the restriction of applying over
current Protection only to radial lines.
Directional over current Protection can be applied to either systems having
several generation sources or looped systems. The arrows are used to
represent the Protection tripping direction. Note that the relays are oriented
towards the protected lines.
NEPCO

This orientation divides the system Protection into two independent groups: the
relays “looking” to the right and those “looking” to the left.
The directionality divides the coordination process into two independent
processes. A relay only needs to be coordinated with the other relays in its
group.
NEPCO
Directional Overcurrent Time Protection at parallel lines
Energy direction
Devices 1 2 3 4 are started up
x
x
Device blocks (direction ‘reverse')

4
O/C 1 O/C 2
Device trips instanteously
3
t = 300ms t = 300ms
Devices 2 4 fall back
Device trips after 300 ms

t = 0ms t = 0ms 1
O/C 3 O/C 4
x
x
t = 0ms
O/C
NEPCO
Directional Overcurrent Time Protection at parallel lines
Energy direction
x
x
1 2
O/C O/C
t = 300ms t = 300ms
Devices are started up
1 2 3 4 5
t = 0ms t = 0ms Devices 3 4 blocking (direction ‘reverse')
O/C O/C Device 5 trips instantaneously

x
x
3 4 Devices 1 2 3 4 fall back.

x
t = 0ms
O/C 5
NEPCO
Directional Overcurrent Time Protection by two-way supply
x x x x x x
O/C O/C O/C O/C O/C O/C

t = 600ms t = 0ms t = 300ms t = 300ms t = 0ms t = 600ms
1 2 3 4 5 6
All devices are started
Device 2 trips instanteneously time
Device fall back

3 4 5 6
Device 1 trips after 600ms
NEPCO
Directional Overcurrent Time Protection by two-way supply
x x x x x x
O/C O/C O/C O/C O/C O/C

t = 600ms t = 0ms t = 300ms t = 300ms t = 0ms t = 600ms
1 2 3 4 5 6
All devices are started up
Device 3 4 trips in 300ms
Devices 1 2 fall back

5 6
NEPCO
Directional Protection
NEPCO
Distance Protection
Distance Relays
Why?
F1 : tIV < tIII & tVI < tV F2 : tIII < tIV & tV < tVI
no logic (no matching)

F2
1.5 s 0.1 s 0.1 s 1.5 s
∼ ∼
III V
I II
IV VI
F1
NEPCO
Distance Relays
LTL >> No of TL Supplies >> Complex form Of TL >>
Geographical & Natural Conditions become more Difficult
Probability of Faults becomes more & more
request the protective relays to have a high speed to eliminate the

faults as quick as possible.
1.2 1 0.2 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.8 0.2 1 1.2
Solution: top<< NEPCO

as Lfault <<
Distance Relays
Criteria : top ∝ (V, 1/If)
Vf Vf
Vop Vop
F
1 2 3 4 5 6
G G
A B C D
NEPCO
Distance Relays
top = K V/If = K Zline
Zline = Z1 * L & V = I * Z1 * L
Impedance of Distance
length unit Voltage where the R - F
Relay build in
These Relays called : Impedance or Distance Relays
Operating Conditions Zline < Zset

NEPCO
jX Distance Relays
Rarc + Rf.point At ideal cases relay The distance
Should operate, if the Relay should
ZL between A & B Be sensitive
measured impedance
B Less than A-B & ϕ ≈ ϕs Not only on
B’ The impedance
value but also on
ϕs : S/C angle of faulty line. the impedance
angle.
But when S/C accurse there is
ZS an additional ohm resistance
Added to the line impedance.
Because of S/C arc.
Zn
ϕS At normal cases ϕ ≈ 0
ϕ
R
A A’
To be relay operated correctly for any fault happened

a long A - B it should has the characteristics above.
NEPCO
According to internal angle in the relay (α) Which

jX determine Zop.min we can draw the following char.
Line Zo = Zop min
Zo = Zop Cos(ϕs - α)
Zop
β = f(α)
D
Zo
α β
ϕs
R
This type of relay need

D Directional unit, D - D
NEPCO
Changing internal angle (α)

We'll obtained deferent
Kinds Of Characteristics
jX Line
For α = 0
Rop ⇓
D Zo = Zop Cosϕs = Rop = const
ϕs
R0 R
D
NEPCO
α = 90 ⇒ Zo = Zop Sin ϕs = Xop = const
jX
Line
D
Xop Zop
ϕs R
D
NEPCO
The distance relays can be classified depending on the

Angle measured between V & I as follows:
Measured Impedance Relay type
Vs/Is = Zs Impedance
Vs/Is Cosϕs = Zs Cosϕs = Rs Resistive
Us/Is Sinϕs = Zs Sinϕs = Xs Reactance
Is/Vs= 1/Zs = Ys Admitance
Is/Vs Cosϕs =Ys Cosϕs = G Conductance
Is/Vs Sinϕs =Ys Sinϕs = B Suseptance
NEPCO
Components
& principle
Of operation
-
S M F
D
+
+
NEPCO
+ -
Electromechanical
Distance
relay
NEPCO
Time Characteristics of distance relays

t (s)
t4
t3
L (Km)
t2
t1
L’1 L’2 L’3
NEPCO
iv
iv = Cv * Vsc i = Ci * Isc Lv Li i
Fv = Cv1 * i2v Fi = Ci1 * i2 V
Mv = Fv * Lv Mi = Fi * Li
jX
Critical case when M v = Mi
Line
Kv V2sc = Ki I2sc Z=K Z=K
Z = R + jX
φsc R
Z = L z1 = L √R21 + X21 ( z1 [Ω/ km])
NEPCO
Principle of operation jX
Line
Z=K
Rarc
Zop
Z>Zop
i φsc Zop R
V
ki
(v – ki)2 = i2
(v / i – k)2 = 1
(z – k)2 = 1 (k has pure resistive character, so the angle between z & k iz φ)
z2 – 2 z k cos φ + k2 = 1
NEPCO
z2 – 2 z k cos φ + k2 = 1 jX
If Z = K z : (z secondary impedance while Z Primary one) Line
Z2 – 2 Z k K cos φ + (kK)2 = K2
z
jX φsc 1
φ R
Line
k<1 O(k,0)
z
φsc
φ K R
kK O(kK,K)
NEPCO
jX
Principle of operation Line
Zop Rarc
Z2 – 2 Z k K cos φ + (kK)2 = K2 Z’op
As k >> the relay will be less affected with arc resistance z
Usually k selected depending on φsc ,as φsc> as k>. K R
kK O(0,k)
jX
Line
z
K R
If k = 1 the relay will be
Conductive type. K O(0,K)
NEPCO
i
V
ki
K=0 1
i
V-ki
NEPCO
|v-ki| |i|
MHO Relays
The most practical characteristics shown
Below For digital distance relays.
jX
Zop jX
ϕS
R ZS
Zop
NEPCO
Effect of arc resistance:
As BS the arc resistance can be evaluated as:
Ra = 28700/(I1.4) Ω/m
Taking in account the distances between line phases &

the value of short circuit current, the arc resistance is
(0.5 – 5) Ω, in case of E/F it reaches (5 – 50)Ω
NEPCO
This resistance has OHM character it appears as an additional

Resistance in addition to the line resistance, so it will conflict
The relay & my fail in operation.
For Impedance Relays For MHO Relays (R)
jX
jX
Ra
Ra
ZS
ZS
Zm
Zm
R
R
NEPCO
For MHO Relays (X)

jX
Ra
ZS
Zm
NEPCO
Distance Protection
For the radial system, disregarding the influence of load, the fault
current in each phase is balanced and is equal to the phase current
measured by the relays at the substation.
This current depends on the following parameters:

• System voltage
• Line impedance
• Distance to the fault
• Thevenin impedance equivalent to the system “behind” the
substation bus
The Thevenin impedance depends on the conditions of the system,

such as the topologyand system loading.
NEPCO
Distance Protection
This relay is called impedance or “under-impedance” relay because the
relay design is such that the relay operates for an impedance
condition. The relay measures or “sees” a given impedance, equal
to the ratio of the applied sinusoidal voltage and the applied
sinusoidal current.
The advantages of the application of a distance relay in comparison to

that of an overcurrent relay are:
Greater instantaneous trip coverage
Greater sensitivity (overcurrent relays have to be set above twice load
current)
Easier setting calculation and coordination
Fixed zone of Protection, relatively independent of system changes,
requiring less setting maintenance
Higher independence of load
NEPCO
Distance Protection
Impedance Representation:
NEPCO
Distance Protection
Impedance Representation:
NEPCO
Distance Protection
Need for Directionality
NEPCO
Distance Protection
NEPCO
Distance Protection
NEPCO
Distance Protection
NEPCO
Distance Protection
MHO Relay (Directional Impedance relay)
NEPCO
Distance Protection
• This example shows the calculations involved in the determination of a
simple impedance relay setting.
NEPCO
Distance Protection
• This example shows the calculations involved in the determination of a
simple impedance relay setting referred to the secondary circuit.
NEPCO
Distance Protection
• Distance Relay Timing and Coordination
NEPCO
Distance Protection
• Problem?
1. What happens for a fault on the protected line that is beyond the reach of
the relay?
2. If the relay operates instantaneously, it cannot be used as a remote back-up
for a relay protecting a line adjacent to the remote substation.
• Solution:
These two problems are overcome by adding time-delay distance relays. This
is accomplished by using the distance relay to start a definite time timer.
The output of the timer can then be used as a tripping signal.
NEPCO
Distance Protection
• Solution:
NEPCO
Distance Protection
• Three Zone Distance Protection
NEPCO
Distance Protection
NEPCO
Distance Protection
NEPCO
Distance Protection
NEPCO
Distance Protection
This form of polygonal impedance characteristic is provided with forward reach
and resistive reach settings that are independently adjustable. It therefore
provides better resistive coverage than any mho-type characteristic for short
lines.
This is especially true for earth fault impedance measurement, where the arc
resistances and fault resistance to earth contribute to the highest values of
fault resistance. To avoid excessive errors in the zone reach accuracy, it is
common to impose a maximum resistive reach in terms of the zone
impedance reach.
NEPCO
Distance Protection
Under-Reach - Effect of Remote Infeed
• A distance relay is said to under-reach when the impedance presented to it
is apparently greater than the impedance to the fault.
Percentage under-reach is defined as:
ZR = intended relay reach (relay reach setting)

ZF = effective reach
The fault Seen by

Is here Relay here
NEPCO
Distance Protection
The main cause of underreaching is the effect of fault current infeed at remote
busbars. This is best illustrated by an example.
NEPCO
Distance Protection
The main cause of underreaching is the effect of fault current infeed at remote
busbars. This is best illustrated by an example.
The relay at A will not measure the

Correct impedance for a fault on line
section ZC due to current infeed IB.
Consider a relay setting of ZA+ZC.

For a fault at point f, the relay is
presented with an Impedance:
So for relay balance: Therefore the effective reach is:
NEPCO
Distance Protection
It is clear from the Equations that the relay will underreach.
It is relatively easy to compensate for this by increasing the reach setting of the
relay, but care has to be taken. Should there be a possibility of the remote
infeed being reduced or zero, the relay will then reach further than intended.
NEPCO
Distance Protection
Over-Reach
• A distance relay is said to over-reach when the apparent impedance

presented to it is less than the impedance to the fault.
Percentage over-reach is defined by the equation:
ZR = intended relay reach (relay reach setting)

ZF = effective reach
Seen by The fault

Relay here Is here
NEPCO
Distance Protection
Over-Reach (Effect of Out Feed Problem)
NEPCO
Pilot Protection
Directional Comparison ( V, I )
Phase Comparison (I)
Differential (I)
NEPCO
Pilot Protection
Pilot Protection (or teleProtection) is a generic name for the design of different
transmission line Protection alternatives that use a communications
channel.
The most important advantage of pilot Protection is the provision of high-speed

tripping at all terminals for faults anywhere on the line. Without pilot
Protection, high-speed tripping for all terminals will only occur for faults that
are within the area where the zone 1 elements overlap.
Pilot Protection is typically applied to transmission lines with nominal voltage

levels of 115 kV and greater.
NEPCO
Pilot Protection
It is an adaptation of the principles of differential relaying that prevents
the use of control cable between terminals.
Pilot refers to a communication channel between the ends of a line to

provide instantaneous clearing over 100% of the line.
The communication channels generally used are:

Power line carrier,
Microwave
Communication cable
Fiber optics.
NEPCO
Pilot Protection
directional comparison
For comparison purposes, pilot Protection can be divided into two
groups, directional comparison systems and current-only systems.
1. Directional comparison Protection uses the channel to exchange

information on the status of directional or distance elements at both
terminals. If both elements operate, there is an internal fault.
2. If one of the elements operates and the other restrains, the fault is
outside the protected line.
NEPCO
Pilot Protection
Directional comparison pilot Protection schemes are designed around

sending one bit of data across the teleProtection channel at very
high speed. In some schemes, this one bit tells the other end that it
has permission to trip (permissive). In other schemes, the bit
represents a signal to tell the other end not to trip (block). There are
many variations but the most prevalent are the following:
• Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (POTT)

• Permissive Underreaching Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
• Directional Comparison Unblocking (DCUB)
NEPCO
Pilot Protection
• Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (POTT)

At the minimum, a POTT scheme requires a forward overreaching
element at each end of the line. This is typically provided by a Zone
2 element set to reach about 120%-150% of the line length. If each
relay sees the fault in the forward direction, then the fault can be
determined to be internal to the protected line.
NEPCO
Pilot Protection
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
In a directional comparison blocking scheme, each line terminal has
reverse looking elements (Zone 3) and forward overreaching
elements (Zone 2). The relay will send a block signal to the remote
end if it sees the fault in the reverse direction.
Relay detection of a fault in the reverse direction indicates that the fault
is outside of the protected zone. The logic allows the relay to trip if it
sees the fault in the forward direction and does not receive a
blocking signal from the remote end.
NEPCO
Pilot Protection
• Directional Comparison Un Blocking (DCUB)
• Same Basic Logic as POTT Scheme

• Loss of Guard
– Allows tripping for short time when channel fails
– May Overtrip for External Fault
NEPCO
Pilot Protection
Current Based comparison
Phase-comparison and current-differential systems only use current

information. The figure depicts a schematic diagram of current-only
systems. Phase-comparison systems compare the phase of the currents at
the line terminals. For internal faults, these currents are in phase. For
external faults, the currents are approximately 180 degrees out of phase
NEPCO
Pilot Protection
Current Based comparison
Phase-comparison and current-differential systems only use current

information. The figure depicts a schematic diagram of current-only
systems. Phase-comparison systems compare the phase of the currents at
the line terminals. For internal faults, these currents are in phase. For
external faults, the currents are approximately 180 degrees out of phase
NEPCO
Pilot Protection
Has the same principle as diff. Protec. It compares the current direction
on both ends. (+) direction from BB to the feeder, (-) direction from feeder
to BB. Every half wave. In normal cases the angle between two currents
is (180o), in fault case (0o)
A B IA
+IA -IB
~ ~ IB
+ +
- -
A B IA
IB
+IA +IB
~ ~
+ +
- -
NEPCO
Deferential Relays Why?

α
If
Uph
α = % of coil length
NEPCO
0 0.5 1
Deferential Relays
K L L
I1 Protected
I2 K
Device
1 k l k l 2
i1 i2
i1 i2 +
id=i1- i2 3
Sig.
Principle of operation:
Upon comparing the interring & outgoing currents.
NEPCO
Deferential Relays K
I1 K L Protected I2 L
Device
1 2
k l k l
i1 i2
i1 i2 +
3
id=i1- i2
Sig.
In case of healthy system:

I1 = I2 , i1 = i2 & id = i1 – i2 If i1 = i2 then id = 0
In case of faulty system:

I1 ≠ I2 , i1 ≠ i2 & id = i1 – i2 ≠0
NEPCO
Deferential Relays
K
Relay (3) isn't instantaneous relay
I1 K L I2 L
Protected
Device
1 2
Actually i1 ≠ i2 :
k l k l
i1 i2
i1 i2 + - Vector group of protected Tr.

id=i1- i2 3 - n1 ≠ n2
Sig.
- Outside S/C.
- Prim. Curr. of Protected Tr. ≠ Sec. Curr.
- Protected Tr. Have ON Load Tap Changer.
Setting range (10 – 50)% In
NEPCO
Instead of OCR use current restrain relay
K L K L
1
k l k l
i1 i2
+
3 i2
id = i1- i2=0
is=1/2 (i1+ i2)
Differential Coil
i1
5
Stabilizing Coil
4
NEPCO
iop
Operating Characteristics
MMF ∝ I2 i2op = i2op min + K2s i2s
F in spring Operating aria

idl
∝ Unbalance current
A
iop min
α
is
iS = 0
Ks = tg α Restrain factor Ks
NEPCO
In case of faulty system with double end feeding

I1 I2
K L K L
1
k l k l
i1 i2
+
3 i2
2i = i1- i2
0= (i1+ i2)
i1
5
4
NEPCO
Current balanced relay

i1 i2
Protected device
I1 1 I2
TS
2 Td
3 5 is=1/2(i1+i2)
Opening 4
+
Closing
id= i1 - i2 Principal of electrical Balance Relay
NEPCO
Moment ∝ I
iop = iop min + Ks is
iop
Ks = tg α KS & α = f(N2 of TS or R)
a b
Not applicable
characteristics Non linear resistance or EMF
In stabilizing circuit
idl
α
B
iop min Unbalance current
In xIn is
Operating Characteristics
NEPCO
Reclosing & Synchronism
• Most of the fault that occur in overhead lines automatically disappear after the
circuit breaker clearing operation. Flashovers, animal accidents, etc., produce
most of the faults in overhead lines. These faults are not permanent in most
cases.
• To avoid additional work of the company’s crew, the circuit breakers are
equipped with additional relays (or elements) called reclosing relays. These
relays send a closing order to the circuit breaker a certain time after the circuit
breaker has been tripped by the protective relay. If the fault is not permanent
(80% of the cases) the service is automatically reestablished without the need of
crew work.
NEPCO
• Successful Reclosing
NEPCO
• Multiple Reclosing
NEPCO
• Reclosing Time line (Success)
NEPCO
• Reclosing Time line (Fail)
NEPCO
• What determines Reclosing Time & Shots
NEPCO
• Synchronization
Synchronism-check relays verify that the voltages on the two sides of a breaker
are approximately the same in magnitude and phase in order to ensure that
a minimum impact occurs to the power system when a circuit breaker is
closed.
NEPCO
• 12 • Distance Protection Schemes

12.1 INTRODUCTION
Conventional time-stepped distance protection is illustrated in Figure below.
One of the main disadvantages of this scheme is that:

The instantaneous Zone 1 protection at each end of the protected line cannot
be set to cover the whole of the feeder length and is usually set to about 80%.
This leaves two 'end zones', each being about 20% of the protected feeder
length.
Faults in these zones are cleared in Zone 1 time by the protection at one end
of the feeder and in Zone 2 time (typically 0.25 to 0.4 seconds) by the
protection at the other end of the feeder.
NEPCO

12.1 INTRODUCTION
This situation cannot be tolerated in some applications, for two main reasons:
a. faults remaining on the feeder for Zone 2 time may cause the system to
become unstable
b. where high-speed auto-reclosing is used, the non simultaneous opening of
the circuit breakers at both ends of the faulted section results in no 'dead
time' during the auto-reclose cycle for the fault to be extinguished and for
ionized gases to clear.
This results in the possibility that a transient fault will cause permanent
lockout of the circuit breakers at each end of the line section Even where
instability does not occur, the increased duration of the disturbance may
give rise to power quality problems, and may result in increased plant
damage.
Unit schemes of protection that compare the conditions at the two ends of the
feeder simultaneously positively identify whether the fault is internal or
external to the protected section and provide high-speed protection for the
whole feeder length.
NEPCO

12.1 INTRODUCTION
This advantage is balanced by the fact that the unit scheme does not provide
the back up protection for adjacent feeders given by a distance scheme.
The most desirable scheme is obviously a combination of the best features
of both arrangements, that is, instantaneous tripping over the whole feeder
length plus back-up protection to adjacent feeders.
This can be achieved by interconnecting the distance protection relays at
each end of the protected feeder by a communications channel.
The purpose of the communications channel is to transmit information about
the system conditions from one end of the protected line to the other,
including requests to initiate or prevent tripping of the remote circuit breaker.
The former arrangement is generally known as a 'transfer tripping scheme'
while the latter is generally known as a 'blocking scheme'.
However, the terminology of the various schemes varies widely, according to
local custom and practice.
NEPCO
12.2 ZONE 1 EXTENSION SCHEME (Z1X SCHEME)

This scheme is intended for use with an auto-reclose facility, or where no
communications channel is available, or the channel has failed. Thus it may
be used on radial distribution feeders, or on interconnected lines as a
backup when no communications channel is available, e.g. due to
maintenance or temporary fault.
The scheme is shown in Figure beside.
The Zone 1 elements of the distance relay
have two settings.
One is set to cover 80% of the protected
line length as in the basic distance
scheme. The other, known as 'Extended
Zone 1'or ‘Z1X’, is set to overreach the
protected line, a setting of 120% of the
protected line being common. The Zone 1
reach is normally controlled by the Z1X
setting and is reset to the basic Zone 1
setting when a command from the auto-
reclose relay is received.
NEPCO

This scheme is intended for use with an auto-reclose facility, or where no
communications channel is available.
Thus it may be used on radial distribution feeders, or on interconnected lines
as a backup when no communications channel is available.
The scheme is shown in Figure above.

The Zone 1 elements of the distance relay have two settings.
One is set to cover 80% of the protected line length as in the basic distance
scheme.
The other, known as 'Extended Zone 1'or ‘Z1X’, is set to overreach the
protected line, a setting of 120% of the protected line being common.
The Zone 1 reach is normally controlled by the Z1X setting and is reset to the
basic Zone 1 setting when a command from the auto-reclose relay is received.
NEPCO

On occurrence of a fault at any point within the Z1X reach, the relay operates
in Zone 1 time, trips the circuit breaker and initiates auto-reclosure.
The Zone 1 reach of the distance relay is also reset to the basic value of 80%,
prior to the auto-reclose closing pulse being applied to the breaker.
If the fault is transient, the tripped circuit breakers will reclose successfully,
but otherwise further tripping during the reclaim time is subject to the
discrimination obtained with normal Zone 1 and Zone 2 settings.
The disadvantage of the Zone 1 extension scheme is that external faults within
the Z1X reach of the relay result in tripping of circuit breakers external to the
faulted section, increasing the amount of breaker maintenance needed and
needless transient loss of supply to some consumers.
NEPCO

This is illustrated in Figure (a) for a single circuit line where three circuit
breakers operate.
And in Figure (b) for a double circuit line, where five circuit breakers operate.
NEPCO
12.3 TRANSFER TRIPPING SCHEMES

A number of these schemes are available, as described below. Selection of
an appropriate scheme depends on the requirements of the system being
protected.
12.3.1 Direct Under-reach Transfer Tripping Scheme
The simplest way of reducing the fault clearance time at the terminal that
clears an end zone fault in Zone 2 time is to adopt a direct transfer trip or inter
trip technique, the logic of which is shown in Figure below.
Trip signal
Trip signal
CB
Signal direct to CB’s TC
A contact operated by the Zone 1 relay element is arranged to send a

signal to the remote relay requesting a trip. The scheme may be
TC
called a 'direct under-reach
NEPCO transfer tripping scheme’.
12.3 TRANSFER TRIPPING SCHEMES

12.3.1 Direct Under-reach Transfer Tripping Scheme
A fault F in the end zone at end B in Figure below results in operation of the
Zone 1 relay and tripping of the circuit breaker at end B. A request to trip is also
sent to the relay at end A. The receipt of a signal at A initiates tripping
immediately because the receive relay contact is connected directly to the trip
relay.
The disadvantage of this scheme is

the possibility of undesired tripping
by accidental operation or
maloperation of signalling equipment,
or interference on the
communications channel.
So to overcome this the indirect

tripping scheme is used.
NEPCO
12.3.2 Permissive Under-reach Transfer Tripping (PUP) Scheme

The direct under-reach transfer tripping scheme described above is made more
secure by supervising the received signal with the operation of the Zone 2 relay
element before allowing an instantaneous trip, as shown in Figure below.
Requesting Trip
Requesting Trip
CB
Time delayed resetting
Signal indirect to CB’s TC

Fault in Z2
TC
The scheme is then known as a 'permissive under-reach transfer tripping scheme'

(sometimes abbreviated as PUP Z2 scheme) or ‘permissive under-reach distance
protection’, as both relays must detect a fault before the remote end relay is permitted to
trip in Zone 1 time.
NEPCO

Time delayed resetting of the 'signal received' element is required to ensure that
the relays at both ends of a single-end fed faulted line of a parallel feeder circuit
have time to trip when the fault is close to one end.
Consider a fault F in a double circuit line, as

shown in Figure beside.
The fault is close to end A, so there is negligible
infeed from end B when the fault at F occurs.
The protection at B detects a Zone 2 fault only
after the breaker at end A has tripped.
It is possible for the Zone 1 element at A to
reset, thus removing the permissive signal to B
and causing the 'signal received' element at B
to reset before the Zone 2 unit at end B
operates.
It is therefore necessary to delay the resetting
of the 'signal received' element to ensure high
speed tripping at end B.
NEPCO

The PUP schemes require only a single communications channel for two-way
signalling between the line ends, as the channel is keyed by the under-
reaching Zone 1 elements.
When the circuit breaker at one end is open, or there is a weak infeed such that
the relevant relay element does not operate.
Instantaneous clearance cannot be achieved for end-zone faults near the

'breaker open' terminal unless special features are included, such as echo
signal.
Echo signal
NEPCO
12.3.3 Permissive Under-reaching Acceleration Scheme

This scheme is applicable only to zone switched distance relays that share the
same measuring elements for both Zone 1 and Zone 2.
In these relays, the reach of the measuring elements is extended from Zone 1 to
Zone 2 by means of a range change signal immediately, instead of after Zone 2
time.
acceleration
It is also called an ‘accelerated

underreach distance protection
scheme’.
NEPCO
12.3.3 Permissive Under-reaching Acceleration Scheme

The under-reaching Zone 1 unit is arranged to send a signal to the remote end
of the feeder in addition to tripping the local circuit breaker.
The receive relay contact is arranged to extend the reach of the measuring
element from Zone 1 to Zone 2.
This accelerates the fault clearance at the remote end for faults that lie in the
region between the Zone 1 and Zone 2 reaches.
The logic diagram of the scheme is shown in Figure below.
Modern distance relays do not employ

switched measuring elements, so the
scheme is likely to fall into disuse.
NEPCO
12.3.4 Permissive Over-Reach Transfer Tripping (POP) Scheme

In this scheme, a distance relay element set to reach beyond the remote end of
the protected line.
This relay element used to send an inter tripping signal to the remote end.
Request to trip
Request accepted
refused
However, it is essential that the receive relay contact is monitored by a

directional relay contact to ensure that tripping does not take place unless the
fault is within the protected section.
CB
Signal indirect to CB’s TC

Directional unit
TC
NEPCO
The instantaneous contacts of the Zone 2 unit are arranged to send the
signal, and the received signal, supervised by Zone 2 operation, is used to
energize the trip circuit.
The scheme is then known as a 'permissive over-reach transfer tripping

scheme' (sometimes abbreviated to ‘POP’), 'directional comparison scheme',
or ‘permissive overreach distance protection scheme’.
NEPCO

Since the signalling channel is keyed by over-reaching Zone 2 elements, the
scheme requires duplex communication channels - one frequency for each
direction of signalling.
The scheme may be more advantageous than the permissive under-reaching

scheme for protecting short lines.
NEPCO

Due to mutual inductance between parallel circuits a distance relay detects a
voltage error in case of E/F, so the voltage on the relays appear greeter or
smaller than actual, depending on E/F current direction in both lines.
ΔV>0, so Vmeas.< V
Zmes. <Z.
1 3
2 4
ΔV>0, so Vmeas.< V F
Zmes. <Z. ΔV<0, so Vmeas.> V
Zmes.>Z.
NEPCO
To prevent operation under current reversal conditions in a parallel feeder

circuit, it is necessary to use a current reversal guard timer to inhibit the
tripping of the forward Zone 2 elements.
Otherwise maloperation of the scheme may occur under current reversal

conditions. It is necessary only when the Zone 2 reach is set greater than
150% of the protected line impedance.
NEPCO

The timer is used to block the permissive trip and signal send circuits as shown in
Figure.
The timer is energized if a

signal is received and there is
no operation of Zone 2
elements.
An adjustable time delay on
pick-up (tp) is usually set to
allow instantaneous tripping
to take place for any internal
faults, taking into account a
possible slower operation of
Zone 2.
The timer will have operated and blocked the ‘permissive trip’ and ‘signal
send’ circuits by the time the current reversal takes place.
NEPCO

The timer is de-energized if the Zone 2 elements operate or the 'signal
received' element resets.
The reset time delay (td) of the timer is

set to cover any overlap in time
caused by Zone 2 elements operating
and the signal resetting at the remote
end, when the current in the healthy
feeder reverses.
Using a timer in this manner means that no
extra time delay is added in the permissive
trip circuit for an internal fault.
The above scheme using Zone 2 relay elements is often referred to as a POP Z2
scheme. An alternative exists that uses Zone 1 elements instead of Zone 2, and
this is referred to as the POP Z1 scheme.
NEPCO
12.3.5 Weak Infeed Conditions

In the standard permissive over-reach scheme, as with the permissive under-
reach scheme, instantaneous clearance cannot be achieved for end-zone faults
under weak infeed or breaker open conditions.
To overcome this disadvantage, two possibilities exist.
The Weak Infeed Echo feature available in some protection relays allows the
remote relay to echo the trip signal back to the sending relay even if the
appropriate remote relay element has not operated.
This caters for conditions of the remote end having a weak infeed or circuit
breaker open condition, so that the relevant remote relay element does not
operate.
Fast clearance for these faults is now obtained at both ends of the line.
NEPCO
12.3.5 Weak Infeed Conditions

The logic is shown in Figure below. A time delay (T1) is required in the echo
circuit to prevent tripping of the remote end breaker when the local breaker is
tripped by the busbar protection or breaker fail protection associated with
other feeders connected to the busbar.
The time delay ensures that the remote
end Zone 2 element will reset by the
time the echoed signal is received at
that end.
Signal transmission can take place
even after the remote end breaker has
tripped.
This gives rise to the possibility of continuous signal transmission due to lock-
up of both signals. Timer T2 is used to prevent this. After this time
delay, 'signal send' is blocked.
A variation on the Weak Infeed Echo feature is to allow tripping of the remote
relay under the circumstances described above, providing that an undervoltage
condition exists, due to the fault. This is known as the Weak Infeed Trip feature
and ensures that both ends are tripped if the conditions are satisfied.
NEPCO
12.4 BLOCKING OVER-REACHING SCHEMES

The arrangements described so far have used the signaling channel(s) to
transmit a tripping instruction.
If the signaling channel fails or there is no Weak Infeed feature provided, end-
zone faults may take longer to be cleared.
Blocking over-reaching schemes use an over-reaching distance scheme and
inverse logic.
Signaling is initiated only for external faults and signaling transmission takes
place over healthy line sections.
Fast fault clearance occurs when no signal is received and the over-reaching
Zone 2 distance measuring elements looking into the line operate.
NEPCO
12.4 BLOCKING OVER-REACHING SCHEMES

The signaling channel is keyed by reverse looking distance elements (Z3 in the
diagram, though which zone is used depends on the particular relay used).
An ideal blocking scheme is shown in

Figure 12.11. The single frequency
signaling channel operates both local
and remote receive relays when a
block signal is initiated at any end of
the protected section.
NEPCO
12.4.1 Practical Blocking Schemes

A blocking instruction has to be sent by the reverse looking relay elements to
prevent instantaneous tripping of the remote relay for Zone 2 faults external
to the protected section.
To achieve this, the reverse-looking elements and the signaling channel must
operate faster than the forward-looking elements.
In practice, this is seldom the case and to ensure discrimination, a short time
delay is generally introduced into the blocking mode trip circuit.
Either the Zone 2 or Zone 1 element can be used as the forward-looking
element, giving rise to two variants of the scheme.
NEPCO

12.4.1.1 Blocking over-reaching protection scheme using Zone 2 element
This scheme (sometimes abbreviated to BOP Z2) is based on the ideal
blocking scheme of Figure below.
but has the signal logic illustrated in Figure below. It is also known as a
‘directional comparison blocking scheme’ or a ‘blocking over-reach distance
protection scheme’.
NEPCO

Operation of the scheme can be understood by considering the faults shown
at F1, F2 and F3 in Figure below along with the signal logic.
A fault at F1 is seen by the Zone 1 relay elements at both ends A and B; as a
result, the fault is cleared instantaneously at both ends of the protected line.
Signaling is controlled by the Z3 elements looking away from the protected

section, so no transmission takes place, thus giving fast tripping via the
forward-looking Zone 1 elements.
NEPCO

A fault at F2 is seen by the forward-looking Zone 2 elements at ends A and B and
by the Zone 1 elements at end B. No signal transmission takes place, since the
fault is internal and the fault is cleared in Zone 1 time at end B and after the short
time lag (STL) at end A.
NEPCO

A fault at F3 is seen by the reverse-looking Z3 elements at end B and the forward
looking Zone 2 elements at end A.
The Zone 1 relay elements at end B associated with line section B-C would
normally clear the fault at F3. To prevent the Z2 elements at end A from tripping,
the reverse-looking Zone 3 elements at end B send a blocking signal to end A. If
the fault is not cleared instantaneously by the protection on line section B-C, the
trip signal will be given at end B for section A-B after the Z3 time delay.
NEPCO

In a practical application, the reverse-

looking relay elements may be set with a
forward offset characteristic to provide
back-up protection for busbar faults after
the zone time delay. It is then necessary to
stop the blocking signal being sent for
internal faults. This is achieved by making
the ‘signal send’ circuit conditional upon
non operation of the forward-looking Zone
2 elements, as shown in Figure beside.
Normally, the blocking mode trip circuit is supervised by a 'channel-in-service'

contact so that the blocking mode trip circuit is isolated when the channel is out
of service, as shown in Figure above.
NEPCO
Pilot Protection
Differential
Load current
O: Operating units
Fault current
SUBSTATION 1 SUBSTATION 2
O
O
Pilot wires
Load current = No current through the operating units = No trip
Internal fault = Current flow through the operating units= Trip
NEPCO
Differential Protection Compares absolute value & direction of I Longitudinal

CT CT
F
Trip 1 Trip 2
IPCT IPCT
S 1 D D 2 S
Tr. ratio long wires causes
5 or 1 /0.1 R R very big losses.
ΔU1 = ΔU2 to prevent passing current in the normal

Cases or over load or faults outside of protective zone.
In case of fault F potential V1≠V2 so the current flow throw

differential coils and the relay will operate
As a backup protection usually use OC prot. Or distance.
NEPCO
Differential Protection Longitudinal

Advantages
Simple
Disadvantages Selective (no need for time grading)
Needs a pilot wire High speed (30 – 100 ) ms :
Needs backup protection It can set independently of NW configuration
No need an additional devices for inter tripping
(both breakers trip simultaneously)
For these reasons it used for short lines up to (15 Km)

Cense difficult to apply the distance protection
NEPCO
Differential Protection Latitudinal

This type of protection can be applied in case of parallel lines, it’s Principle
depends on value & phase shifting comparison between Parallel circuits currents.
Parallel lines with common CB
A 1 2 B
Trip 1 + Trip 2
+ I>
I>
NEPCO
1 2 B
F1
F2
Dead Zone
Trip 1 + Trip 2
+ I>
I>
Advantages : Simple , no need for pilot wires.

It’s basic disadvantage : can’t detect the faults at the line end (F2)
so it needs backup protection.
NEPCO

In many systems each feeder has own CB, & the protection should be selective
To trip the CB belong the faulty feeder only.
A 1 F1 3 B
2 F2 4
In order to offer this selectivity the protection should be able to detect both
value & direction of differential current.
To offer the above condition the directional relay should be added in addition to
The differential relay .
NEPCO

1 I1 > I2 S Trip CB1 & DC
I1 3
1
TR TR
F1
+ +
2 I2 4
TR TR
i1
Δi S i2 S Δi
This cycle either

single side supply 2 In the relay on other side flowing i1 + i2 It trip CB3
or both sides NEPCO

I1 3
1
TR TR
F2
+ +
2 I2 4
TR TR
i1
Δi S i2 S Δi
Advantages : High speed, high selectivity, no need for pilot wires.
Disadvantage : when it operate due to fault on one of the feeders, the other feeder
Will stayNepco
without protection. So it is rarely
NEPCOused.

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National Electric Power Co.

Definitions (IEC 60255-20)

Definitions (IEC 60255-20)

1- Quality of electrical power.

2- Minimize the fault effects in el. system

Elements of Protection Circuit

Elements of a Protection System

Elements of a Protection System

• Their function is to provide current and voltage signals to the relays, to

Elements of a Protection System

• Relays are the logic 1

Elements of a Protection System

• Circuit breakers isolate the 1 4

Elements of a Protection System

Elements of Protection Circuit

Function of protective relaying

• REMOVE THIS ELEMENT FROM THE POWER SYSTEM AS

• SIGNALING, LOGGING AND REPORTING

Relays can be divided into six functional categories:

1.Time Grading. 2. Unit System.

Economics is always an important factor. In the case of

The application logic

DEFINED REACH UNDEFINED REACH

CLOSED ZONE PROTECTION OPEN ZONE PROTECTION

PROTECTION REACH PROTECTION REACH

ZONE OF PROTECTION ZONE OF PROTECTION

Abnormal of the Power System

Impact of Short Circuit

As a result, there are two levels of protection against short

Primary and back up protection

Primary & Backup Protection

Primary protection is the first line of defense. The following figure

Generators have dedicated step-up transformers in this

Primary & Backup Protection

Primary & Backup Protection

Primary & Backup Protection

Primary & Backup Protection

Primary & Backup Protection

Back up protection locally at the same position

REACH OF PROTECTION 21P

Back up protection locally at different positions

Primary & Backup Protection

Remote back up protection

Relay operating principles

Relé tiempo inverso Relé tiempo independ.

In n*In i NEPCO In n*In i

Directional overcurrent protection

Differential relaying for transformer protection

Phase angle comparison

Internal fault = IA e IB are in phase reversal = Trip

Circuit breaker failure protection

Circuit breaker failure protection

 A tripping order for the 21

Circuit breaker failure protection

including those at the

Line & Feeder

Protection Type Selection

 Only one positive-sequence source.

 Distribution lines without synchronous motor load.

 Positive-sequence sources at both ends.

 Trip both ends.

 One end grounded: radial line for ground faults.

 Transmission and some distribution lines.

In nIn i NEPCO In nIn i

A tripping order for the 21

Only one positive-sequence source.

Distribution lines without synchronous motor load.

Positive-sequence sources at both ends.

Trip both ends.

One end grounded: radial line for ground faults.

Transmission and some distribution lines.

Directional ground overcurrent Protection inherits the high sensitivity

However, directional phase overcurrent elements (67) responding to

Directional overcurrent Protection settings must be revised as the