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MATHEMATICS - I
By
R. AARTHI
S. SINNAPPARAJ
Assistant Professors
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
BALAJI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
OMR, THANDALAM,
THIRUPORUR, CHENNAI- 603110
QUALITY CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the course material MA6151 MATHEMATICS - I being prepared
by me meets the knowledge requirement of the university curriculum.
Signature of Author
This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mrs. R. Aarthi and
Mr.S.Sinnapparaj is of adequate quality. He has referred more than five books among them
minimum one is from aboard author.
Signature of HD
Based on the above certifications, I authorize this course material as the subject reference
for the students concerned.
Signature of Principal
SYLLABUS
MA6151 MATHEMATICS – I
UNIT I MATRICES
Sequences: Definition and examples – Series: Types and Convergence – Series of positive terms
– Tests of convergence: Comparison test, Integral test and D’Alembert’s ratio test – Alternating
series – Leibnitz’s test – Series of positive and negative terms – Absolute and conditional
convergence.
Double integrals in cartesian and polar coordinates – Change of order of integration – Area
enclosed by plane curves – Change of variables in double integrals – Area of a curved surface –
Triple integrals – Volume of Solids.
TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS:
• Bali N. P and Manish Goyal, “A Text book of Engineering Mathematics”, Eighth Edition,
Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd., (2011).
REFERENCES:
• Dass, H.K., and Er. Rajnish Verma,” Higher Engineering Mathematics”, S. Chand Private
Ltd., (2011).
• Glyn James, “Advanced Modern Engineering Mathematics”, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education,
(2012).
1 MATRICES
1.1 Definition of matrix 1
1.2 Types of matrices 2
1.3 Characteristic equation 7
1.4 Eigen values and eigen vectors 10
1.5 Cayley-hamilton theorem 15
1.6 Diagonalization of matrices 25
1.7 Reduction of quadratic form to canonical form 30
2.1 Definitions 38
2.2 Problems based on sequences 40
2.3 Problems based on series 45
2.4 Comparision test for convergence and divergence 50
2.5 Problems on integral test 53
2.6 Problems on D’alemberts ratio test 62
2.7 Problems on lebinitz test 65
2.8 Problems on absolute and conditional convergence 68
3.1 Definitions 71
3.2 Curvature 73
3.3 Curvature in Cartesian co-ordinates 75
3.4 Centre of radius of curvature 79
3.5 Circle of curvature 81
3.6 Evaluates 84
3.7 Envelopes 86
3.8 Properties of envelopes and evaluates 88
3.9 Evolutes as the envelope of normal 90
4 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES
4.1 Definitions 96
4.2 Partial derivatives and problems 100
4.3 Euler’s theorem 103
4.4 Differentiation of implicit functions 107
4.5 Jacobian’s and properties 109
4.6 Taylor’s series 111
4.7 Maxima and minima 113
4.8 Lagrange’s method and problems 116
5 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
MATRIIX: A set of
o elements arranged
a in a rectangularr array havinng m rows annd n columnns ,
thhe numbers being
b enclossed by brackkets [ ] or ( ) is called m x n matrix(rread as “m by
b n
m
matrix).
A m x n matrix
m is usu
ually writtenn as = .
This matrix contains m x n elemeents. Generaally, a matrixx is denoted by a single capital
c letterr A or
B or C etc.
REAL MATRIX:
M A matrix is saaid to be reall if all its eleements are reeal numbers..
Thus, a matrix
m A= i a square matrix
is m if m=nn and a rectaangular matrrix if m ≠ n.
COLUM
MN MATRIX X: A matrix having onlyy one columnn and any nuumber of row
ws (i.e. a mattrix
of order m x 1) is called a column matrix.
NULL MATRIX:
M A matrix in which
w each ellements is zeero is called a null matrix or a zero
m
matrix.
NAL MATRIIX: A squarre matrix in which all noon-diagonal elements aree zero is callled a
DIAGON
diagonal matrrix. Thus, A=
= is a diagoonal matrix if
i f i≠j.
for
UNIT MATRIX
MA OR IDENTITY Y MATRIX: A square matrix
m in whiich all the leaading diagonnal
ellements are zero and all diagonal eleements are equal to 1 is called
c as uniit matrix.
Eg: ; .
UPPER TRIANGUL LAR MATRIIX: A squarre matrix in which all thhe elements below
b the
prrincipal diag
gonal are zerro is called an
a upper trianngular matriix.
Eg: ; .
LOWER TRIANGUL ULAR MATR RIX: A squaare matrix inn which all thhe elements above the
prrincipal diag
gonal are zerro is called anlowertriang
a gular matrixx.
Eg: ; .
GULAR MATRIX: A squuare matrix in which all the elementts either beloow or above the
TRIANG
prrincipal diag
gonal are zerro is called a triangular matrix.
m
Eg: ; .
Thus a trriangularmattrix is either upper or low
wer triangulaar matrix.
Eg: then .
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BIET
14 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
MA 6151 MATHEMATICS-I
Matrices 2
UNIT I MATRICES
SHORT ANSWER
3 -1 1
Problem 1. Two eigen values of A= -1 5 -1 are 3 and 6.
1 -1 3
Find the eigen values of A-1.
Solution: Sum of the eigen values = Sum of the main diagonal elements = 3 + 5 + 3 = 11.
If λ is the third eigen value, then 3 + 6 + λ = 11. Therefore λ = 2.
Hence eigen values of A are 2, 3, 6.
The eigen values of A-1 are 1/2, 1/3, 1/6
1 2 3
Problem 2. Find the eigen values of A , given, A= 0 2 -7 .
3
0 0 3
Solution: A is an upper triangular matrix.
Hence the eigen values of A are the diagonal elements 1, 2, 3.
The eigen values of A3 are 13, 23, 33. i.e., 1, 8, 27.
3 1
Problem 3. If a, b are the eigen values of A= , form the matrix whose eigen
1 5
values are a3, b3.
Solution: Sum of the eigen values = sum of the main diagonal elements
= -2 + 1 + 0 = -1.
2 2 3
Product of the eigen values A 2 1 6 2(0 12) 2(0 6) 3( 4 1)
1 2 0
= 24 +12 +9 = 45.
Problem 5. If the sum of two eigen values and trace of a 3 Х 3matrix A are equal, find
the value of A .
Solution: Sum of the eigen values = λ1+ λ2+ λ3 = sum of the diagonal elements
= trace of A.
Given λ1+ λ2 = trace of A.
i.e., λ1+ λ2 = λ1+ λ2+ λ3
Therefore λ3 = 0.
Then A = Product of the eigen values of A = λ1λ2λ3= 0
Problem 6. Two eigen values of a singular matrix A of order three are 2 and 3. Find the
third eigen value.
1 0 2
Problem 9. If A = , write A in terms of A and I, using Cayley- Hamilton
0 5
Theorem.
Problem 15. Find the rank, index, signature and nature of the Quadratic Form
0 y1 3 y2 14 y3
2 2 2
LONG ANSWER
Problem 16. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix
2 2 3
A 2 1 6
1 2 0
Solution:
The characteristic equation is | A - I | = 0.
2- 2 3
i.e., 2 1- 6 0
1 2 0-
i.e., (-2 - ) [-(1 - ) -12] - 2[-2 - 6] -3[-4 + 1 - ] = 0
i.e., (-2 - ) [2 - -12] + 4 + 12 + 9 + 3 = 0
i.e., 3 + 2 - 21 - 45 = 0 (1)
3 2
Now, (-3) + (-3) - 21(-3) - 45 = -27 + 9 + 63 – 45 = 0
-3 is a root of equation (1).
Dividing 3 + 2 - 21 - 45 by + 3
3 1 1 21 45
0 3 6 45
1 2 15 0
Remaining roots are given by
2 - 2 - 15 = 0
i.e., ( + 3) ( - 5) = 0
i.e., = -3, 5.
The eigen values are -3, -3, 5
2 λ 2 - 3 x1 0
The eigen vectors of A are given by 2 1 - λ - 6 x2 0
- 1 - 2 - λ x3 0
Case 1 = -3
2 3 2 - 3 1 2 - 3
Now 1 3 - 6 ~ 2 4 - 6
2
- 1 -2 3 - 1 - 2 3
1 2 - 3
~ 0 0 0
0 0 0
x1 + 2x2 - 3x3 = 0
Put x2 = k1, x3 = k2
Then x1 = 3k2 - 2k1
3k 2 2k 1
The general eigen vectors corresponding to = -3 is k1
k 2
3
When k1 = 0, k2 = 1, we get the eigen vector 0
1
2
When k1 = 1, k2 = 0, we get the eigen vector 1
0
3 2
Hence the two eigen vectors corresponding to = -3 are 0 and 1 .
1 0
These two eigen vectors corresponding to = -3 are linearly independent.
Case 2 = 5
2 5 2 - 3 7 2 - 3
2 1 - 5 - 6 ~ 2 - 4 - 6
- 1 - 2 - 5 - 1 - 2 - 5
1 2 5
~ 0 8 16
0 0 0
-x1 - 2x2 - 5x3 = 0
-8x2 - 16x3 = 0
A solution is x3 = 1, x2 = -2, x1 = -1
1
Eigen vector corresponding to = 5 is 2 .
1
1 1 2
Problem 17. Find the characteristic equation of 2 1 3 and verify Cayley-
3 2 3
Hamilton Theorem. Hence find the inverse of the matrix.
1 1 2
Solution: Let A 2 1 3 Characteristic eqn. of A is
3 2 3
3 2 1 1 3 9 9 1 26 0
i.e 3 2 19 26 0
By Cayley-Hamilton theorem A3 A2 19 A 26 I 0 .
Verification:
1 1 2 1 1 2 9 2 7
A A. A 2 1 3 2 1 3 5
2
9 10
3 2 3 3 2 3 10 7 21
9 2 7 1 1 2 16 21 45
A3 A2 . A 5 9 10 2 1 3 43 16 67
10 7 21 3 2 3 67 45 104
Substituting in the characteristic equation
16 21 45 9 2 7 19 19 38 26 0 0 0 0 0
43 16 67 5 9 10 38 19 57 0 26 0 0 0 0
67 45 104 10 7 21 57 38 57 0 0 26 0 0 0
Hence verified.
Now to find the inverse of the matrix A, premultiply the characteristic equation by A1
A2 A 19 I 26 A1 0
A1
1
26
19 I A A2
19 0 0 1 1 2 9 2 7 9 5 5
1 1
0 19 0 2 1 3 5 9 10 3 9 7
26 26
0 0 19 3 2 3 10 7 21 7 5 1
1 0 3
Problem 18. Given A 2 1 1 , use Cayley-Hamilton Theorem to find the inverse of
1 1 1
A and also find A4
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is
1 λ 0 3
2 1 λ 1 0
1 1 1 λ
1
A-1 = [-A2 + 3A + I]
9
1 0 3 1 0 3 4 3 6
A 2 1 1 2 1 1 3 2 4
2
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 2 5
4 3 6 3 0 9 1 0 0
A 1 3 2 4 6 3 3 0 1 0
1
9
0 2 5 3 3 3 0 0 1
0 3 3
3 2 7
1
9
3 1 1
To find A4:
We have A3- 3A2 – A + 9I = 0
i.e., A3 = 3A2 + A - 9I (1)
Multiplying (1) by A, we get,
A4 = 3A3 + A2-9A
= 3(3A2 + A - 9I) + A2 - 9A using (1)
= 10A2 - 6A - 27I
4 3 6 1 0 3 1 0 0
10 3 2 4 6 2 1 1 27 0 1 0
0 2 5 1 1 1 0 0 1
7 30 42
18 13 46
6 14 17
0 0 2
Problem 19. . If A 2 1 0 express A6 25 A2 122 Aas a single matrix
1 1 3
Solution: To avoid higher powers of A like A6 we use Cayley Hamilton Theorem.
Characteristic equation is 3 4 2 5 2 0
By Cayley Hamilton Theorem A3 4 A2 5 A 2 I 0
To find A6 25 A2 122 Awe will express this in terms of smaller powers of A using the
characteristics equation. We know that (Divisor) X (Quotient) + Remainder = Dividend
A6 25 A2 122 A A3 4 A
2
2
5 A I 3A 4 2A 11 A22 I 10 A44 I
But A3 4 A2 5 A 2 I 0
A6 25 A2 122 A 0 10 A 44 I
10 A 44 I
0 0 20 44 0 0
20 10 0 0 44 0
10 10 20 0 0 44
44 0 20
20 54 0
10 10 74
44 0 20
20 54 0
10 10 74
Problem 20. If i are the eigen values of the matrix A, then prove that
i k i are the eigen values of kAwhere ‘k’ is a nonzero scalar.
ii. im are the eigen value of Am and
1
iii. are the eigen values of A1 .
i
Solution: Let i be the eigen values of matrix A and Xi be the corresponding eigen
vectors. Then by defn: AXi iXi......( I) ( i.e by defn. of eigen vectors)
i. Premultiply ( I ) with the scalar k. Then
k AXi k iXi
i.e. kA Xi k i Xi
2 0 1
Solution: A = 0 2 0 Characteristic equation is 3 6 2 11 6 0
1 0 2
Solving: 1, 2,3
Consider the matrix equation A I X 0
Case (i) when 1;
1 0 1 x1 0 1 x1 0 x2 1 x3 0 1
0 1 0 x2 0 i.e. 0 x1 1 x2 0 x3 0 2 equation (1) & (3) are identical.
1 0 1 x 0 1 x1 0 x2 1 x3 0 3
3
Solving (1) and (2) using the rule of cross multiplication
1
x1 x2 x3 x1 x2 x3
i.e. X1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 0
X2 k i. e 1 .
0 0
Case (ii) when 3;
1 0 1 x1 0 x1 0 x2 1 x3 0
0 1 0 x2 0 i.e. 0 x1 1 x2 0 x3 0 Solving (1) and (2)
1 0 1 x 0 1 x1 0 x2 1 x3 0
3
1
x1 x2 x3
X3 0
1 0 1 1
Thus the eigen values are 1,2,3 and the correspondent eigen vectors are
1 0 1
0 , 1 and 0 . To check orthogonallity, X1 X2 0
T
1 0 1
X2T X3 0
X1T X3 0
X1 , X2 , X3
are mutually orthogonal.
6 6 5
Problem 22. Find the latent vectors of 14 13 10
7 6 4
Solution: Characteristic equation is 1 0 1, 1, 1
3
5
x1 x3
Assume x2 0 7 x2 5 x3 0 i. e. 7 x1 5 x3 .i e.. X2 0
5 7 7
6
x1 x2
And assume x2 0 7 x2 6 x3 0 i. e. 7 x1 6 x2 0 .i e.. X3 7
6 7 0
X1, X2 and X3 are linearly independent.
1 1 1
Problem 23. Find the eigen vectors of the matrix A 0 2 1
4 4 3
Solution:
1 - 1 1
The characteristic equation of A is 0 2- 1 0
4 4 3 -
1 - λ 1 1 x 1 0
The eigen vectors are given by 0 2 - λ 1 x 0
2
4 4 3 - λ x 3 0
Case 1 =1
0 1 1 4 4 2
0 1 1 ~ 0 1 1
4 4 2 0 0 0
-4x1 + 4x2 + 2x3 = 0
x2 + x3 = 0
A solution is, x3 = 2, x2 = -2, x1= -1
1
Eigen vector X1 = 2
2
Case 2=2
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 ~ 0 0 1
4 4 1 0 0 0
-x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
x3 = 0
A solution is, x3 = 0, x2 = 1, x1 = 1
1
Eigen vector X2 = 1
0
Case 3=3
2 1 1 2 1 1
0 1 1 ~ 0 1 1
4 4 0 0 0 0
-2x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
-x2 + x3 = 0
A solution is, x3 = 1, x2 = 1, x1 = 1
1
Eigen vector X3 = 1
1
2 2 0
Problem 24. Diagonalise the matrix 2 5 0 using orthogonal transformation.
0 0 3
Solution: Characteristic equation is 10 27 18 0
3 2
2 0 1 2 1 0
5 5 5 5
2 . N NT 0
Normalized Modal Matrix, N 1 1,
5
0 0
5
1 2 0
0 1 0
5 5
Then by the orthogonal transformation,
2
2 1 0 0 1
5 5 2 2 0 5 5
N AN 0 0 1 2 5 0 0 0 2 . On simplifying, we get
1 5
2 0 0 0 3 1
5 5 1 0
5
N AN D 1 , 2 , 3
1 0 0
which is diagonal matrix with eigen values along the
D 1,3, 6 0 3 0
0 0 6
diagonal (in order).
6 2 2
Problem 25. Reduce 2 3 1 to a diagonal matrix by orthogonal reduction.
2 1 3
Solution: Characteristic equation is 12 2 36 32 0 8, 2, 2
3
When 8
2 2 2 x1 0
2 5 1 x2 0
2 1 5 x 0
3
i.e 2 x1 2 x2 2 x3 0
2 x1 5 x2 1 x3 0
2 x1 1 x2 5 x3 0
2
x1 x2 x3
Solving any two equations X1 1
2 1 1 1
When 2 (repeated twice)
4 2 2 x1 0
2 1 1 x2 0 i.e 2 x1 2 x2 2 x3 0 . All the equations are identical.
2 1 1 x 0
3
0
x2 x3
To get one of the vectors, assume x1 0 x2 x3 0 i. e. X2 1
1 1 1
a
X1 X2 0 . Therefore X1 and X2 are orthogonal. Now assume X3 b to be mutually
T
c
orthogonal with X1 and X2.
a
X1 X3 0 i. e. 2 1 1 b 0 i. e.2 a b c 0
T
c a
b c
i.e
a 2 2 2
and X 2T X3 0 i. e. 0 1 1 b 0 i. e.0 a b c 0
c
1
X3 1 .
1
After normalizing these 3 mutually orthogonal vectors, we get the normalized Modal
2 0 1
6 3
Matrix N 1 1 1
6 2 3
1 1 1
6 2 3
Diagonalizing we get
2 1 1 2 1 1
6 6 6 6 2 2 6 6 3
D N T AN 0 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1
2 2 6 2 3
2 1 3
1
1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 6 3 3
on simplifying we get D D 1 , 2 , 3
8 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 2
D 8, 2, 2
3 1 1
Problem 26. Diagonalise the matrix A 1 3 -1
1 -1 3
Solution:
3- 1 1
The characteristic equation of A is 1 3- -1 0
1 -1 3-
3-λ 1 1 x1 0
The eigen vectors are given by 1 3-λ -1 x 2 0
1 -1 3-λ x 3 0
Case 1 =1
1
Eigen vector X1 = 1
1
Case 2 = 4
0
Eigen vector X2 = 1
1
a
Now assume X3 b to be mutually orthogonal with X1 and X2.
c
X1 X3 0 i. e. a b c 0
T
a b c
i.e
and X 2 X3 0 i. e. b c 0
T
2 1 1
2
X3 1 .
1
1 0 2
Hence the modal matrix M 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 0 2
3 6
The Normalized Modal Matrix is N 1 1 1
3 2 6
1 1 1
3 2 6
Diagonalizing, we get
1 1 1 1 0 2
3 3 3 3 1 1
3 6
D N AN 0
T 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1
2 2
3 2 6
1 1 3
2
1 1
1 1 1
6 6 6 3 2 6
1 0 0
0 4 0 = D(1, 4, 4)
0 0 4
Problem 27. Reduce the Quadratic From 10 x12 2 x22 5 x32 6 x2 x3 10 x3 x1 4 1x 2x into
canonical form by orthogonal reduction. Hence find the nature, rank, index and the
signature of the Q.F. Find also a nonzero set of values of X which will make the Q.F.
vanish.
10 2 5
Solution: Matrix of the given Q.F. is A 2 2 3 , which is a real and symmetric
5 3 5
matrix. The characteristic equation is 17 42 0
3 2
Solving, we get 0, 3, 14
1 1 3
When 0, X1 5 ; When 3, X2 1 ; When 14, X3 1
4 1 2
and X1 , X2 , X3 are mutually orthogonal since X1 , X2 0, X2 X3 0 andX3 X
1 0
T T T
Diagonalising we get D N T AN
D 12 , 3 in order
D 0, 3, 14
0 0 0
i.e D 0 3 0 (i.e. the eigen values in order along the principal
0 0 14
diagonal).
Now to reduce the Q.F to C.F (.i.e Canonical form)
y1
Consider the orthogonal transformation X = NY where Y y2
y
3
Then the Q.F. X T AXbecomes NY A NY Y
T
NT AN Y
T
= YT DYsince N T AN D
0 0 0 y1
y1 y2 y3 0 3 0 y2
0 0 14
y3
0 y1 3 y2 14 y3
2 2 2
Thus = 0 y1 3 y2 14 y3 is the Canonical form of the given Q.F. And the equations of
2 2 2
1 1 3
x1 y1 y2 y3
42 3 14
5 1 3
x2 y1 y2 y3
42 3 14
4 1 3
x3 y1 y2 y3
42 3 14
To get the non-zero set of values of x which make the Q.F zero we assume values
for y1 , y2 and y3 such that the C.F. vanishes.
simplicity sake, assume y1 as the denominator of the coeff. of y1 in the equations) let
y1 42
x1
1
42
42
1
3
0
3
14
(0)
i.e. x1 1 0 0 1
III 1 y x2 5 0 0 5
and x3 4 0 0 4
Thus the set of values of x i.e 1, 5, 4 will reduce the given Q.F. to zero.
To find the rank, index, signature and nature using canonical form:
C.F. is 0 y1 3 y2 14 y3
2 2 2
Problem 28. Reduce the Q.F. 2 xy 2 yz 2 zxinto a form of sum of squares. Find the
rank, index and signature of it. Find also the nature of the Q.F.
0 1 1
Solution: Matrix of the Q.F. is A 1 0 1
1 1 0
Characteristic equation is 3 2 0 solving 2, 1, 1
3
1
When 2, X1 1
1
When 1 (repeated twice) we get identical equations as x1 x2 x3 0
x x
x1 0 x2 x3 0 i. e. x2 x3 .i e. 2 3
1 1
Assume 0
X2 1
1
which is orthogonal with X1.
a
Now to find X3 orthogonal with both X1 and X2 assume X3 b
c
if X2T X3 0, a b c 0
if X2T X3 0, 0 a b c 0
a b c
i.e.
2 1 1
2 2
X3 1 i. e. 1
1 1
which is orthogonal with X1 and X2 .
1 0 3
3 2 6
Normalising these vectors we get N 1 1 1 and D NAN
3 2 6
1 1 2
3 2 6
2 0 0
= D 1 , 2 , 3 0 1 0 .Consider the orthonormal transformation X = NY
0 0 1
such that Q.F.is reduced to C.F.
YT NT AN Y
YT DY
2 0 0 y1
y1 , y2 , y3 , 0 1 0 y2
0 0 1 y
3
Problem 29. Reduce the quadratic form 8 x12 7 x22 3 x32 12 x1 x2 4 x1 x3 8 x2 x3 to the
canonical form by an orthogonal transformation. Find also the rank, index, signature and
the nature of the quadratic form.
Solution:
8 6 2
The matrix of the quadratic form is A 6 7 4
2 4 3
The eigen values of this matrix are 0, 3 and 15 and the corresponding eigen vectors are
1 2 2
X 1 2 ,
X2 1 , X 3 2 , which are mutually orthogonal.
2 2 1
0 0 15
Now the orthogonal transformation X = NY will reduce the given quadratic form to the
canonical form 0y12 3y 22 15y 32 .
Also rank = 2, index = 2, signature = 2. The quadratic form is positive semi definite.
Problem 30. Find the orthogonal transformation which reduces the quadratic form
2 x12
2 x22 2 x1 x2 2 x2 x3 2 x1 x3 into the canonical form. Determine the rank, index,
2 x32
signature and the nature of the quadratic form.
Solution:
2 1 1
The matrix of the quadratic form is A 1 2 1
1 1 2
2- -1 1
The characteristic equation of A is -1 2- -1 0
1 -1 2-
Expanding - 6 + 9 - 4 = 0
3 2
= 1 is a root
Dividing 3 - 62 + 9 - 4 by -1,
1 6 9 4
0 1 5 4
1 5 4 0
The remaining roots are given by 2-5 + 4 = 0
2 - 5 + 4 = ( - 1) ( - 4) = 0
i.e., = 1, 4
Case 1 =4
2 - 4 - 1 1 x 1 0
The eigen vectors are given by - 1 2 - 4 - 1
x 0
2
1 - 1 2 - 4 x 3 0
2 1 1 1 - 1 - 2
1 2 1 ~ 0 - 3 - 3
1 1 2 0 0 0
x1 - x2 - 2x3 = 0
-3x2 - 3x3 = 0
A solution is x3 = 1, x2 = -1, x1 = 1.
1
The corresponding eigen vector is X1 = 1
1
Case 2 =1
2 - 1 - 1 1 x1 0
The eigen vectors are given by - 1 2 - 1 - 1 x2 0
1 - 1 2 - 1 x3 0
1 - 1 1 1 1 1
- 1 1 - 1 ~ 0 0 0
1 - 1 1 0 0 0
x1- x2 + x 3 = 0
Put x3 = 0. We get x1 = x2 = 1. Let x1 = x2 = 1
1
The eigen vector corresponding to = 1 is X2 = 1
0
X1 and X2 are orthogonal as X1T X2 = 10 + (-1) 1 + 11 = 0.
a
To find another vector X3 = b corresponding to =1 such that it is orthogonal to both
c
X1 and X2 and satisfies x1- x2 + x3 = 0
i.e., X1.X3 = 0, X2.X3 = 0 and a – b + c = 0
i.e., 1.a -1.b + 1.c = 0, 1.a + 1.b + 0.c = 0 and a – b + c = 0.
i.e., a – b + c = 0 and a+b=0
i.e., a = -b and c = 2b
Put b =1, so that a = -1, c = 2
1
X 3 1
2
1 1 1
The modal matrix is 1 1 1
1 0 2
1/ 3 1/ 2 1/ 6
Hence the normalized modal matrix is N 1 / 3 1 / 2 1/ 6
1/ 3 0 2/
6
The required orthogonal transformation is X = NY will reduce the given quadratic
form to the canonical form.
C.F= 4 y12 y22 y32
Rank of the quadratic form = 3, index = 3, signature = 3. The quadratic form is positive
definite.
CHAPTER 9
UNIT - II
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce a particular way of generating algorithms for finding
the values of functions defined by their properties; for example, transcendental functions. This is the
technique of InfiniteSeries. Computer algorithms for determining the value of a function depend upon
the usual arithmetic operations; thus an exact determination can only be achieved for rational functions
(quotients of polynomials). If a function is transcendental, its values can only be approximated. For
example, we know that
(9.1) ex
lim 1
n ∞
nx n
This expression tells us that if for any n we do the calculation described by the expression on the right,
that these numbers will, for n large enough, be close to the “true” value of e x . Now, it turns out that this
is a very inefficientway to calculate ex , and the expression as an infiniteseries (which we will discover
later in this chapter)
(9.2) ex 1 x x2
x3
xn
2! 3! n!
is far better. Equation 9.2 is taken to mean: add up the numbers of the form x n n!, starting with n 0. If
we add up enough terms, we have a good approximation to e x . Of course, it is important to have estimates
on how good this approximation is, and more generally, to have ways of finding these approximating
sums. That is what we study in this chapter, starting with the idea of convergence in the sense of “good
approximation”.
Definition9.1 A sequence is a list of numbers, denoted an , where an is the nth term of the sequence.
A sequence may be definedby a specific formula or an algorithm for determining the members of
the sequence successively, or recursively.
128
1 Sequences
Sequences are an infinite list (a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . ), where an is some number. Usually
a sequence can be denoted by a general formula for each value of an for example
an = n2 would give a sequence a1 = 12 , a2 = 22 , a3 = 32 etc.
Definition 1.0.1 The objects an in a sequence are defined as the terms of the
sequence
One of the most famous sequences of all time is called the Fibonacci Se-
quence, where each term is the sum of the previous two.
Fibonacci Sequence: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, . . .
1.2 Limits
Often once we have found or made a sequence we want to find out more infor-
mation about it. One of the most common properties we look for in sequences
is called a limit.
Definition 1.2.1 We say that a sequence has a limit λ if as n gets large (tends
to infinity) an gets closer and closer to λ. This means that as we go further
and further down our sequence the terms get closer and closer to our limit. We
often write this as an −→ λ for n −→ ∞ or limn→∞ an = λ
1 1 1
= ≤ =0
n! 1 · 2 · 3 · 4···n n
divide both the top and bottom parts of the formula by out biggest power like
so:
3n2 7n 4
3n2 + 7n + 4 n2 + n2 + n2
=
9n2 + 24n + 9 9n2 24n
n2 + n2 + n2
9
Note that the last two terms on both the top and bottom of the fraction are
comparable with the limit of 1/n and so are 0. So we have.
3+0+0 3 1
= =
9+0+0 9 3
Hence our limit is a third.
2n2 + 12n + 5
3
3n + 2n2 + 1
So using rule 3 we have that the limit of an = ·
n2 + 3n + 1 2n3
3
is 2 × which is three.
2
2 Series
2.1 Introduction
Series’ are made up from sequences. Given any sequence (an ) we can make a
new sequence (Sn ) as follows.
S0 = a0
S1 = a0 + a1
S2 = a 0 + a 1 + a 2
S3 = a 0 + a 1 + a 2 + a 3
..
.
Sn = a 0 + a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + · · · + a n
We have a limit for this, as n tends to infinity (gets bigger and bigger) we have
that the sequence (Sn ) is simply the infinite sum of all the an
X∞
lim Sn = lim (a0 + a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an ) = an
n→∞ n→∞ n=0
∞
X
Definition 2.1.1 The limit of the sequence Sn , an , is called an infinite
n=0
series.
Definition 2.1.2 The terms of the sequence (Sn ) are called partial sums of the
series.
By doing some clever rearrangement one can see that each partial sum Sn is
1
in fact n(a1 + an ). Just looking at our previous example with the sequence
2
(1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, . . . ) we see that S4 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 which is 16, but using
1 1
our formula we get S4 = 4(1 + 7) = 4 · 8 = 16. This is a nice trick for
2 2
finding partial sums of arithmetic series especially ones where n is large. It
can be used to find the sum all the numbers from 1 to 100. He simply took
1/2 · 100 · (1 + 100) = 1/2 · 100 · 101 = 50 · 101 = 5050.
Now these type of series are very common and there are a couple of important
results to do with them.
Theorem 2.3.1 Take any number x. Then if | x |< 1 then,
∞
X 1
xn =
1−x
k=0
If | x |≥ 1 then,
∞
X
xn = ∞
k=0
In a case that limn→∞ Sn does not exist we say that the infinite sum Σ∞
n=1 an
DIVERGES.
OBSERVATION 1
In a case when all elements of the sequence {an }n∈N −{0} are equal 0 starting
from a certain k ≥ 1 the infinite sum becomes a finite sum, hence the infinite
sum is a generalization of the finite one, and this is why we keep the similar
notation.
EXAMPLE 1
The infinite sum of a geometric sequence an = xk for x ≥ 0, i.e. Σ∞
n=1 x
n
x − xn+1
Σnk=1 xk = Sn = , and
x−1
x(1 − xn ) x x
lim = lim (1 − xn ) = iff | x |< 1,
n→∞ x−1 n→∞ x − 1 x−1
hence
x
Σ∞ k
n=1 x = .
x−1
EXAMPLE 2
The series Σ∞
n=1 1 DIVERGES to ∞ as Sn = Σk=1 1 = n and limn→∞ Sn =
n
limn→∞ n = ∞.
EXAMPLE 3
The infinite sum Σ∞
n=1 (−1)
n
DIVERGES.
EXAMPLE 4
The infinite sum Σ∞ 1
n=0 (k+1)(k+2) CONVERGES to 1; i.e.
1
Σ∞
n=0 = 1.
(k + 1)(k + 2)
1
Proof: first we evaluate Sn = Σnk=1 (k+1)(k+2) as follows.
1 1 n+1 1
Sn = Σnk=0 = Σnk=1 k −2 = − | =− + 1 and
(k + 1)(k + 2) x+1 0 n+2
1
lim Sn = lim − + 1 = 1.
n→∞ n→∞ n+2
DEFINITION 3
For any infinite sum (series)
Σ∞
n=1 an
a series
rn = Σ∞
m=n+1 am
FACT 1
If Σ∞ ∞
n=1 an converges, then so does its n-th REMINDER rn = Σm=n+1 am .
So we get
lim rn = Σ∞ ∞ ∞
m=1 am − lim Sn = Σm=1 Sm − Σn=1 an = S − S = 0.
n→∞ n→∞
THEOREM 1
If the infinite sum
Σ∞
n=1 an converges, then lim an = 0.
n→∞
REMARK 1
The reverse statement to the theorem 1
If lim an = 0. then Σ∞
n=1 an converges
n→∞
is not always true. There are infinite sums with the term converging to zero
that are not convergent.
EXAMPLE 5
The infinite HARMONIC sum
1
H = Σ∞
n=1
n
DIVERGES to ∞, i.e. Σ∞
n=1 n = ∞ but limn→∞
1 1
n = 0.
DEFINITION 4
Infinite sum Σ∞ n
n=1 an is BOUNDED if its sequence of partial sums Sn = Σk=1 ak
is BOUNDED; i.e. there is a number M such that |Sn | < M , for all n ≤ 1, n ∈
N.
FACT 2
Every convergent infinite sum is bounded.
THEOREM 2
If the infinite sums Σ∞ ∞
n=1 an , Σn=1 bn CONVERGE, then the following properties
hold.
Σ∞ ∞ ∞
n=1 (an + bn ) = Σn=1 an + Σn=1 bn ,
Σ∞ ∞
n=1 can = cΣn=1 an , c ∈ R.
EXAMPLE 6
Consider
Σ∞
n=1 (−1)
n+1
= 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ....
If we group the terms in pairs, we get
(1 − 1) + (1 − 1) + .... = 0
1 − (1 − 1) − (1 − 1) − ..... = 1 − 0 − 0 − 0 − ... = 1.
It shows that grouping terms in a case of infinite sum can lead to inconsistencies
(contrary to the finite case). Look also example on page 59. We need to develop
some strict criteria for manipulations and convergence/divergence of alternating
series.
THEOREM 3
The alternating infinite sum Σ∞
n=1 (−1)
n+1
an , (an ≥ 0) such that
a1 ≥ a2 ≥ a3 ≥ .... and lim an = 0
n→∞
EXAMPLE 7
Consider the INHARMONIC series (infinite sum)
1 1 1 1
AH = Σ∞
n=1 (−1)
n+1
= 1 − + − .....
n 2 3 4
Observe that an = n1 , and n1 ≥ n+1
1
i.e. an ≥ an+1 for all n, so the assumptions
of the theorem 3 are fulfilled for AH and hence AH converges. In fact, it is
proved (by analytical methods, not ours) that
1
AH = Σ∞
n=1 (−1)
n+1
= ln 2.
n
EXAMPLE 8
A series (infinite sum)
1 1 1 1 1
Σ∞
n=0 (−1)
n
= 1 − + − + ......
2n + 1 3 5 7 9
converges, by Theorem 3 (proof similar to the one in the example 7). It also
is proved that
1 π
Σ∞n=0 (−1)
n
= .
2n + 1 4
always converges.
We consider now infinite sums with all its terms being positive real numbers,
i.e.
S = Σ∞n=1 an , for an ≥ 0, an ∈ R.
Observe that if all an ≥ 0, then the sequence {Sn } of partial sums Sn = Σnk=1 ak
is increasing; i.e.
S1 ≤ S2 ≤ .... ≤ Sn ...
and hence the limn→∞ Sn exists and is finite or is ∞. This proves the following
theorem.
THEOREM 5
The infinite sum
S = Σ∞
n=1 an , for an ≥ 0, an ∈ R
0 ≤ bn ≤ an .
Σ∞ ∞
n=1 bn ≤ Σn=1 an .
Proof: Denote
Sn = Σnk=1 ak , Tn = Σnk=1 bk .
As 0 ≤ bn ≤ an we get that also Sn ≤ Tn . But
Sn ≤ lim Sn = Σ∞ ∞
n=1 an so also Tn ≤ Σn=1 an = S.
n→∞
Σ∞ n
n=1 an = lim Σk=1 ak = lim Sn = S.
n→∞ n→∞
lim Tn = T = Σ∞
n=1 bn .
n→∞
lim Sn ≤ lim Tn
n→∞ n→∞
EXAMPLE 9
Let’s use Theorem 5 to prove that the series
1
Σ∞
n=1
(n + 1)2
2
converges. We prove by analytical methods that it converges to π6 , here we
prove only that it does converge. First observe that the series below converges
to 1, i.e.
1
Σ∞
n=1 = 1.
n(n + 1)
Consider
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sn = + .... + = (1 − ) + ( − ) + ...( − ) = 1−
1·2 2·3 n(n + 1) 2 2 3 n n+1 n+1
so we get
1 1
Σ∞
n=1 = lim Sn = lim (1 − ) = 1.
n(n + 1) n→∞ n→∞ n+1
Σ∞
n=1 an , for an ≥ 0, an ∈ R
i.e. all terms an of Σ∞n=k an are smaller then the terms of a converging (as
0 < h < 1) geometric series Σ∞ n 2
n=0 ak h = ak + ak h + ak h + .... By Theorem
∞
5 the series Σn=1 an must converge.
Σ∞
n=1 an , for an ≥ 0, an ∈ R
Proof: we carry the proof in a similar way as the proof of theorem 6. Let h
√
be any number such that limn→∞ n an < h < 1. So it means that there is k
√
such that for any n ≥ k we have n an < h, i.e. an < hn . This means that all
terms an of Σ∞n=k an are smaller then the terms of a converging (as 0 < h < 1)
geometric series Σ∞ n k
n=k h = h + h
k+1
+ hk+2 + .... By Theorem 5 the series
∞
Σn=1 an must converge.
Σ∞
n=1 an , for an ≥ 0, an ∈ R
diverges if
an+1 √
lim > 1 or lim n
an > 1
n→∞ an n→∞
what means that the limit of the sequence {an } can’t be 0. By theorem 1 we
get that Σ∞
n=1 an diverges.
REMARK 2
It can happen that for a certain infinite sum Σ∞
n=1 an )
an+1 √
lim = 1 = lim n an .
n→∞ an n→∞
In this case our Divergence Criteria do not decide whether the infinite sum
converges or diverges. In this case we say that the infinite sum DOES NOT
REACT on the criteria.
EXAMPLE 10
The Harmonic series
1
H = Σ∞
n=1
n
does not react on D’Alambert’s Criterium (Theorem 7) because
n 1
lim = lim = 1.
n→∞ n + 1 n→∞ (1 + n1 )
EXAMPLE 11
The series from example 9
1
Σ∞
n=1
(n + 1)2
does not react on D’Alambert’s Criterium (Theorem 7) because
2 1
(n + 1)2 n2 + 2n + 1 1+ n + n2
lim 2
= lim 2 = lim 4 4 = 1.
n→∞ (n + 2) n→∞ n + 4n + 1 n→∞ 1 + +
n n2
There are more criteria for convergence, most known are Kumer’s criterium and
Raabe criterium.
EXAMPLE 12
The series
cn
Σ∞
n=1
n!
converges for c > 0.
and
an+1 c
lim = lim = 0 < 1.
n→∞ an n→∞ n + 1
EXAMPLE 13
The series
n!
Σ∞
n=1
nn
converges.
10
(9.3) 1 2 3
n
; 3 4 5
n 1
; 3 5 7 9
3 2n
1 2 3 n 1
The last sequence can be definedrecursively by: a0
is given by the recursion a1 1 an an 1 1.
3, and for n 0 cn cn 1 2. Similarly, the first
The symbol n! (read “ n-factorial”) is used to denote the product of the firstn integers. This also has
the recursive definition:a0 1, and for n 0, an nan 1. (Note that we have defined0! 1).
Of the sequences described in equation 9.2, the first and the third clearly grow without bound, but
the second is bounded; in fact, if we rewrite the general term as
(9.4) bn n 1 1 1
n
n 1 1 1
n
a
we see that the sequence bn approaches 1. We say that bn converges to 1, as in the following definition.
Definition9.2 A sequence a1 a2 n
converges to a limit L, written
(9.5)
lim an
n ∞
L
if, for every ε 0, there is an n0 such that for all n n0 we have an L ε .
This just says that we can be sure that an is as close to L as we need it to be, just by taking the index
n large enough. We will rarely have to actually use this definition,relying more on understanding what
it says, and known facts about limits. For example:
Proposition 9.2
a) lim n p ∞ for p 0
n ∞
1
b) lim p 0 for p 0
n ∞n
c) lim A1 n 1 if A 0
n ∞
Let p and q be polynomials.
p n
p n
d) lim
n ∞ q n
0 if deg p deg q
lim
n ∞ q n
∞ if deg p deg q
p n
a
e) If the polynomials p and q have the same degree, then lim
n ∞ q n
b
where a and b are the
leading coefficientsof p and q.
p n
f) lim n
n ∞ e
0 for any polynomial p.
p n
g) lim
n ∞ ln n
c
∞ for any polynomial of positive degree and any positive c.
These can all be derived by replacing n by x, and using limit theorems already discussed (such as
l’Hˆ
opital’s rule).
n2
Example 9.2 lim
n ∞ n2
n 1
1 by e
above
1
n
Example 9.3 lim
n ∞ n 0 since the numerator oscillates between -1 and 1, and the denominator
goes to infinity. We should not be perturbed by such oscillation, so long as it remains bounded. For
example we also have
sin n
(9.6)
lim
n ∞ n
0
Proposition 9.3
a) (Squeeze theorem) Given three sequences an bn cn , if an bn cn for all n andlimn ∞ an
limn ∞ cn L then also limn ∞ bn L
b) If an bn cn , the sequence bn is bounded, cn 0 and limn ∞ cn 0, then also limn ∞ an 0.
Let’s see why b) is true, using a). Let M be the bound of the bn . Then
each an is obtained by multiplying its predecessor by a n. Now, eventually, that is, for n large enough,
a n 1 2. Thus each term after that is less than half its predecessor. This now surely looks like a
sequence converging to zero. To be more precise, let N be the firstinteger for which a N 1 2. Then
for any k 0,
aN k
1 aN
(9.8)
N k
!
2k N!
Now the sequence on the right is a fixed number (aN N ) times a sequence (1 2k ) which tends to zero.
Thus our sequence converges to zero, also by the squeeze theorem (proposition 9.3a).
Note that in the above argument, we only had to show that the general term of our sequence is
dominated by the general term of a sequence converging to zero from some point on. What happens to
any finitecollection of terms of a sequence is not relevant to the question of convergence. We shall use
the word eventually to mean “from some point on”, or more precisely, “for all n greater than some fixed
integer N”. We restate proposition 9.3, using the word ”e ventually”:
Proposition 9.4
a) (Squeeze theorem) Given three sequences an bn cn , if eventually
(9.9) an bn cn for all n and lim an
n ∞
lim cn
n ∞
L
then also
L
(9.10)
n ∞
lim bn
b) Suppose that an bn cn eventually, that is, for all n larger than some N. If the sequence b n is
bounded and
(9.11) lim cn
n ∞ 0
then also
0
(9.12)
lim an
n ∞
np
Example 9.5 For any positive integer p, lim
n ∞ n!
0
The idea here is that the numerator is a product of p terms, whereas the denominator is a product of
n terms, so grows faster than the numerator. To make this precise, write
np
n
n 1
1
n p
(9.13)
n! n n 1
n p
!
Now, if n is so large that n n p
2 n 2p will do), then the firstfactor is bounded by 2 p . Thus,
for n 2p, that is, eventually,
(9.14)
np
2p
1
n! n p
!
Since 1 n p
! 0 and n ∞, the result follows from the squeeze theorem.
Finally, we note that the limit of a sum is the sum of the limits:
Proposition 9.5 If an bn cn , and the sequences bn and cn converge, then so does the sequence an ,
and
lim
(9.15)
lim an
n ∞
lim bn
n ∞ c n ∞
n
Series
For many sequences, in fact, the most important ones, the general term is formed by adding something to
its predecessor; that is, the sequence is formed by the recursion s n sn 1 an , where an is from another
sequence. Such a sequence is called a series. Explicitly, the terms of the series are
(9.16) a 1 a1 a2 a1 a2 a3
a a2 a3
a
1 n
n
(9.17) a1 a2 a3 an ∑ ak
k 1
n
(9.19) sn ∑ ak
k 0
If the limit L of the sequence sn exists, the series is said to converge, and L is called its sum. If the
limit does not exist, the series diverges. The terms of the sequence s n are called the partial sums of the
series.
Example 9.6 ∑ 2k
∞
1 1
k 1
Let’s look at a few partial sums:
(9.20)
1 3 7 15
2 4 8 16
We see that each term adds half the distance of its predecessor from 1, from which we guess that the
partial sum: sn 1 2 n. Let’s now show that to be true. As we have seen it is true for the first four
terms. If it is true for the n 1
th term, it is also true for the nth term:
(9.21) sn sn 1 1
1
1 1
2 1 1
1
1
2n 2n 1 2n 2n 2n
Thus, our guess holds for the fifth, and then the sixth, and, by continued application of equation 9.21,
ultimately, for all terms. So the result is easy to conclude:
∞
∑ 2k
1 1 1
(9.22)
k 1
n ∞
lim sn
n ∞
lim 1
2n
Now, remember that the index is a way of relating the partial sums of the series to the general term
from which it is defined, so if we change that relation consistently, we don’t change the series. For
example,
∑ ak ∑ an ∑ ak
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
(9.23)
1 ∑ am 8
k 1 n 1 k 0 m 9
and so forth. Each representation comes about by replacing the index with a new index. For example, if
we substitute n for k, we get the firstequality; if we substitute k 1 for n we get the second equality, and
if we replace k 1 by m 8, we get the last one. It is often useful to make a change of index as the next
examples show.
Example 9.7 ∑ 2k
∞
1 2
k 0
For
(9.24)
∞
∑ 2k
1 1 ∞
∑ 2k
1 1 1 2
k 0 k 1
∞
1 1
Example 9.8 ∑ 2k 2n 1
k n
First, change the index by k m n, and then factor out 2 : n
∑ ∑
1 1
2 2
∞ ∞ ∞
1
2 ∑ n n
2 n 1
(9.25)
2k 2m n 2m
k n m 0 m 0
∑ xk
∞
1
(9.26) for x 1
k 0 1 x
∞
(9.27) ∑ xk diverges for x 1
k 0
To show this, we obtain (by a clever little observation) a formula for the partial sums
∑ xk x x
n
2
(9.28) sn 1 xn
k 0
Note that
(9.29) sn
1
1 x x
x
x s x and
2 n n 1
n
n 1
(9.30) sn
1
1 x x
x
1 xs
2 n 1
n n
n
1 xn 1
(9.31) sn ∑x k
1 x
k 0
so
∞
1 xn 1
(9.32) ∑ xk
lim sn
n ∞
lim
n ∞ 1 x
k 0
which equals 1 x
1 if x 1 and diverges if x 1. We look at the cases x
1 separately. For
x 1 sn n, so the series diverges. For x 1, the sequence sn is the sequence 1 0 1 0 1 0 , so
cannot converge to any particular number.
Example 9.9
∞
∑ k k
1 1 We firstuse the fact that
n 1 1
1 1 1
(9.33)
k k 1
k k 1
Thus the partial sum sn can be calculated:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(9.34) sn 1
2
2 3
3 4
n n 1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(9.35)
2 2
3 3
4 4
n n
n 1
1
(9.36) 1
n 1
Proposition 9.7 If
∞
∑ ak converges, then limn ∞ ak
0
k 0
To see this, let sn ∑nk 0 ak tn ∑nk
Then,
lim t . Thus lim s t
0. But s t a .
1
0 ak . since these are both sequences of the partial sums
of the series, but indexed differently, limn ∞ sn n ∞ n n ∞ n n n n n
Finally, Proposition 9.5 gives us:
cn , and the series ∑ bn and ∑ cn converge, then so does the series ∑ an ,
Proposition 9.8 If an bn
and ∑ an ∑ bn ∑ cn
Because of this proposition, for a series with positive terms, the statements ∑ ak converges, ∑ ak
diverges, are usually written simply as
∑ ak
∞ ∞
(9.37) ∑ ak ∞ converges
∞ diverges
k 0 k 0
b) If ∑ ak ∞ then ∑ bk ∞
As for (a), the sequence of partial sums sn ∑n0 ak is bounded by ∑∞
0 bk , so converges by Proposition 9.9.
In the second case, since the sequence of partial sums ∑ ak has no bound, neither does the sequence of
partial sums of ∑ bk .
It is important to observe that it is not necessary that the inequalities in the hypothesis of proposition
9.10 hold for all k, only that they eventually hold. That is because the issue of convergence series is
determined by the end of the series, and not affected by any finitenumber of terms.
1
Example 9.10 ∑ rk r 1
∞ if 0 r 1
Since rk
1 rk r 1
,
1 1
(9.38)
rk r 1
rk 1
k
Example 9.11 ∑ k ∞ if r 1
r
Now, here the trouble is that the numerator grows without bound - but it doesn’t grow as fast as a
power. So, what we do is borrow something from the denominator to compensate for the numerator. We
note that eventually k r k 2 1; in fact, this is true as soon as k 2 ln k lnr (which eventually happens,
since k ln k ∞). Then for all k larger than this number
(9.39)
k k 1
1
rk r
k r
k r
k
(9.41)
1
1 1
1
n2 n n 1
n 1 n
so our series is dominated by a telescoping series which converges (see example 9.9. above).
A very useful application of the comparison test is the following.
Proposition 9.11 (The Integral Test). Suppose that f is a nonnegative, nonincreasing function defined
on an interval M ∞
. Suppose the an is a sequence such that for n M, an f n
. Then
∞ ∞
a) If f x
dx ∞ then ∑ an ∞
M
∑ an
n 0
∞ ∞
b) If f x
dx ∞ then ∞
M n 0
Let
(9.42) bn n 1
f x
dx
converges.
∑n
∞
1
Example 9.13 (The harmonic series). ∞
We apply the integral test using the function f x
n 1
1 x. Since
(9.43)
∞ dx ∞
1 x
as we saw in chapter 8, the result follows.
If we apply example 17 of chapter 8 to series via the integral test we have a result which is very
useful for comparisons:
Proposition 9.12 Let p be a positive number.
∞
1
a) ∑ p ∞ if p 1
n 1n
∞
1
b) ∑ p ∞ if p 1
n 1n
n 2
1 x ln x
p is decreasing. We integrate using the substitution u ln x:
(9.44)
A dx ln A du
x ln x
p up
2 ln 2
We know (again from example 17, chapter 8) that this converges if p 1, and otherwise diverges. Thus,
by the integral test,
∞
1
(9.45) ∑ n ln n
p ∞ if p 1
n 2
(9.46) lim
an 1
L
an
if the limit exists. If L 1, the series converges; if L 1, the series diverges. For the case L 1, we can
draw no conclusion.
a
Suppose that L 1. Then there is a number r with L r 1 such that eventually a n 1 n r. That is,
(9.47) aN
1 aN r aN
2 aN
1r aN r 2 aN
3 aN
2r aN r 3
and so forth. Thus, we have, for all k 1, aN k aN rk , so by comparison with the geometric series, our
series converges.
If on the other hand, L 1, there is a number r, L r 1, such that eventually a n 1 an r. Follow-
ing the same argument but with the inequalities reversed, we conclude that for all k 1, a N k aN rk , so
we have divergence by comparison with the geometric series. We can conclude nothing if L 1. This is
the case for the all the series of the type ∑ 1 n p, and as we have seen, for some p we get convergence,
and divergence for other p.
∞
an
Example 9.15 ∑ n!
n 1
We try the ratio test.
an 1 n!
an 1 a
(9.48) 0
an n 1
! an n 1
as n ∞, so the ratio test gives us convergence.
∞
2n n3
Example 9.16 ∑ n
n 1 3
Try the ratio test:
(9.49)
an 1
2n
1 n 1
3 3n 2
n 1 3
2
3n 1 2n n3
an 3 n 3
so we have convergence.
∞
Example 9.17 ∑ rn
n 1
Here the ratio test gives
(9.50)
an 1
r
an
so we conclude that the series converges if r 1, and diverges if r 1. This may seem to be a sim-
plification of proposition 9.6, but in fact it is a fraud. The argument is circular, for we have used the
convergence of the geometric series to derive the ratio test.
We observe that we didn’t really need to know that the limit of an 1 an exists, only that eventually
these ratios are either less than some number less than 1 to conclude convergence, or greater than some
number greater than 1, for divergence.
There are new difficulties when we have to consider series of negative as well as positive terms. For
example, although the harmonic series ∑ 1 n diverges, if we alternately change signs, the series now
converges.
∞
1
n 1
1 1 1
Example 9.18 The series 1
2 3 4
∑ n
converges.
n 1
To see this, we look at the sequences of even partial sums and odd partial sums separately. Since
1 1
(9.51) s2 n
1
s2n
2n 1
2n 2
s2n
1
1
2n 2
(9.52) s2 n
1
1
s2n
1 s2n
1
2n 3
tells us that the sequence of odd partial sums is decreasing. Now
1
(9.53) s2n
1 s2n
2n 1
s2n
that is, the odd partial sums are all greater than all the even partial sums. So both sequences are bounded,
and thus converge. But, they converge to the same limit, as we see by taking the limit in equation 9.53:
lim 1
(9.54)
lim s
n ∞ 2n 1
lim s
n ∞ 2n 2n 1 lim
n ∞ s n ∞ 2n
since 1 2n 1 0
. Since they both converge to the same limit, the full sequence also converges, and
to the same limit.
This argument actually generalizes to any alternating series, a series whose terms alternate in sign.
∞
∑
Proposition 9.14 If an is a decreasing sequence, and lim an
n ∞
0 then the series
n 1
1
n an converges.
Definition9.4 Given a sequence an , we say the series ∑ an converges absolutely if, for the series formed
of the absolute values an , we have convergence: ∑ an ∞.
To see that, let sn be the nth partial sum of the sequence, pn the sum of all the positive terms making
up sn , and qn the sum of the absolute values of all the negative terms. Then
(9.56) sn pn qn
Both sequences pn and qn are increasing, and bounded by ∑ an , so converge, to, say p, q respectively.
Then
(9.57) ∑ an
lim sn
n ∞
lim pn lim qn
n ∞ n ∞
p q
Because of this peculiarity of sequences of terms with alternating signs, we shall be most interested in
absolute convergence. We can use the tests of section 9.3 (applied to the series of absolute values), to
test for absolute convergence.
∞
Example 9.19 ∑ xn converges for 1 x 1
n 1
This is because the sum of the absolute values is just the geometric series.
∞
Example 9.20 ∑ n2 xn converges for 1 x 1
n 1
Here we use the ratio test for the absolute values;
(9.58)
an
1 n 1
2 x n
1
n 1
2 x x
an n2 x n n
∞
(9.59) f x
∑ an x c
n
n 0
The series provides an effective way of approximately evaluating the function f ; our goal in these last
sections is to show that most functions do have a power series representation. We can use the ratio test
to determine the question of convergence. We take the ratio of successive terms of (4):
an 1 x c n 1
an 1
(9.60) x c L x c
an x c n an
if the limit L limn ∞ an 1 an exists. In this case the series converges absolutely for x c 1 L,
and diverges for x c 1 L. Thus, the domains of convergence and divergence of the series are
separated by the circle, centered at c of radius 1 L. It can be shown that, in general, there is a circle
separating these domains, even if the limit of the ratio of successive coefficientsdoesn’t exist.
n 0
R ∞ such that we get absolute convergence for all x x c R, and divergence for all x x c R.
a
1
R is called the radius of convergence of the power series. We have this value of R: lim n 1 if
n ∞ an R
the limit exists.
The firstexample of a power series representation is that of the geometric series:
∑ xn
∞
1
Example 9.21 for x 1 has the radius of convergence R 1.
n 0 1 x
∞
Example 9.22 ∑ nk xn converges for x 1 for any number k. We use the ratio test. The ratio of
n 0
successive coefficientsis
(9.61)
n 1
k
n 1
k
1
nk n
as n ∞.
∞
xn
Example 9.23 ∑ n! has radius of convergence R ∞ Using the ratio test:
n 0
1 1 1
(9.62)
n 1
! n! n 1
0
so R ∞, and the series converges for all x. On the other hand, the ratio test shows us that the series
∞
(9.63) ∑ n!xn
n 0
Example 9.24
1 x n 0
(9.64)
x x
1 x 1 x x 2
x3
x x2 x3 x4
1 x 1 x
1 ∞
1 ∞
Example 9.25
1 x2 ∑ x2n 1 x2 ∑ 1
n x2n for x 1
n 0 n 0
To see the first,we note that 1 1 x2
is obtained from 1 1 x
by substituting x2 for x. Thus, the
power series representation is obtained in the same way. In the second, we have substituted x 2 for x.
To solve a problem like this, we have to relate the function to another function, whose power series
we know. In this case that would be 1 1 x
. Now 5 2x 5 1 2 5
x
, so our function is obtained
from 1 1 x
by firstreplacing x by 2 5
x, and then dividing by 5. We follow the same instructions
with the power series.
Start with
1 ∞
(9.65)
1 x ∑ xn
Replace x by 2 5
x:
n 0
∞
1 2
(9.66)
1 2 5
x ∑ 5 x
n
n 0
5 2x 1
n 0
We can calculate the radius of convergence using proposition 9.16, or we can reason as follows; since
the series we started with converges for x 1, our finalseries converges for 2 5
x 1, or x 5 2.
Finally, we can also integrate and differentiate power series term by term:
(9.68)
x
f t
dt ∑ n
∞
an
xn
1
0 n 0 1
(9.69) f x
∞
∑ nanxn 1
n 1
∞
1
n
∑ 2n x2n 1
∞
xn
Example 9.28 ex ∑ n! for all x Let f x
∑∞ n
n 0 x n! Then, differentiating term by term, we
n 0
find
(9.70) f x
∑
∞
nxn 1
∑
∞
xn 1 ∞
∑ n!
xn
n 1 n! n 1 n 1
! n 0
where the last equation is obtained by replacing the index n by n 1. Thus f x
f x
, so satisfiesthe
1 also, it is the exponential
function.
Example 9.29 e ∞
nx
2n
x2
∑ 1
n!
for all x Just replace x in example 9.28 by x2 .
n 0
f x
f 0
(9.71) lim
x 0 x
f 0
If we rewrite this as
f x
f 0
f 0
x
(9.72)
lim
x 0 x
0
We calculate this limit using l’Hˆ
a f 0
. Then
opital’s rule. First of all, for l’Hˆ
opital’s rule to apply, we have to have
f x
f 0
bx cx2
f x
b 2cx
lH
(9.74) lim lim
x 0 x2 x 0 2x
We can apply l’Hˆ
opital’s rule again, if we have b f 0
:
f x
f 0
2cx
f x
2c
lH
(9.75) lim lim 0
x 0 2x x 0 2
if c
f 0
2. We conclude that the polynomial
(9.76) f 0
f 0
x f 0
2
2
x
(9.77) f 0
f 0
x f 0
2
x
f n
0
2 n!
Of course we can make the same argument at any point, not just the origin. To summarize:
Definition9.6 Suppose that f is a function with derivatives at all orders definedin an interval about
the point c. The Taylor polynomial of degree n of f , centered at c is
n
f k c
∑
(9.78) Tc n f
x
x c
k
k 0 k!
Proposition 9.19 The Taylor polynomial Tc n f is the polynomial of degree n which approximates f near
c to nth order.
So, we can compute effective approximations to the values of f x
near c by these Taylor polynomi-
als; but the question is, how effective is this? More precisely, what is the error? We use this estimate:
Proposition 9.20 Suppose that f is differentiable to order n 1 in the interval c a c a centered at
the point c. Then the error in approximating f in this interval by its Taylor polynomial of degree n, Tc n f
is bounded by
Mn 1
x c n 1
(9.79)
n 1
!
where Mn
(9.80)
n 1
!
In the next chapter we will show how the error estimate is obtained, and see how to work with it.
What we want now is to concentrate on the representation by series.
Definition9.7 Let f be a function which is differentiable to all orders in a neighborhood of the point c.
The Taylor series for f centered at c is
(9.81) Tc f x
∞
∑
f n
x c
n
n 0 n!
Proposition 9.21 Suppose that f is a function which has derivatives of all orders in the interval c
a c a
, Let Mn be a bound for the nth derivative of f in the interval. If the sequence
Mn
(9.82) x c n 0
n!
converges to zero for all x in the interval, then f is given by its Taylor series:
(9.83) f x
∑
∞
f n
x c
n
n 0 n!
in c 1 c a
.
As an example, ex has the Maclaurin series
∞
xn
(9.84) ex ∑ n!
n 0
We have already shown by other means. We can verify this using proposition 9.21 as well, since the nth
derivative of ex is still ex , and the value at x 0 is 1. By a parallel calculation we obtain the power series
representation of ex centered at any point:
Example 9.30 For c any point, the function ex has the Taylor series representation centered at c:
∞
ec
(9.85) ex ∑ n! x c
n
n 0
We do have to verify that the remainders converge to zero; that is the terms 9.82 converge to zero. Since
ex is an increasing function, its maximum in the interval a c a c is at x a c, so we can take
Mn ea c . Then, for the exponential function we have
Mn x c n
x c n ea
c
∞
(9.87) f x
∑ an x c
n
n 0
(9.88) an f n
c
n!
∞
n k
an x c
n
(9.89) f k
x
∑ n n 1
k
n k
Now, let x c and obtain f k c
k!ak , for all terms but the firsthave the factor x c.
So, if we have found a power series representative of a function, then that is automatically the Taylors
series for the function.
(9.90) f 1
4
(9.91) f x
1 10x 3x2 so f 1
6
(9.92) f x
10 6x so f 1
4
(9.93) f x
6 so f 1
6
and all higher derivatives are zero. Thus the Taylor series is
(9.94) f x
4 6 x 1
4
x 1
2
6
x 1
3 4 6 x 1
2 x 1
2 x 1
3
2! 3!
Now, we can findthe Maclaurin series for many functions, so long as we know how to differentiate
them. Following is a list of the most important Maclaurin series.
Proposition 9.23
1 ∞
1 x n∑0
a) xn x 1
b) ex ∑ ∞ n
x
n 0 n!
c) cosx ∑
∞
1
n 2n
x
n 0 2n
!
d) sin x ∑
∞
1
n 2n 1
x
n 0 2n 1
!
e) arctanx ∑
∞
1
n 2n 1
x
n 0 2n 1
We have already seen how to get (a), (b) and (d). For the trigonometric functions, we proceed as
follows. First, the cosine:
(9.95) f 0
1
(9.96) f x
sin x so f 1
0
(9.97) f x
cosx so f 1
1
(9.98) f x
sin x so f 1
0
(9.99) f iv
x
cos x so f iv 1
1
Thus, up to four terms we have
(9.100) cosx 1
x2
2!
x4
4!
But, now, since we have returned to cos x, the cycle 1 0 1 0 repeats itself again and again. We
conclude that
(9.101) cos x 1
x2
2!
x4 x6
4! 6!
x8
8!
which can be rewritten as iii
of proposition 9.23 above.
One finalTaylor series is worth noting: since the integral of 1 1 x
is ln 1 x
, we can findthe
Taylor series centered at 1 for ln x as follows:
(9.102)
1 ∞
∑ tn
1 t n 0
∞
tn 1
(9.103) ln 1 t
∑n 1
n 0
lnx
∞
1 x
n 1
∞
x 1
n 1
∑ ∑ 1
n 1
(9.104)
n 0 n 1 n 0 n 1
UNIT – III
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
THEORY OF LIMITS:
Domain and Range of a Function: Let A and B be any two sets and let f denotes a rule
which associates to each member of A a member of B. We say that f is a function from A into B.
Also A is said to be Domain of this function. If x denotes a member of the set A, then the
member of the set B, which the function f associates to x ∈ A, is denoted by f (x) called the value
of the function f for x or at x. The function may be described as x → f (x), or y = f (x) where x ∈
Limit: Let the function y = f (x) be defined in a certain neighbourhood of a point a or at certain
points of this neighbourhood. The function y = f (x) approaches the limit b(y → b) as x
approaches a(x → a), if for every positive number ε, no matter how small, it is possible to
indicate a positive number δ such that for all x, different from a and satisfying |x − a| < δ, we
1.
2.
3.
4.
If f (x) approaches the limit b1 as x takes on only values less than ‘a’ we write
, then b1 is called the limit on the left at the point ‘a’ of the function.
, then f is
continuous on the closed interval [a,b].
1. polynomial functions are continuous everywhere
where r(x) is continuous for x<a and s(x) is continuous for x>a.
then f is continuous everywhere provided f is continuous at x=a.
If f (x) is continuous on the closed, bounded interval [a, b], then it is bounded above and
below in that interval. That is there exists numbers m and M such that m ≤ f (x) ≤ M , for every x
in [a, b].
Differentiability:
ii. f has a “corner point “ at x=a(f is continuous at x=a but left-hand derivative is not
equal to right-hand derivative); or
Some statements:
1. Let the function f (x) be continuous at x = a and let c be a constant. Then the function
5. Let f (x) be differentiable at the point x = a. Then the function f (x) is continuous at that
8. A function that is continuous in a closed interval attains maximum and minimum values
in the interval
Problem 1: Write down the formula for radius of curvature in terms of parametric
coordinates system.
4
3/ 2
4 4
3/ 2 1
2
1/ 2
4
a
Problem 3: Find the envelope of the curve y mx where m is a parameter.
m
a
Solution: Given: y mx (1)
m
ym m2 x a
m2 x ym a 0
This is a quadratic in ‘m’
So the envelope is given by B2 4 AC 0
Here A x, B y, C a
B2 4 AC y2 4 xa 0
.
i.e., y2 4 ax
Problem 4: Find the envelope of x cos ysin p where is the parameter.
i.e., x2 4 y 0
x2 4 y
x
Problem 6: Find the radius of curvature at any point of y c cosh
c
x
Solution: y cosh (1)
c
x 1 x
y1 c sinh sinh
c c c
x 1 1 x
y2 cosh cosh
c c c c
1 y 2 3/ 2
1
y2
3/ 2 3/ 2
2 x 2 x
1 sinh c cosh c
c
1 x cos
x
cosh
c c c
x
cosh 2
c c c cosh 2 x
x c
cosh
c
y2
c 2 by 1
c
y2
c
c2
At 0, c c
c
Problem 7: Find the radius of curvature of curve y=ex at (0.1)
Solution:
y = ex At(0,1)
y1 = ex e0 = 1
y2 = ex e0 = 1
1 y 2 3/ 2
1
1 1
3/ 2
2 2.
y2 1
e
2
e e 2 e
2
2 e 2
3/ 2
23/ 2 e
3
e e
2 2
2 e 2 e
2 2
e
1
22 2 e 2 r
fx 4 x 5 fy 4 y 2
fxy 0 fxx 4 f yy 4
f fy2
2 3/ 2
x
3/ 2
4 x 5 2 4 y 2 2
4 4 x 5 4 y 2
2 2
1 2 1/ 2
4 x 5 4 y 2
2
4
1 4 4
Curvature at 0, 0
4 x 5 4 y 2
2 2
29
Solution: The locus of the centre of curvature of the given curve is called the evolute of
the curve. The given curve is called the involute of its evolute
Problem 11: Find the envelope of the family 1- x2 + (y - k)2 = 0, where k is a parameter.
x
Problem 12: Find the envelope of the family of lines yt 2 c, t being the parameter.
t
Solution: Given family of lines can be written as
yt 2 2 ct x 0 (1)
The envelope of
At2 Bt C 0 is B2 4 AC 0 (2)
From (1) we get A y, B 2 c, C x
Putting these values in (2) we get
2c 4 y x 0
2
4c 4 xy 0
2
x
2 2
x y y
cos sin sin cos 1 0
2 2
a b a b
2 2
x y 2 xy
2
cos 2 2 sin 2 cos sin 1
a b ab
x2 y2 2 xy
2 sin 2 2 cos 2 cos sin 1
a b ab
x2 y2
2
cos 2
sin 2
cos 2 sin 2 1
2
a b
2 2
x y
2
2 1 cos 2 sin 2 1
a b
Problem 14: Find the radius of curvature at any point P a cos , b sin on the
x2 y2 1
ellipse 2
2 1 . Show that the eccentricity of the ellipse is , if the centre of
a b 2
curvature at one end of the minor axis lies at the other end.
Solution:
x a cos , y b sin
dx dy
x' a sin y' b cos
d d
d 2x 2
x" a cos y " d y b sin
d 2
d2
3/ 2
x ' 2 y ' 2
x ' y" y' x"
a sin 2 b 2 cos 2
2 3/ 2
a sin b sin b cos a cos
a sin 2 b 2 cos 2 a sin 2 b 2 cos 2
2 3/ 2 2 3/ 2
ab sin 2 ab cos 2 ab
Given that
2
2
a
2b
b
a 2 2b 2
2a 2 1 e 2 b 2 a 2 1 e 2
1 1
e2 i.e., e
2 2
x y
Problem 15: Find the envelope of 1 where the parameters a and b are related by
a b
ab = c2, c is known.
c2 x ay
Solution: b . Hence the straight line becomes, 2 1
a a c
i.e., c 2 x a 2 y ac 2
i.e., a 2 y ac 2 c 2x 0 which is a quadratic in a.
Hence the envelope is B2 – 4AC = 0.
i.e., c
2 2
4 y( c2 x) 0 i.e., 4xy c2
LONG ANSWER
BIET 81
18 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
MA 6151 MATHEMATICS-I
Differential Calculus 8
d2y d
2
2sec 2 2 .
dx dx
1
2sec 2 2 .
3a sin 3 sin
2 sec2 2
.
3a 2 cos 2 sin
1
3a cos 2 sin
3
3
dy 2 2 d 2 y
Radius of curvature 1 / 2
dx dx
3
1 tan 2 2 2 3a cos3 2 sin sec3 2 .3a cos 3 2 sin
3a sin
1 1
2 2
a
4
4
y2 a a
,
4 4
a
The radius of curvature is
3
3
1 y a a 1 1
2 2
2 2
at ,
1
y2 4 4 4
a
a
2 2
4
a 2
2
X x
y1
y2
1 y12
a a 3a
X 2
4 4 4
Y y 1 y1
1 2
y2
a
4 4
1
a 2a
1 1 ..... 2
2
4 4
a
3a
Y
4
2 2
Circle of curvature is x X y Y 2
2 2
3a 3a a 2
i.e., x
y
4 4 2
x y
Problem 18: In the curve 1 , show that the radius of curvature at the point
a b
3
x, y varies as ax by 2
1 1
x 2 y 2
Solution: Given 1
a b
x y
i.e. 1
a b
b x a y ab (1)
by 2
1
1 3
dx
ax
ax by 2 2x a x
.
2
3
d y
b
ax 2
b
2x a x
2
dx
3
2 ax by 2 3
i.e. k. ax by 2
ab
Hence proved
Problem 19: Show that the radius of curvature at any point of the curve
x ae sin cos , y ae sin cos is twice the perpendicular distance of the
tangent at the point from the origin.
1 y
2 2
1
1 cot
2 2
y2 cos ec 3
2ae
3
cos ec 2 2
cos ec 3
2ae
cos ec 3
2ae
cos ec
3
2ae
Problem 20: Find the centre of curvature and circle of curvature of the curve
x = a (cos t + t sin t), y = a (sin t – t cos t) at any point‘t’.
Solution:
dx
= a (-sin t +sin t + t cos t) = at cos t
dt
dy
= a (cos t + t sin t – cos t) = at sin t
dt
dy at sin t
y1 = tan t
dx at cos t
d2y dt 1 1
y2 = sec 2 t. sec 2 t.
dx 2
dx at cost at cos 3 t
(1 y12 ) 3/2
ρ
y2
(1 tan 2 t) 3/2 .at cos 3 t
(sec 2 t) 3/2 .at cos 3 t
sec 3 t.at.cos 3 t
at
If (X, Y) is the centre of curvature
y1 (1 y12 )
Xx
y2
= a (cos t + t sin t) - tan t (1 tan 2 t) at cos 3 t
= a cos t + at sin t – at tan t. sec2t cos3t
= a cos t + at sin t –at sin t
= a cos t
(1 y12
Y y
y2
= a (sin t – t cos t) + (1 + tan2t) (at cos3 t)
= a sin t – at cos t + sec2t. at.cos3 t
= a sin t – at cos t + at cos t
= a sin t
The centre of curvature is (a cos t, a sin t).
x 2 y2
Problem21: Find the equation of the evolute of the ellipse 1
a 2 b2
Solution:
The parametric equations of the ellipse are x = a cos and y = b sin
dx dy
a sinθ and b cosθ
dθ dθ
dy b cosθ b
y1 cotθ
dx a sinθ a
d2y d b dθ
y2 cotθ
dx 2
dθ a dx
b 1 b
(cosec θ)
2
2 (cosec 3θ)
a asinθ a
Let (x , y) be the coordinates of the centre of curvature.
y1
Then xx (1 y12 )
y2
b
cotθ
a cosθ - . (1 b cot 2 θ)
2
a
b 3 a2
2 cosec θ
a
b 2
= a cos -a cot .sin3 1 2 cot 2 θ
a
b 2
= a cos - a cos .sin2 1 2 cot 2 θ
a
b2
= a cos - a cos .sin2 - cos 3θ
a
b2
= a cos (1 - sin2 ) - cos 3θ
a
b2
= a cos3 - cos3θ
a
a 2 - b2
i.e., x .cos 3 θ (1)
a
(1 y12 )
Now y y
y2
1 b2
b sin θ .1 2 cot 2 θ
-b 3
2 .cosec θ
a
a
a2 b2
b sin θ .sin 3θ. 1 2 cot 2θ
b a
a2
b sin θ .sin 3θ-b sinθ cos 2θ
b
a2
b sin θ (1 - cos 2 θ) sin 3 θ
b
a2
b sin 3 θ - sin 3θ
b
a 2 - b2 3
i.e y - sin θ (2)
b
Locus of (x , y) is obtained by eliminating θ from (1) and (2)
1/ 3
ax
From (1) cos = 2 2
a b
1/3
by
From (2) sin = 2
a b
2
cos 2 + sin2 =1
2/3
by
2/3
ax
i.e., 2 2
2 2
1
a b a b
Solution:
Given x = a ( - sin ) and y = a ( 1 - cos )
Differentiating w.r.t
dx dy
a (1 - cosθ ) and a sin θ
dθ dθ
dy a sin θ 2.sinθ / 2.cosθ / 2
y1 cot θ / 2
dx a (1-cosθ ) 2 sin 2 / 2
i.e., y1 = cot /2 (1)
d2y d dθ
y2 = 2 (cot θ /2).
dx dθ dx
1 1
cosec2 ( /2).
2 a (1- cos )
1 1
cosec 2 ( θ /2).
2a 2sin 2 θ/2
1
cosec 4 ( θ /2) (2)
4a
a (θ sinθ )
cotθ / 2
1 cot 2 θ / 2
1
cosec θ / 2
4
4a
4a. cot θ / 2
a (θ sin θ) . cos ec 2 θ / 2.
cos ec 4 θ / 2
= a ( - sin ) + 4a. sin /2.cos /2.
= a ( - sin ) + 2a sin
i.e., x a (θ sin θ) (3)
(1 y12 )
yx
y2
1
a (1 - cos θ ) (1 cot 2 θ/2 )
-1
cosec 4 θ/2
4a
= a (1 - cos ) - 4a sin2 /2
= a (1 - cos ) - 2a (1 - cos )
i.e., y a (1 cos θ ) (4)
The evolute of the given cycloid is the locus of (x, y) . Eliminating from (1) and (2) we
get the equation of the evolute. Otherwise, the parametric equations of the locus of
(x, y) are x = a ( + sin ) and y = - a (1 - cos ). These are the parametric equations of
a cycloid. Thus the evolute of a cycloid is again a cycloid.
Problem 23: Prove that the evolute of the tractrix x = a (cos t + log tan (t/2)),
y = a sin t is a catenary.
Solution:
Given x = a (cos t + log tan (t/2))
dx 1
a - sin t sec 2 ( t / 2).(1 / 2)
dt tan (t/2)
1 cos (t/2)
a - sin t .
2 sin ( t/2) cos (t /2)
2
1
a - sin t
2 sin (t/2) cos (t /2)
1 1 - sin 2 t
a - sin t a
sin t sin t
dx cos 2 t
i.e., a
dt sin t
y = a sin t
dy
a cos t
dt
dy a cos t
y1
dx cos 2 t
a.
sin t
i.e., y1 = tan t (1)
d2y d dt sin t
y 2 2 (tan t). sec 2 t.
dx dt dx a cos 2 t
sin t
i.e., y2 (2)
acos 4 t
If (x, y) is the centre of curvature, then
y1
xx (1 y12 )
y2
tan t
= a (cos t + log tan (t /2)) - ( 1 tan 2 t ) (Using (1) and (2))
sin t
4
a cos t
sin t cos 4 t
= a (cos t + log tan (t /2)) - a. . .sec 2 t
cos t sin t
= a cos t + a log tan (t /2) - a cos t
i.e., x = a log tan (t /2) (3)
(1 y12 )
y y+
y2
1
= a sin t + ( 1 tan 2 t )
sin t
4
a cos t
a cos 4 t
= a sin t + .sec 2 t
sint
a
(sin 2 t cos 2 t)
sin t
a
i.e., y (4)
sin t
From (3) and (4) we get the parametric equation of the evolute as
a
x = a log tan (t /2), y
sin t
Problem 24: Find the envelope of the family of straight lines y = mx – 2am – am3,
where m is a parameter.
Solution:
Given y = mx – 2am – am3 (1)
Differentiating partially w.r.t m
0 = x – 2a – 3am2 (2)
Eliminate m between (1) and (2)
x 2a
From (2), m 2
3a
From (1), y = m(x – 2a – am2)
x 2a
y = m x 2a
3
2
y m. .(x 2a)
3
3y
m
2(x 2a)
2
3y
Now from (2) 0 = x – 2a – 3a
2(x 2a)
i.e., 4(x - 2a)3 = 27ay2 is the equation of the envelope.
a2 b2
Problem 25: Find the envelope of the family of curves cosθ sinθ c
x y
where is a parameter.
Solution:
a2 b2
Given cosθ sinθ c (1)
x y
Differentiating w.r.t
a2 b2
(- sin θ) cos θ 0
x y
a2 b2
sin θ cos θ 0 (2)
x y
The equation of the envelope is obtained by eliminating between (1) and (2)
Now squaring and adding (1) and (2)
2 2
a2 b2
(cos θ sin θ)
2 2
(sin 2 θ cos 2 θ ) c 2
x y
a 4 b4
2
2 c2
x y
i.e., a4 y2 + b4 x2 = c2 x2 y2.
Solution:
We have y = mx + a 1 m 2
y – mx = a 1 m 2
Squaring both sides (y – mx )2 = a2 (1 + m2 )
i.e., y2 – 2mxy + m2x2 = a2 (1 + m2 )
(x2 - a2 )m2 – 2xy.m + y2 – a2 = 0
This being a quadratic equation in m, the equation of the envelope is given by
B2 = 4AC, where A = x2 - a2, B = -2xy, C = y2 - a2
i.e., 4x2y2 = 4(x2 - a2) (y2 - a2)
x2y2 = x2y2 – x2a2 – y2a2 + a4
x2 + y2 = a2. The envelope is a circle.
Problem 27: Find the evolute of the parabola y2 = 4ax considering it as the envelope
of its normals.
Solution:
The equation of normal at any point (at2, 2at) on the parabola y2 = 4ax is
y + xt = 2at +at3 (1)
Differentiating partially w.r.t. t, we get,
0 + x = 2a + 3at2 (2)
To find the envelope of the family of normals, eliminate t between (1) and (2).
1/2
x 2a
From (2), t
3a
Substituting in (1), we get
1/2 1/2 3/2
x 2a x 2a x 2a
y x. 2a. a.
3a 3a 3a
x 2a
1/2
x 2a
3/2
y - (x - 2a). a.
3a 3a
3/2
x 2a
y (3a a)
3a
3
x 2a 2
y
2
4a
3a
(x 2a) 3
y2 3
.4a 2
27a
27ay2 = 4(x – 2a) 3
This is the equation of the evolute of the given parabola.
x 2 y2
Problem 28: Find the evolute of the ellipse 1 , treating it as the envelope of
a 2 b2
its normals.
Solution:
x 2 y2
The normal at any point (a cos , b sin ) on the ellipse 1 is
a 2 b2
ax by
a 2 b2 (1)
cos θ sin θ
Differentiating (1) w.r.t
ax by
.sinθ .cosθ 0
cos θ
2
sin 2 θ
ax by
Dividing by sinθ cosθ, 0 (2)
cos θ sin 3 θ
3
1/3 1/3
ax -by
cos θ and sin θ (3)
k k
cos2 + sin2 =1
2/3 2/3
ax -by
1
k k
k 2/3 (ax) 2/3 (by) 2/3 (4)
Substituting in (1) for sin and cos from (3)
(ax) 2/3
(by) 2/3 k 1/3 a 2 b 2
(ax) 2/3
k a b
(by) 2/3 2 2/3 2 2 2
(ax) 2/3
(by) a b
2/3 3 2 2 2
(Using (4)))
i.e. , (ax) (by) a b
2/3 2/3 2 2 2/3
x 2 y2
This is the evolute of the ellipse 1
a 2 b2
x y
Problem 29: Find the envelope of the straight lines 1 where the parameters
a b
a and b are connected by the relation a2 + b2 = c2 and c is a constant.
Solution:
x y
Given 1 (1)
a b
Differentiating w.r.t a
x y db
2
2 . 0 (2)
a b da
Given a2 + b2 = c2
Differentiating w.r.t a
db
2a 2b. 0 (3)
da
Eliminate a and b between (1), (2) and (3).
Comparing (1) and (2)
x y
a2 b2
2a 2b
x y 1
i.e., 3 3 3 (say)
a b k
Then a = k.x1/3, b = k.y1/3
Now a2 + b2 = c2
i.e., k2x2/3 + k2y2/3 = c2
c2 c
k 2 k
x 2/3 y 2/3 x 2/3
y 2/3
x y
From (1) 1
kx 1/3 ky1/3
i.e., x2/3 + y2/3 = k
c
i.e., x2/3 + y2/3 =
x 2/3
y 2/3
Cross multiplying and squaring, we get,
(x2/3 + y2/3)3 = c2
Solution:
x 2 y2 2 2 2
Given 2
2 1 and b = c – a .
a b
x 2
y2
2 2 1
a c a2
i.e., (c2 – a2) x2 + a2y2 = a2(c2 - a2) (1)
Equation (1) is a family of curves with parameter a . Rewriting (1) as a quadratic in a2,
2
UNIT – IV
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES
Partial derivatives:
First order partial derivatives:
Let u=f(x,y) be a function of two independent variables. Differentiating u with respect to x
keeping y as a constant is known as the partial differential coefficient of ‘u’ with respect to ‘x’. it is
denoted by .
If we differentiate u with respect to ‘y’ keeping ‘x’ constant is known as the partial differential
Let u=f(x,y) be a function of two variables x and y. then and represent the first
partial derivatives of u with respect to x and y. here both and are again a function of x and
y. here each of these partial derivatives may be differentiated with respect to x and y and it is denoted by
Important points:
1.
2.
3.
4.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Eulers theorem:
Statement:
Example 5:
Total differentiation:
Definitions:
Important points:
1.
2.
3.
SHORT ANSWER
du
Problem 1: Using the definition of total derivative, find the value of given
dt
u = y2 - 4ax, x = at2; y = 2at.
du u dx u dy
Solution: (1)
dt x dt y dt
u y2 4 ax
u
4a
x
u
2y
y
2 2at y 2at , given
4 at
du
1 4a 2at 4at 2a
dt
8a 2 t 8a 2 t
0
f f
x y 0 f 0
x y
sin u sin u
i.e., x y 0
x y
u u
x cos u y cos u 0
x x
u u
i.e., x y 0
x y
r
Problem 4: If x r cos , y r sin find
x
Solution: Given x r cos , y r sin
x2 r 2 cos 2 , y2 r 2 sin 2
x2 y2 r2 cos 2 r 2 sin 2
r 2 cos 2 sin 2
r 2 1
r2
i.e., r x 2 y2
r 1 x x
2 x
x 2 x2 y2 x2 y2 r
u u
Problem 5: If u log x2 xy y2 , prove that x y 2.
x y
Solution: Given u log x2 xy y2
Here u is not a homogeneous function
eu x2 xy y2
eu is a homogeneous function of degree 2 in x, y
By Euler’s theorem, we have
u u
x
x
e y
y
e 2 eu
u u
xeu yeu 2 eu
x y
u u
x y 2
x y
du
Problem 6: Find if u x2 y2 , x at2 , y 2 at .
dt
du u dx u dy
Solution: . (1)
dt x dt y dt
u x2 y2 x at 2 y 2 at
u dx dy
2a
2x 2 at
x dt dt
u
2y
y
4at
2at 2 2at 4at 2a
du
1
dt
4a 2 t 3 8a 2 t
4a 2 t t 2 2
x, y
Problem 7: If x r cos and y r sin , evaluate .
r ,
Solution:
x x
x, y r cos r sin
,
r , y y sin r cos
r
r cos 2 sin 2 r
u , v
Problem 8: If u 2 xy, v x2 y2 and x r cos , y r sin . Evaluate without
r
actual substitution.
Solution:
u 2 xy u x2 y2 x rcos y rsin
u v x y
2y 2x cos sin
x x r r
u v x u
2x 2 y r sin r cos
y y
u u x x
u , v u, v x, y x y r
r , x, y r , v u y y
x y r
2y 2 x cos r sin
2 x 2 y sin r cos
4 y 4 x
2
r cos r sin
2 2 2
4 x y r cos sin
2 2 2 2
4 x y r cos sin 1
2 2 2 2
x2 y2 r cos r sin
2 2
r 2 cos 2 r 2 sin 2
r 2 cos 2 sin 2
r2
u, v
4r r 2 4r 3
r ,
x y u u
Problem 9: If u yf g find x y
y x x y
x y
Solution: u yf g
y x
u x 1 y y
yf ' g ' 2
x y y x x
x y y
f ' 2 g '
y x x
u x x y 1
yf ' 2 f g'
x y y x x
x y x 1 y
f ' f g'
y x y x x
u u x y y x y x
x y xf ' xf' yf g' yf
x y y x x y x y
x y z u u u
Problem 10: If u find x y z
y z x' x y z
x y z
Solution: u
y z x
u 1 z
x y x2
u x z
x
x y x
u x 1
x y2 z
u x y
y
y y z
u y 1
z z2 x
u y z
z
z z x
u u u
x y z 0
x y z
du x
Problem 11: Find when u sin , x et , y t2
dt y
Solution:
du u dx u dy
dt x dt y dt
1 x x x
cos et 2 cos 2t
y y y y
1 t x x x
e cos 2t 2 cos
y y y y
1 x 2 xt
cos et
y y y
Problem 12: Find the Taylor’s series expansion of xy near the point (1,1) up to the first
degree terms.
Solution:
Function Value at (0,0)
f x,, y xy f 1
fx yxy1 fx 1
f y xy log x fy 0
By Taylor theorem
f x, y f a, b hfx a, b kfy a, b ..
Here a = 1, b = 1
h=x-a =x-1
k=y–b=y-1
xy = 1 + [(x - 1)(1) + (y - 1)0] +…= 1 + (x - 1) +…
Problem 13: Find the Taylor’s series expansion of ex sin y near the point 1, up to
4
the first degree terms.
Solution:
Function
Value at 1,
4
f x,, y ex sin y 1
f e1 sin e1
4 2
fx ex sin y 1
fx e1 sin e1
f y ex cos y 4 2
1
f y e1 cos e1
4 2
By Taylor theorem
1
f x, y f a, b hfx a, b kfy a, b
1!
1 2
h fxx a, b 2hk fxy a, b k2 f yy a, b ...
2!
Here a = -1, b =
4
h=x-a =x+1
k=y-b=y-
4
1
f x, y f 1, x 1 fx 1, y fy 1,
4 1! 4 4 4
1 1 1 1
e x sin y e1 x 1 e1 , y fy e1 ,
2 1! 2 4 2
y
1 1 x 1 4
2e 1! 2e 2e
x, y
Problem 14: If x u 1 v , y uvfind .
u, v
Solution:
x x
x, y u v
u , v v y
u v
x u 1 v y uv
v y
1 v v
u u
x y
u u
v v
1 v u
v u
u uv uv
u
x, y, z
Problem 15: If x + y + z = u, y + z = uv, z = unw find .
u , v, w
Solution:
x u y z u uv u1 v
y uv z uv uvw uv(1 w)
z uvw
x x x
u v w
1 v u 0
y y y
J v vw u uw uv
u v w
vw uw uv
z z z
u v w
1 v u 0
v u 0 R2 R2 R3
vw uw uv
uv u 1 v uv u2 v
LONG ANSWER
(i)
x 2 y 2 r x y
2θ 2θ
(ii) 0 (x 0, y 0)
x 2 y 2
Solution:
x = rcos θ, y = rsin θ.
x2 + y2 = r2 and tan θ = y/x
Differentiating r2 = x2 + y2 partially w.r.t x, we get
r r x
2r. 2x i.e., (1)
x x r
Differentiating r2 = x2 + y2 partially w.r.t y, we get
r r y
2r. 2y i.e., (2)
y y r
1 r r 1 x 2 y 2
2 2
2 2
r x y r r r
1 1
. 2 (x 2 y 2 )
r r
1
(3)
r
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t x, we get
2r 1 r 1
x 2 1.
x r x
2
r
x x 1
2 .
r r r
Simarly from (2), we get,
2r 1 r 1
y 2 1.
y r y
2
r
y y 1
2 .
r r r
2r 2r 1 2
2 3 (x 2 y 2 )
x 2
y r r
1 2
r r
1
(4)
r
From (3) and (4), we get,
2 r 2 r 1 r r
2 2
x 2 y 2 r x y
x
Problem 17: If z = f(x + ay) + g(x - ay) - cos(x ay) , show that
2a 2
2z 2z
a2 sin(x ay)
x 2 y 2
Solution:
Differentiating the given equation partially w.r.t x, we get,
z 1 x
f (x ay).1 g (x ay).1 2 cos(x ay) 2 sin(x ay).1
x 2a 2a
Again partially differentiating w.r.t x, we get,
2z 1 1
f (x ay) g (x ay) 2 sin(x ay) 2 sin(x ay)
x 2
2a 2a
x
2 cos(x ay)
2a
z
2
x
a 2 2 a 2 f (x ay) a 2 g (x ay) cos(x ay) sin(x ay) (1)
x 2
Similarly differentiating the given equation twice partially w.r.t y, we get
z x
f (x ay).a g (x ay).(-a) 2 sin(x ay).a
y 2a
z
2
x
f (x ay).a 2 g (x ay).(-a) 2 2 cos(x ay).a 2
y 2
2a
x
a 2 f (x ay) a 2 g (x ay) cos(x ay) (2)
2
From (1) and (2), we get,
2z 2z
a 2 2 2 sin(x ay)
x y
Problem 18: Show that
u u u x 3 y3 z3
x. y. z. 2 tan u where u sin -1
x y z ax by cz
x 3 y3 z3
Solution: We have, sin u
ax by cz
x 3 y3 z3
Let f(x, y, z) = (1)
ax by cz
t 3 x 3 t 3 y3 t 3z 3
f(tx, ty, tz) = = t2 f(x, y, z)
atx bty ctz
f(x, y, z) is a homogeneous function of degree 2.
By Euler’s theorem,
f f f
x. y. z. 2.f (2)
x y z
From (1), we have, f = sin u
f u f u f u
cos u. cos u. and cos u.
x x y y z z
Solution:
x = rcos θ
x x
cos θ rsin θ
r θ
y = rsin θ
y y
sin θ rcos θ
r θ
u u x u y
We have . .
r x r y r
u u u
i.e., .cos θ .sin θ (1)
r x y
u u x u y
Also we have . .
θ x θ y θ
u u u
i.e., .(-rsin θ) .rcos θ
θ x y
1 u u u
.sin θ .cos θ (2)
r θ x y
2 cos θ sin θ sin θ cos θ
2 2 2 2
r r θ x y
2
u u
2
x y
2
u u u 1 u
2 2 2
2
x y r r θ
Solution:
Let f(x, y) = x2y + 3y - 2
f (x, y) f(a, b) ( x a ).f x (a, b) ( y b).f y (a, b)
1
2!
( x a ) 2 ..f xx (a , b) 2( x a )( y b)..f xy (a, b) ( y b) 2 .f yy (a, b)
1
( x a ) 3 .f
xxx
(a , b) 3( x a ) 2 ( y b).f
xxy
(a , b )
(8)
3!
3( x a )(y b) 2 f ( y b) 3 .f (a , b )
xyy yyy
Putting a = 1, b = -2
f (1, -2) = 12.(-2) + 3(-2)-2 = -10
f x ( x, y) 2xy f x (1,2) 4
f xx ( x , y) 2 y f xx (1,2) 4
f y ( x , y) x 2 3 f y (1,2) 4
f yy ( x , y) 0 f yy (1,2) 0
f xy ( x, y) 2x f xy (1,2) 2
f xxx ( x , y) f yyy ( x , y) f xyy ( x, y) 0
f xxy ( x , y) 2 f xxy (1,2) 2
The partial derivatives of order 4 and higher orders are 0.
Substituting in (8) we get,
x 2 y 3y 2 - 10 (x 1).(4) ( y 2).4
1
2!
1
(x 1) 2 .(4) 2(x 1)(y 2).2 ( y 2) 2 .0 3.(x 1) 2 .(y 2).2
3!
10 4( x 1) 4( y 2) 2x 1 2.( x 1)( y 2) ( x 1) 2 .( y 2)
2
Problem 22: Find the maximum and minimum values of f(x, y) = x3 + y3 - 3axy.
Solution:
f(x, y) = x3 + y3 - 3axy
fx = 3x2 - 3ay
fy = 3y2 - 3ax
At the stationary points fx = 0 and fy = 0
i.e., 3x2 - 3ay = 0
and 3y2 - 3ax = 0
i.e., x2 = ay and y2 = ax
i.e., x4 = a2y2
i.e., x4 = a3x
i.e., x (x3 - a3) = 0
i.e., x = 0 or x = a
When x = 0, we get, y = 0 and when x = a, we get, y = a
The stationary points are (0,0) and (a, a)
Now r = fxx = 6x
s = fxy = -3a
t = fyy = 6y
rt - s = 6x.6y – (-3a)2
2
= 36xy - 9a2
(i) At (0, 0), rt - s2 = -9a2 < 0
At (0, 0), f(x, y) has neither a maximum nor a minimum.
i.e., (0, 0) is a saddle point.
(ii) At (a, a), rt - s2 = 36a2 - 9a2 = 27a2 > 0
Also at (a, a), r = 6a.
If a > 0, then r > 0 and hence f(a, a) is a minimum value.
If a < 0, then r < 0 and hence f(a, a) is a maximum value. The maximum or minimum
value at (a, a) is f(a, a) = -a3.
s = fxy = -4
t = fyy = 4 - 12y2
Stationary points are obtained by solving fx = 0 and fy = 0.
i.e., x – y - x3 = 0 (1)
and -(x - y) - y3 = 0 (2)
Adding (1) and (2) x3 + y3 = 0
i.e., (x + y)(x2 – xy + y2) = 0
x = -y or x2 – xy + y2 = 0 (Check: x2 – xy + y2 > 0, always)
Putting in (1) x = -y, we get,
-2y + y3 = 0
i.e., y(y2 - 2) = 0
i.e., y = 0, 2 , - 2
The corresponding x values are 0, 2 , 2
The stationary points are (0, 0), ( 2 , - 2 ) and (- 2 , 2 )
Now rt - s2 = (4 - 12x2) (4 - 12y2) - 16 and r = 4 - 12x2
(i) At (0, 0), rt - s2 = 16 - 16 = 0. This case needs further information.
Now f(0, 0) = 0
For points along the x-axis, where y = 0 we have f(x, y) = 2x2 - x4 = x2(2 - x2) which is
positive for points in the neighbourhood of (0, 0).
Again for points along the line y = x we have f(x, y) = -2x4 which is negative. Thus in
the neighbourhood of (0, 0) there are points where f(x, y) > f(0, 0) and there are points
where f(x, y) < f(0, 0). Hence f(0, 0) is not an extreme value.
(i) At 2 , 2 and 2 , 2
We get, rt - s2 = (4 - 24)(4 - 24) - 16 = 400 - 16 = 384.
i.e., rt - s2 > 0
Also r = 4 - 24 = -20 < 0
Hence f(x, y) has maximum values at 2 , 2 and 2 , 2
The maximum value is f 2 , 2 or f 2, 2
i.e., f 44 8
2 , 2 2 2. 2
2
2 2- 2. 2 4 4 8
2
or f 2 ,
2
p ax by
2 2
f(x, y, z) = x + y +
c
2
fx = 2x + 2 (p – ax - by)(-a)
c
2
fy = 2y + 2 (p – ax - by)(-b)
c
2a 2
r = fxx = 2 + 2
c
2ab
s = fxy = 2
c
2b 2
t = fyy = 2 + 2
c
The stationary points are obtained by solving fx = 0 and fy = 0.
i.e., c2x – a (p – ax - by) = 0 (1)
and c2y – b (p – ax - by) = 0 (2)
b×(1) – a×(2) gives bc2x – ac2y = 0
i.e., c2 (bx - ay) = 0
i.e., bx = ay
a
i.e., x= y
b
ac 2 ay
Substituting in (1) y ap a 2 aby 0
b b
c2 a2y
yp by 0
b b
y (a2 + b2 + c2) = bp
bp
y 2
a b2 c2
a ap p ax by cp
x y 2 and z 2
b a b c2 2
c a b2 c2
ap bp cp
The only stationary point is 2 , 2 , 2
a b c a b c a b c
2 2 2 2 2 2
a 2 b 2 4a 2 b 2
rt - s = 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
c c c4
4b 2 4a 2
4 2 2 0 at all points.
c c
Also r > 0 at all points.
f(x, y, z) is minimum at the stationary point and the minimum value is
2 2 2
ap bp cp
2 2
2 2
2 2
a b c a b c a b c
2 2 2
p2
a 2 b2 c2
Method 2.
We use Lagrange’s method. Let f(x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2.
φ(x, y, z) = ax + by + cz - p and F(x, y, z) = f(x, y, z) + φ(x, y, z) where is the
Lagrange multiplier.
Then F(x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2 + (ax + by + cz - p)
The stationary points are obtained by solving
Fx = 2x + a = 0 (1)
Fy = 2y + b = 0 (2)
Fz = 2z + c = 0 (3)
and F = ax + by + cz - p (4)
aλ
From (1), x
2
bλ
From (2), y
2
cλ
From (3), z
2
aλ bλ cλ
From (4), a. b. c. p
2 2 2
2p
λ 2
a b2 c2
ap bp cp
x 2 , y 2 , z 2
a b c2 2
a b c
2 2
a b2 c2
ap bp cp
The only stationary point is 2 , 2 , 2
a b c a b c a b c
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
ap bp cp
The minimum value of f (x, y, z) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a b c a b c a b c
p 2 (a 2 b 2 c 2 )
a 2
b2 c2
2
p2
a 2 b2 c2
Problem 25: If u = a3x2 + b3y2 + c3z2, where x-1 + y-1 + z-1 = 1, show that stationary
value of u is given by x
a , y b , z c
a b c
1 1 1
Let F(x, y, z) = a3x2 + b3y2 + c3z2 + λ 1
x y z
The stationary points are given by,
1
Fx = 2a3x + λ. 2 = 0 (1)
x
1
Fy = 2b3y + λ. 2 = 0 (2)
y
1
Fz = 2c3z + λ. 2 = 0 (3)
z
1 1 1
F = 1 = 0 (4)
x y z
From (1) 2a x - = 0
3 3
1
λ 3 1
i.e., x
2 a
Similarly from (2) and (3) we get,
1 1
λ 3 1 λ 3 1
y , z
2 b 2 c
substituting for x, y, z in (4) we get
1
2 3
(a b c ) 1 0
λ
1
2 3 1
i.e.,
λ a
1
λ 3
i.e., a
2
1
λ 3 1 a
x
2 a a
a a
Similarly y = and z = .
b c
a a a
Hence the stationary value of u is given by x =
,y= ,z= .
a b c
Problem 26: Find the minimum distance from the point (3, 4, 15) to the cone
x2 + y2 = 4z2.
Solution: Let (x, y, z) be any point on the cone x2 + y2 = 4z2. Then its distance from the
point (3, 4, 15) is d (x - 3) 2 ( y 4) 2 (z 15) 2 . First we find the minimum value
of d2 subject to the condition x2 + y2 = 4z2.
Let F(x, y, z) = (x - 3) 2 ( y 4) 2 (z 15) 2 + (x2 + y2- 4z2)
Solution:
x = r sin θ cos φ
x x x
sin θ cos φ, r cos θ. cos φ, r sin θ. sin φ
r θ φ
y = r sin θ sin φ
y y y
sin θ sin φ, r cos θ. sin φ, r sin θ. cos φ
r θ φ
z = r cos θ
z z z
cos θ , r sin θ, 0.
r θ φ
x x x
r θ φ
( x, y, z) y y y
(r, θ, φ) r θ φ
z z z
r θ φ
sin θ cos φ r cos θ cos φ r sin θ sin φ
sin θ sin φ r cos θ sin φ r sin θ cos φ
cos θ - r sin θ 0
= sin θ cos φ [r2sin2 θ cos φ] - r cos θ cos φ [-r sin θ cos θ cos φ] +
(-r sin θ sin φ)[-r sin2 θ sin φ – r cos2 θ sin φ]
= r2 sin3 θ cos2 φ + r2 sin3 θ sin2 φ + r2 sin θ cos2 θ cos2 φ
+ r2 sin θ cos2 θ sin2 φ
= r2 sin3 θ + r2 sin θ cos2 θ
= r2 sin θ (sin2 θ + cos2 θ)
= r2 sin θ
( x , y, z )
Problem 28: If u = x + y + z, uv = y + z, uvw = z, show that u2v
(u , v, w )
1- v -u 0
( x , y, z )
v(1 - w) u(1 - w) uv
(u , v, w )
vw wu uv
= (1 - v) [u2v (1 - w) + u2vw] + u [uv2(1 - w) + uv2w]
= (1 - v) (u2v) + u2v2
= u2v
xy
Problem 29: Examine the functional dependence of the functions u and
xy
xy
v . If they are dependent, find the relation between them.
( x y) 2
xy
Solution: u
xy
u ( x y) ( x y) 2y
x ( x y) 2
( x y) 2
u ( x y) ( x y) 2x
y ( x y) 2
( x y) 2
xy
v
( x y) 2
v ( x y) 2 .y xy.2.( x y) y( x y)
x ( x y) 4 ( x y) 3
v ( x y) 2 .x xy.2( x y)
y ( x y) 4
x ( x y)
( x y) 3
2y 2x
u u
(u, v) x y ( x y) 2 ( x y) 2
v v
(x, y) y( x y) x ( x y)
x y
( x y) 3 ( x y) 3
=0
u and v are functionally dependent.
( x y) 2 4 xy
Now u 2 4 v
( x y) 2
( x y) 2
( x y) 2 4xy
( x y) 2
( x y) 2
( x y) 2
=1
The relation between u and v is u2 - 4v = 1.
Solution: f1= x + y + z
f 1 f f
1, 1 1, 1 1
x y z
2 2 2
f2 = x + y + z
f 2 f f
2 x, 2 2 y, 2 2z
x y z
f3 = xy + yz + zx
f 3 f f
y z, 3 z x , 3 x y
x y z
1 1 1
(f1 , f 2 , f 3 )
Hence, 2x 2y 2z
( x , y, z )
yz zx xy
1 0 0
2 x 2 y 2 x 2z 2 x Subtracting column1 from
yz xy xz column 2 and column 3
= 2(y - x)(x - z) - 2(x - y)(z - x)
=0
The functions f1, f2 and f3 are functionally dependent.
f 12 (x y z) 2
= x2 + y2 + z2 + 2(xy + yz + zx)
= f2 + 2f3
i.e., f 1 - f 2 - 2f 3 0 is the relation between f1, f2 and f3.
2
UNIT - V
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Definitions:
Proper Integral:
An Integral which has neither limit infinite and from which the
integrand does not approach infinity at any point in the range of
integration.
Improper Integral:
An improper integral is a definite integral that has either or both
limits infinite or an integrand that approaches infinity at one or more
points in the range of integration.
Definite Integral:
An integral that is calculated between two specified limits, usually
Examples:
1. Find
Solution:
2. Find
Solution:
Bernoulli’s Formula:
Example:
1. Find
Solution:
By Bernoulli’s formula,
Find
Solution:
Consider
Put
Put
Reduction Formula:
A formula which expresses (or reduces) the integral of the nth
Indexed function in terms of that of (n-1)th
Indexed (or lower indexed) function is called a reduction formula.
SHORT ANSWER
Problem 1: Write down the double integral, to find the area between the circles
r 2sin and r 4sin
Solution: r 2sin is the circle with diameter 2.
r 4sin is the circle with diameter 4.
Initial line is the diameter and pole lies on circle.
Thus the required integral is
4sin
I r dr d
0 2sin
4sin
r2
2 d
0 2sin
16sin 2 4sin 2
d
0
2 2
6sin 2 d
0
1 cos 2
6 d
0
2
3 1 cos 2 d
0
sin 2
3
2 0
3 0 0 0
3
1 x
Problem 2: Evaluate xy x y dx dy
0 x
Solution:
1 x
xy x y dx dy
0 x
1 x
0 x
xy x y dy dx
1 x
x y xy2 dy dx
2
0 x
y 4
y2 xy3
1
x2
3 y x
dx
0
2
1
x x3/ 2 2 x2 x3
x2 x
x x dx
0 2 3 2 3
x3 x5 / 2 x4 x4
1
dx
0
2 3 2 3
1
x3 x5/ 2 5 4
x dx
0
2 3 6
1
x4 x7/2
5 x 5
8 7 3 6 5
2 0
1 2 1
0 0 0
8 21 6
3
56
Problem 3: Evaluate x2 dy y2 dx where C is the path y=x from (0,0) to (1,1)
c
x dy y dx
2 2
Solution: Given:
c
Here y = x
i.e., dy = dx
x2 dx x2 dx
c
2 x2 dx
c
1
2 x2 dx
0
1
2 x3
2 0
2
0
3
2
3
/ 2 cos
Problem 4: Evaluate
0 0
r 2 dr d
/ 2 cos
Solution: Let I
0 0
r 2 dr d
/2 r cos
r3
0
3
r 0
d
/2
cos
0
3
0 d
/2
1
cos d
3
3 0
1 2 2
3 3 9
a a
Problem 5: Change the order of integration of f x, y dx dy.
0 y
x y2 dx dy
2
Solution:
0 1
x 2
x3
1
xy2 dy
0 3 x1
8 1
1
2 y2 y2 dy
0 3
3
8
1
1
2 y2 y2 dy
0 3 3
7
1
y2 dy
0
3
1
7 y3
y
3 3 0
BIET 127
137 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
MA 6151 MATHEMATICS-I
Multiple Integrals 5
7 1 8
0 0
3 3 3
a a
x y2 dy dx.
2
Problem 7: Change the order of integration in
0 x
x y
2
Problem 8: Evaluate dx dy
4 1
3 2
x y
2
Solution: Given: I = dx dy
4 1
x 2
3 x y 1
dy
4
1 x1
3 2 y 1 1 y 1
dy
4
1 1
3
2 y 1 y dy
1 1
4
3
1 1
2 y 1 y
dy
4
log 2 y log 1 y 4
3
3
1 y 4 5
log log log
2 y 4 5 6
4
5 4 6
log log log
24
5 5 5 25
6
a b
dx dy
Problem 9: Evaluate
2 2
xy
x b
dx dy
a ba
1
Solution: Let I = = log x dy
2 x a
2 2
xy y
1 1 x
Problem 10: Evaluate
0 0
y dy dx
1 1 x y 1 x
y2 1
Solution: Let I = 0 0
y dy dx
0
2 y0
dx
1 1 x2 1
1 x
2
0 dx dx
0
2 0
2
1
1 1 x
1 3
1
1 x dx 1
2
20 2 3 0
1 1
1 x 0 1
3 1
6 0 6
1
6
cos
Problem 11: Evaluate
0 0
rdr d
cos r cos
r2
Solution: Let I rdr d d
0 0 0 2 r 0
cos
0 d
0
2
cos 2
d cos cos 2
2
2
0
1
20 cos 2 d
1 1 cos 2 1 cos 2
d cos 2 u
20 2 2
1
1 cos 2 d
4 0
1 sin 2
cos d sin
2 0
4
1 sin 2 0
0
4 2 2
1
0
4 4
cos
rdr d
0 0
4
x2 y2 dx dy .
Problem 12: By changing into polar coordinates show that e
0 0
4
Hence evaluate e t dt .
2
x r cos , y r sin , dx dy r d dr
/2
e r dr d
r 2
I
0 0
/2 /2
d r 2 d
1 1 r 2
e d x
r
2
e
0 0
2 0
2
0
/2 /2
1 e r d 1
0 1 d
2
2 0 2
0 0
/2
1 1 1
d 2
/2
0
2 0
0
22 4
Let I e x dx
2
(1)
0
also I e y dy
2
(2)
0
Multiply (1) and (2) we have
x2 y2
I e
2
dx dy
0 0
4
I2 ; I ; I
4 4 2
e
t 2
i.e., dt
0
2
1 1 x x y
e
z
Problem 13: Evaluate: dx dy dz
0 0 0
1 1 x x y
Solution: Let I = e
z
dx dy dz
0 0 0
1 1 x x y
e
z
dx dy dz [ Correct form ]
0 0 0
1 1 x 1 1 x
x y
e z dy dx e
x y
e0 dy dx
0
0 0 0 0
1 1 x 1
y 1 x
e x y 1 dy dx ex e y y dx
y0
0 0 0
1 1
e x e1 x 1 x e x dx e1 1 x ex dx
0 0
1
1
x2
e 1 x e dx ex x ex
x
0 2 0
1 1 1
e 1 e 0 0 0 1 1
2 2 2
I dz dy dx
0 0 0
x
2
Problem 1. Evaluate dx dy where R is the region in the first quadrant bounded
R
by the hyperbola xy = 16 and the lines y = x, y = 0 and x = 8.
Solution:
The hyperbola xy = 16 and the line y = x intersect at (4, 4). The hyperbola and the line
x = 8 intersect at (8, 2). (Fig. 1)
Divide the region R into two subregions R1 and R2 where R1 denotes the part of R lying
above the line y = 2 and R2, the part below that line.
Y
y=x
xy = 16
(4, 4)
R1 (8, 2) y=2
R2
O 8 X
Fig. 1
x dx dy x dx dy x dx dy
2 2 2
R R1 R2
y
4
16
2 8
x dx dy x 2 dx dy
2
y y
2
0
16 8
x3 y
4 2
x3
dy dy
2
3 y 0
3 y
1 16 3 3
4 2
1
3 2 y 3
y
dy
30 8 3 y 3 dy
4 2
1 y 2 y 4 1 3 y4
16 3 8 .y
3 2 4 2 3 4 0
1 1
(324) (1020) = 108 + 340 = 448
3 3
r 2sin 1
r 4sin 2
(1) is a circle with center (0,1)and radius 1
(2) is a circle with center (0,2) and radius 2
The shaded area between these circles is the region of integration. If we integrate first
w.r.t r, then its limits are from P(r = 2 sin ) to Q(r = 4 sin ) and in order to cover the
whole region should vary from 0 to .Thus the required integral is
4sin
I r 3dr d
0 2sin
4 sin
r4
d
0
4 2sin
64sin 4 4sin 4 d
0
60sin 4 d
0
60 sin 4 d
0
2
120 sin 4 d
0
3 1
120 . . 45 .
4 2 2 2
Y
Fig. 2
Problem 3. Evaluate
R
x 2 y 2 dx dy where R is the region in the xy-plane
bounded by x + y = 4 and x2 + y2 = 9.
2 2
Solution:
Let I x 2 y 2 dx dy
R
We shall evaluate this by transforming it to polar coordinates by substituting x = r cos ,
y = r sin and dx dy = r dr d. Then x 2 y2 r
O
X
2
Fig. 3
2 3
I r.r.dr.d r 2 dr d
R 0 r 2
2 3
r3
d
0
3 2
2
19
3 0
d
19 38
2
3 3
xy( x y) 2
Problem 4. Evaluate 2 dx dy taken over the sector in the first quadrant
x y2
bounded by the straight lines y = 0, y = x and the circle x2 + y2 = 1.
Solution:
Transform the integral into polar coordinates by substituting
x = r cos , y = r sin . Then dx dy = r dr d, and
xy( x y) 2
r cos r sin (r cos r sin ) 2
r 2 cos sin (1 sin 2)
x 2 y2 r2
The limits of integration are o ≤ ≤ 4 and 0 ≤ r ≤ 1(Fig. 4)
Y
y=x
X
O 1
Fig. 4
41
I r cos sin (1 sin 2) rdr d
2
0 0
41
r sin cos (1 sin 2) dr d
3
0 0
4
2 2 x x2
xdxdy
Problem 5. By changing into polar coordinates, evaluate
0 0
x2 y2
2 2 x x2
x
Soln: Let I =
0 0
x y2
2
dy dx .
y2 2 x x2 x2 y2 2 x 0.
Now the polar equation of the circle is
r cos r sin 2r cos 0 .
2 2
x r cos
ie r 2 cos y r sin
dxdy rdrd
Now
r : 0 2 cos ie : : 0
2
2 2 cos
rcos
I rcos r sin
2 2
rdrd
0 0
2 2 cos
r 2cos
drd
0 0
r2
2 2 cos
cos drd
0 0
2
cos r 0
2 cos
d
0
2 0
1 cos 2
2cos 2 d 2 d
0 0
2
2
2
sin 2
1 cos2 d
0
.
2 0 2
4 a 2 ax
Problem 6. Change the order of integration and hence evaluate
o 2
xy dy dx
x
4a
4 a 2 ax
Solution: Let I =
o 2
xy dy dx
x
4a
x2
The limits for y varies from y to y 2 ax and the limits for x varies from x = 0 to
4a
x = 4a. The region of integration is enclosed between the curves (parabolas) x2 = 4ay and
y2 = 4ax and the lines x = 0 and x = 4a. The two parabolas intersect at (0, 0) and (4a, 4a).
To change the order of integration, first integrate w.r.t x and then w.r.t y. Since first
integration is w.r.t x, we consider a horizontal strip. The limits for x varies from x = y2/4a
to x 2 ay and then y varies from y = 0 to y = 4a.
Y
2
x = 4ay
X
O
y2 = 4ax
Fig. 5
Hence,
2 ay
4 a 2 ay
x2
4a
I= xy dx dy = . y dy
o
o y2
2 y2
4a
4a
4a
4ay y4
= o 2 . y 2
32a
. y dy
4a
y3 1 y6
= 2a .
3 32a 2 6 0
64a 3 1 (4a )6
= 2a .
3 32a 2 6
128a 4 64a 4
=
3 3
4
64a
=
3
a 2a x
Problem 7. Change the order of integration in
o 2
xy dy dx and hence evaluate it
x
a
x2 ay Y
0, 2a
I2
(a,a)
I1 X
O 2a , 0
x a
Fig. 6
a ay
1 xy dx dy
0 0
ay
a
x2
y dy
0
2 0
a
ay 2
dy
0
2
a
ay 3 a4
6 0 6
2a 2a y
2
a 0
xy dx dy
2a y
2a
yx2
dy
a 2 0
2a
y
2a y dy
a
2
2a
y
4a 2
y 2 4ay
dy
a
2
2a
1
2
4a 2 y y3 4 ay2 dy
a
2a
1 4a 2 y 2 y4 4 ay3
2 2 4 3 a
1 16a 4 16a 4 32a 4 4a 4 a 4 4a 4
2 2 4 3 2 4 3
1 96a 4 48a 4 128a 4 24a 4 3a 4 16a 4
2 12 12
16a 4 11a 4 5a 4
24 24 24
a 4 5a 4
I
6 24
9a 4 3a 4
.
24 8
3 4 y
Soln:
The region of integration is bounded by y 0, y 3, x 1 and x 4 y
Y
(0,4)
(1,3) y =3
(2,0) X
O
x2 = 4-y
x =1
Fig. 7
x 4 y,
x2 4 y
x2 y 4
This is a parabola with vertex at (0,4)
Also when y 0, x 2
(2, 0) and (-2, 0) are the points of interaction with x-axis
When y 3, x2 4 3 1 i. e, x 1 . Now changing the order of integration we have,
2 4 x2
I
1
x y dy dx
0
4 x2
2
y2
xy dx
1
2 0
2
(4 x2 ) 2
x 4 x2 dx
1 2
2
4 x x3 16 x4 8 x2 dx
1
1
2
2
1
2 1
8x 2 x3 16 x4 8 x2 dx
2
1 8 x2 2 x4 x5 x3
16 x 8
2 2 4 5 3 1
1 32 64 8 1 1 8
16 8 32 16
2 5 3 2 2 5 2
1 31 56 7
40 16
2 5 3 2
1 31 56 7 241
24 .
2 5 3 2 60
(0, 2)
x = 1-y22 x = 4-y2
1 4 X
(0, -2)
Fig. 8
The parabolas meet the x-axis at x = 1 and x = 4. Both the parabolas meet the y-axis at
the points (0, 2) and (0, -2). The region R is symmetric about the x-axis. (Fig 8)
4 y 2
2
A 2 dx dy
0 1 y 2 4
2
2 4 y 2 1 y2 dy
4
0
2 2
2 3 3 y4 dy 6 y 12
y3
2
6 2 12
8 = 8 square units.
0
0
Problem 10. Find the area outside the circle r = 2 and inside the cardioid
r = 2(1 + cos).
Solution:
Y
(0, 2)
O X
(2, 0) (4, 0)
(0, -2)
Fig. 9
Let R be the region outside the circle and inside the cardioid. Then R is symmetric about
the x-axis (Fig. 9)
The required area A 2 rdrd
R
2 2 (1 cos )
2 2 d
r.dr
0
2(1 cos )
r2
2
2 d
0
2 2
2
4(1 cos ) 2 4 d
0
2
4 2 cos cos 2 d
0
2
1 cos 2
4 2 cos d
0
2
/2
sin 2
4 2sin / 2 4 2 = 8 + sq. units.
4 0 4
Problem 11. Find the area of the region bounded by the lemniscate r2 = a2cos 2.
Solution:
Area of a region R in the xy - plane is given by I dxdy
R
3 4 4
x a cos 2
X
a
O
Fig. 10
4 a cos 2
4. rdr d
0
r 0
a cos 2
4
r2
4. d
0
2 0
4
2. a 2 cos 2 d
0
a 2 sin 2
0
4
= a2 square units.
a x xy
e
x y z
Problem 12. Evaluate dz dy dx
0 0 0
Solution:
a x x y a x x y
0 0 0
e x y zdz dy dx e x y zdz dy dx
0 0 0
a
x xy
e x y z dy dx
0
0 0
x
a
e x y x y e x y dy dx
0 0
x
2( x y) 1
a
e . e x y dx
0 2 0
1
a
1
e 4 x e 2 x e 2 x e x dx
0
2 2
1
a
3
e 4 x e 2 x e x dx
0
2 2
a
e 4 x 3e 2 x
a
e x dx
0 0
8 4
4a 2a
e 3e 1 3
ea 1
8 4 8 4
4a 2a
e 3e 3
ea
8 4 8
1 1 x ( x y)
2
1 1 x ( x y)
2
Solution: Let I =
0 0 0
x dz dy dx
1 1 x 1 1 x
xz
z ( x y) 2
Then I = z 0
dy dx = x( x y)
2
0 dy dx
0 0 0 0
1 1 x
x xy2 2 x2 y dy dx
3
=
0 0
y 1 x
1
xy3 y2
= x3 y 2 x2 dx
0
3 2 y 0
1
x(1 x)3
= x3 (1 x) x2 (1 x) 2 dx
0
3
1
1
3 x x dx
4
=
0
1
1 x5 x2 1 1 1 1
= =
3 5 2 0 3 5 2 10
2 dz dx dy
a a 2 x2 0
a a 2 x 2
2 z
a 2 x 2 y2
0 dx dy
a a x 2 2
a a 2 x 2
2 a 2 x 2 y2 dy dx
a 2
a x 2
a b
V 2 b2 y2 dy dx
a b
4
a b
b 2 y2 dy dx
a 0
b
y 2
a b2 y
4 b y2 sin 1 dx
a 2
2 b 0
a
b2
4 sin 1 1 0 dx
a
2
a
2 b2 dx
a
2
a
a x 2 dx
2
a
a
x3
2 a 2 x
3 0
a3
2 a 3
3
a 3 4 a 3
2 .2 square units.
3 3
Problem 15. Find volume bounded by the cylinder x2 y2 4 and the planes
y z 4 and z 0
Soln: Here
z var ies from 0 to 4 y
y varies from 4 x2 to 4 x2
x varies from 2 to 2
Hence the required volume is given by
2 4 x2 4 y
V
2 4 x2 0
dz dy dx
2 4 x2
z
4 y
0
dy dx
2 4 x2
2 4 x2
4 y dy dx
2 4 x2
4 x2
2
y2
4 y dx
2
2 4 x2
2
4 x2 4 x2
4 4 x2
4 4 x2
dx
2
2 2
2
4 4 x2 4 x2 4 4 x2 4 x2 dx
1 1
2
2 2
2
8
2
4 x2 dx
2
8 4 x2 dx
2
2
16 4 x2 dx
0
2
4 x x
16 sin 1 4 x2
2 2 2 0
2
16 0 0 16 square units.
2
PART – A
1. If 1 , 2 , 3 ……… n are the eigen values of an n n matrix A, then show that
13 , 2 3 , 3 3 , ………. n 3 are the eigen values of A3 .
Solution: Let X r be the eigen vector for the eigen value r . Then AX r r X r …. 1
A3 X r r X r ---------(2)
3
Similarly
From (2) 3 is the eigen value of A3 .
2. Prove that every square matrix and its transpose have the same eigen values.
Since A I AT I , the characteristics equations of A and AT are same. Hence the eigen
3. If 1 2 ,........, n are the eigen values of the matrix A then show that A-1 has the eigen values
1 2 n
1 1 1
, ,......... .
BIET 146
1 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
Pre multiplying both sides of (1) by A-1, we get
MA 6151 MATHEMATICS - I
A1 ( AX ) A1 ( X )
A AX A X
1 1
IX A1 X
X A1 X X A1 X
1
A1 X
1
X -------------(2)
is an eigen value of A 1 .
1
Comparing (1) and (2), we have
2 2 1
4. Two eigen values of the matrix A 1 3 1 are equal to 1 each. Find the eigen values of A 1 .
1 2 2
Solution: Let the third eigen value be .
1 + 1 + = 2 + 3 +2
2 + 7 5.
6 2 2
5. The product of two eigen values of the matrix A 2 3 1 is 16. Find the third eigen value.
2 1 3
Solution: Given 1 .2 16
12 3 A
6 2 2
163 2 3 1 6 9 1 2 6 2 2 2 6 32
2 1 3
1 1 1
The product of the eigen values = Determinant of the matrix 1 2 2 1.
1 2 3
3 5 3
7. Find the eigen values of adj A, if A 0 4 6 .
0 0 1
Solution: Since A is the upper triangular matrix, the eigen values of A are 3,4,1.
6 2 2
8. Find the matrix whose eigen values are the eigen values of A 2 3 1 reduced by 4.
2 1 3
Solution: We know that the matrix A – KI has the eigen values 1 K , 2 K ,........, n K .
6 2 2
Here A 2 3 1 and K = 4.
2 1 3
2 2 2
So the matrix is 2 1 1 .
2 1 1
3 1
Given A
1 5
3 1 0
1 5 0 0
On simplifying, we get 2 8 14 0
A2 8 A 14I 0
10 8 24 8
A2 8 40 .
8 26
, 8 A
10 8 24 8 14 0
A2 8 A 14I
8 26 8 40 0 14
=0
1 2
11. Given A , find A using Cayley – Hamilton theorem.
1
4 3
Solution: The characteristic equation is A I 0
1 3 8 0 2 - 4 - 5 = 0
A2 4 A 5I 0
A 4 I 5 A1 0
5 A1 A 4 I
1 2 4 0 3 2 1 3 2
5 A1 A
1
4 3 0 4 4 1 5 4 1
D1 1 1 0
D2 5 0
1 2
2 1
1 23
D3 2 1 1 0. The quadratic from is indefinite.
3 14
D1 1 1 0, D2 20
10
02
15. Find the nature of the conic 8x 2 4 xy 5 y 2 36, by reducing the quadratic form 8x 2 4 xy 5 y 2 to
the form Ax 2 By 2 . (Equations of transformations are not needed).
8 2
The matrix A of the quadratic form is A
2 5
PART –B
2 2 2
16. Find the eigen values and eigenvectors of the matrix A 1 1 1 .
1 3 1
4 0
The eigenvalues are –2, 2, 2. The eigenvectors are X 1 1 & X 2 X 3 1
7 1
Ans:
2 2 1
17. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of 1 3 1
1 2 2
1 2 1
The eigenvectors are 1 , 1 , 0
1 0 1
Ans: The eigenvalues are 5, 1, 1.
2 1 2
18. Verify that the matrix A 1 2 1 satisfies its characteristic equation and hence find
1 1 2
A4 .
124 123 162
Ans: A 95
4
96 123
95 95 124
1 3
1 1 compute the value of
0
19. Given that A 2
1 1 1
A
5 A5 8 A4 2 A3 9 A2 31A 36I using Cayley – Hamilton theorem.
Ans: A 5 A 8 A 2 A 9 A 31A 36I 0
6
6 5 4 3 2
1 2 2
20. Verify Cayley – Hamilton Theorem and hence find A if A 1 3 0 .
1
0 2 1
3 2 6
Ans: The Characteristic equation is 5 9 1 0 & A 1 1 2
1
2 2 5
3 2
BIET 151 6 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
2 1 1
MA 6151 MATHEMATICS - I
21. Find the characteristic equation of A 0 1 0 and hence express the matrix A in
1 1 2
5
2
terms A , A & I .
Ans: The characteristic equation is 3 5 2 7 3 0 & A5 58 A2 111A 54I .
6 2 2
22. Diagonalise A 2 3 1 by an orthogonal transformation.
2 1 3
2 0 1 8 0 0
Ans: The eigen values are 8, 2, 2 The eigen vectors are 1 , 1 , 1 & D 0 2 0
1 1 1 0 0 2
2 1 1
23. Diagonalise the matrix A 1 1 2 by means of an orthogonal transformation.
1 2 1
0 2 1 1 0 0
Ans: The eigen values are –1,1,4. The eigen vectors are 1 1 1 & D 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 4
24. Reduce 2 x1 x2 2 x3 x2 2 x3 x1 to canonical form by an orthogonal reduction and hence find its nature.
0 1 1
Ans: The matrix A 1 0 1
1 1 0
The canonical form is 2y12 y2 2 y32 . Nature of the quadratic form is Indefinite.
25. Reduce the quadratic form 8x2 7 y 2 3z 2 12 xy 8zy 4 xz to the canonical form through an
8 6 2
orthogonal transformation and hence show that it is Positive Semi definite.
Ans: The matrix is A 6 7 4
2 4 3
1 2 2
The eigen values are 0, 3, 15. The eigen vectors are 2 1 2
2 2 1
PART – A
1. State the Condition for the stationary point a, b of f x, y to be (i) a maximum point (ii) a minimum
point
Solution: (i) Condition for Maximum Point:
2 f 2 f 2 f 2 f
At (a, b), 2 2 0 and 2 0.
2
x y xy x
2 f 2 f 2 f 2 f
At (a, b), 2 2
2 0.
2
x y xy x
0 and
f f
2 x 6, 2y
x y
f
0 2 x 6 0 x 3
x
Let
f
0 2y 0 y 0
y
Let
2 f 2 f 2 f
2, 2 & 0
x 2 y 2 xy
2 f 2 f 2 f 2 f
Now 2 2
2 0
2
x y xy x
4 0 4 0 and
f
0 2x 2 0 x3 1 x 1
2
x x
BIET 152 8 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
MA 6151 f 0 2y
2
0 y 3 1 y 1 . The extreme point is (1, 1)
y
MATHEMATICS - I
2
y
4. Find the nature of the stationary point (1, 1) of the function f x, y if f xx 6 xy3 , f xy 9 x 2 y 2 and
f yy 6 x3 y.
Solution: At 1,1 , f xx 6, f xy 9, f yy 6
6 6 9
Let f xx f yy f xy
2 2
= 36 - 81 = - 45 < 0
5. Given f xx 6 x, f xy 0, f yy 6 y, find the nature of the stationary point (1, 2)of the function f x, y .
Solution:
At (1, 2), f xx 6, f xy 0, f yy 12
6. A flat circular plate is heated so that the temperature at any point x, y is u ( x, y) x 2 2 y 2 x. Find
Solution: u x 2 2 y 2 x
the coldest point on the plate.
ux 2 x 1, u y 4 y
r uxx 2, s uxy 0, t u yy 4
Put ux 0, u y 0
2x 1 0 x
1
2
4y 0 y 0
1
The stationary point is , 0
2
At 1 ,0 , rt s 2 8 0 and r 2 0
2
1 , 0 is a minimum point.
2
x, y
7. If x r cos , y r sin then find
r ,
.
r
x y
cos sin
r r
x y
r sin r cos
x, y
r cos 2 r sin 2 r cos2 sin 2 r 1 r
cos r sin
r , sin r cos
r ,
8. If x r cos , y r sin , then prove that
x, y
1
r
r r
r , x y
x, y
Solution: WKT
x y
r 2 x2 y 2 r x2 y 2
r r x r r y
2x 2y
x x r y y r
2r & 2r
y
And tan tan 1
y
x x
y 1
2
1 1
x y x y y x
1 1
2 2
x x
y
2 2
x
x x y 2 y x y 2
u , v x, y
9. State any two Properties of Jocobians.
1
x, y u, v
Solution :(i) If u and v are Functions of x and y, then
u, v u, v r, s
(ii) If u and v are the functions of r and s, where r and s are functions of x and y then
x, y r , s x, y
.
u, v
10. If u 2 xy, v x 2 y 2 , x r cos and y r sin , find
r ,
.
u, v u , v x, y
r , x, y r ,
Solution: (By Property)
u u x x
x y r cos r sin
2y 2x
v v y y 2y sin r cos
2x
x y r
4 y 2 4 x 2 r cos2 r sin 2 4 x 2 y 2 .r 1 4.r 2 .r 4r 3
( x, y )
11. If u , v , find
y2 x2
(u, v)
.
x y
y2 2 y
u, v
J 1 4 3
x, y
x2 x
x2
Solution:
2x
y y2
( x, y) 1
(u, v) 3
(u, v)
( x, y )
Solution: To find .
(1 xy).1 ( x y).( y) 1 y 2
ux
(1 xy)2 (1 xy)2
(1 xy).1 ( x y).( x) 1 x2
uy
(1 xy)2 (1 xy)2
vx , vy
1 1
1 x 2
1 y2
1 y2 1 x2
(u, v) u x u y (1 xy ) 2 (1 xy ) 2
0
1 1
( x, y ) v x vy 1 1 (1 xy) (1 xy)2
2
1 x2 1 y2
13. Find the Ta lor’s series e pansion of x y near the point (1,1) up to the first degree terms.
f ( x, y ) x y f (1, 1) 1
f x y x y 1 f x (1, 1) 1
f y x y log x f y (1, 1) 0
x y 1 ( x 1) ...
1
1!
f 2y x
q 2 . 2y
1 1 1
y x y 1 ( )2 x x2 y 2
2
.( )
y
x
2x y y 2x
2 y x 2 y x
dy p
dx q
u u u
15. If u , find x y z .
x y z
y z x x y z
Solution: Replace x, y, z by kx, ky, kz in u.
x y z
u k0 u is a homogeneous function of degree n 0
kx ky kz
ky kz kx y z x
u u u
y z n.u 0.u 0.
x y z
B Euler s theore x
__________________________________________________________________________________
PART – B
x y u u
1. If u cos 1 , prove that x y cot u.
1
x y x y
2
2. Given the transformation u e x cos y and v e x sin y and that 0 is a function of u and v and also of x
2 0 2 0
2 0
2 0
u v 2 2 .
2
x 2 y 2 u v
2
and y prove that
3. If where prove that
2 z 2 z 2 z 2 z
2 2
x 2 y 2 u v
2 2
sinh x sin y
, if u x3 y 2 x2 y3 , where x at 2 , y 2at .
du
4. Find
8a5t 6 4t 7
dt
du
Ans:
h 2 ab
dt
5. If ax 2 2hxy by 2 1, show that
dx 2 hx by 3
d2y
Ans: f x, y y xy ...
y2
yx
2
Ans: f x, y y x x 1 y 1 ...
1 1 2 2
4 2 4
u , v, w
relationship between u, v & w and if so, find it.
y1 , y2 , y3
x1 x2 x3
4.
x1 , x2 , x3
Ans:
11. Examine if the following functions are functionally dependent. If they are, find also the functional
u sin 1 x sin 1 y ; v x 1 y 2 y 1 x 2 .
u, v
relationship.
2, 2 & 2, 2 are the minimum points. At (0,0), further investigation is needed.
14. In a triangle ABC, find the maximum value cos A cos B cos C Ans: Maximum value = 1
8
15. Find the maximum and minimum values of sin x sin y sin( x y ), 0 x, y
2
,
3 3 3 3
Ans: .
2 2
BIET 158 14 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
Ans: ( x 4, y 4& z 2 )
MA16. A rectangular box open at the top is to have volume of 32 cubic ft. Find the dimensions
6151 of the box - I
MATHEMATICS
requiring least material for its construction.
17. Find the volume of the largest rectangular parallelepiped that can be inscribed in the ellipsoid.
m n p
m n p
a m n p
m n p
19. Find the shortest and the longest distance from the point (1,2,-1) to the sphere x 2 y 2 z 2 24, using
Lagra ge s ethod of co strai ed a i a a d i i a. Ans:
6, 54
20. The temperature T at any point (x, y, z) in space is T = 400 x y z 2 . Find the highest temperature on the
surface of the unit sphere x 2 y 2 z 2 1
Ans: 50.
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS
PART – A
a b
dxdy
1) Evaluate .
1 1
xy
Solution:
dydx .
2 x2
2) Evaluate
1 x
dydx y dx 2 dx 2(2 1) 6 .
2 x2 2 x2 2
Solution:
1 x 1 x 1
( x y)dxdy .
a b
3) Evaluate
0 0
Solution:
x2 b2
x y dxdy xy dy by dy
a b a b a
0 0 0
0 0
2 2
b2 y y2
b
a
2 2 0
( a b)
ab 2 a 2b ab
2 2 2
a a2 x2
4) Evaluate dxdy .
0 0
Solution:
dxdy dydx y dx a 2 x 2 dx
a a2 x2 a a2 x2 a a2 x2 a
x a
0 0 0 0 0 0
x
0
a 2 x 2 sin 1
a
a2 2
2 2 a 0 4
r
5
5) Evaluate 4
sin drd .
0 0
BIET 160
1 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
MA 6151 MATHEMATICS - I
r5
Solution: 0 5 sin d
5
5
4
r sin drd
0 0 0
dydx .
1 1
6) Change the order of integration in
0 x
dydx
1 1
Solution:
0 x
dydx dxdy .
1 1 1 y
0 x 0 0
Solution:
y2
ydxdy ydydx
a a2 x2 a a2 x2
0
2 0
dx
0 0
y2 2 x3
dx (a 2 x 2 )dx
a2 x2
a a a
0
2 0 0 3 0
a x
a3 a3
a3
3 3
e
4 x2 y
x
9) Evaluate dydx .
0 0
4
Solution: e x dydx 0 xe x dx
y x2
2
4 x y x 4
e
0
x
dx
x 0
0 0
1
xe dx xdx xe e dx
x2
4 4 4 4
x 4
2 0
x x
4e4 e4 1 8 3e4 7
0
0 0 0
a cos
10) Evaluate r sin drd .
0 0
Solution:
BIET 162
161 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
3
MA 6151 MATHEMATICS - I
r2
r sin drd sin d cos 2 sin d
a cos a cos
a2
2 0 2 0
cos 3
0 0 0
cos d cos
a2 2 a2
2 0
2 3 0
1 1
a2 a2
6 3
r drd .
4sin
3
11) Evaluate
0 2sin
Solution:
r4
0 2sin r drd 0 4 d 600 sin d
4sin 4sin
3 4
2sin
2a
a
0
f ( x ) dx 2 f ( x) dx
3 1 45
120 sin 4 d
120 if f (2a x) f ( x)
2 0
2 a cos
12) Evaluate r a 2 r 2 drd .
0 0
2 a cos 2 a cos 2 a cos
r a r drd 2r a r drd a 2 r 2 d (r 2 )d
12 2 2 12
Solution:
0 0
2 0 0
2 0 0
a2 r 2 32
a cos
a sin a 3 d
2 0
1 1 2 3 3
d
2
0
3 3 0
2
a 3 2 a 3 a 3 2 a 3
0
a 3
d 3 4
3 3 3 2 3 2 3 18
2
3 a3 2
sin d
3 3 0
2 2 16 r
rdzdrd .
2
13) Evaluate
0 0 0
Solution:
r z0 r
2 2 16 r
rdzdrd drd 16 r 2 drd
16 r 2
2
2 2 2 2
1 2 16 r
2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1
d 24 3 64 0 2
3 2
2
2 0
0
3 3
2
32 12 3
3
(4 z y)dzdydx .
1 1 1
14) Evaluate
0 0 0
Solution:
z2
4 yz dydx (2 y )dydx
1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0
2 0 0
y2
2 y dx x0
1 1
3 1 3
0
2 0 2 2
xy z
2 3 2
2
15) Evaluate dzdydx .
0 1 1
Solution:
x y z
0 1 1 0 1 1
2 2 3 3 2 2
2 0 3 1 2 1
2
26 3
3 2
26
PART – B
a a a2 y 2
1 2 x
xydydx . 3
2. Change the order of integration in Ans:
0 x2 8
y
y2
ye x
dxdy 1
3. Change the order of integration in . Ans:
0 0 2
1 2 y
xydydx . 1 5 1
4. Change the order of integration in Ans:
0 y 8 24 3
5. Using double integration find the area of enclosed by the curves y 2 x and y 4 x .
2 2 2
Ans:
3
Ans: 8
2 52
2 3 5 5log 3
3 1 xy
25
10. Evaluate xydzdydx Ans:
1 1 0
x
1 1 x x y
2
xdzdydx 1
11. Evaluate Ans:
0 0 0 10
x x y
b1 c 1
a a a b
a 3c 2b
12. Evaluate x 2 z dzdydx Ans:
0 0 0
360
x
2 ax x 2
3 a 4
y 2 dydx .
2a
2
13. By changing into polar coordinates, evaluate Ans:
0 0
4
e
dxdy
x2 y 2
14. By changing into polar coordinates show that .
0 0
4
2 2 x x2
xdxdy
x2 y 2
15. By changing into polar coordinates evaluate . Ans:
0 0 2
VECTOR CALCULUS
PART – A
1. Find the directional derivative of xy yz zx at the point (1, 2, 3) along the x-axis.
Solution: Unit normal vector n̂ along x-axis is i .
( xy yz zx) j ( xy yz zx) k ( xy yz zx)
x y z
=i
= i ( y z ) j ( x z ) k ( y x)
( grad )(1,2,3) 5i 4 j 3k
T T T
T i j k 2 xi 2 y j k
x y z
( )(1,1,2) 2i 2 j k
2i 2 j k
Hence the mosquito should fly in the direction .
3
r 2 x2 y 2 z 2
r n r n r n r r r
r n i j k i nr n1 j nr n1 k nr n1
x y z x y z
x y z nr
n 1
i nr n 1 j nr n 1 k nr n 1 = xi y j zk nr n 2 (r )
r r r r
r n nr n2 r.
4. If r r , where r is the position vector of the point (x,y,z) w.r.t origin prove that
f (r )
f '(r ) r
.
r
Solution: r xi y j zk , r 2 x 2 y 2 z 2
f (r ) i f (r ) j f (r ) k
x y z
f (r )
r r r
f '(r ) i f '(r ) j f '(r ) k
x y z
x y z
f '(r ) i f '(r ) j f '(r ) k
r r r
( xi y j zk )
f '(r ) f '(r )r
r r
3
i j k ( x y 3xyz 3)
3
x y z
BIET 167
8 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
MA 6151 MATHEMATICS - I
( )(1,21) 3 i 9 j 6 k
9 81 36 126 3 14
Hence unit normal to the surface is n̂ =
3i 9 j 6k i 3 j 2k i 3 j 2k
= = nˆ
3 14 14 14
Solution: Div r . r i
x
j
y
k
z
. xi y j zk =1+1+1=3
i j k
z y z x y x
Curl r r i j k
x y z y z x z x y
x y z
i(0 0) j (0 0) k (0 0) 0.
168
BIET 9 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
MA 6151 MATHEMATICS - I
i j k
Curl F
x y z
z x y
i ( y ) ( x) j ( y) ( z) k ( x) ( z) = i j k
y z x z x y
i j k
Curl Curl F
x y z
1 1 1
i (1) (1) j (1) (1) k (1) (1) =0.
y z x z x y
Note: The above problem can also be solved using the identity curl (curl F ) = (.F ) 2 F
F 0
is irrotational?
Solution: Given that F is irrotational
i j k
F 0
x y z
x y az bx 2 y z x cy 2 z
i x cy 2 z bx 2 y z j x cy 2 z x y az
y z x z
k bx 2 y z x y az 0
x y
i c 1 j 1 a k b 1 0
c 1 0, 1 a 0 b 1 0 c 1, a 1, b 1
r
10. Prove that Div 3
0 or 3 is solenoidal.
r
r
r
r 1
Solution: Div 3
. 3 = .r 3 . r 3 (3) r 3 . r
r 1 1
r r
3
r r r
3 r 5 r. r 3 3r 3 = 3 3 0
3 3 3 3
3
r r r r
i j k x 3 y i y 2 z j x z k 0
x y y
11 0 2 0 2
F d r is independent of path C, if F = 2x yz i xz 3 j xy k .
12. Check whether
i j k
F
x y z
2 x yz xz 3 xy
= i x x j x x k z z = i 0 j 0 k 0 = 0
13. If F 5 xy i 2 y j , evaluate F d r , where C is the part of the curve y x3 between x 1
and x 2 .
C
Solution: F d r 5xydx 2 ydy .
The curve C: y x3 dy 3x 2 dx F d r 5xydx 2 ydy 5x 4 dx 6 x5dx
1
C 1
14. Evaluate .d r , where is scalar point function and C is a simple closed curve.
.d r curl ( ). n ds
C
Solution: By “toke s theore
C S
curl . n ds
15. Evaluate y usi g “toke s theore ( yz dx zxdy xydz), where C is the curve x y 2 1,
2
zy .
C
2
Solution: It can seen that yzdx zxdy xydz ( yz i zx j xy k ).(dx i dy j dz k ) F . d r
When F yz i zx j xy k .
C C S
i j k
F i [ x x] j[ y y ] k [ z z ] 0
x y z
yz zx xy
( yz dx zxdy xydz ) 0 .
C
2 C
16. Find the area of the circle of radius r , usi g Gree s theore .
xdy ydx .
1
Solution: By Gree s theore , e k o that the area e losed y the curve C =
0 r [ cos sin ] d 2 d r .
0
2 2
1 2 2 2r2 2
2 0
r . d s , where S is the surface of the tetrahedron whose vertices are (0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0),
17. Evaluate
S
r . d s . r dv
(0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1).
Solution: By Gauss divergence theorem
S V
i
j k ( x i y j z k ) dv
V
x y z
(1 1 1) dv 3 dx dy dz 3
1 1 1
V 0 0 0
r d r .
19. If C is a simple closed curve, then find the value of
F d r F n ds
C
Solution: By “toke s theore
C S
i j k
Let F r , then F r 0,
x y z
x y z
r d r 0 .
S r 2 n ds
r dv
20. Prove that
V
r2
Solution: F
r
.F .
r
r
2
r
2 .r r 2 .r
1
F n ds F dv .
S
F xi 2 y j 3zk
.F i j k .xi 2 y j 3zk
x y z
= 1+2+3=6
s v
F .ds .F dv 6dv 6 dv
v v
4
6 a3 8 a3 .
3
PART –B
1. Prove that F = y 2 cos x x3 i 2 y sin x 4 j 3xz 2 k is irrotational and find its scalar
Ans: y 2 sin x xz 3 4 y c.
potential.
BIET 173
14 DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
MA 6151 MATHEMATICS - I
2. Find the angle between the surfaces x log z y 2 1 and x 2 y 2 z at the point (1,1,1)
Ans: cos
1
30
3. Find the angle between the normals to the surface xy z 2 at the points (-2,-2,2) and
(1,9,3)
4. If r r , where r is the position vector of the point (x,y,z) with respect to the origin.
Ans: a 2, b 1, c 3 and x 2 yz 3 c.
6. Prove that curl curl F = F 2 F . If F is solenoidal, prove that curl curl curl
curl F 4 F
x, y, z
7. If a is a constant vector and r is the position vector of w.r.t the origin, prove
that a r r a r .
1
8. If r is the position vector of the point (x,y,z) w.r.t the origin, prove that (i ). r
2
r
and
r
1 2
(ii) . r
r
r
r3
10. If x y z e
x2 y 2 z 2 . Prove that 2 r r e r
1
2
2 2 2
11. Pro e y Gree s theore that the area of the regio ou ded y a losed ur e C is
2 c
xdy ydx. Hence find the area bounded by the parabolas y 2 4ax and x 2 4ay
1
16a
Ans:
3
( , 0 )( , ), and 0,
2 2
13. Verify the Gree s theore i a pla e for the i tegral x 2 y dx x dy taken around
the circle c: x 2 y 2 1 .
C
Ans: 3 .
14. Evaluate sin z dx cos x dy sin y dz y usi g “toke s theore where C is the boundary of
Ans: 2.
F n ds , where F 4x i 2 y j z k
2
15. Evaluate and S is the surface bounding the
region x2 y 2 4, z 0, z 3 .
S
16. Verify Gauss divergence theorem for F x 2 i y 2 j z 2 k where S is the surface of the cuboid
formed by the planes x 0, x a, y 0, y b, z 0 and z c.
17. Verify “toke s theore for F ( y z 2)i ( yz 4) j xzk over the open surfaces of the cube
bounded by x 0, y 0, z 0, x 1, y 1 and z 1 plane is cut.
18. Verify Gauss divergence theorem for F x 2 yz i y 2 xz j z 2 xy k taken over the
rectangular parallelepiped 0 x a,0 y b,0 z c.
for F 4xzi y 2 j yzk
x 0, y 0, z 0, x 1, y 1 and z 1 .
19. Verify Divergence theorem over the cube formed by