NICMAR FINAL PROJECT SUBMISSION

PROJECT TITLE : CONSTRUCTION SAFETY MANAGEMENT

PROJECT OWNER : MR. ASHISH M. EKBOTE

COURSE : POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN CONSTRUCTION

MANAGEMENT

REG. NO. : 26-12-11-3082-284

MODULE : M - IS
2
 CONTENTS

Chapter Page No.

Introduction 1

1. Why Safety in Construction Practices ? 3

2. Accidents in Construction Industry 7

3. Measuring Performance and Recording Information 18

4. Project Safety Planning Concepts 31

5. Construction Safety Manual 39

6. Organisational Health and Safety Policy 63

7. Construction Safety Equipment 104

8. Organisational Health and Safety Act, 2000 119

9. Workmen’s Compensation Act 133

10. Risk Management In Construction Projects 141

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4
 INTRODUCTION

This book documents how excellent safety management serves not only the
purpose of humanitarian goal of eliminating human injuries and deaths, but
also achieves enormous cost savings. It shows how successful companies,
project managers, foremen and construction buyers have succeeded in
incorporating these savings into their companies bottom line. It details the
specific management methods found to be most effective for each participant
in the construction process, and provides real examples of companies putting
these methods to work.

Excellent safety performance saves money through the elimination of

accidents and their consequent claims and indirect costs. But the
advantages of safe construction practices to the companies are even more
fundamental. Construction safety in an organization gets achieved by the best
cost and schedule performance. In the chapters to follow, I have laid out the
principles and methods used by some of the effective managers to deliver
construction projects safely without time-overrun and cost-overrun situations.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY :

Construction Safety Management deals with the actions that the managers at
all levels can take to create an organizational setting which the workers will
be trained and motivated to perform safe and productive construction work.
Research indicates that over 80% of construction accidents involve an unsafe
act by a worker.

Those with the responsibility for managing the safe construction and safety
professionals who support them will need to supplement the management
principles presented here in two ways :

i. With a thorough knowledge of the latest laws and standards for the
various construction operations in the areas where they are working. For
these extensive and constantly changing specifics, one needs to consult
the federal, state and local safety regulations currently in effect for each
project.

ii. With in-depth construction engineering knowledge of the many specific

work methods required for ensuring safe construction operations. The
engineering knowledge for the various construction works can be found in
a number of construction engineering handbooks, in trade association or
in industry consensus documents.

1
NOTE ON THE ORGANISATION AND STYLE OF THE BOOK :

My aim in presenting this book is to communicate effectively to the readers,

the valuable knowledge gleaned from the collective experience of outstanding
construction managers and to make this book as readable as possible to the
intended readers. The purpose of this book is to provide convenience for the
busy construction foremen, supervisors and project managers to find the
information they need with a minimum effort.

This book will help create awareness in the organizations to improve their
construction safety performance by analysis of the cost impacts of good
safety in their organization’s bottom-line performance. In addition these
organizations will have a happier, more cooperative and creative workforce.

The central point of this book is that the managers at all levels in the
construction industry will gain the knowledge to eliminate the accidents and
their direct as well as indirect costs. Once the senior managers in the
construction organization become aware of the magnitude of these costs, and
realize they can be substantially reduced by implementing aggressive safety
management, then the organization will be on its way of improving its safety
performance.

The ultimate goal of my presenting this book is -

“ To achieve Zero Accidents conditions in Construction Practices. ’’

2
 1. WHY SAFETY IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY ?

What is Safety?

There is an age-old traditional myth & belief in the Construction industry –

“Accidents in Construction practices are inevitable”

In the early years of building construction, it was a common practice that

accidents would claim one life for each two floors of a building; or for
million dollar of general construction work performed; or for each half-mile of
tunnel construction. At that time these numbers were actually put in the job
estimates.

But, today the attitudes in the construction industry are changing. Many
construction contractors, project managers and foremen have proved that
sincere management efforts wrt safety can reduce accidents. The myth that
construction accidents are inevitable is slowly disappearing. A new goal for
the construction industry is coming to the fore – the goal of zero accidents.

This new vision has come about because there were pioneer individuals in
construction management who did not believe in the widespread myth that
used to be so prevalent in the industry.

Accidents occurring in a construction industry are always associated with

cost implications. Although the costs of accidents are not highlighted by
typical cost-accounting systems, they have an impact on the organizations
economy by increased worker’s compensation premiums. For construction
companies with very poor safety records, these increased safety premiums
would be so expensive that they render a company sufficiently non-
competitive to put it out of business.

Indirect or hidden costs are the other large part of the economic burden
imposed by a poor accident record. One large part of these costs is the
liability claims from injured workers who sue contractors for additional
claims beyond their workers compensation costs. There are also many
indirect costs of an accidents such as reduced productivity, job schedule
delays, added administrative time, damage to equipments and facilities as well
as human suffering and low morale.

The cost of worker’s compensation insurance for many construction

companies is comparable to the total profits. By effective safety management
half or even more of that amount can be saved. Yet when we began working
with the construction companies, it was found that the contractors showed

3
little initial interest in their worker’s compensation insurance, mentioning that
they had paid their broker to take care of it for them.
Their reason for ignoring this substantial expense, even though they watched
their other costs down to the last penny, was that they believed that the
rates for the worker’s compensation insurance were fixed, so there was little
they could do about them.

Here was the crux of the problem. They did not understand that the
worker’s compensation insurance is not like fire insurance – i.e. they did not
realize that they were bearing the brunt of their own accident experience.
Furthermore, competitors who had few accidents were paying significantly
lower costs for worker’s compensation. Contractors with good grasp of how
these costs of worker’s compensation insurance are calculated, are on the
way of improving their profits.

Prior to worker’s compensation insurance laws, injured workers were required

to prove that the employer was responsible for the worker being injured in
order to receive any compensation for injuries received on the job. Worker’s
compensation insurance was developed to provide a no-fault for dealing with
industrial injuries. Under the worker’s compensation laws, employers are
required to provide insurance that pays for medical treatment and benefits
including vocational rehabilitation of workers and their families for pay loses
resulting from work injuries and deaths.

Legislators also incorporated an economic incentive into the worker’s

compensation laws to encourage employers to increase safety on their jobs.
They reasoned that if each employer doing a certain type of construction
work had to pay the same amount - an average of all compensated accident
costs in that type of work - the safer employers would not be rewarded.
Instead, the employers with good accident records would be penalized since
they would pay higher costs than they had incurred; while those employers
with poor accident records would pay less than their incurred costs.

The cost worker’s compensation insurance, therefore, has two components. The
first component, “ the manual rate ’’ is based on the industry sector’s medical
costs and benefits paid out in the previous year for each type of work.
The second component, “ the experience modification rating’’ is based on each
employer’s accident costs compared to the average, and modifies the manual
rate. It reduces the price of worker’s compensation insurance for safe
contractors and increases the price for unsafe contractors.

Although both the specific manual rates and experience modification ring will
vary by year and by where a contractor is working, the principles underlying
the pricing system are basically the same.

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Safety and Health :

We use the word Safety so much, often in company with its partner Health,
that it should be easy to find a definition. Yet the dictionaries do not offer
much assistance. Some say Safety is the absence of danger; while others say
unhelpfully supplying the entry of danger as the absence of safety; while
some suggest “ a state of protection and a condition not involving risk.”
Perhaps the best we can do is to agree that there is no arbitrary state of
“absolute safety ”, as there is always a chance – a risk – of something going
wrong, however small chance that may be.

In a similar way, a little thought about health brings the same conclusion – it
is a relative notion. In the sense that in any population there will be those
in varying states of wellness. But this does not stop us from using the word
in everyday sense to convey the idea that, in the workplace at least, the
workers do not leave their work less healthy than when they arrived.

Safety in the context of civil engineering is the discipline of preserving the

health of those who build, operate, maintain and demolish engineering works
and of others affected by those works. Safety is defined as the freedom from
the danger of risks of injury from accidents. This can apply equally to the
danger of physical injury and to the risk of damage to health over a period
of time.

Accidents that occur during construction and demolition activities result in

injury, mostly, but not invariably, to employees on the site. Accidents can
occur even before the works begin, during survey and investigatory phases of
a project, and they can also occur after the works have been completed,
because of faulty design or construction, causing death or injury to those
engaged on maintenance work and to members of the public.

The major health problems associated with the Construction work may be
categorized into :

 Chemical hazards – those due to liquids, dusts, gas and fumes

 Physical hazards – those due to cold, heat, noise, vibration, noising
radiations, compressed air and manual handling

For works in sewers and on contaminated sites there is also a risk of

biological infection. Employers are required by law to identify the health
hazards associated with the work of their employees and t take necessary
steps to eradicate these hazards or to give adequate protection to the
employees and anyone else who may be affected.

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The management of workplace health and safety is always together, and in
the same way, so that often in speech the word safety is used to mean
both. In recent years, it has been recognized that the environmental issues
also need to be managed, an again by using the same techniques and
practices.

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 2. ACCIDENTS IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

What is an accident?

An accident is an incident in addition to its consequences. It is the end

product of a sequence of events or actions resulting in an undesirable
consequence viz. injury, death, property damage, interruption or delay. An
accident can more formally be defined as an “ undesired event ”, which
results in physical harm and / or property damage, usually resulting from
contact with a source of energy above the ability of the body or structure
to withstand it.

In normal conversation, we use the word accident loosely and in doing so

we couple in a sense of bad luck on the part of the injured person, and a
feeling that it could not have been foreseen. In safety management, we need
to be clear that the luck, or the element of chance, is only concerned with
the physical outcome of the incident, which is “ that sequence of events or
actions resulting in undesired consequences ”. For ease of reading, this book
uses the word “ accident ” to describe injury events, except where an
important distinction has to be made between “ accident ” and “ incident ”.

An injury is thus a consequence of an incident – but not the only the

possible one. It has been shown that hundreds of incidents occur in the
construction industry for every one that causes injury or loss. But all have
the potential to do so. That is why it is so important to look at all incidents
as sources of information on what is going wrong. Relying on injury records
only allows a review of a minority of incidents – those which happened to
result in a serious injury consequence. Only chance will decide whether an
injury rather than, or as well as, property damage will occur on a particular
occasion, and how severe either will be.

Hazard means the potential to interfere or interrupt with a process or

person, which may arise from interacting or influencing components.

Risk is “ the chance or probability of loss ”, “ an evaluation of the potential

of failure ”. It is easy to confuse the terms hazards and risk, but a simple
way to remember the difference is that hazard describes potential for harm;
while risk is the likelihood that harm will result in the particular situation
or circumstances, coupled with a measure of the degree of severity of that
harm.

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What causes accidents ?

Accidents are the direct results of the unsafe activities and conditions; both
of which can be controlled by efficient construction safety management.
Management is responsible for creation and maintenance of the working
environment and tasks, into which the workers must fit and inter-react.
Control of workers and their behaviour is more difficult. They have to be
given the information, and the knowledge that the accidents are not
inevitable but are caused. They need training to develop skills and recognize
the need to comply with and develop safe systems of work, and to report
and correct unsafe conditions and practices. Their safety awareness and
attitudes require constant improvement, and the social environment of the
workplace – the safety climate – must be the one which fosters good safety
and health practices and conditions, not one which discourages them.

On investigation, and after a little thought, it can be seen that accidents are
relatively complex events. A man falls off a ladder. It seems straightforward –
the ladder was not tied and witnesses say that it was set at the wrong
angle and not secured against slipping. This incident could be put down to
carelessness on the part of the man, having failed to appreciate the physical
situation. Carelessness, though, is rarely either a good or an adequate
explanation of events like accidents.

Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions are often referred to as immediate or

primary causes of accidents, because they are the most obvious causes and
because they are usually directly involved or present at the moment an
accident happens.

Secondary causes are also important, although they are harder to seek out
and identify. They are the failure of the management system to anticipate,
and include lack of training, knowledge, maintenance, inadequate job-planning
and instructions, and not having safe systems of work in place.

Primary Causes of Accidents :

Unsafe Acts :

 Working without authority

 Failure to warn others of prevailing danger
 Leaving equipment in a dangerous condition
 Using equipment at the wrong speed
 Disconnecting safety devices such as guards
 Using defective equipment

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 Using equipment in a wrong manner or for wrong tasks
 Failure to use or wear personal protective equipment
 Overloading of vehicles
 Being in an unauthorized or restricted place
 Failure to lift loads correctly
 Unauthorized servicing and maintenance of moving equipment
 Horseplay
 Smoking in prohibited areas
 Consumption of alcohol or drugs while at work

Unsafe Conditions :

 Inadequate or missing guards to moving machine parts

 Missing platform guardrails
 Defective tools and equipments
 Inadequate fire warning systems
 Fire hazards
 Ineffective housekeeping
 Hazardous atmospheric conditions
 Excessive noise
 Workplace not well-lighted

These are all the deviations from required safe work practice, but they must
be seen as the symptoms of more basic underlying primary or secondary
causes which allow them to exist or persist.

Secondary Causes of Accidents :

 Management system pressures :

- financial restrictions
- lack of commitment
- lack of policy
- lack of standards
- lack of knowledge and information
- restricted training
- poor quality control systems

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 Social pressures :

- group attitudes
- trade customs
- industry tradition
- society attitudes towards risk-taking
- commercial / financial pressures between contractors

The primary causes of accidents in the construction industry have been the
target of safety law for many years – specifying details of scaffolding and
ladders, for example.

Construction Industry Accident Record :

In a typical decade, about 1500 people are killed on construction sites in

India as per studies and 25000 – 30000 get seriously injured. In addition,
300000 – 400000 suffer injuries sufficient to keep them off from their for at
least three days.

In 1985 the procedures for reporting injuries, diseases and accidents were
revised which disturbed the continuity of major injury statistics. While there
appears to be some improvement in site safety in recent years, it is known
that the statistics are unreliable due to under-reporting. In spite of this
apparent improvement it is clear that the injury rate for the construction
industry is still an unacceptably high level.

Unfortunately, it is not only the construction workers themselves who suffer

injuries and death. In the past decade 102 people not employed in the
construction industry, including children and old people, were killed on
construction sites or because of construction activities, and a further 1251
were seriously injured.

To put accident figures in perspective thy must be linked to the number of

people at risk. Thus, comparisons of incidence rates, which are the number of
fatalities and major injuries per 100000 persons employed, provide a means of
assessing the relative danger for people at work in various industries.

In the construction industry, the risk of major injury is almost twice that for
manufacturing and the risk of a fatal accident nearly five times greater than
in the manufacturing industry.

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Reasons for poor accident records :

There are number of reasons why the accident records in the construction
industry compares poorly with that of the manufacturing industry.

In factories there is normally a controlled working environment, with little

change i9n working procedures and equipment for long periods, and the
labour force usually remains fairly constant. Hazards, once identified, can be
remedied with relative ease and the danger can be overcome.

However, in the construction industry the working environment is constantly

changing, sites exist for a relatively short time and the activities and
inherent risks change daily. Within a short time of a hazard being identified
and dealt with, the work scene has changed, bringing new hazards. There is
also a high turnover in the workforce, which means safety awareness is not
always as good as it should be.

The complexity of the construction industry with its many small firms, cub-
contractors and self-employed labour militates against the establishment of
safe working practices. The financial resources of small firms are generally
insufficient to provide the necessary high standard of safety training carried
out by many of the larger firms. Moreover, the managerial knowledge of many
small contractors is based on experience and often lacking in theoretical
background. Many small contractors neither employ a professional safety
advisor nor do they have an inclination to keep abreast of the legal
requirements and technical developments in safety and health matters.
Compared with accidents in factories, there are many more accidents in the
construction industry that cause multiple fatalities and serious injuries.

When the competition is particularly fierce, some contractors are prepared to

ignore the safety legislation and good working practices in order to bid
competitively. Unfortunately, there are also clients who are willing to employ
these contractors regardless of their competence in safety management.

Safety legislation and, in particular, the regulations that apply to construction

provide a sound basis for good safe building practices. However, the Safety
Officer, whose duty is to enforce the law, does not have the resources to
supervise every site. Unfortunately, therefore, law breaking is rife because the
risk of prosecution is low and, moreover, the practice of cutting corners for
commercial gain is frequently condoned by senior management and ignored
by clients and their professional advisors.

The majority of accidents can be prevented by dedicated safety management

and a disciplined approach to ensure compliance with safety rules and

11
procedures by all involved in construction operations. This should be evident
from the top management down the hierarchy. The tough image which flouts
all foreseeable dangers is a major obstacle to be overcome for it not only
causes individual casualties but also affects large sections of the industry,
resulting in the widespread axiom that ‘ if you aren’t prepared to take risks you
shouldn’t be in the business ’.

Economic effects of accidents :

The accident statistics represent not only terrible human tragedies but also
substantial economic costs because of accidents.

Accidents also cause the following effects :

- damage to the plant and machinery

- damage to the equipments
- damage to work already completed
- loss of productive time while debris are cleared and damaged work
rebuilt
- reduced work-rate until normal site working rhythm and morale are
restored
- disruptions while investigations are carried out by the company safety
department, the insurers, inspectors from the Health and Safety
organization, police officials, etc.
- legal costs or sometimes fines, as well
- increased insurance premiums
- loss of confidence and reputation

All this has to be balanced against the cost of working safely. Insurers can
show that the modest extra cost of a safe, orderly site is well invested
because the risk and cost of serious accidents are very high.

Principles of construction safety for accident prevention :

Accident prevention in construction practices is not just a matter of setting

up a list of rules and making safety inspections, although both of these are
important. What is required is a system for managing health and safety
which meets the needs of the business and complies with the law.

There are seven principles to be observed in setting up strategies for control

and management of safety and health at work in the construction industry.
If they are followed, accident prevention is more likely to be achieved.
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1. If possible, avoid a risk altogether by eliminating the hazard
It is always more effective to remove a problem altogether rather than to
establish a control strategy, especially one which relies upon people to work
in the correct way. This demonstrates the fundamental importance of design
and planning in construction safety management.

Examples :

Do not specify fragile roofing materials through which people can fall. This is
obviously more effective than specifying solutions designed to minimize the
risks from falls through fragile materials.

Specifications of lighter materials such as blocks is preferable to arranging

ways to handle heavy materials on site. Inevitably, at some stage, the latter
will result in someone having to lift manually a load heavier than it could
have been.

Avoid using hazardous substances at all where possible, or substitute those

known to be less hazardous.

2. Tackle risks at their source itself

Design and specification can make a significant difference to site conditions.

Design is likely to dictate the way the construction work is carried out on
the site, and particularly to force the contractors to work potentially in safe
ways. A review at the design stage repays the time spent handsomely
because of later savings in terms of time and money, and possibly in terms
of lives as well.

Examples :

Designing floor slabs with fewer voids removes the need to control the risk
of falling through them by setting up barriers or covering them.

Avoid dust-producing processes.

3. Adapt work to the individual when designing work areas and

selecting methods of work

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Ergonomics aim to improve the interface between people and their
workspaces, by seeking to adapt the workspace rather than the individual.
Thought given to layout of workspace can improve working conditions and
performances as well as reduce risks.

Examples :

Locating equipment such as a saw-bench in a corridor could block access

for others, may cause lighting difficulties and allow off-cuts to pile up,
increasing the risks. Asking how much room a carpenter needs and planning
a suitable spot for a powered saw-bench takes little time.

4. Use technology to improve the working conditions

Keeping up-to-date with new developments can bring a safety benefit when
plant is being replaced, or when work operations can be mechanized.

Examples :

Specifying a quieter design of machine when ordering replacement of

equipment. Use of wheeled manhole lifter to replace hand hooks or other
hand tools brings gains in productivity as well as in minimizing the chance
of a back injury.

5. Give priority to the protection of whole workplace rather than to

individuals

Reliance on personal protective equipment ( PPE ) as a sole means of risk

control is rarely acceptable. This is because no PPE is 100% effective for
100% of the time for 100% of the people who use it. One of the many
reasons for this is that it may not always be possible to identify everyone
at risk and issue the PPE to them.

Examples :

Extensive work on a flat roof may require the presence of a large number
of workers from different employers, in addition to the supervisory staff,
clients, etc. In these circumstances, the appropriate protection would be
provided by perimeter barriers, rather than by giving everyone a safety
harness, installing a permanent edge protection during the main construction
process instead of at the end gives protection to both the constructors as
well as the end users.

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 6. Ensure everybody understands what they have to do at work to
be safe and healthy at work

Safety training is not just a matter of handing out booklets – it is unwise to

assume anything about people’s previous experiences in construction work, or
even their ability to read and understand instructions and information. Safety
awareness is not inherited, and induction training on sites is required to
make sure that everyone knows what the hazards and control measures are.

Examples :

Specific site induction must include the local emergency evacuation

procedure and understanding may need to be confirmed by holding practice
fire-drills on a regular basis.

7. Make sure safety and health management is accepted by everyone,

and that it applies to all aspects of the organisation’s activities

A single contracts manager, construction manager or other member of the

senior management who believes that the company safety management
system does not apply to the situations where time is short can destroy the
safety climate overnight. If someone is injured as a result, the penalty can be
severe for that person, as possibly for the company as well.

Examples :

Failure of a senior manager to wear a safety helmet and safety footwear on

a site visit gives the impression to the workforce that the safety rules do
not apply to the senior management. Failure to carry out risk assessments
because of pressure of work could lead to criminal prosecution of an
individual.

Benefits of accident prevention :

There are generally five main reasons why accident prevention in construction
is worthwhile.

i. The cost in human suffering, physical pain and hardships resulting from
death and physical disability is impossible to quantify – we know that

15
 there are hundreds of lives lost every year in construction practices, with
tens of thousands of serious injuries and countless number of minor
injuries. We can only guess at the disruption to lives of workers and
their families which these cause, but we know construction safety is not
an impossible dream, but an achievable goal.

ii. Moral reasons stem from a developing public awareness that something
needs to be done to raise the quality of life at work. Attention is
focusing on the ability of employers and project managers in the
industry to handle a wide variety of issues, previously seen only as
marginally relevant to the business. Environmental affairs, pollution, design
safety, maintenance and other matters are now commonly discussed.
There is a growing belief that it is morally unacceptable to put the
safety and health of others at risk, for profits or any other reasons.

Work morale is strengthened by active participation in accident

prevention programmes, and is weakened by accidents. Adverse publicity
affects the fortunes of the organization.

iii. Legal reasons are contained in a statute law, which details steps to be
taken and objectives to be met, and which carries the threat of
prosecution or other enforcement action as a consequence of failure to
comply. Civil law enables injured workers and others to gain
compensation either as a result of breach of statutory duties or because
a reasonable standard of care was not provided under the particular
circumstances. The cost in terms of money and adverse publicity of a
prosecution or civil claim can be very high, and there is the potential
for a prison sentence in some circumstances.

iv. Financial reasons for accident prevention ensure the continuing financial
health of a business and avoid the costs associated with accidents.
These include monetary loss to the employers, community and society
from worker injuries and ill-health, damage to property and production
delays. Some, but not all, these costs are insurable and are known as
“direct costs’’. They include the cost of compensation. Increased premium
will be a consequence of claims, so an increase in overheads is
predictable following accidents.

Indirect costs include :

- Uninsured property and material damage

- Delays
- Overtime costs and temporary labour
- Management time spent on investigations
- Decreased output from these replacing the injured workers

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 - Fines
- Loss of expertise and experience

A study carried out by the Safety and Health Committee into the costs of
accidents showed that for the construction site under review, the direct costs
were a small proportion of the total and produced a direct : indirect ratio of
1:11. This ratio is normally referred to as ‘ iceberg ’, because of the hidden
indirect costs below the waterline. The results for major, minor and non-injury
accidents are often represented as the “accident triangle ”.

The conclusion to be drawn from the accident triangle is that serious

injuries are much less frequent than the less serious ones. A good safety
record and documented safety management system can more than repay the
time spent on it because of its value in gaining new business. Many clients
and project management operations have extensive vetting procedures to
identify those contractors and suppliers who are competent in safety matters.

17
3. MEASURING PERFORMANCE AND RECORDING INFORMATION

There are many good reasons for measuring safety performance; some of
them are often forgotten. Measuring performance can enable management the
following :

 Identify the causal factors involved in injury or loss

 Locate areas where the controls are not functioning adequately
 Have a basis for comparing trends
 Describe the level of safety within the organization
 Predict the future safety problems
 Evaluate the success of the control programme
 Maximise cost-effectiveness of decisions on the allocation of resources
 Assess the costs of losses and injuries
 Benchmark against other competitive organisations

Before any useful conclusions can be drawn from any set of data, the
information collected should be both reliable and meaningful. Are the right
things being recorded? Do the numbers give the whole picture? How many
injuries and accidents are unreported? What distortions may be present?
What gives information about safety performance?

Until recently, the only measuring tools available were the counting of
failures and attempts at measuring the financial costs of losses resulting
from these failures to control safety, health and the environment. All of these
involve studying the evidence of failures in one form or another, rather than
the performance achieved.

For several reasons, the measuring tools which are purely injury-related do
not do a good job of representing the quality of performance efforts or safety
climate in the organisation.

Behaviour – based Safety :

A set of techniques known generally as “ behaviour – based safety ” has

introduced ideas and methods from the behavioural sciences into
performance management and safety management. These techniques are based
on the claim that measuring the frequency of safe behaviour generates more

18
and more accurate data, allows for precise reinforcement and provides
positive accountability. The general principle involves sampling, recording and
publicising the percentages of safe v/s unsafe behaviours as observed by the
workforce and management. This gives more data on potential system and
individual failures than could be obtained from a study of accident records.

Employers investing in these techniques have observed that the involvement

of the workers in the measuring process generates interest and improved
commitment to the employer’s safety objectives. The results are said to be
significant in that the techniques lead to a reduction in loss – producing
incidents as well as to the improved assessment of performance by the
positive step of measuring worker’s safe actions.

Disadvantages may include the need to achieve an altered safety climate for
both management and workforce to adopt the techniques, and employee
suspicion of hidden motives for the observation.

No Injuries – No problems !

Because the numbers of recorded incidents and injuries are relatively low in
most companies, they produce a limited amount of information about risks
and there is a compulsion to believe that all is well. The argument often put
forward by managers “ We haven’t had any accidents; hence we must be
safe! ” takes no account of the potential for injury or risk which must be
revaluated when deciding on appropriate measures to take.

When things do go wrong, the information which can be obtained from

recording and investigating incidents can be both substantial and useful,
depending to a large degree on the methods used to collect the information
on individual incidents and throughout the organisation. The success of any
collection method also depends on the commitment of the individuals to
supplying the information in a timely and appropriate way. This means that
the organisations need to have a system for reporting and recording injuries
which is seen by all as reasonable under all the circumstances, is
sufficiently thorough to capture all significant information and is recorded for
analysis in a suitable format. Basic training is also required to ensure that
those given the responsibility are fully committed to the goals of
investigating and recording all significant incidents, and that the techniques
involved are understood.

The way in which injuries, occupational ill-health exposures and

environmental incidents are investigated and the statistics are collected
should be written into the organisation’s safety policy. This gives the process

19
a mandate from the person-in-charge, without which no efforts of significance
in safety are likely to be successful.

“ All I want to know are the facts! ”

In addition to distortion caused due to under-reporting and factors

introduced by the way the data are collected, whatever data are provided to
management may be subject to misinterpretation by anyone who does not
duly understand the nature of what is being presented to them. A moment’s
thought should lead to questions about rates rather than numbers. It turns
out that the death rate in the US armed forces during World War II was
about 12 per thousand persons per year, which compares with the overall
civilian accidental death rate of 0.7 per thousand persons per year.

Other influencing factors include the ages of those exposed to the hazards,
and the duration and type of exposure to the hazard under analysis. The
raw numbers, in fact, do not tell us much about the chances of survival at
the time.

Calculating Rates :

The simple formulae for calculating frequency and severity rates which follow
produce the rates used most often in the industry. In most countries there
are no standard or formal requirements for these formulae.

Frequency Rate ( F ) :

F= Number of injuries x 100000

Total number of hours worked

The frequency rate can be improved artificially by controlling temporary total

absence cases.

Severity Rate ( S ) ::

This is essentially a weighted frequency rate, allowing the days lost due to
temporary total disability to be recorded, and also a notional number of days
to be recorded for fatalities and permanently disabled cases.

S = ( Total days lost + notional days charged ) x 100000

20
 Employee hours of exposure

The severity rate can fluctuate wildly because the schedule of notional days
can impose a severe notional time penalty for some injuries.

Other Performance Measures :

Many companies are now introducing positive measures of performance in

the field of safety, health and environment. Once a safety engagement
programme has been developed, key points in it can be identified and
measured to provide information on whether the system is working properly.
For example, it might be decide that one of the critical features in such a
programme is the need to ensure that necessary information is supplied to
sub-contractors prior to tendering. Whether this happens or not can be
measured by examining project documentation at regular quarterly intervals
and a score produced based on the percentage of projects where this is
being done. Or, if a company operates a pre-qualification scheme for sub-
contractors, measures could be developed to show the percentage of sub-
contractors working on a project that is actually been pre-qualified. The
percentage of such contractors who had submitted a competent method
statement prior to starting work could be another.

These internal yardsticks can also be given targets to achieve, so that

continuous improvements can be made by raising the targets year on year.
The setting of such key performance indicators is one of the features that
distinguishes those companies interested in establishing themselves as
‘ world class ’ rather than being merely ‘ compliance oriented ’.

Accident investigation and recording :

The elements of an accident recording system consist of :

 Report form
 Investigation reports formats
 Summary analysis forms used by time data collector
 Statistical analysis
 Summary reports for management

In large organisations, the system may also use a fax or e-mail notification
system giving early warnings to senior management that an incident has
occurred which requires their attention. Care should be taken to avoid

21
making personal comments in e-mails, as they are likely to became
discoverable in legal proceedings, visible to everyone.

A good rule to follow is :

If you don’t want your opinion or comment known to potentially hostile strangers, don’t
send the e-mail.

Deleting an e-mail from the system usually has no effect on its viability on
a server, somewhere.

Standard report :

Use of a suitable standard report form allows the collection of information

in a uniform manner. The design of the report is very important. As the
form will usually be completed at site level, it will assist the site staff if
they are only asked to give information which is likely to be readily
available to them. The penalty for using a format calling for answers that
site staff cannot provide can be delays in the return of the forms. Whatever
details is asked for, and whatever the final design of a report form, it will be
helpful to require at least those answers which are required by authorities,
when notifying them in turn.

Report forms should not require the senders to :

 Assign blames for the incident

 Make comments which the senders cannot substantiate
 Draw conclusions which may be beyond their level of competence

This is because the form may be required as evidence in legal proceedings,

where liability is an issue and statements of this type may be found to
constitute an admission of liability where none was intended.

Speed if of the essence – It may be desirable to design an initial report

form to be faxed to senior management as soon as practicable, to be
followed by a more detailed report when time and circumstances permit. The
details may be completed later, following a deeper investigation and interviews
with witnesses.

Investigation report :

22
The person or team carrying out an investigation into an incident should
record their comments in writing. This may or may not involve the
completion of an internal investigation report form. Again, care should be
taken to avoid making statements or comments which are not factual.
Recommendations to prevent a recurrence should be made in the form of a
better attachment rather than on a report form, again for legal reasons.

When completing an investigation report, it is important to be aware that a

potential reader may know nothing about circumstances or techniques which
the investigator may take for granted. For this reason, no assumptions should
be made about the level of knowledge possessed by the expert’s readership.
Sketches, plans, drawings and photographs should be included to amplify the
written report. The use of a standard layout in a typed report can assist the
investigator, because it can help to clarify thought.

Summary analysis forms used by the data collector :

In order to make the best use of the data supplied, the system of
performance measurement needs a way of recording the types of incident
and their consequences so that common causal factors can be isolated.
Future problem areas can be predicted, training can be focused and trends
assessed. Depending upon the size of the organisation, it may be necessary
to collect data site by site and collate that into a monthly executive
summary report.

If benchmarking is carried out against other organisations or against the

industry records, it will be helpful to design summary forms which use the
same categories v as the benchmark targets. Otherwise, the format used by
the regulatory authorities to present data can be used.

Statistical analysis :

It is always tempting to compare the results from the organisation with

national or industry data, but the relativeness of the samples must be
remembered when doing so. Also, industry frequency and severity rates are
often based on guesswork on the hours worked and can take no account of
under-reporting of injuries to the authorities. Generally, the best comparison
to use is a previous time period within the same business or benchmarking
partners.

23
Summary reports for management :

Monthly or quarterly summaries of injury figures should be presented in a

format which makes valid comparisons easy and with a short written
account to provide a summary of selected incidents. The use of pie-charts
and other presentation aids should be considered. It is important that the
person designated as the competent person for the purposes of the
Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 is given a
summary report at regular intervals. S clutch of statistics alone rarely
provides enough meaningful information for senior management. A written
summary of lessons learned, actions taken and the current status of the
organisation’s rolling safety programme should also be included.

Principles of accident investigation :

The hardest lessons to be learned in accident prevention come from the

investigation of accidents and incidents which could have caused injury or
loss. Facing up to those lessons can be traumatic for all concerned, which is
one reason why investigations are often incomplete and simplistic.
Nevertheless, the depth required of an investigation must be a function of
the value it has for the organisation. Conducting one can be expensive in
time.

Purpose :

The number of purposes is larger the amount of detail necessary in the

report depends upon the uses to be made of it. Enforcement agencies look
for evidence of blame; claim specialists look for the evidence of liability;
trainers look for enough material for a case study. From the view point of
prevention, the purpose of the investigation report is to establish whether a
recurrence can be prevented, or its effects lessened, by the introduction of
safeguards, procedures, training and information, or any combination of these.

Procedure :

There should be a defined procedure for investigating all accidents, however

serious or trivial they may appear to be. The presence of a form and

24
checklist will help to concentrate attention on the important details. The
management team of the project where the accident occurred will be
involved, for less serious accidents they may be the only people who take
part in the investigation and reporting procedure. Worker’s representatives
may also be involved as part of the investigating team.
Equipment :

The following are the essential tools in the competent investigation of

accidents and damage / loss incidents :

 Report form, possibly a checklist as a routine prompt for basic questions

 Notebook
 Tape recorder for on-site comments during interviews
 Camera
 Measuring tape which should be long enough and robust like surveyor’s
tape
 Special equipment in relation to the particular investigation

Documentation :

Information obtained during investigations is given verbally, or provided in

writing. Written documentation should be gathered to provide evidence of
policy or practice followed on site, and witnesses should be interviewed as
soon as possible after the accident. The injured persons should also be seen
promptly and interviewed.

Key points about investigation are :

 Events and issues under examination should not be prejudged by the

investigator
 Total reliance should not be placed on a single source of evidence
 The value of witness statements is proportional to the amount of time
which passes between the events or circumstances described and the date
of a statement or written record
 The first focus of the investigation should be on when, where, to whom
and the outcome of the incident
 The second focus should be on how and why, giving the immediate cause
of the injury or loss, and then the secondary or contributory causes
 The amount of details required from the investigation will depend upon
the severity of the outcome and the use to be made of the investigation
and report

25
 The report should be as short as possible, and as long as necessary for
its purpose.

The report :

For all purposes, the report which emerges from the investigation must
provide answers to the following questions. Only the amount of details
provided should vary in response to the different needs of the recipients.

 What was the immediate cause of the accident / injury / loss ?

 What were the contributory causes ?
 What is the necessary corrective action ?
 What system changes are either necessary or desirable to prevent a
recurrence ?
 What reviews are needed of policies and procedures ?

It is not the task of the investigation report to allocate individual blame,

although some discussion of this is almost inevitable. Reports are usually
discoverable, i.e. they can be used by the parties to an action for damages
or criminal charges. It is a sound policy to assume that accident
investigation reports will be seen by solicitors acting on behalf of the injured
persons. They are entitled to see the factual report, and this will include
anything written in it or in connection with it. Hence, it should not contain
any comments on the extent of blame attaching to those concerned, or
advice given to management. It is appropriate, necessary and quite proper
that professional advice is given, but it should be provided in a covering
letter or memorandum suitably marked as confidential. Changes in the rules
governing the civil liability claims process mean that side letters and the
other formerly acceptable means of conveying concern off the record have
become potentially discoverable.

Whether the report is made on a standard form, or specially written, it

should contain the following headings :

 A summary of the accident

 An introductory summary of events prior to the accident
 Information gained during investigation
 Details of witnesses
 Information about injury or loss sustained

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 Conclusions
 Recommendations
 Supporting material – photographs, diagrams, sketches.
 The date and it should be duly signed by the authorized persons carrying
out the investigation

Inspections and audits :

Audits look at systems and the way they function in practice. Inspections
look at physical conditions. So, while inspections of a site, or particular items
of equipment be done formally at least weekly, an audit of the inspection
system throughout an organisation would look at whether the required
inspections were themselves being carried out, the way they were being
recorded, who received copies of the report, whether action was taken
promptly as a result, and so on.

Inspections :

Inspections should be based on a positive approach, seeking to establish

what is good and well done as well as what is not. Too often the inspection
process has a negative implication associated with fault finding. The
inspection of site has three main objectives :

 Identification of hazards, triggering the corrective process

 Improving conditions and reducing risks
 Measuring safety performance

Some common system should be followed for every inspection to make sure
that everything relevant has been covered. Checklists can be used, and an
adequate reporting system must be present so that a record is made of
what needs attention, and management can be advised of the results of the
inspection. Ideally, inspections should be measurable so that comparisons can
be made with standards elsewhere in the business.

Inspection for health and safety purposes often has a negative implication
associated with fault-finding. A positive approach based on fact-finding will
produce better results, and co-operation from all those taking part in the
process.

Types of inspections :

27
 Statutory – For compliance with health and safety legislation

 External – Conducted by enforcement officials, insurers or consultants

 Executive – Conducted by senior management

 Scheduled – Planned at appropriate intervals by supervisors

 Introductory – Check on new or reconditioned equipment

 Continuous – Conducted by employees, supervisors which can be formal

and pre-planned or informal

For any inspection, knowledge of what is being looked at is required as well

as knowledge of applicable regulations, standards and Codes of Practice.
Some system must be followed to ensure that all relevant matters have been
considered, and an adequate reporting system must be in place so that the
remedial actions necessary can be taken and that the results of the
inspection are available to the management.

Some experts believe that assurance is a better description of the activity –

there is a need to assure that the system is working safely. Inspection
measures how good or bad things are, allowing comparison with standards
set either locally, corporately or nationally, corrective actions can then be
taken.

A special kind of inspection often overlooked is the readiness check, where

operations are evaluated for safety before work on them begins. Before any
inspection, certain basic decisions must have been taken about aspects of it,
and the quality of these decisions will be a major influence on the quality
of the inspection and on whether it achieves its objectives. The decisions are
reached by answering the following questions :

 What needs inspection ?

Some form of checklist, specially developed for the inspection, will be
helpful. This reminds those carrying out the inspection of important items
to check and serves as a record. By including space for ‘ action by ’ dates,
comments and signatures, the checklist can serve as a permanent record.

 What aspects of the items linked needs checking ?

Parts likely to be hazards when unsafe – because of stress, wear, impact,
vibration, heat, corrosion, chemical reaction or misuse – are all candidates

28
 for inspection, regardless of the nature of the equipment or where it is
used.

 What conditions need inspection ?

These should be specified, preferably on the checklist. If there is no
standard set for adequacy, then descriptive words give clues to what to
look for items which are exposed, broken, jagged, leaking, rusted or corroded.

 How often should the inspection be carried out ?

In the absence of the statutory requirements, or guidance from standards
and Codes of Practice, this will depend upon the potential severity of the
failure if the item fails in some way, and the potential for injury. It also
depends upon how quickly the item can become unsafe.

 Who carries out the inspection ?

Everyone has a responsibility to carry out informal inspections as they
move around a site. Managers, supervisors and foremen should plan to
make general inspections. Worker’s representatives may also have rights of
inspection, and their presence should be encouraged where possible.
Management inspections should be made periodic, formal compliance
inspections should take place in their presence.

Techniques of inspection :

Inspections should be carried out by persons who are competent to do so.

In this context, ‘ competent’ means knowledgeable – the person needs to know
what safe conditions are, have experience of a range of potentially unsafe
conditions and know how to convert the latter into the former. This does not
mean that the physical ability to make the change has to be possessed by
the person – it is not necessary to be or have worked or trained as a
scaffolder in order to inspect and comment on the safety of a scaffold
structure, for example.

The following observations have been of assistance in improving the

inspection skills :

 Those carrying out the inspections must be properly equipped to do so,

having necessary knowledge and experience, and knowledge of acceptable
performance standards and statutory requirements. They must also comply
fully with local site rules. Including the wearing of personal protective
equipments, as appropriate, so as to set an example as well as to protect
themselves.

29
 Develop and use checklists which will serve to focus attention and record
results, but must be relevant to the inspection.

 The memory should be relied upon. Interruptions will occur and memory
will fade, so notes must be taken and entered into the checklists, even if a
formal report is to be prepared later.

 It is desirable to read the previous findings before stating a new

inspection. This will enable checks to be made to ensure that previous
comments have been actioned as required.

 Questions should be asked, and the inspection should not rely upon
visual information only. The ‘ what if ’ question the hardest to answer. Site
workers are often undervalued as a source of information about actual
operating procedures and of opinions about possible correction. Also,
systems and procedures are difficult to inspect visually, and carrying out
an appropriate inspection depends upon the asking of the right questions
to those involved.

 Items found to be missing or defective should be followed up and

questioned, not merely recorded on the form. Otherwise, there is a danger
of inspecting a series of symptoms of a problem without querying the
nature of the underlying disease.

 All dangerous situations encountered should be corrected immediately

without waiting for the written report, if their existence constitutes a
serious risk of personal injury or significant damage to plant and
equipment.

 Where appropriate, measurements of conditions should be taken. These will

serve as baselines for subsequent inspections. What cannot be measured
cannot be managed.

 Any unsafe behaviour observed during inspection should be noted and

corrected, such as removal of machine guards, failure to use personal
protective equipment, as required or smoking in prohibited area.

 Risk assessments, method statements, safety plans and the like should be
checked as a part of the inspection process; since it is very important to
be able to demonstrate not only good site conditions, but also a trail of
action to the assessment process and the employer’s definite commitment
in taking the necessary actions to ensure safety.

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 4. PROJECT SAFETY PLANNING CONCEPTS
Safety planning is a tough subject because there are so many different
viewpoints and associated problems in any human endeavor, making clear
answers difficult to come by. We should look at the chaos around us, not
just to see the damage and improvements that have been made, but to see
that there has been real progress.

Two areas can be identified as the principal sources of construction – related

injury – defective machinery or equipment and management that condones
unsafe methods or practices. The justice system has been focusing on these
two areas, but the hazard information stay buried in court records instead of
being onto a safety information system. The construction industry’s entire
effort seems to be spent in defending hazardous circumstances over and
over again from court room to court room and not seeing that the hazard
prevention information submitted to court is given to the right parties so
that the lives can be saved in the future. Hundreds of people are injured
and killed from power-line contact with cranes, and many such cases have
been litigated against the same groups of dependants, but the word never
seems to get back to the right people to do something about the hazard in
their safety planning.

The justice system provides monetary relief for those injured by hazardous
circumstances if negligence rather than focusing upon the hazard. To further
complicate the matter, the tracking of hazards from one court to the next is
difficult because the justice system works on a case – by – case basis, and no
summaries are made unless unless the case is appealed. These appeals offer
only sketchy description of the hazard and concentrate upon the precedents
of law that established negligence.

There are many good safeguards and good safety practices that have not
gained universal acceptance in construction planning because their
effectiveness has been savagely attacked in litigation by defendants who want
to avoid liability for not using them. It deters the use of safeguard thus
causing more injury, more lawsuits and bad referrals over the same hazard,
which could have been easily controlled by the safeguard.

31
Construction personal injury lawsuits have created a great deal of hard
feeling in the area of hazard prevention. Rather than addressing hazard
prevention to reduce the necessity for litigation, defendants have placed
strong emphasis on tort reform to limit liability.

Construction safety planning is the key to preventing hazards, which prevent

injuries, which prevent litigation. Tort reform does nothing for hazard
prevention. Rather than tort reform, we need to require the justice system to
participate in the safety awareness. All hazard data developed by the litigants
should be made open to the public to make them aware of all the available
hazard information.

To meet the basic requirements of general health and welfare, safety

planning must have three basic mandates :

 Safe design
 Safe erection
 Safe use

The design of airports, bridges, canals, dams, electric transmission lines,

factories, harbours, highways, mines, commercial buildings, power plants, etc. will
definitely have an impact on the environment. As the public has become
more and more active in promoting the protection of our environment, it has
become aware of the needless death and injury that arise during
construction and is demanding that something be done about this. The
answer is to include safety in all planning aspects as an active participatory
function, not like a management ritual, as intelligent planning gives people an
opportunity to find new ways to eliminate hazardous circumstances by
bypassing old methods and practices.

A mostly overlooked advantage of having a safety engineer participate in

planning for design, erection, and use in cost-effectiveness. Too often the
financier, engineer, architect, manager and owner do not find safety important
until construction is under way or some accident occurs. In this context,
safety engineering is like trying to find the plugged outlet drain in the
bottom of a muddy pond when the pond is full of alligators. Including safety
in design is cheaper than negotiating change orders with contractors or
rebuilding a project after it is in use.

Safety planning must be incorporated within the Critical Path Method ( CPM )
network as a part of project scheduling so that hazard prevention
requirements can be addressed before dangerous circumstances arise and
costly interruptions occur. A good example is the delivery of heavy items that
must be lifted by a crane. If delivery is scheduled when the items can be
directly unloaded into place, redundant and dangerous handling, storage and

32
transportation are avoided. Handling items only once is safer and less costly
and can be programmed into the CPM network or other
computer – generated planning systems through efficient safety planning.

The safety engineer can provide detailed summaries of the accident

experience of similar facilities, the hazards to be avoided and how to control
the hazards effectively, which is very valuable when one is inputting data
into any planning network. This type of information binds the financier,
engineer, architect, manager, owner and safety engineer into a team.

In contemplating a new project, the following initial considerations should be

addressed :

1. Nature of the terrain :

- Soil Conditions
- Slope
- Vegetation
- Drainage
- Contamination ( toxic substances )
- Buried utilities / facilities

2. Environment :
- Surrounding neighbourhood
- Weather, climate and prevailing winds
- Surface utilities and easements
- Access roads and streets
- Aircraft flight patterns

3. Political considerations :
- Building restrictions and codes
- Ethnic relationships
- Community activities and goals

Hazard prevention needs to be incorporated into all initial concepts of

every construction project with the same priority given to environmental
concerns and costs. When hazard prevention is given the same priority as
cost, utility, and productivity in the conceptual planning stage, it sets
meaningful priorities for the design team. Adverse media coverage, political
action and litigation only arise after a hazardous circumstance raises its
ugly head or a disaster occurs.

33
Safety planning in the conceptual stage is the first stepping – stone on the
way towards a positive, proactive hazard prevention mindset that creates
an ongoing priority for safety through each stage of development and
construction. Safety planning does not need to create a voluminous
paperwork; it only needs an outline of anticipated hazards incorporated
into the general planning. In the early stages it only needs to be included
in the environmental impact statement.

The construction manager of a project may be an individual retained by

the construction management firm, a representative of the land-owner or
the developer, or a representative of the general or the prime contractor.
This individual must have supervision and authority over the general
contractor, subcontractors and all parties providing materials and services
and all other public or private activities that must be accommodated
within the scope of the construction project. Safety is a non – delegable
duty. It requires ongoing supervision of each subordinate level of
management to ensure that reasonable hazard prevention measures are
taken.

The construction manager’s safety planning duties should include the

following :

1. Preparation and publication of a Project Construction Safety Plan which

should :

 Establish and define a fast – track chain of command for resolution of

all hazard prevention issues that concern the safety of the workers or
other issues that have been identified or raised by those associated
with the project directly or indirectly

 Define the individual hazard prevention responsibilities of each member

of the construction management team; the safety training each must
complete; the working relationship of each with the developer, engineer,
architect and design group; and the scope and the authority of the
safety engineer’s duties and functions.

 Specify OSHA requirements and other specific and pertinent standards

that will be relied upon.

 Identify high – risk hazards such as power – line contacts, electrocution,

toxic substances, etc. and necessary control measures; and ensure that
hazardous conditions or circumstances identified by the engineer,
architect or developer are addressed and appropriate hazard prevention
measures are taken.

34
 Specify the types of current certificates of inspection to be produced
prior to commencement of operation or use for cranes, elevators, lifts,
and other equipments; specify necessary monitoring systems for the
detection of toxic or explosive substances and assure maintenance of
an ongoing log of these certificates, including expiration and renewing
dates, and the recordings of the monitoring systems.

 List machines, equipments and tools to be used on the project to

ensure that their inherent hazards are identified and safeguards
provided, using the following basic format :

o Type of equipment
o Manufacturer
o Model
o Year of manufacturing
o Inherent hazards and necessary safeguards
o Required equipment operator licenses, certificates, physical requirements,
training and other appropriate qualifications for drivers, crane operators,
special equipment operators, etc.

 List and define the construction methods that will be used for each
major phase of work and describes the process and safety procedures
to be incorporated.

 Assure that the Critical Path Method ( CPM ) and other documents
incorporate specific safeguards and assure that other types of planning
schedules are prepared that clearly define when special safety
requirements are needed so that necessary safeguards will be
programmed and not overlooked.

 Provide for the following administrative hazard prevention documents :

o Plans for the layouts of the temporary construction buildings and

facilities, including how the contractor will ensure safe use.

o Plans for traffic control and marking of hazards for haul roads,
highway intersections, railroads, utilities, bridges, restricted areas, etc.

o Details of fall – prevention and protection.

o Shoring systems for excavations and tunnelling.

35
o Site plans, including those for temporary power distribution systems
designed to avoid work areas used by cranes or other equipment that
can be raised into powerlines.

o Phase plans that include safe clearance procedures and permits for all
high – hazard activities

o Plans for hazard prevention surveys of the job site by competent

persons

o Plans for fire protection and action to take in the event of a fire.

o Plans for maintenance, cleanup and safe access and egress.

o Contingency plans for flooding and other severe weather conditions

o Emergency plans for obtaining medical assistance, ambulances and

directions for rescue operations.

o Procedures for accident investigations

2. Review of plans and specifications to identify the location and the

nature of potential hazards such as powerlines, underground utilities,
soil conditions, toxic wastes, common work areas and other hazardous
activities.

3. Review of specifications to identify appropriate safety standards and

special safety conditions

4. Establishment of criteria for qualifying bidders – contractors,

subcontractors, suppliers of equipment and services, etc. – who can
perform the work safely.

5. Conducting a pre-bid safety conference to acquaint qualified prospective

bidders with all safety requirements to prevent misunderstandings and
bring to their attention any proposed construction methods that would
be unsafe.

6. Awarding contracts to contractors, subcontractors, suppliers of equipment

and services who will conduct their work in the safest manner.

36
7. Conducting a pre-notice-to-proceed safety conference for contractors,
subcontractors, suppliers of equipment and services who will bring
personnel onto the construction project.

8. Requiring construction superintendents and / or foremen to prepare a

written safety plan for each major phase of the work, including hazard
analysis for high – risk hazards.

9. Seeing that change orders are issued if required to overcome specific

hazards that arise during construction.

10. Reviewing contractor’s shop drawings to make sure the design is safe;
and when a second opinion is needed, forwarding them to the
architect, engineer or design group.

11. Assuring that the entire construction management team receives

appropriate safety training.

12. Insisting upon immediate reporting of all injuries, death, and / or

property damage; and at the commencement of the project, appointing
on a standby basis an independent board of competent professionals,
who have no organizational biases or agendas, to investigate fatalities,
serious injuries, and major property damage.

13. Fast – track action to be taken when on – site hazards are

identified
and how they will be controlled.

14. To conduct hazard prevention surveys.

15. Anticipate hazardous construction methods.

16. To conduct periodic equipment tests.

17. Fall prevention and protection should be improvised.

18. Plan for fire – protection and dealing with fires.

19. Plan for traffic – control, including haul roads, highway

intersections,
railroads, utilities, bridges, etc.

20. Description and sketch of temporary power distribution system.

37
 21. Description of safe clearance procedures.

22. Emergency plans for notifying medical assistance, ambulance, and

direction of rescue operations.

23. Review and sign change orders to ensure that appropriate safety
requirements are included and that they have been prepared by a
competent person as required by OSHA.

24. Site plan for placement of temporary construction offices and

buildings

25. Provide technical assistance to construction personnel in

preparing
hazard analysis and safety plans for high – risk activities.

26. Provide superintendents and foremen with timely toolbox safety

topics, with enough explicit and easily understandable information that
workers will have a thorough understanding of the specific high – risk
hazards they will encounter during the week and the specific safety
requirements they will follow.

27. Conduct frequent and regularly scheduled hazard prevention

surveys to provide an ongoing overview and to make sure there is
continuing effective safety participation by the entire construction
management staff.

28. Regularly communicate with local OSHA representatives to keep

current updates on OSHA’ s requirements and priorities.

29. Investigate all injuries, accidents, deaths and property damage

that arise during construction activities.

30. Maintain a file of all safety plans, activity hazard analyses,

correspondence, minutes, logs, injury data, board and other reports, etc.

Many projects have been complete disasters because no safety plan was
developed. This chapter provided an overview of the basic and minimum
items to be included in a construction safety plan. As each project has
unique safety needs that go beyond the basic ones outlined in this chapter,
the content of each safety plan will defer according to specific safety
requirements that may have to be added. Teamwork is what counts in
making a safety plan, and the construction manager and the safety engineer

38
not only must work closely together in its formulation but must include the
thoughts of the whole construction management team.

5. CONSTRUCTION SAFETY MANUAL

Revision Status and Record of Changes

Rev. Effective Date Document Nature of Prepared by Approved by
No. reference Change ( Name ) ( Name )
number ( Designation ) ( Designation )

39
 SAFETY RULES AND REGULATIONS

1.0Company’s Safety Objectives.

1.1 Our Goal :

We strive for the highest of safety that is consistent with the best
practices amongst the best local and international contractors.

1.2 Safety Objectives:

1.2.1 To provide a safe and healthy environment of employment

for all staff and workers.
1.2.2 To have the basic requirements for safety and security that
the contractors, sub - contractors and all staff are expected
to comply with for our all projects.
1.2.3 To have better communication methodology in the event of
accidents / emergency.
1.2.4 To ensure that contractors / sub contractors / staff are aware
of all the rules and regulations with respect to site safety
and security and to comply with all statutory and legislative
requirements.
1.2.5 To ensure that the construction activities do not endanger
outsiders, clients, all workers, staff and surrounding
properties.

40
 1.2.6 This safety rules and regulations applies to all Contractors, Sub-
contractors, their employees, and Staff of clients.

2.0Basic Principle of Accident Prevention and Fundamental of Loss control.

2.1. An Unsafe act, an unsafe condition, an accident; all these are

symptoms of wrong planning in Project execution.
2.2. Certain sets of circumstances can be predicted to produce severe
injuries. These can be identified and controlled.
2.3. Safety should be managed like any other company function, e.g.
production quality. Management should enforce safety system by
setting achievable goals, by planning, organizing and controlling
to achieve them.
2.4. The key to successful implementation of safety system is fix
accountability.

3.0 Management Control

Eliminating Causes. Eliminating

Unsafe Conditions. Unsafe Actions

1. Safe-guarding all machines 1. Job Safety 1. Personal

equipments, work. Analysis. Adjustment.

2. Rectifying or preventing 2. Investigation 2. Safety education

defective conditions. of accidents. and training.

3. Safe arrangements 3. Inspection of 3. Supervision.

Processes, method plant & equipment.
Of work, etc.

4. Adequate and suitable 4. Recording and 4. Discipline.

illumination. tabulation of
data.

5. Suitable and safe 5. Analysis of

design in construction. data.

41
6. Adequate and suitable 6. 5S – An integrative
Ventilation. tool for better work
Management
7. Safe dress and personal
Protective equipments.

4.0. 5S – A Step Towards Excellence

This is a basic fundamental approach focusing on proper management and

control of the processes. It is a systematic tool for continual improvement

This implementation tool leads to higher performance, safety and quality

standards. The description of the same is described as stated below.

Japanese English Brief

 Seiri Get rid of clutter. Separate out what is
 Sort
needed for the operations.
 Seiton Organize the work area. Make it easy to
 Set In Order
find what is needed.
 Seiso  Shine Clean the work area. Make it shine.
 Seiketsu Establish schedules and methods of
 Standardize
performing the cleaning and sorting.
 Shitsuke Implement mechanisms to sustain the
gains through involvement of people,
 Sustain integration into the performance
measurement system, discipline, and
recognition.

42
The objectives of the 5S are establishing the protocols in order to having
visual order, organized processes - systems, cleanliness and excel in
standardization.

43
 5.0. COSTS OF ACCIDENTS.

Direct Costs :

o Medical.

o Compensation.

Indirect or hidden Costs :

o Time lost from work by injured.

o Loss in earning power.
o Economic loss to injured person’s family.
o Loss of time by fellow workers.
o Loss of efficiency due to break-up of crew.
o Lost time by supervision.
o Damage to tools and equipments.
o Spoiled work.
o Loss of Production.
o Overhead cost.( while work was disrupted )
o Damage to company’s reputation.
o Loss of faith by clients towards the company.
o Police inquires and court cases.
o Loss of confidence in other workers.

44
 6.0. SITE PLANNING AND LAYOUT.

A badly planned and untidy site is the underlying cause of many accidents
resulting from falls of materials and collisions between workers and plant or
equipment. Proper planning by management is an essential part of
preparation and budgeting for the safe and efficient running of a
construction operation.

Before the start of project, in the initial planning stage itself, thought needs
to be given to the following points :

o Sequence of work to be done.

o Any hazardous operations or processes.
o Access for workers on and around the site, which should be free from
obstructions and exposure to hazard such as falling materials, materials-
handling equipment and vehicles.
o Warning notices as required.
o Route for vehicular traffic for unloading of materials.
o Storage areas for materials and equipments.
o Location of construction machinery.
o Location of trade workshops.
o Lighting at places where work continues or workers pass after dark.
o Site security.
o Arrangement for collection and removal of waste.
o Need for low-voltage electric power suppliers for temporary lighting,
portable tools and equipments.
o Training needs for workers, supervisors and Engineers.

NOTE: The time spent on planning will make for a safer site and save
money.

APPLICATION TOOL: 5-S is a part of KAIZEN – leading to better work place

management. The work place here may vary according to industry to
industry. The practice started with the manufacturing industry, but all type of
business along with the construction industry and all the areas within can
realize greater benefits.

45
The expected benefits are :

Business Organisation

 Decrease in Overhead  Improve levels of quality

costs
 Rise in Profit sharing
 Helping to strategise
efficient planning and
future business
 Better Supply Chain
Management
 Low production cost
 Reduce unnecessary
stock.
 World class company.
communication and cross
functional information sharing
 Improve productivity - Higher work
efficiency.
 Improved Morale – Cheerful mood
 Better Teamwork
 Change in people’s mindsets.
 Increase production efficiency.
 More space and storage area.
 Confidence and recognition.
 Vital working atmosphere.- safe
environment.

Systematic
Organization

Customer
Expectations

Improved Quality
Standardising Improved Safety
Control Reduced costs
Self
-Discipline Consistent Deliveries
Control Improved Product/
Service Options

Sorting Visual
Scrubbing Placement
clean

46
 5S Performance Excellence Model

7.0. SITE TIDINESS

There are many accidents due to un-tidiness in the site namely due to
tripping, slipping or falling over materials and equipment which have been left
lying around and stepping on nails which have been left projecting from
timber or lying around.

Please ensure to take the following steps to prevent accidents :

o Clean up as you go. Do not leave rubbish and scrap uncleared or next
person to clear.

o Keep gangways, working platform and stairways clear of equipment and

materials not in immediate use.

o Clean up spilled oil and grease.

o Deposit waste materials at a pre – determined disposal point.

o Remove or hammer down any nails projecting from shuttering materials.

o All flammable liquids, including petroleum products, paints, thinner or other

flammable chemical / hazardous substances shall be properly marked and
stored if used in the course of work.

o Work areas shall be cleared of trashes and other combustible materials.

47
 8.0. MATERIALS HANDLING

Material handling is a job that every worker in industry performs, either as

his sole duty or as a part of his regular work, either by hand or with
mechanical help.

Mechanised material handling results in fewer injuries than manual.

Material handling problems :

Handling of material accounts for 20 to 25 percent of all occupational
injuries. Strains, sprains, fractures, etc. are the common injuries. They are
caused primarily by unsafe work practices such as improper lifting, carrying
too heavy loads, incorrect gripping, failing to observe proper foot or hand
clearances and failing to wear personal protective gears.

General points to be looked into when materials manually handled :

o Inspect materials for slivers,

jagged or sharp edges,
burrs, rough to slippery
surfaces.
o Grasp the object with a
firm grip.
o Keep fingers away from
pinch and shear points,
especially when setting
down materials.
o When handling lumber, pipe or
other long objects, keep
hands away from the end to prevent them from being pinched.
o Wipe off greasy, wet, slippery or dirty objects before trying to handle them.
o Keep hands free of oils and grease.

In most cases, gloves, hand leathers or other hand protectors should be used
to prevent hand injuries. Extra caution must be used when working near
moving or revolving machinery. In other cases, handles or holders can be
attached to objects themselves, such as handles for moving auto batteries
and tongs for feeding materials to metal forming machinery. When opening a
wire-bound or metal-bound base or box, a person should wear eye protection
equipped with side shields as well as stout gloves and take special care to
prevent the ends of the bindings from flying loose and striking the face of
48
body. The same precaution applies to handling coils or wire, strapping or
cable.

All moving machinery and shafts must be securely and permanently guarded.

The following points are to be checked for any hoisting machine.

o Condition of the hoisting wire rope.

o Condition of the hook. ( hoisting, opening, cracks, dents, etc. )
o Condition of the drum
and drum grooves.
o Condition of the brakes.
( shoe wear, touching of
the rivets on the drum )
o Broken, cracked, or chipped
rails of trolley or runway.
o Alignment of bridge
( screeching or squealing
wheels are indications of
misalignment )
o Condition of limit
switches.
o Condition of drum
controllers.
o Condition of gears.
( grinding or squealing
mean lack of lubrication
or foreign material in gear
teeth )
o Condition of end stops of
trolley and bridge
runways.
o Mechanical part loosened
by vibration ( bolts, screws,
keys, covers, etc. )
o Bumpy riding. ( worn
wheels )
o Warning or signal device.
o Lubrication.
o Condition of access
ladders to cabin or bridge
( loose, bent, or broken steps, etc. )

49
 9.0. ELECTRICAL SAFETY

The following hazards are within the use of electricity :

A. Primary Hazards :

a. Electrical Shock.

b. Burns.

c. Fire and explosions.

B. Secondary hazards ( Involuntary reflex action ) :

a. Persons falling from height.

b. Dropping of tools and objects.

Shock Protection :

o Electrical equipment ( HV ) should be isolated from approach.

o Large transformer with exposed terminals can be located in vaults or

fences enclosure to which only permitted persons can go.

o Panel boards, generators, large motors, batteries, bus – bars should be

enclosed or grounded.

o Access to dangerous electrical equipment should have warning signs.

Inside may be painted that will show when they are open.

o Insulation of parts routinely or accidentally touched by men. ( Knobs, dials,

handles, etc. )

o Rubber mats should be provided near switchboards.

o Rubber gloves and non – conductive shoes should be worn.

Basic Electrical Safety Rules :

50
o Only qualified person should do electrical work.

o Don’t work on live circuits. If necessary, use buddy system and or use
personal protective equipment.

o Do not touch bare conductor.

o Do not meddle with interlocks.

o Verify from terminal or switch box that a circuit is open.

o Check suitability of fuses and circuit breakers.

o Inspect cords of portable tools.

o Don’t use water on electrical equipment for extinguishing fire.

o Enclose un-insulated conductors.

o Don’t connect earthing to pipe lines.

o Don’t use wet clothing, shoes, wet feet during operation of electrical
equipment or maintenance.

o Use wooden board / rubber mat for insulation.

o Don’t use metal scales or tapes near electricity.

o Design grounding properly.

o Use lighting arrestors.

o Don’t connect loose wires into power points. Ensure that plugs are used
for the same.

o Don’t use pieces of wires / cables joined for any electrical connection.
Always use full length accessories.

o Ensure that cables / wires are fixed firmly and properly at a height and
not on floor.

o Put warning signs near the switchboard / distribution boxes with glow
lamp.

51
o Ensure that the switches are switched off after completion of work or
when work is closed for day or on holidays. It is preferable to switch off
the mains.

10.0. WORKING AT HEIGHTS

Falls of persons from a height and similarly of materials and objects

represents the most serious safety risk in the construction industry. A high
proportion of deaths are caused by falls. Many of the falls are from unsafe
working place or from unsafe means of access to working places.

Where work cannot safely be done from the ground or from the building or
structure being worked upon, then there should always be suitable and
sufficient scaffolding. This must be properly constructed of sound material
that is of adequate strength to provide both means of safe access and a
safe place of work.

Scaffolds should be erected, altered or dismantled only by competent persons

under supervision. After erection, scaffolds should be inspected at least once
a week and a written report on each inspection kept.

Irrespective of type of materials used for scaffolding, the main objective of all
scaffolding is that, it should be of adequate strength to support the weight
and stress, which the processes and workers will place upon it. It should be
securely anchored and stable and designed to prevent the fall of workers
and materials.

The base of scaffolding should be placed on firm and level ground and the
base plates at their feet rest on timber sole boards. These help to ensure
that the load carried by each leg is distributed over a fairly large area.
Never use materials that can shatter or move like bricks and broken paving
stones as support for vertical members.

The scaffold boards, planks,

perforated steel planks, which
make up a working platform
should rest squarely and
evenly to prevent the risk of
tripping. Too much overhang
will cause the working
platform to trip if stepped on
it and too little say less than
50 mm will result in
dislodging of it. Normally it

52
should have three supports to prevent it bending or sagging. The space
between working platform and the face of the building should be as small as
possible. The width of a working platform should be sufficient for the work,
which is to be carried out from it.

Normally recommended widths are:

o Not less than 60 cms if used for footing only.

o Not less than 80 cms if used also for stacking of materials.
o Not less than 1.10 m if used for support of a trestle platform.

It is necessary to provide
guard-rails and toe-boards to
prevent accidental falling
down resulting in fatal
accidents. Both should be
fitted on the inside of the
vertical members.
Guard-rails should be between
90 cms and 115 cms above
the platform to prevent from
easily falling over or under
the rail. Toe-boards which are
intended to prevent material
being knocked over the edge
of the platform, must rise at least 15 cms above the working platform.

There is often need to provide sheeting, netting to prevent materials falling

from the scaffold into the street or public places or surrounding working
areas.

When working at heights, ensure that workers wear safety belt and
helmet.

Ladder is frequently used as a means to work at heights. As a ladder is

readily available and inexpensive, its limitations are easily overlooked.

The ladder slipping at the base or at the top causes more than half of
ladder accidents. Hence make sure that the foot of ladder rests on firm and
level base. Never wedge one side of the ladder up if the ground is uneven. If
possible, level the ground or bury the foot of the ladder. If ground is soft,
put down a board.

53
The head of ladder should rest against a solid surface able to withstand the
loads imposed on it or use a ladder stay. Make sure that ladder is lashed
or footed before workers climb it.
Safe Use of Ladders :

o Make sure there are no overhead power

lines with which the ladder might make
contact.
o Wooden ladders with wire-reinforced
stiles should be used with the wired
side facing away from worker. Wire tie
rods should be beneath and not above
the rungs.
o The ladder should extend at least 1 m
above the landing place or above the
highest rung on which one has to
stand, unless there is a suitable
handhold to provide equivalent support.
o One should be able to step off the
ladder at the working place without
being required to climb over or under
guard- rails or over toe-boards. However
the gaps in guard-rails and toe-boards
should be as small as possible.
o Never use ladder which is too short and
never place it on a box, bricks or an oil drum to gain extra height.
o Face the ladder when climbing or descending.
o Ensure that there is sufficient space behind the rungs to provide a
proper footing.
o For extension of ladders, make sure to leave an overlap of at least two
rungs for sections up to about 5 m in length and at least three rungs
for sections of more than 5 m in length.
o Always raise and lower extension ladders from the ground and make sure
that hooks or locks are properly engaged before climbing.
o Make sure that footwear is free from mud or grease before climbing up.
o If possible carry tools in pockets or in holster or bag when climbing up
so as to leave both hands free to grip the stiles.
o Do not carry materials while climbing up the ladder. Instead use a hoist
line.
o Do not stretch too far, instead move the ladder.
o Ladders need to be inspected regularly by a competent person and
damaged ladders removed from service.
o A ladder should not be hung from its rungs or from one stile, as this
tends to pull out the rungs.

54
o Timber ladders should be kept in areas with good ventilation, which are
free from excessive heat or dampness.
o Aluminium ladders should be given an adequate protective coating when
they are likely to be subjected to acids, alkalis or other corrosive
substance.
11.0. PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENTS ( PPE )

The working conditions in construction are in most cases such that, despite
all preventive measures in project planning and work design, some personal
protective equipment ( PPE ), such as helmet, hearing and eye protection, boots
and gloves are needed to protect workers.

Some PPE such as safety helmets and footwear should be used on all
construction sites. The need for other PPE will depend on the sort of work
undertaken.

A. Head Protection.

Falling objects, overhead loads and sharp projections are to be found

everywhere on construction sites. A small tool or bolt falling from even a
small height can even to fatal accident. Head
injuries often occur when moving and working in
bent position or when arising from such a
position.

Safety helmets protect the head effectively

against most of these hazards and it is
mandatory for all ( including managers,
engineers, supervisors ) to wear helmet wherever
they are on site and particularly when in an
area where overhead work is going on. These
areas designated as “hard-hit” areas, should be clearly marked with safety
signs at entrances and other suitable places. The same rule applies to
Visitors. Only Safety helmets, which have been tested to National or
International standards, should be used. A chinstrap on the helmet prevents
it from falling off and should be used.

B. Foot Protection :

Foot injuries are caused due to penetration of the

sole by nails, which are not removed from working place
and those due to crushing by falling materials. Wearing
protective footwear can eliminate this. All safety shoes or
boots should have an impenetrable sole and uppers with
a steel toecap.
55
C. Hand and Skin protection :

Hands are extremely vulnerable to accidental injury and in construction more

injuries are caused to hands and wrists than to any other part of the body.

Among the common hazardous tasks where hand protection should be used
are :

o Operation involving contact with rough, sharp or jagged surfaces.

o Contact with or splashes from hot, corrosive or toxic substances such as
bitumen and resins.
o Working with vibratory machines such as pneumatic drills where some
cushioning of the vibrations is desirable.
o Electrical work in humid and cold weather.

Skin trouble is common in the construction industry. Contact dermatitis is

the common type of skin diseases. It feels itchy and looks red, scaly and
cracked, and can become so bad that it affects ability to continue working.
Wet cement is one of the main skin hazards, but other substances like tar
and pitch, which can cause skin cancer after prolonged exposure, paint
thinners, acids for tiles cleaning and epoxy resins. In addition to gloves, use
barrier creams and wear long-sleeved shirts, full-length trousers and rubber
boots.

D. Eye Protection.

Eye injuries occur as a result of flying materials, dust or radiation while

carrying out following jobs :

o Braking, cutting, drilling, dressing of

rock or laying of stone, concrete and
brickwork with hand or tools.
o Hacking of concrete surfaces.
o Chipping and dressing painted or
corroded surfaces.
o Cutting off or cutting out cold rivets
and bolts.
o Dry grinding or surfaces with powder
grinders.

56
 o Welding and cutting of metals.
o Cutting of Granite, Marble, Tiles, etc.

For the above hazards, personal eye protection ( goggles, safety glasses or
shields ) are to be used.

E. Respiratory Protection :

On construction sites, there are often tasks where

harmful dust, mist or gas may be present, such as :

o Rock crushing and handling.

o Sandblasting.
o Dismantling buildings containing asbestos
insulations.
o Welding or cutting materials with coatings
containing zinc, lead nickel or cadmium.
o Paint spraying.
o Blasting

In the above situations , a respirator has to be used and workers have

to be trained in its use, cleaning and maintenance.

The simplest masks are disposable paper types, which is effective against
dusts nuisance.

There are three types of half-face mask with filters :

o For protection against airborne particles, e.g. stone dust, with a coarse
filter fitted in the cartridge.
o For protection against gases and fumes, e.g when using paints
containing solvents, with a filter containing activated carbon.
o A combination filter containing both a dust and a gas filter. Cartridges
must be replaced regularly.

A full- facemask can be fitted with the same types of filter and it also
protects the eyes and face.

F. Safety Harness :

The majority of fatal accidents in construction are due to falls from

heights. Where work can not be done from a scaffold or ladder or from a
mobile access platform, the wearing of a safety harness may be the only
way to prevent serious injury or death.

57
Another common situation in which a safety harness may be used is
maintenance work on steel structures such as bridges and pylons.

A safety harness and its lanyard must :

o Limit the fall to a drop of not more than 2 m by means of an inertia

device.
o Be strong enough to support the body weight.
o Be attached to a strong structure through a firm anchorage point
above the place at which one is working.

MAKE A HABIT OF USING THE SAFETY HARNESS WHEN WORKING

AT ANY HEIGHT.

58
 12.0. RESPONSIBILITIES

Project Manager ( PM ) :

o Formulate an appropriate safe work method ( SWM ) statements for the

job before the job commencement and provides supervision at job sites
to ensure that the minimum safety and security standards are met
when job progresses.

o Follow the specific work method ( SWM ) and ensures Permit-to-Work

systems is in place for hazardous operations and strictly adhered to
the compliance of rules and regulations as per statutory or legislative
requirements.

o Ensure that injury / accident reports are submitted to the management.

o Ensure that appropriate safety corrective actions taken immediately to

prevent any future occurrence in the absence of contractor safety
officer, at the same time to advise on the accident statistics and take
the appropriate actions.

Safety Engineer / Supervisor :

o Implement and maintains an internal safety management systems (SMS)

o Brief subcontractors on general safety procedures.

o Maintain contractor injury / accident statistics. Participates in contractor

injury / accident investigations or Job safety / Hazard Analysis ( JSA ) and
recommend remedial measures and actions at site.

o Ensure safe conduct of work activities, permit requirements, compliance

with all statutory regulations and promotes safe and healthy work
environment for workers.

59
o Ensure that all workers are issued the appropriate personal protective
equipment ( PPE ) relevant to his job, train the workers and ensure
workers use their PPE and observe safety rules while at work.

o Initiate toolbox meeting on regular basis, keeps proper safety records

and conduct injury / accident investigations and prepares reports to the
relevant authority.

o Ensure to collect safe work method from the contractor.

o Statutory Inspection Certificates for lifting machine, cranes, power tools,
scaffoldings and Compressors.

o To obtain names of all qualified and approved operators of heavy

machines, cranes, power tools and other skilled trades including
Licensed Electrical worker, lifting supervisor and scaffolding supervisor.

60
 13.0. INCIDENT INVESTIGATION, ANALYSIS AND REPORTING

A. Incident Investigation and Analysis :

o It is the responsibility of the contractor to render first - aid treatment

to the injured in the event of an accident to one of their staff or
workers. If an injury is life threatening, contractor shall engage
emergency medical assistance without delay and verbally inform site
safety supervisor.

o All incidents shall be investigated immediately to determine the causes

and take necessary actions to prevent such occurrence again. Incident /
accident investigation reports shall be submitted to the PM /
Management with in 48 hours of the occurrence.

o All incident / accident to be investigated by the safety team comprising

of the PM, Safety supervisor / Engineer, contractor’s PM, and any other
person who has witnessed the event.

B. Reporting of Incident / Accident occurred in Project site :

o Incident / accident must be reported as soon as possible. The

Contractor shall submit such claims for medical or workmen
compensation with the insurance company in accordance with the terms
and condition of the project insurance policy.

C. Incidents Communications Procedures :

To report all injuries, fires, chemical spills, dangerous occurrence, etc. as

follows :

o Personal reporting.

61
 o Reporting by phone.

14.0. EMERGENCY PREPARATIONS

A. In the event of fire outbreak ( such as fire involving workers’ quarters ):

o RAISE ALARM- shout “fire, fire, fire” to alert others near by to inform
them of the happening and to get help.

o CHECK for any casualties , and if there are, conduct rescue and give
first-aid treatment immediately and get someone to CALL 101 for
assistance.

o TRY to put off the fire by using fire extinguisher to PREVENT

spreading.
o INFORM any of the site management staff.
o EVACUATE from the scene if fire is beyond control or lives are in
danger.
o Respective supervisors are to count their men to check for missing
person.
o Follow instructions given by Site management staff.
o Site management informs company safety officer, if any, immediately.

B. Other Emergency ( such as formwork or trench or structure collapse )

o RAISE ALARM ------ “ help, help, help ”

o CHECK for any casualties , if there are, conduct rescue and get
someone to CALL 101 for assistance.

62
 o INFORM site management staff.
o EVACUATE people from the scene if lives are in danger.
o Respective supervisors are to count their men to check for missing
person.
o Follow instructions given to you by the site management.
o Site management to inform company safety officer, if any, immediately

15.0. MONTHLY REVIEW MEETINGS

A safety review meeting has to be conducted at site at planned interval.

Both contractor’s and clients staff including the Project Manager and
safety officer has to attend the meeting.

Agenda for the meeting will be, but not limited to :

1. Confirmation of minutes of last review meeting
2. Sufficiency of safety measures taken at site
3. Any accident - Major / Minor
4. Root cause of accident and preventive measures taken
5. Negligence from site staff, labourers in following safety measures
6. Any other measures taken to improve safety at the site

The minutes of meting has to be prepared and circulated to all present

including a copy to General Manager of the company.

63
 6. ORGANISATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY POLICY

The Policy shall be made known to all employees and others involved
with the organisation’s construction activities through display at
conspicuous locations at site and through discussions within the
departments.

The concerned OH & S Manager/ COS Manager will make the policy
available to the public on request.

1.1 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH & SAFETY OBJECTIVES :

In order to meet the requirements of the Organization’s Occupational Health &

Safety Policy the following objectives have been set :

1. Minimize risk to our employees and other interested parties who may be
exposed to OH & S risks associated with our activities.

2. Continual improvement of the OH & S Management System.

3. Reducing the frequency of all accidents and incidents and minimize the days
lost.

64
 4. Train and retrain the Site Personnel for enhancing their competence and
expertise.

5. Develop use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and improve safety

culture.

6. Integrate OH & S with other business processes.

ROLES & RESPONSIBILITIES :

Head of OH & S :
The Head of OH & S will ensure that:
 Demonstrating his commitment and participating in the initiatives designed
for continual improvement of Occupational Health & Safety related activities
at Organization level.

 To meet the targeted commitment under OH & S Policy and objectives.

 The role of the Management Representative is to liaison with the Top

Management about the communication on the system of OH & S
Management and obtains the views expressed for implementation of the OH &
S Management System in the organization.

 To communicate the decisions made in Management Review Group to all

Project Sites for effectiveness of OH & S Management System.

OH & S MANAGER/ OFFICER :

The OH & S Manager/officer will be responsible for: -

 Ensuring that all of the Occupational Health, Safety and Welfare, measures
described in this plan are complied with throughout the duration of the
contract.
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  Ensuring that OH & S legislation, guidance notes and industry standards are
available for project reference.

 Compiling and maintaining accurate, accident statistics, incident reports

and safety training records.

 Reviewing and ensuring that the procedures contained in this plan are
revised as required.

 Ensuring that where OH & S training needs have been identified, suitable
and effective training is delivered sufficient to satisfy those identified needs,

 Ensuring that all persons, other than infrequent visitors, receive induction
training, prior to the issue of their access control passes.

 Monitoring the project management systems to ensure that the

arrangements established adequately address, the Occupational Health &
Safety and Welfare.

HEAD CORPORATE OFFICE SERVICES ( COS ) :

 He is responsible for providing safety culture and hygienic conditions at Head

Office.
 Demonstrating his commitment and participating in initiatives designed to
continuously improved Occupational Health & Safety Performance and
achieve total safety culture in Head Office.
 Ensuring that all operations under his control are adequately assessed,
planed, supervised, monitored and reviewed so as to allow them to be
executed safely and without risk to health.
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  Ensuring that all personnel under his control have attended induction
training and are adequately informed about foreseeable hazards, preventive
of precautionary measure and instructed on the safe system of work to be
employed.
 Conducting ongoing Occupational Health and Safety surveillance as they go
about there day to day work and taking immediate action to remedy any
unsafe practices or other non-conformances observed or reported to them for
continual improvement of OH & S Management System at Head Office.
 Always assure that hygienic conditions of food and potable water are always
maintained with good sanitation facilities.

ERGONOMICS :

Employees can minimize work related musculo-skeletal disorders ( MSDs ). Many

such injuries can cause by lifting, pulling, reaching, pushing and bending. Back
pain, wrist, tendonitis and carpel tunnel syndromes may all stem from work related
over use. To minimize MSD by properly make arrangements at workstation and
selecting the appropriate tools for that job. Simple solutions often work best. Work
place changes to reduce pain and cut the risk disability need not cost a fortune.

For e.g. :

 Adjustments at desk and chairs, combined with ergonomic training can

make a huge difference.

 Change in the height or orientation of the product.

 Provide training on lifting of material offer brakes for the worker who
continuously used keyboard to rest muscles.

ERGONOMIC PROGRAMME :

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Depending on the work place, the scope of ergonomics programme will vary. The
major element of effective ergonomic programme include

 Management and employee participation.

 Hazard awareness and identification.

 Training

 Hazard analysis, prevention and control.

 Follow above steps to make sure that you have addressed all of these
elements.

 Look at injury and illness record to find jobs where problem occurred.

 Talk with employees to identify specific task that contribute to pain and lost
workdays, and ask what changes they think will make a difference.

 Encourage the employees to report symptoms and establish medical

management system to detect problems early.

 Find ways to reduce repeated motions, forceful hand exertions, prolonged

bending, or working above shoulder height.

 Reduce or eliminate vibrations and sharp edges or handles that dig into the
skin.

 Rely on equipment (instead of muscles) or heavy or repetitive lifting

Evaluate your programme to identify the areas of improvement

ERGONOMICS: A STEP-BY-STEP PROGRAM DEVELOPER :

MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS (MSDs) :

What are musculo-skeletal disorders (MSDs) ?

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Musculo-skeletal disorders (MSDs) are injuries and disorders of the soft tissues
(muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints, and cartilage), spinal discs, and nervous
systems. They can affect nearly all tissues, including the nerves and tendon
sheaths, and most frequently involve the arms and back.

Occupational safety and health professionals refer to these disorders by a variety of

names, including cumulative trauma disorders (CTD’s), repeated trauma, repetitive
stress injuries ( RSIs ), and occupational over exertion syndrome. These painful and
often disabling injuries develop gradually over weeks, months, and years. MSDs
usually result from exposure to multiple risk factors that can cause or exacerbate
the disorders, not from a single event or trauma such as a slip, trip, fall, collision,
or entanglement.

MSDs can cause a number of conditions, including pain, numbness, tingling, stiff
joints, difficulty moving, muscle loss, and sometimes paralysis. Frequently, workers
lose time from work to recover, some never regain full health.

These disorders include:

 Carpal tunnel syndrome

 Trigger finger

 Tendinitis

 Herniated spinal disc

 Tension neck syndrome

 Rotator cuff-syndrome

 Sciatica

 Reynaud’s syndrome

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  Low back pain

 DeQuervin’s disease

Why are work – related musculo – skeletal disorders a problem?

There are many reasons for considering work-related MSDs a problem, including
the following:

 They are among the most prevalent lost-time injuries and ill nesses in
almost every industry.

 MSDs, specifically those involving the back, are among the most costly
occupational problems.

 Job activities that may cause musculo-skeletal disorders span diverse

workplaces and job operations.

 They may cause a great deal of pain and suffering among afflicted workers.

 Work-related MSDs may decrease productivity and the quality of products

and services. Workers experiencing aches and pains on the job may not be
able to do quality work.

 Because musculo-skeletal disorders have been associated with non-work

activities (e.g. sports) and medical conditions (e.g. renal disease, rheumatoid
arthritis), it is difficult to determine the proportion due solely to occupation.
For example, in the general population, non-occupational causes of low
back pain are probably more common than workplace causes. However,

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 even in these cases, the musculo-skeletal disorders may be aggravated by
workplace factors.

MUSCULO-SKELETAL DISORDERS : EMPLOYER AND EMPLOYEE

INFORMATION :

The following information may be used for employee MSD training. “Ergonomics:
What employees need to know” covers basic information that employees need to
know for the early identification of musculo-skeletal disorders.

Note: You may reproduce this information to use during MSD training sessions.

Following “Ergonomics”: what employees need to know,” you will find detailed
information on common musculo-skeletal disorders. The first part of every MSD
topic provides in-depth information for the employer or trainer. The second part of
the MSD topic is briefer and may be copied and used as an employee informational
handout.

Engineering controls :

Engineering controls are physical changes to a job that control or reduce MSD
hazards and take into account the capabilities and limitations of employees.
Engineering controls should be selected based on their reliability and effectiveness
in eliminating or reducing the workplace hazard (risk factors) giving rise to the
MSD. These controls are preferred because they are reliable, consistent, effective,
measurable, not dependent on human behavior (that of managers, supervisions or
workers) for their effectiveness, and they do not introduce new hazards into the
process.

There are many choices of engineering controls available to address ergonomic

problems. The decision will depend on how much you want to spend, how

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permanent the solution, how extensive a production process change is needed, and
employee acceptance and preference.

Example of engineering controls that are used to address ergonomic hazards are
workstation modifications, changes to the tools or equipment used to do the job,
facility redesigns, altering production processes, and/ or changing or modifying the
materials used. Engineering controls range from very simple to complex :

 Putting blocks under a desk to raise the work surface for a taller than
average worker,

 Providing a lumbar support pillow or rolled-up towel to a video display

unit (VDU) operator, or

 Redesigning an entire facility to enhance productivity, reduce product

defects, and reduce workplace MSDs.

Consider the following engineering control strategies to reduce ergonomic risk

factors for your problem jobs:

 Changing the way materials, parts, and products can be transported – for
example, using mechanical assist devices to relieve heavy load lifting and
carrying tasks or using handles or slotted hand holes in packages
requiring manual handling.

 Eliminating awkward postures (leaning over workstation) by putting

blocks under a workbench to raise the work surface height.

 Changing the process or product to reduce worker exposures to risk

factors- examples include maintaining the fit of plastic molds to reduce the
need for manual removal of flashing, or using easy-connect electrical
terminals to reduce manual forces.

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  Eliminating awkward postures of the neck and reducing stress on the
back by putting a telephone book under a VDT monitor.

 Modifying containers and parts presentation, such as height adjustable

material bins.

 Changing workstation layout, which might include using height adjustable

workbenches or locating tools and materials within short reaching
distances.

 Reducing awkward postures of the neck by removing light bulbs that were
causing glare on the VDT monitor screen.

 Changing the way parts, tools and materials are to be manipulated-

examples include using fixtures (clamps, vise-grips, etc) to hold work
pieces to relieve the need for awkward hand and arm positions or
suspending tools to reduce weight and allow easier access.

 Changing tool designs—for example, pistol handle grips for knives to

reduce wrist bending postures required by straight-handle knives or
squeeze-grip-actuated screwdrivers to replace finger-trigger-actuated
screwdrivers.

 Changes in materials and fasteners (using lighter-weight packaging

materials to reduce lifting loads).

 Changing assembly access and sequence by removing physical and visual

obstructions when assembling components to reduce awkward postures or
static exertions.

Provide good handles for grasping loads. It is also important that work tools and
equipment be ergonomically designed. Most hand tools are designed for only
occasional use, not for repetitive use over prolonged periods. When acquiring tools

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for regular use in an industrial setting, you should consider the following ergonomic
features:

 Tools should be lightweight and handles designed to allow a relaxed grip

so the wrists can remain straight.

 Tools should be designed for use with either hand and be of various sizes
so they are appropriate for all workers.

 Tool handles should be shaped so that they contact the largest possible
surface of the inner hand and fingers. Avoid tool handles with sharp edges
and corners.

FOURTEEN THINGS YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT BACK PAIN :

1. Back pain is as mystifying today as it was decades ago. Despite excellent tests
and procedures, modern back specialists admit that up to eighty percent of all
cases have no clear physiological causes. In fact, many pain-free people show
bulging or herniated discs in x-rays.

2. Also, despite everything we know about back pain, ninety percent of us are going
to have a disabling episode at some point in our lives.

3. It is difficult to predict which individual person will develop back pain. Strength,
fitness, and back x-rays are not good predictors. One major study concluded
that the only predictors were :

1) whether the person has had back pain before, and

2) whether the person smokes cigarettes.

4. On the other hand, job characteristics are predictors of back pain. Jobs with
heavy or frequent lifting are high risk, as are jobs involving prolonged standing
or sitting.

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5. There is little agreement on how to do lifting with little risk. Lifting with the legs
is easy on the back, but hard on the legs and muscles. Lifting with the back puts
strain on the disks but is less fatiguing.

6. So-called ‘ back belts ’ have not been proven to strengthen backs or prevent back
problems. On one hand, they may help remind wearers to lift carefully. On the
other hand, they may give wearers a false sense of greater strength, encouraging
them to lift more than they should.

7. People who sit for long periods are at risk for back disorders. The two greatest
problems seem to be 1) sitting upright or forward, and 2) not changing position.

8. An upright posture with a ninety-degree hip position is actually unhealthy, from

the perspective of the inter-vertebral discs. For a number of reasons, the discs
experience more pressure--- and the pressure is more lopsided--- than while
standing.

So it is a good idea to sit with the help joints somewhat straightened. Yes, this
resembles a slouch, with your rear end scotched ( a technical term!) forward in the
seat. A supported slouch may be healthy in the long run.

Forward-tilt chairs support this posture, but so do chairs with level seats and
reclined backrests.

9. Even if the hip joints aren’t somewhat straightened, sitting in a reclined posture
is healthier than sitting upright.

This is because reclined sitting puts more of your weight onto the chair/s backrest.
If the chairs backrest holds up more weight, the discs in the lower back hold up

75
less weight. (Well-designed armrests also take some of the upper body weight from
the discs).
And reclined sitting lets the back muscles relax.

10. All sitters should move around. In addition to helping the muscles relax and
recover, this alternately squeezes and un-squeezes the inter-vertebral discs,
which results in better filtration of fluids into and out of the cores of the discs.
Discs stay plumper and , in the long run, healthier.
One implication: Chairs should follow the sitter as he/she changes postures.

11. The most important chair adjustments are

 Seat height from the floor—the feet should be able to rest flat on the floor.
(However, this doesn’t mean the feet should always be flat on the floor.
Legs should be free to stay in different positions).
 Depth from the front of the seat to the backrest—sitters should be able to
use the backrest without any pressure behind the knees.
 Lumbar support height—every person is shaped differently.

12. The ‘ proper ’ chair adjustments and chair posture are greatly influenced by the
rest of the work area. In particular, the eyes can affect posture, especially if the
work material is too far, low, or high. Hand positions (especially working far from
the body) can also affect body position, particularly the posture of the upper
back and neck.

13. Upper back and neck discomfort is often related to upward viewing angles (for
example, monitors above eye height) or leaning, twisting, or reaching (for
example, looking down and sideways at a document on the desk, or reaching for
a mouse).

14. For people with existing, chronic, difficult back pain: all the above rules are
optional because each back pain case in different. Rules for prevention of back

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 pain or treatment of medium- level cases may be completely inappropriate for
individual cases of severe back pain. Before accepting any advice, trust the
“ advice ” of your own body’s discomfort reactions.

ATTEMPT TO DE – MYSTIFY ALL THOSE CHAIR ADJUSTABILITY

OPTIONS :

Many of the features described here allow a chair to adjust to a given posture or
body size, but it is important to remember the importance of postures change.
Adjustability features should allow, rather than in habit free posture change.

Seat height adjustability :
Seat depth adjustability :
This allows the user to adjust the chair so that
his/her feet or are on the floor, or the works
surface or keyboard is at an appropriate
height, or preferably both.
Achieved either by backrest in out adjustability
or a sliding seat pan, this changes the front-to
–back depth of the seat.

Backrest angle adjustability : This refers to changing the angle of the

backrest relative to the angle of the seat.
Although this often is done with an adjustment
mechanism, it can also be achieved through
the use of flexing materials or springs in the
chair shell. Backrest angle adjustability allows
the chair to support different degrees of
recline, which in turn transfers some upper-
body weight to the chair backrest and lightens

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Chair recline, or tilt :
Seat pan angle adjustability : This generally refers to changing the forward-
the load on the lower back’s inter-vertebral
discs. Backrest angle adjustability also
increases the angle between the torso and the
thighs, which causes the lower back to curve
inward. This inward curve, called “lordosis,”
results in less pressure on the discs than a flat
spinal shape.
This changes the angle of the entire seat
relative to the floor. As with backrest angle
adjustability, a reclined chair transfers some
upper-body weight to the backrest of the chair.
There are two main tilt geometries. One is
column tilt, in which the chair pivots at the top
of the base post and lifts the knees slightly
while the back descends. The other is knee tilt,
in which the pivot point is forward of the post,
nearer the knees. In a knee tilt chair, the knee
lift is negligible, but the back (and head)
descend more than in a column tilt chair.
back angle of the seat. It consists of a choice of
fixed angle, rather than a free-floating recline
(above). Often, this feature provides forward
tilt, in which the thighs slope downward. The
main purpose of forward tilt is to open the
angle between the trunk and thighs, inducing
lordosis and reducing disc pressure.
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Armrests : These support the arms, reducing the work of
the shoulders and possibly the upper arms.
Armrests can, however, be used
inappropriately by inhibiting free motion of the
arms during activities such as typing.

Height-adjustable armrests : These help avoid the problems of too-high

armrests, which result in elevated shoulders
and pressure on the undersides of the elbows
and forearms, and too-low armrests, which
require the worker to slump or lean to one side
to use them. Height adjustable armrests also
can keep armrests out of the way during typing
or other activities requiring free motion.

Width-adjustable armrests : This kind of adjustability changes the

distance between armrests. Armrests that
are close to the body can help avoid
splayed elbows, which in turn cause the
wrists to bend to the side during activities
such as keying. A maintenance-adjustable
mechanism requires leaving room for the
hips and therefore does not permit the
close positions that at will adjustment
allow.

Padded armrests : These potentially avoid uncomfortable

pressure on the undersides of the forearms
and elbows.

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 Lumbar support : This is intended to prevent, to the extent
possible, the flattening of the lumbar spine
that occurs in most people when seated.
Lumbar support is usually done through
gentle curves in the backrest.

Backrest height adjustability : This refers to a change in height of the lumbar

support area of the chair backrest, although
this feature is often interpreted to mean a
change in height of the entire backrest. This
feature accommodates preferences by different
workers regarding where and how the lumbar
support curve contacts the back.

Lumbar depth adjustability : This affects the size and sometimes the
firmness of the lumbar support curve in a
chair’s backrest. Like backrest height
adjustability, it accommodates different
preferences and body shapes.

TEN THINGS YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT HAND AND WRIST PAIN :
[ Also called Cumulative Trauma Disorder ( CTDs ) ]

1. There are many kinds of CTD medical conditions that have ergonomics
causes among office workers, including carpal tunnel syndrome and various
kind of tendon inflammation. Some other disorders, such as myofascial pain
syndrome, fibromyalgia, thoracic outlet syndrome, and reflexive sympathetic
dystrophy are believed to be the results of cumulative trauma in some cases.

Because of the complexity and subtle differences between disorders,

physicians don’t always diagnose CTD’s correctly or easily. The most
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 knowledgeable medical specialists for CTD’s are generally considered to be
physiatrists, or physical medicine specialists.

2. CTD’s can happen when there is very little repetitious work. Besides
repetition, other possible causes include:
 Holding one position. Muscles that hold a body part in position for long
periods are more prone to fatigue than muscles that move a body part
around.
 Non-neutral postures. In this context,” posture” is the position of an
individual joint, not overall body posture. Any posture significantly
different from “neutral” is considered to be at risk for musculo-skeletal
distress. “Neutral” is considered to be the position about halfway
through the available range of motion for the joint.
 Localized pressure. Direct pressure on nerves or tendons can cause
damage in the long run. The wrist is one location of concern. The elbow
(the funny-bone or crazy-bone nerve) is another.
 Use of force. Even small exertions can cause stress if small muscles are
involved. Sudden, fast motions involving a jerk or snap.
 Cold temperatures.
 Vibration, as with hand-held power tools or whole-body vibration as
caused by driving heavy equipment.

3. Keeping these causes in mind, some of the rules of thumb for preventing
CTD’s are:
 Break up repetitious work.
 Relax. Don’t use your muscles to hold your hands or shoulders in a
particular position. Keep your limbs and shoulders limp as much as
possible, even during short pauses.

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  Use moderate postures for individual joints. Stay away from positions
near the extremes of your joint’s range of motion—the most neutral
joint position is about halfway.
 Minimize contact with hard or sharp surfaces. This is especially
important at the wrists and elbows.
 Don’t use too much force. Notice any exertions you have to make and
see if they can be eliminated. “Exertions” don’t have to involve breaking
into a sweat. They can be subtle, such as pulling a hard-to-reach
drawer of lifting a heavy file.
 Move with an even motion. Avoid snapping the wrist or jerking against
outside forces.
 Keep your hands and fingers warm. Consider gloves or even fingerless
gloves.
 Break up exposures to vibration.

4. “Fitting the physical workspace to the worker” is often touted as the best way
to prevent CTD. This is an incomplete view. Although physical workstation
design, physical tool design, and adjustability are important, there are, many
other work-related factors. Three less tangible but extremely important
factors are job design, stress control, and individual work style.

Examples of job design are infrequent or inflexible breaks, low activity variety,
and fast pace. Examples of stressors are deadlines, monitoring, and bad
management. Examples of harmful work styles (in the context of computer
work, for instance) are how hard the individual’s hits keys, how the individual
holds his/her wrists, and where the individual places the mouse.

5. Most CTD’s are preventable and curable if caught early. They key is to notice
trouble when it starts—and do something about it. Early signs may include
persistent pain, tingling, numbness, burning, or aching.

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6. Some people get CTD’s because their bodies are vulnerable to them. For
example, carpal tunnel syndrome seems to be related to diabetes, overweight,
thyroid conditions, hormone conditions such as those caused by
hysterectomy or removal of ovaries, rheumatoid arthritis, previous injuries,
and other conditions. Smoking may also increase the risk. Anyone with any of
these conditions—particularly obesity—should be especially careful about
prevention.

7. CTD’s can happen because of non-work activities. Hobbies, sports, driving,

and even sleeping positions can contribute to them. Any attempts at
treatment or prevention should include a look at off-the-job factors.

8. One of the most important preventive measures is ‘variety.’ In other words,

change posture and activities often. If possible, take breaks before getting
tired. Extremely short breaks can be very helpful of frequent enough.

9. A “ break ” doesn’t have to be a rest break—it can simply involve doing

something else for awhile

10. Don’t follow CTD prevention rules without looking for consequences. Every
fix has a drawback. Every ergonomic rule or gizmo has a downside, which
can possibly make matters worse rather than better. The best way to evaluate
ergonomic fixes is by considering all the ergonomic risk factors described
above in #2. Example: a wrist rest may force a straighter wrist (vertically) but
may put too much pressure on the underside of the wrist or make the
individual bend the wrist sideways to reach side keys.

11. Total CTD prevention involves ergonomics (changing the environment),

ergonomics education (changing work styles or habits), medical management

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 (optimizing treatments and return-to-work procedures), and management
(monitoring statistics to find the most hazardous jobs and working
proactively). CTD’s usually cannot be adequately dealt with without all four
approaches happening together. Many obstacles to good ergonomics are not
scientific, medical, or engineering reasons—they are political in nature.

A DOZEN THINGS YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT EYE – STRAIN :

1. Eyestrain means different things to different people. It can be experienced as

burning, tightness, sharp pains, dull pains, watering, blurring, double vision,
headaches, and other sensations, depending on the person.
2. Eye discomfort caused by viewing something, you can call it eyestrain.
3. In VDT workstations, the principal factors affecting the ability to see well are:
 Glare
 The luminance (brightness) different between what is being looked at and
its immediate environment.
 The amount of light
 The distance between the eye and the screen and document
 The readability of the screen and document
 The worker’s vision and his or her corrective lenses.
4. Watch out for direct glare. Direct glare involves a light source shining directly
into the eyes—ceiling lights, task lights, or bright windows. To determine the
degree of direct glare, you can temporarily shield your eyes with a hand and
notice whether you feel immediate relief.

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5. Reflected glare, such as on computer screens, sometimes causes eyestrain.
But its worst effect may be causing you to change your posture to an
uncomfortable one, in order to see well.
6. The most overlooked cause of eyestrain in officers is contrast—usually, a dark
screen surrounded by a bright background such as a window or a lit wall.
The best solution is to find a way to darken the area around the screen. This
problem occurs mainly on screens with light letters on a black background.
7. How much light is right? It depends on your age, the quality of the print
you’re reading, and other factors. There should be plenty of light for easy
reading, but too much can, depending on the person, cause eyestrain.

8. Eyes are strained more by close viewing than by distant viewing. The “right”
distance for computer monitors and documents depends entirely on how
clearly they can be read at a given distance. Eth general rule is to keep
viewed materials as far as away as possible, provided it can be read easily!!!
9. If you gaze at something too long, your eyes can tire. Eyes need to focus at
different from time to time. It’s a good idea to follow the “20/20rule” – every
twenty minutes, look twenty feet away for twenty seconds.
10. If two objects are only a couple of inches different in their distance from the
eyes, the eyes actually do NOT have toe refocus to look from one to another.
Greater distance differences, however, can overwork the eyes if you have to
look from one object to another frequently – as when typing from printed copy
and looking at the screen. In general, keep viewed objects at about the same
distance if you have to look back and forth a lot.
11. Can computer work cause nearsightedness? Rarely, according to
optometrists. It’s more likely that computer work makes you realize that you
need glasses.
12. Sometimes eyestrain is just a case of dry eyes. Lowering the monitor can
help. Looking downward means more of the eye surface is covered by the

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 eyelid, and two other things happen: the eyes unconsciously blink more, and
they produce more lubrication.
13. People who need bifocals should consider other options besides bifocals.
Two good ones are:
 “Computer glasses” that focus at the right distance for the computer
screen.
 Wearing contact lenses—corrected for computer or reading distance in one
eye, and for far distance (if needed) in the other eye.
14. Bifocal wearers often experience sore necks and shoulders because they
have to tip their heads back to see the computer screen.
 Lower the screen as much as possible—if it sits on the CPU, move the
CPU.
 If necessary, remove the monitor’s tilt-swivel base (consult a computer
hardware person first) to gain a couple additional inches.
 Lower the work surface that the monitor sits on.

VISUAL ERGONOMICS IN THE OFFICE :

[ Guidelines for monitor placement and lighting ]

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 Summary: guidelines for monitor placement and lighting :

 Eye-to-screen distance: at least 25”, preferably more.

 Vertical location: viewing area of the monitor between 150 and 500 below
horizontal eye level.
 Monitor tilt: top of the monitor slightly farther from the eyes than the bottom of
the monitor.
 Lighting: ceiling suspended, indirect lighting. Use blinds and shades to control
outside light.
 Screen colors: dark letters on a light background.
How do you set up a computer workstation? Do you buy monitor risers or remove
the CPU from beneath the monitor. Will even lower monitor positions cause neck
strain? Can you get away with tipping the monitor down to avoid glare or should
you invest in indirect lighting? How about viewing distance? 16 inches? 25 inches?
Or even farther? Does screen color makes a difference? Is there any evidence that
ergonomic workstations improve work performance?

2 EYE-TO-SCREEN DISTANCE :

Locate the monitor at least 25 inches from the eyes, preferably more.
Hold your finger at arm’s length. Bring it slowly towards your nose, following it with
your eyes. Notice that the closer your finger comes, the more eyestrain you feel.

One of the main reasons for computer-related eyestrain is the closeness of the
monitor. It seems easy to understand that, if having the monitor too close
contributes to the problem, one of the solutions is to place it farther away. When
viewing close objects the eyes must both accommodate and converge.
Accommodation is when the eyes change focus to look at something close.
Convergence is when the eyes turn inward towards the nose to prevent double
vision. The farther away the object of view, the less strain there is on both

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accommodation and convergence. Reducing those stresses will reduce the likelihood
of eyestrain.

How close is too close?

So how close is too close? It is difficult to set an exact limit for a minimum viewing
distance. Continued viewing closer than the resting point of vergence contributes to
eyestrain. The resting point of vergence (RPV) is the distance at which the eyes
converge when there is nothing to look at, such as in total darkness. It varies
among individuals, but averages about 45”when looking straight ahead and35” with
a 300 downward gaze angel. Viewing objects farther than the RPV has not been
found to cause any problems.

What is important to understand is that farther is better (at least up to the RPV). If
you can read the monitor, it is not too far away. If you can’t read the characters, it’s
usually better to make them larger than to bring the monitor closer.

Distance to monitor and hard copy :

Early recommendation said that the monitor and document had to be at the same
distance. But to do that often means moving the monitor closer. Eyestrain was not
increased when the monitor and document distance differed. In fact, users
preferred that the monitor be farther away.

For data entry tasks that require rapid shifts from screen to document, locating the
screen and document at similar distances can reduce the time lag encountered
when changing accommodation. In this case enlarging the document is the best
solution. The larger letters will then be visible at the greater viewing distance.

Performance :
If work performance compared with subjects working at viewing distances of 20”
and 40”. The task was to find mistakes in a database and he found better

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performance at the 40” distance. The character heights were doubled as the viewing
distance doubled. In another part of the study he increased viewing distance
without making the characters larger and performance suffered. To take advantage
of the productivity increases with farther viewing distance, you must ensure that
the user can easily read both the screen and the hard copy.

3 VERTICAL MONITOR LOCATION :

Locate the entire viewing area of the monitor between 15 0 and 500 below horizontal
eye level. To see the effect of gaze angle on accommodation, hold a business card at
arm’s length and at eye level. Slowly bring it towards you until the letters start to
blur. Without moving your head, slowly lower the card in an arc, keeping it the
same distance from your eyes. You will see the letter come into focus. Your eyes
have improved their ability to accommodate simply by lowering their gaze angle.
Presbyopes ( persons over 40 who are losing their ability to view close objects ) often
make use of this phenomenon when they misplace their reading glasses. They hold
reading material at arm’s length and then tip their head back to improve their
ability to accommodate.

To see the effect of gaze angel on your ability to converge, try this text
demonstration. With your head erect, hold a pen at arm’s length and at belt level.
Gradually bring it towards your nose, following it with your eyes until you can no
longer converge accurately and you see two pens. Without moving your head, try
the same test at eye level. Again, notice the distance at which you can no longer
converge. Now bring the pen in from an upward gaze angle. As you can see and feel,
your eyes converge more easily with a downward gaze angle.

Monitor be placed at eye level were based in part on the belief that the resting
position of the eyes (considered to be the most comfortable gaze angle) is 15 0 below
the horizontal. New evidence (and some that has been around for a while) shows

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that, while the eyes might be most comfortable with a 15 0 gaze angel when looking
at distant objects, for close objects they prefer a much more downward gaze angle.
Figure shows the optimum position for the most important visual display, 20-50 0
below the horizontal line of sight, according to the International Standards
Organization (ISO 1998).

As we saw from the above demonstrations, a downward gaze angel improves our
ability to accommodate and converge. Subjects over age 42 increased their ability to
accommodate by an average of 25.5% by directing their eyes downward in the
“usual reading position”, “when looking upward, the eyes tend to diverge and when
they look down, the effort to converge is much easier”, “low gaze angle resulted in
reduced headaches and eyestrain.

Many computer users experience dry eyes. Lower monitor placement exposes less of
the eyeball to the atmosphere and reduces the rate of tear evaporation. This keeps
the eyes moister and reduces the risk of Dry Eye Syndrome.

Neck posture :

Lower monitor placement can increase the acceptable options that users have for
neck movement. Eye-level monitors allow the head and neck to assume only one
posture that is both visually and posturally comfortable.

It is uncomfortable to maintain the same posture for an extended period of time.

When users tire of the head-erect posture, the acceptable alternative postures with

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an eye-level monitor are limited. Flexing the neck is one alternative, but that results
in the user looking out of the top of their eyes. While bending the neck downward
may be physically comfortable (as long as you are not forced to hold it in a fixed
position), looking out of the top of your eyes at close objects is extremely
uncomfortable. People will just not do it for any length of time.

Neck extension and forward head posture, while acceptable for the visual system,
have been associated with both discomfort and disease. With a low monitor position
you can hold your head erect and look downward. When that posture becomes
tiring, as eventually it will, a low monitor will allow you to alternate among a wide
range of flexed neck postures that allow good visual performances and will not
increase postural discomfort (as long as you don’t hold any particular posture for a
long time).
Many “ergonomic” guidelines include drawings that show a computer user with
arms, torso, thighs and legs at 900 angles and the head perfectly erect. And, of
course, the feet are “flat on the floor”. This is the “correct posture”. Generally users
try it for a few minutes and reject it because it’s too uncomfortable. One theory has
it that the reason you see drawings, and not models, depicting this “ideal” posture
is that they can’t pay models enough to sit that long in such an awkward posture!

Voluntary postural changes should be encouraged. Even alternative postures that

look awkward may be ok if they are used for short-term relief from the discomfort
caused by sustained, fixed postures. Stretching exercises require awkward postures
and are often recommended by the same guidebooks that mandate the "correct"
posture while working. "The best posture is the next posture." Whatever posture we
are in, we will be most likely be better off in the one we assuming next.

Although most ergonomists agree that a low monitor is better for the visual system,
the question has been "What happens to the neck and upper back?" Two recent
studies have addressed that question. Compared monitor locations with the center
of the screen at 15° and 40° below horizontal. They compared the average (mean)

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muscle activity for 10 sets of neck and upper back muscles. The recommended limit
for mean muscle activity is 10-14% maximum voluntary contraction (MVC). (MVC is
the maximum muscle effort that can be voluntary exerted by the subject.) Although
the 40° placement had higher readings than the 15° placement, all were much
lower than the recommended limit. The highest was 6.8%. For the trapezius, the
muscle most often associate with cumulative trauma disorders, the activity
averaged an extremely low 2.2% MVC for the 15° and 2.0% MVC for the 40°
conditions.

(The static load level is the lowest level of activity that occurs in the muscle during
the work period, defined as the 10 th percentile.) The muscle activity while working
in the low monitor condition was higher than the limit, when it actually was lower.

Monitor positions and the center of the monitor at eye level, and 17.5° and 35°
below eye level. All of the conditions resulted in mean EMG levels of below 4% MVC,
well below the recommended limit of 10-14%.

A 10% improvement in productivity when the center of the monitor was changed
from eye level to 35° below eye level. Performance was measured as the numbers of
bibliographic references the subjects were able to format in the allowed time.

Computer work is near work. Many authors have noted that computer work differs
from other near work in that most near work is done with a downward gaze angle,
and computer work is done at a horizontal gaze angle. Instead of locating the
monitor at a viewing angle similar to that of other near work, they often recommend
special "computer" glasses. This represents the view that ergonomics means
adapting the worker to the work environment. It is actually the other way around;
the task of ergonomics is to adapt the work environment to the worker!

4 MONITOR TILT :

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Tilt the monitor back so that the top is slightly farther away from the eyes than the
bottom.

Notice how you hold a magazine. Most likely you tilt it away from you at the top.
While you are reading, rotate the magazine so that the top comes closer to you than
the bottom. Keep rotating. The more you rotate the top towards you, the more
uncomfortable it becomes to read.

When we look at the world, objects in the upper part of our peripheral vision are
generally farther away than the point we are looking at, and objects in the lower
part of our peripheral vision are usually closer. As a result, our visual system has
developed to perform best when the visual plane tilts away from us at the top.
Tilting a monitor down, as is sometimes done to avoid glare, is opposite of the
demonstrated capabilities of the visual system. In a comparison of monitor tilts,
tilting the monitor downward led to increased visual and postural discomfort when
compared to a monitor tilted back. The most striking difference was in neck
discomfort. The condition with the monitor low and tipped back led to the least
increase in neck discomfort. Locating the monitor low and with the top tipped
forward was the worst condition.

5 LIGHTING :

Ceiling suspended, indirect lighting. Control outside light with blinds and shades.
Keep ambient light levels low and supplement with task lighting

In an office of any size, the best solution for glare and reflections on the screen, as
well as for overall visual performance, is ceiling suspended, indirect lighting. This is
sometimes referred to as "up-lighting." The underside of the lamps should be the
same color as the ceiling. Wall mounted sconces may also be appropriate in certain
instances. Because some tasks and workers require more light than others, it is

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best to keep the overall light level low and allow workers to supplement it with
individually controlled task lights.

Understanding a little bit about the principles of lighting can help you improve just
about any office environment. First we have to understand what we are trying to
accomplish. When evaluating a monitor, high contrast is desirable. You want the
letters to stand out from the background.

When evaluating what is reflected from the screen, it is the opposite: contrast is the
enemy. Contrast reflected from the screen competes for the user’s attention with the
contrast on the screen. In some cases this can be an irritation, but in others it can
make sections of the screen impossible to read.

Aside from absolute brightness, a big problem with direct ceiling lights is that they
provide a high contrast with the rest of the ceiling. That contrast can reflect onto
the screen. Many guidelines mistakenly specify only a luminance (brightness) value
for ceilings and walls. While absolute intensity is important (a bright light reflecting
off the screen will always cause problems), reducing the contrast is much more
critical. Interrupting the ceiling with patches of bright light almost guarantees
competing reflections on the screen.

With small office areas, it may be possible to reposition desks, or remove or

reposition individual glare sources. However, this can become unwieldy for large
areas. Repositioning a lamp may just transfer the problem to another workstation.

In many instances it is possible to retrofit small cube parabolic or paracube lenses

to replace other types of lenses. If the cutoff angle (the angle beyond which the bulb
cannot be seen) is acceptable, reflections of the light source from the screen will be
eliminated. In other instances it may be possible to install shields or screens to
reduce or eliminate the reflected contrast.

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Reorienting the screen can help in some instances. But, as we discussed earlier, it
should not be tipped down. Hoods can be effective, as can remove bulbs. Task
lights can supplement lower levels of ambient lighting. Anti-glare screens have been
effective in certain instances, but should be evaluated before purchase. Some anti-
glare screens reduce glare by 99%, but even that may not be enough for a very
bright source.

Remember, because the front of the screen is glass, something is going to be

reflected from it. The goal is to reduce the contrast in those reflections. An indirect-
direct combination will not work because it still creates high contrast.

The researchers found that when they increased light level, productivity increased.
They also found that when they decreased the light level, productivity still
increased. In fact, no matter how they changed the lighting, productivity continued
to increase.

The term "The Hawthorne Effect" is now used to refer to the principle that making
any change in a workplace can improve short-term performance. The improvement
results from just "paying attention" to the workers. Its apparent that strong
reflections in a screen reduce the ability to see the details on the screen. And if you
can’t see the details, productivity will suffer. Properly installed indirect lighting can
eliminate glare as a performance-robbing factor.

Most recommendations for office lighting are full of numbers such as "Illuminance
levels between 200-500 lux." Lighting designers often point to a set of
measurements to show that the lighting design meets the specifications.

The primary function of light in the office is to support work. The ultimate criteria
for a successful office lighting solution is how well it facilitates productivity and

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user satisfaction. No matter how esthetically pleasing or how well it conforms to a
set of quantitative values, if a lighting design does not support the work, it has
failed.

SCREEN COLORS :

Screen colors: dark letters on a light background.

These guidelines are meant as such: guidelines. There are exceptions. The final
criteria for judging the effectiveness of a visual environment is not how well it
conforms to a set of rules, but rather how well it facilitates the ability of the worker
to perform his or her work effectively and without injury.

With the monitor off, look at your reflection in the screen. Now turn the monitor on
and select a Windows-type background, (black letters on a white background).
Notice that you cannot see your reflection as well.

Contrast is simply the difference in brightness between two images. With a white
background, we reduce the difference in contrast between the screen and what is
reflected off of it.

Negative screen contrast (black letters/white background) can reduce reflected

images, as we saw with the demonstration. A white background also reduces the
luminance (brightness) difference between the screen and the surrounding
background of a normally lighted office. That makes it easier on your eyes.

Most early monitor screens had a black background with white, green or amber
characters. Although white backgrounds were possible, the low quality of the
monitors meant that the screen would flicker noticeably. Although newer
technology has reduced the necessity, there are still many software programs with
dark backgrounds.

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SUMMARY :

Ergonomics seeks to adapt the work environment to the capabilities and limitations
of the worker. The results should be increased productivity, user satisfaction, and
reduced risk of injury.

These guidelines are meant as such: guidelines. There are exceptions. The final
criteria for judging the effectiveness of a visual environment is not how well it
conforms to a set of rules, but rather how well it facilitates the ability of the worker
to perform his or her work effectively and without injury.

COMPUTER VISION SYNDROME :

Many computer users have Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS) studies show that
50% to 90% of computer users experience the symptoms of CVS.

The eye and vision symptoms and problems of CVS can usually be alleviated by
good eye care and or by changes in work environment. Here is a help to identify
CVS related problems that you are having and suggest possible solutions. The
following recommendations based upon your responses to question and based upon
the most common sets of circumstances. It advice not a substitute for nor should it
preclude professional evaluation of either the eyes or the workstation environment.

It is suggested that you take the 8 steps. This test will help you to:

 Identify the CVS and related symptoms you experience

 Decide if it is likely that would benefit from an eye examination
 Evaluate aspects of your work environment which may contribute to your
symptoms
 Suggest improvements in your work environment.

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The evaluation will take 5-10 minutes. Each step helps you test one or more
aspects of your work environment or your vision- your test results are analyzed and
the appropriate recommendations are made to you.

You should have 2 items for the test:

 A ruler or tape to measure distances from your computer screen.

 And this acuity chart

How to take CVS Test :

You may also choose to take just selected steps of the CVS Test. However taking the
full test enables to integrate the test results and provide more comprehensive
recommendations for you.

Or, you may be just interested in general recommendations on the following topics:

 Dry eyes
 Eye examination
 Computer glasses
 Computer displays
 Computer viewing distance
 Computer screen height and location
 Screen reflections-suggestions
 Lighting-suggestions
 Reference materials location
 Keyboard and mouse location
 Chair
 Wrists
 Other

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Or, if you are interested in information that is more technical and which
explains mechanisms, check out this technical information.

The Eye and the Visual System :

 Refractive Errors
 Visual Acuity
 Accommodation
 Binocular Vision
 Presbyopia
 Lenses for Presbyopia
 Other Lens Options
 What Are Computer Glasses?
 Dry Eyes-Why?

The Work Environment :

 General
 Lighting-Technical
 Reflections-Technical
 Computer Displays
 Workstation Arrangement

FIRST AID INSTRUCTIONS :

In all cases requiring emergency medical treatment take the employee to first aid
center. If the injury is life threatening or the employee cannot be safety moved,
immediately call help from security and ask for emergency medial assistance.
Security has a First Aid Kit with them.

Wounds:

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Minor : Cuts, lacerations, abrasions, or punctures Wash the wound using soap
and water; rinse it well. Cover the wound using clean dressing.

Major : Large, deep and bleeding Stop bleeding by pressing directly on the wound,
using a bandage or cloth. Call Security, Keep pressure on the wound until medical
help arrives.

Broken Bones:

Do not move the victim unless it is absolutely necessary. Call Security.

Burns:

Thermal ( Heat ) :

For first degree burns (ex. extremely bad sunburn with possible blisters) rinse the
burned area, without scrubbing it, and immerse it in cold water; do not use ice
water. Blots dry the area and cover it using sterile gauze or a clean cloth.

Chemical :
Flush the exposed area with cool water immediately for 20 minutes. At a
minimum review the MSDS for specific instructions. Take the employee to
the hospital immediately.

Eye Injury :

Small particles :
1. Do not rub your eyes.
2. Use the corner of a soft clean cloth to draw particles out, or hold the
eyelids open and flush the eyes continuously with water. Take the employee
to first aid center to ensure complete removal.

Large particles or stuck particles :

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If a particle is stuck in the eye, do not attempt to remove it, call medical
assistance.

Chemical :
Immediately irrigate the eyes and under the eyelids, with water, for 30 minutes.
Refer to the MSDS for specific instructions.

Neck and Spine Injury :

If the victim appears to have injured his or her neck or spine , or is

unable to move his or her arm or leg security. Do not attempt to move
victim unless he or she will die if not moved from scene.

Heat Exhaustion :

Loosen the victim's tight clothing.

Give the victim " sips " of cool water.
Make the victim lie down in a cooler place with the feet raised.
Take the employee to first aid center.

Accident Reporting :

Supervisors must ensure an accident report is completed for every on-the-job

injury, illness or incident .
A copy of the completed report including the corrective actions must forward
to Safety and Environmental Health and Risk Management.

FOOD SANITATION :

The OH & S MS provides periodic inspections of Head office owned or operated

facilities; inspections can also be made to operations run by others in Head office
owned facilities.

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In addition to periodic inspections, OH&MS provides education and consultation to
Head office employees and to representatives of Head office Certified Housing Units
on food sanitation.
OH & S MS also discusses food-handling safety with groups serving food on Head
office. .
Important aspects of Food Sanitation Safety usually discussed include:
 Potentially hazardous food must be handled with strict attention to
temperature control. Food must be stored and displayed at safe food
temperatures, 41 degrees F. for cold food, 140 degrees F. for hot food to
prevent the growth of pathogenic bacteria. Food that is ready for the
consumer should not be handled with bare hands. Food handlers should use
utensils, barrier paper or disposable gloves.
 All food handlers need to wash their hands frequently and practice good
personal hygiene.
 Potentially hazardous foods need to be thoroughly cooked to destroy
pathogenic bacteria that may be present in the food. Poultry and stuffed foods
165 degrees F., pork and ground meats 155 degrees F., eggs and other foods
not listed 145 degrees F.
 Food on display needs to be protected from the elements and from the
consumer by being covered, wrapped or shielded.

"Potentially hazardous food means any food that consists in whole or in part of milk
or milk products, eggs, meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, edible crustacean or other
ingredients, including synthetic ingredients, in a form capable of supporting the
rapid and progressive growth of infectious or toxigenic organisms."

FIRE PROTECTION AND PREVENTION :

The possibility of fire on a construction site needs to be given careful consideration

since the potential exists due to hot work, flammable and combustible materials,

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and the presence of ignition and fuel sources, which are omnipresent. Efforts must
be undertaken to prevent the occurrence of fires.

General Rules for Fire Protection and Prevention :

Fire Protection :

1. Access to all available firefighting equipment will be maintained at all times.

2. Firefighting equipment will be inspected periodically and maintained in
operating condition.
Defective or exhausted equipment shall be replaced immediately.
3. All firefighting equipment will be conspicuously located at each jobsite.
4. Fire extinguishers shall be placed at the rate for 1.Each per 100 sq.meters of
the protected work area. Travel distance from any point of the protected area
to the nearest fire extinguisher must not exceed 30 meters.
5. Do not remove or tamper with fire extinguishers installed on equipment or
vehicles, or in other locations, unless authorized to do so or in case of fire. If
you use a fire extinguisher, be sure it is recharged or replaced with another
fully charged extinguisher.

Types of Fires
 Class A (wood, paper, trash) – use water or foam extinguisher.
 Class B (flammable liquids, gas, oil, paints, grease) – use foam, CO2, or
dry chemical extinguisher.
 Class C (electrical) – use CO2 or dry chemical extinguisher.
 Class D (combustible metals) – use dry powder extinguisher only.

Fire Prevention :

1. Internal combustion engine powered equipment must be located so that

exhausts are away from combustible material.

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 2. Smoking is prohibited at, or in the vicinity of operations, which constitute a
fire hazard. Such operations must be conspicuously posted: “No Smoking or
Open Flame.”
3. Portable battery powered lighting equipment must be approved for the type of
hazardous locations encountered.
4. Combustible materials must be piled no higher than 6 meters. Depending on
the stability of the material being piled, this height may be reduced.
5. Keep driveways between and around combustible storage piles at least 4.5
meters wide and free from accumulation of rubbish, equipment, or other
materials.
6. Portable fire extinguishing equipment, suitable for anticipated fire hazards on
the jobsite, must be provided at convenient, conspicuously accessible
locations.
7. Fire fighting equipment must be kept free from obstacles, equipment,
materials and debris that could delay emergency use of such equipment.
Familiarize yourself with the location and use of the project’s fire fighting
equipment.
8. Discard and/ or store all oily rags, waste, and similar combustible materials
in metal containers on a daily basis.
9. Storage of flammable substances on equipment or vehicles is prohibited
unless such unit has adequate storage area designed for such use.

Flammable and Combustible Liquids :

1. Explosive liquids, such as petrol, shall not be used as cleaning agents. Use
only approved cleaning agents.
2. Store petrol and similar combustible liquids in approved and labeled
containers in well-ventilated areas free from heat sources.
3. Handling of all flammable liquids by hand containers must be in approved
type safety containers with spring closing covers and flame arrestors.
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 4. Approved wooden or metal storage cabinets must be labeled in conspicuous
lettering: “Flammable-keep Fire Away.”
5. Never store more than 230 liters of flammable, or 455liters of combustible
liquids in any one approved storage cabinet.
6. Electrical wiring and equipment located inside storage rooms shall be
approved for hazardous locations. Every combustible material storage room
shall be provided with adequate exhaust system/ or well ventilated.
7. Transfer of flammable liquid shall be carried out with proper connectivity by
means of earthing.

7. CONSTRUCTION SAFETY EQUIPMENT - PPE

Always use proper construction safety equipment for full on the job protection and
injury prevention.

What is PPE?

If it is not reasonably practicable to eliminate a foreseeable risk to the

health and safety to anyone at the place of work, an employer must
eliminate the risk. If it is not reasonably practicable to do so, an employer
must control the risk. Controlling the risk may involve the use of personal
protective equipment ( PPE ) by workers, in order to reduce their exposure to
hazards.

Personal protective equipment is designed to protect you from health and

safety hazards that cannot practically be removed from your work area.
Personal protective equipment protects many parts of your body including

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eyes, face, head, hands, feet, and ears. PPE ( Personal Protective Equipment )
refers to the equipment worn by workers to reduce their exposure to
hazards.

PPE is defined in the Regulations as ‘ all equipment ( including clothing

affording protection against the weather ) which is intended to be worn or
held by a person at work and which protects him against one or more
risks to his health or safety ’.

Ex. - safety helmets, gloves, eye protection, high-visibility clothing, safety

footwear and safety harnesses.

Hearing protection and respiratory protective equipment provided for most

work situations are not covered by these Regulations because other
regulations apply to them. However, these items need to be compatible with
any other PPE provided.

Cycle helmets or crash helmets worn by employees on the roads are not
covered by the Regulations.

Head Protection :

Hard hats protect you from impact and penetration caused by

objects hitting your head. They also give you limited protection
from electrical shock or burns.

Hard hat / Safety Helmet tips:

 The shell of the hat should be designed to absorb some of the impact.
 The suspension, which consists of the headband and strapping, also absorbs
impact. It is important that the suspension is adjusted to fit you well and to
keep the shell a minimum distance of 1-1/4" above your head.

Eye Protection :

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You must always wear proper eye protection if you work with:
molten metals, liquid chemicals, hazardous gases, or flying
particles.

Eyewear tips:
 Coverage from the front and the sides is required when there is a hazard from
flying objects.
 Safety glasses or goggles should be worn under face shields for added
protection.
 Tinted or shaded lenses protect you from glare when working in a bright
environment.

Hearing Protection :

Hearing protection consists of earplugs and earmuffs. Wear hearing

protection when:

 The sounds in your work area are irritating.

 You need to raise your voice to be heard by someone closer than two feet
away.
 Sound levels reach 85 decibels or higher for an 8-hour time period.
 There are short bursts of sound that can cause hearing damage.

Hand Protection :

You must wear gloves for protection against severe cuts or

lacerations, severe abrasions, punctures, chemical burns, thermal
burns, and harmful temperature extremes.

Glove tips:
 When working with chemicals, gloves should be taped at the top, or folded
with a cuff to keep liquids from running inside your glove or onto your arm.
 Use vinyl, rubber, or neoprene gloves when working with most chemicals. If
you are working with petroleum-based products, synthetic gloves are needed.
 Use leather or cotton-knit gloves when handling abrasive materials.
 Do not wear metal-reinforced gloves when working with electrical equipment.
 Do not wear gloves while working on moving machinery. Moving parts can
pull your glove, hand, and arm into the machine.

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Foot Protection :

Foot protection is important to prevent injuries in case a heavy or sharp object falls
on your foot or you step on an object that could pierce your shoe.

Footwear tips:
 If you work around exposed electrical wires or connections, you need to wear
metal-free, nonconductive shoes or boots.
 Rubber or synthetic footwear is necessary when working around chemicals.
Avoid wearing leather shoes or boots when working with caustic chemicals
because they can eat through the leather.

Welding Shields :

Protects eyes against burns from radiant light

o Protects face and eyes from flying sparks, metal spatter, & slag chips produced
during welding, brazing, soldering, and cutting

What do the Regulations require?

The main requirement of the PPE at Work Regulations, 1992 is that personal

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protective equipment is to be supplied and used at work wherever there are
risks to health and safety that cannot be adequately controlled in other
ways.

The Regulations also require that PPE :

o is properly assessed before use to ensure it is suitable;
o is maintained and stored properly;
o is provided with instructions on how to use it safely; and
o is used correctly by employees.

Can the employer charge for providing PPE?

An employer cannot ask for money from an employee for PPE, whether it is
returnable or not. This includes agency workers if they are legally regarded
as your employees. If employment has been terminated and the employee
keeps the PPE without the employer’s permission , then, as long as it has
been made clear in the contract of employment, the employer may be able to
deduct the cost of the replacement from any wages owed.

Assessing suitable PPE :

To allow the right type of PPE to be chosen, carefully consider the different
hazards in the workplace. This will enable you to assess which types of PPE
are suitable to protect against the hazard and for the job to be done.
Ask your supplier for advice on the different types of PPE available and how
suitable they are for different tasks . It may be necessary in a few
particularly difficult cases to obtain advice from specialist sources and from
the PPE manufacturer.

Consider the following when assessing whether PPE is suitable :

o Is it appropriate for the risks involved and the conditions at the place
where exposure to the risk may occur? For example, eye protection
designed for providing protection against agricultural pesticides will not
offer adequate face protection for someone using an angle grinder to cut
steel or stone.

o Does it prevent or adequately control the risks involved without increasing

the
overall level of risk ?

o Can it be adjusted to fit the wearer correctly ?

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o Has the state of health of those who will be wearing it been taken into
account ?

o What are the needs of the job and the demands it places on the wearer?
For example, the length of time the PPE needs to be worn , the physical
effort required to do the job and the requirements for visibility and
communication.

o If more than one item of PPE is being worn, are they compatible ? For
example, does a particular type of respirator make it difficult to get eye
protection to fit properly ?

Hazards and types of PPE :

Eyes :

Hazards: chemical or metal splash, dust, projectiles, gas and vapour, radiation.

Options: safety spectacles, goggles, face-shields, visors.

Head :

Hazards: impact from falling or flying objects, risk of head bumping, hair
entanglement.

Options: a range of helmets and bump caps.

Breathing :

Hazards: dust, vapour, gas, oxygen-deficient atmospheres.

Options: disposable filtering face-piece or respirator, half- or full-face respirators,

air-fed helmets, breathing apparatus.

Protecting the body:

Hazards: temperature extremes, adverse weather, chemical or metal splash, spray

from pressure leaks or spray guns, impact or penetration, contaminated dust,

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excessive wear or entanglement of own clothing.

Options: conventional or disposable overalls, boiler suits, specialist protective

clothing, eg.: chain-mail aprons, high-visibility clothing.

Hands and arms :

Hazards: abrasion, temperature extremes, cuts and punctures, impact, chemicals,

electric shock, skin infection, disease or contamination.

Options: gloves, gauntlets, mitts, wrist-cuffs, armlets.

Feet and legs :

Hazards: wet, electrostatic build-up, slipping, cuts and punctures, falling objects,
metal and chemical splash, abrasion.

Options: safety boots and shoes with protective toe caps and penetration-resistant
mid-sole, gaiters, leggings, spats.

Training :

o Make sure anyone using PPE is aware of why it is needed, when it is to be

used, repaired or replaced and its limitations.

o Train and instruct people how to use it properly and make sure they are doing
this.

o Because PPE is the last resort after other methods of protection have been
considered, it is important that users wear it all the time they are exposed to
the risk. Never allow exemptions for those jobs which take ‘just a few minutes’.
o Check regularly that PPE is being used and investigate fully any reasons why it
is not. Safety signs can be useful reminders to wear PPE.

Maintenance :

Make sure equipment is :

o well looked after and properly stored when it is not being used, for example in
a dry, clean cupboard, or in the case of smaller items, such as eye protection,
in a box or case;

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o kept clean and in good repair - follow the manufacturer’s maintenance
schedule (including recommended replacement periods and shelf lives). Simple
maintenance can be carried out by the trained wearer, but more intricate
repairs should only be done by specialists.

o Make sure suitable replacement PPE is always readily available.

CE marking :

Ensure any PPE you buy is ‘CE’ marked and complies with the requirements of the
Personal Protective Equipment Regulations 2002. The CE marking signifies that the
PPE satisfies certain basic safety requirements and in some cases will have been
tested and certified by an independent body.

Other regulations :

The PPE at Work Regulations do not apply where the following six sets of
regulations require the provision and use of PPE against these hazards.

For example, gloves used to prevent dangerous chemicals penetrating the

skin would be covered by the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
Regulations 2002 ( as amended ). The regulations are :

o The Control of Lead at Work Regulations 2002.

o The Ionising Radiations Regulations 1999.
o The Control of Asbestos at Work Regulations 2002.
o The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 ( as
amended )
o The Noise at Work Regulations 1989.
o The Construction ( Head Protection ) Regulations 1989.

Key points to remember :

Are there ways ( other than PPE ) in which the risk can be adequately
controlled,
Eg.: Engineering controls ? If not, check that :

o PPE is provided;
o it offers adequate protection for its intended use;
o those using it are adequately trained in its safe use;
o it is properly maintained and any defects are reported;

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o it is returned to its proper storage after use.

Employers must implement a PPE program where they :

o Assess the workplace for hazards

o Use engineering and work practice controls to eliminate or reduce hazards

before using PPE

o Select appropriate PPE to protect employees from hazards that cannot be

eliminated

o Inform employees why the PPE is necessary, how and when it must be
worn

o Train employees how to use and care for their PPE, including how to
recognize deterioration and failure

o Require employees to wear selected PPE

Responsibilities :

 Employer :

o Assess workplace for hazards

o Provide PPE in sufficient numbers
o Determine when to use PPE
o Provide PPE training for employees and instruction in proper use
o Provide sufficient training

 Employee :

o Use PPE in accordance with training received and other instructions

o Inspect daily and maintain in a clean and reliable condition

What legislation governs the use of personal protective equipment ( PPE )

in the workplace ?

Employers have a general duty of care obligation under the Occupational

Health and Safety Act 2000 ( Section 8 ) to ensure the health, safety and
welfare of their employees and others at their workplace.

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There are also references to PPE in the OHS Regulation 2001 in relation to
specific hazards or work environments. In certain circumstances, the
Regulation requires particular types of PPE to be used as a means of
control. For example, harnesses in elevated work platforms or specific types
of PPE in asbestos removal processes.

Under the Regulation , an employer has an obligation to eliminate any

reasonably foreseeable risk to the health and safety of any person at the
place of work. If it is not reasonably practicable to eliminate the risk, the
employer must control the risk ( Clause 11 ) Providing PPE may help control
the risk to health and safety.

Providing PPE will assist employers, in some circumstances, in satisfying

their general duty of care.

Clause 15 provides information about how to control a risk through PPE.

The regulation also requires that particular types of PPE be used, depending
upon the work activity being undertaken. For example, harnesses in elevated
work platforms of specific types of PPE in asbestos removal processes.

Why is personal protective equipment ( PPE ) the least effective of all

the control measures ?

PPE is the least effective control measure because the hazards and risks
are still present.

Whilst the employer is legally obliged to ensure that PPE is appropriate for
the person who uses it and that it controls the risk for that person, there
are issues of proper fit and design for different individuals. PPE can
sometimes be awkward, uncomfortable and limiting, which may make workers
less likely to use such equipment.

The risk management process requires employers to develop and implement

more effective risk control measures, wherever possible.

What are the employer's obligations in relation to personal protective

equipment ( PPE )?

Referring to the Clause 15 of the Regulation for specific requirements in

relation to PPE, if an employer is using PPE to control risks, the employer
must :

o determine if PPE is the most appropriate control, based on the risk

management process

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o provide or pay for all PPE for every person at risk
o ensure the PPE is appropriate for each particular hazard in the
workplace
o ensure the PPE is appropriate for each particular worker and controls
the risk for that person
o provide or arrange instruction and training for all workers using PPE
( including informing the person using PPE of its limitations )
o provide additional training for supervisors so they understand their role
in enforcing the use of PPE
o ensure PPE conforms to the relevant Indian Standards
o enforce the uniform and proper use of PPE by affected staff
o ensure the equipment is provided in a clean and hygienic condition to
the person
o ensure that PPE is maintained, repaired or replaced regularly or where
necessary
o provide appropriate storage for PPE and ensure the PPE is stored in that
place
o individually issue PPE where necessary
o Clearly identify areas in places of work where PPE must be used.

How to know if the personal protective equipment ( PPE ) is designed to

provide adequate protection against the hazards at a workplace ?

Designers, manufacturers or suppliers of PPE can give advice on the

specifications and appropriate use of their products.

This is important because, for example, no one type of glove provides

adequate protection against all chemicals. A respirator designed to be effective
against medium air levels of a chemical may not be effective against high
levels of the same chemical ( or low levels of another chemical ).

What are the worker's obligations in relation to personal protective

equipment ( PPE )?

As a worker, you must co-operate with the OHS requirements stipulated by

your employer.

If your employer’s rule is that PPE should be worn, then you must wear it.
In addition , you must not intentionally or recklessly, interfere with or
misuse anything provided in the interest of health and safety, which includes

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PPE.

These are legal obligations of employees provided under Section 20 and 21

of the OHS Act 2000.

How to determine whether or not to use personal protective equipment

( PPE ) in the workplace ?

Initially the employer must determine if there is a hazard and assess the
risk associated with the hazard. An employer must then eliminate any
reasonably foreseeable risk to the health and safety of any person at work.

If it is not possible to eliminate the risk, an employer must control the

risk. PPE may assist in reducing the risk of harm.

Example :

An employer must ensure the health, safety and welfare of all the employees,
which includes ensuring the working environment is safe.

To determine if employees working on a building site need to wear hard

hats or safety shoes the general duty of care principles should be applied.
As it was not possible to eliminate the risk, the risk is controlled through
using PPE such as appropriate head and footwear.

If there is a risk to the employee of injury from objects falling on their

head or feet then it is reasonable and in fact expected that the area be
designated a hard hat and safety shoe area.

What happens if an employee refuses to wear personal protective

equipment ( PPE ) ?

An employer is expected to develop a policy and procedure that clearly

explains the workplace requirements and the action that will be taken for
failure to comply with the policy. This policy should cover PPE requirements
at the workplace.

The policy must be developed in consultation with the employees through

the safety committee, health and safety representative or other agreed
arrangements and where relevant, the union.

If an employee continues to resist wearing or using PPE, then the employer

would be expected to take stronger action such as disciplinary action or

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moving the employee to another area. All of this should be documented in
the procedure.

If the policy is developed in consultation , then this reduces the risk of

industrial action should an employee be terminated or disciplined for
breaching safety rules.

The employer as well as the employee could be subject to fines or

prosecution for the employee’s failure to wear or use PPE.

An employee has a duty to co - operate with his or her employer to enable

compliance with the legislation in the interests of health, safety and welfare
( Section 20 of the OHS Act 2000 ). This duty includes following the PPE
requirements at the workplace.

A person ( including an employee ) must not intentionally or recklessly,

interfere with or misuse anything provided in the interest of health and
safety, which includes PPE ( Section 21 of the OHS Act 2000 ).

Is it mandatory to wear personal protective equipment ( PPE ) even if it

is uncomfortable ?

The answer is Yes.

Under Section 20 of the OHS Act 2000, if the workplace designates that
particular equipment is to be used then you must co - operate with the
safety requirements of your employer . Both your employer and yourself may
be fined if you are not wearing appropriate PPE.

However, the OHS Regulation 2001 provides that PPE must be appropriate
to the individual and controls the risk for that individual. This means that
the employer may need to consider alternatives if the PPE provided to you
does not adequately protect your health and safety. ( The level of comfort and
fit can be subjective and should be resolved in consultation ).

For example, if you have a medical condition and provide a medical

certificate indicating that certain PPE worsens the medical condition, or that
the use of certain PPE is inappropriate because of the condition, then your
employer may have to consider providing specially designed PPE ( if possible )
or placing you in an area where the PPE in question is not required.

The employer must also ensure the person using PPE is provided with
instruction and training, which may affect the level of comfort of the

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equipment. The employer must also ensure the equipment is properly
maintained, repaired and provided in a clean and hygienic condition.

What is the employer's obligation if the PPE does not comfortably fit
all workers who have to wear it ?

It is the employer’s responsibility to ensure that any PPE is appropriate for

the person and controls the risk for that person.

As the employer you must check that even if the PPE gives protection, it
actually does the job. If the PPE is significantly uncomfortable as a result of
not fitting properly, it will not be effective.

For example, close fitting respirators only give protection if users are clean-
shaven. If they have a beard , you will need to consider either a hood, helmet
or visor type respirator to get an effective seal against the contaminated air.

The employer must also ensure the person is provided with any necessary
instruction and training in relation to the PPE.

Who has responsibilities with regard to PPE ?

Employers must provide personal protective equipment ( PPE ) to workers and

visitors as a control measure when work hazards are unable to be
eliminated or adequately controlled by other methods. ( Clause 15 of the OHS
Regulation 2001 )

An employer must undertake a risk assessment before choosing PPE as the

appropriate control measure.

PPE must be provided when other methods of control do not adequately

control the risk. It is the least preferred means of control and can be used
in addition to other methods to minimise the risk to the lowest level
reasonably practical.

Clause 15 of the Regulation states that the Employer must :

o ensure that the equipment provided is appropriate for the person and
controls the risk for that person;
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o ensure that the person using PPE is informed about any limitations of
the equipment;
o ensure that appropriate instruction and training is provided so that the
equipment controls the risk for the person;
o ensure that the equipment is properly maintained , repaired or replaced
as necessary to control the risk for the person;
o provide clean and hygienic equipment;
o ensure that equipment is stored in a place provided by the employer for
that purpose; and
o clearly identify places of work where PPE must be used.

Employees also have obligations under the OHS Act 2000 to:

o co-operate with any requirement imposed by the employer in the interests

of health, safety and welfare, and
o not intentionally or recklessly interfere with or misuse anything provided
in the interests of health, safety and welfare. This can include the use,
cleaning, storage, etc of PPE.

“ Hierarchy of control ” wrt PPE :

The hierarchy of control involves starting from the top of a list of risk
control options and working your way down, with the last option being the
least desirable.

The hierarchy of control must be used when the risk to health and safety
cannot be eliminated as mentioned below :

o can the hazard be substituted with a less hazardous one by using a

different material or process ?
o can the hazard be isolated from the worker or the worker from the
hazard ?
o can engineering means be used to minimise the risk ?
can safer work or administrative practices be put into place ?
o as a last resort, can personal protective equipment ( PPE ) be used ?

A combination of the above controls may be necessary if no single measure

is enough to reduce the risk to the lowest level reasonably practical.

PPE should be used as part of an integrated organisational approach to

health and safety management. It should complement other control methods,
not replace them.

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8. ORGANISATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY ACT, 2000

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Act :

An Act is legislation made by Parliament. Often, Acts have regulation - making

powers allowing regulations to be made under them.

Regulation :

A regulation is law and, as such, employers, workers, insurers, designers,

manufacturers, suppliers and others must meet their obligations under both
the legislation and the regulations. Regulations support the general
requirements of the legislation and provide more detail. Following regulations
are monitored :
o Workers Compensation Regulation 2003
o Workplace Injury Management and Workers Compensation Regulation 2002
o Workers Compensation ( General ) Regulation 1995
o Workers Compensation ( Insurance Premiums ) Regulation 1995
o Workers Compensation Transitional Regulation 1997
o Workers Compensation ( Bush Fire, Emergency and Rescue Services )
Regulation 2002
o Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001
o Occupational Health and Safety ( Clothing Factory Registration ) Regulation
2001
o Dangerous Goods ( General ) Regulation 1999
o Dangerous Goods ( Gas Installations ) Regulation 1998
o Explosives Regulation 2005

Codes of Conduct :

Industry codes of practice provide practical guidance and advice on how to

achieve the standard required by the Act and regulation . Codes of practice
are developed through consultation with representatives from industry,
workers and employers , special interest groups and government agencies.

Codes of practice are made under the Occupational Health and Safety Act
2000 and must be approved by the Minister for Commerce before they come
into effect.

A code of practice is not law, but it should be followed unless there is an

alternative course of action that achieves the same or better standards.

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Employers, workers, designers, manufacturers and suppliers should use the
code of practice in conjunction with the Act and regulation.

Evidence of failure to observe an industry code of practice may be used as

evidence in proceedings for an offence under the Act. However, a person is
not liable simply because of a failure to observe the code.

To correct an alleged breach of the Act or regulation , a person or

organisation must follow the advice and information provided in the code of
practice.

Standards :

Standards are established to ensure that certain requirements are addressed.

They outline requirements such as :

o quality
o performance
o construction design
o endurance
o time specificity
o systems or processes
o certain hazards and controls.

Standards are also developed from :

o commonly adopted practices in certain industries

o agreement between management and workers
o as a result of recommendations from advisory bodies.

What legislation covers in Occupational Health and Safety ?

The Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000 ( OHS Act 2000 ) is relevant to all the
workplaces. It describes the general requirements necessary to ensure a safe
and healthy workplace , and is designed to reduce the number of injuries in
the workplace by imposing responsibilities on individuals and corporations.

Employers, self - employed people, those in control of work premises,

machinery and substances, designers, manufacturers, suppliers and workers all
have obligations with regard to workplace health , safety and welfare.

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The OHS Act 2000 requires employers to consult with workers on matters
affecting their health, safety and welfare. It provides three options for doing
this:

o occupational health and safety ( OHS ) committees

o OHS representatives
o other agreed arrangements.

Objectives of the Legislation :

The purpose of the Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000 is to:

o secure and promote the health, safety and welfare of people at work

o protect people at a place of work against risks to health and safety arising out of
any activities of people at work
o promote a safe and healthy environment for people at work that protects them
from injury and illness and that is adapted to their physiological and
psychological needs
o provide for consultation and cooperation between employers and workers in
achieving the objects of the Act
o ensure that risks to health and safety at a place of work are identified, assessed
and eliminated or controlled
o develop and promote community awareness of occupational health and safety
issues
o provide a legislative framework that allows for progressively higher standards of
occupational health and safety to take account of changes in technology and
work practices
o protect people (whether or not at a place of work) against risks to health and
safety arising from the use of machinery that affects public safety.

Occupational Health and Safety Responsibilities :

Responsibility of Employer :

Section 8(1) of the Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000 ( OHS Act 2000 ) states
that as an employer you ‘ must ensure the health, safety and welfare at work of all
the employees ’. To meet your responsibilities under the OHS Act 2000, you must
provide:

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o safe premises
o safe machinery and substances
o safe systems of work
o provision of information, instruction, training and supervision
o suitable working environment and facilities.

The Act also states that you are responsible for the health and safety of
people other than your workers, who may be present at the workplace.

Responsibility of Manager / Supervisor :

Although the Act places the ultimate responsibility for the health, safety and
welfare of all workers on the employer, section 26 of the Act extends the
occupational health and safety ( OHS ) responsibility of the employer to
managers and supervisors . Managers and supervisors are directly responsible
for OHS within areas under their control. If they are in a position to
influence the conduct of the organisation or those involved , the responsibility
is extended to any area where a health and safety hazard exists. Section 28
of the Act states that managers and supervisors will not be held responsible
for OHS issues if they can prove that :
o it was not reasonably practicable for them to comply with the provision
o the offence was due to causes over which they had no control and it
was impractical to make provision for.

To determine if it is reasonably practical , the courts will decide:

o what is reasonable in the circumstances ?
o what is the magnitude of the risk ?
o what is the degree of probability of an incident occurring ?
o was an approved industry code of practice, other recognised document or
safe work method of an equivalent or higher standard followed ?
o have changing technology, work methods, equipment, etc been accounted for
?
o are current accepted industry and / or community standards being
adhered to ?
o has potential worker inattention, misjudgment or carelessness been
considered ?
o is there a safer method that would have prevented an incident
occurring ?
o are there any conflicting responsibilities that may influence actions to be
taken ?

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Responsibility of Worker :

Section 20 of the OHS Act 2000 states that as a worker you must :
o take reasonable care for the health and safety of your co - workers who
may be affected by your actions
o cooperate with your employer in anything that they do or require, in order
to ensure a safe workplace.

You must :
o ensure that your actions do not put others at risk
o work safely
o use and maintain machinery and equipment properly
o ensure that your work area is free of hazards.

Cooperating with your employer may include :

o notifying your supervisor of actual and potential hazards
o wearing or using prescribed safety equipment
o carrying out work in a safe manner
o following health and safety instructions
o taking notice of signs
o adhering to speed limits
o participating in safety training.

Section 22 states that you must not be charged for anything that your
employer provides or does in relation to OHS.

You should not :

o be asked to pay for a training course that your employer deems necessary
to the safe system of work
o be required to provide your own personal protective equipment
o be required to pay for equipment that is required to do the job safely
o lose pay or time if you are working as an OHS representative or on an
OHS committee.

Section 23 protects you from dismissal or demotion should you raise any
health and safety issues.

Responsibility of self – employed persons :

Section 9 of the Act states that self - employed persons must ensure that
other people are not exposed to risks to their health or safety arising from

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the conduct of the person’s undertaking while they are at that person’s
place of work.

Responsibility of everyone at workplace :

Section 21 of the Act states that you must not intentionally or recklessly
interfere with or misuse anything provided in the interests of health, safety
and welfare . You must not:

← move or deface signs

← tamper with warning alarms
← remove machine guards
← ‘ skylark ’
← play jokes or pranks
← behave in a way that results in risk to others.

Section 24 states that you must not intentionally hinder or obstruct :

← the giving or receiving of any form of aid when a person is injured at

work
← any act to avoid or prevent a serious risk to the health and safety of
a person.

Section 25 states that you must not deliberately create a risk to the health
and safety of your co - workers, such as with a bomb threat or intentional
false alarm.

Responsibility of Controllers of work premises, machines or substances :

Section 10 of the OHS Act 2000 states that ‘ a person who has control of
premises used by people as a place of work must ensure that the premises
are safe and without risks to health’ . This includes doorways, stairways,
walkways and lifts to and from the premises.

A person who has control over any machinery or substances in non -

domestic premises, that has been provided for the use of or operation by
people at work, must also ensure that the plant or substance is safe and
without risk.
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Responsibility of Designers, manufacturers and suppliers :

Section 11 of the Act requires that a person who designs , manufactures and
supplies any plant or substance for use by people at work must ensure
that the plant or substance is safe and without risks to health, when it is
used properly.

The designer, manufacturer and supplier are all independently responsible

for :

o identifying hazards
o assessing potential risk posed by the hazard
o controlling the risk
o reviewing the risk assessment.

Part of this risk management process involves each party obtaining and
providing relevant and adequate information when required.

Designers, manufacturers and suppliers are required to test their products to

ensure they are safe when used properly. They are also required to make
available information about the results of these tests and about the
requirements for the safe use in the workplace.

The Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001 requires manufacturers

to prepare material safety data sheets ( MSDS ) before a hazardous substance
is supplied to another person for use at work. The MSDS must include the
following information:

o recommended uses
o chemical and physical properties
o description of each ingredient used in its preparation
o relevant health hazard information
o precautions to be followed for safe use
o emergency and general contact details of the manufacturer

Workplace Consultation :

Legislative Requirements :

The requirements for consultation are introduced by object (d) of the

Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000 ( OHS Act 2000 ) :
← ‘ to provide for consultation and cooperation between employers and
employees in achieving the objects of this Act’

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The legal requirements for consultation in the workplaces are provided in the
following legislation:
o OHS Act 2000 Part 2, Division 2, sections 13 – 19
o Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001 ( OHS Regulation 2001 )
Chapter 3 – workplace consultation, clauses 21 – 32.

The Act provides three options for consultation. Workplaces may choose to
establish one or more of the following :
o occupational health and safety ( OHS ) committee
o OHS representative
o other agreed arrangements .

These options allow workplaces to develop systems and procedures tailored to

their individual needs . The OHS Regulation 2001 provides more detailed
requirements to support the OHS Act 2000.

Code of Practice :

Occupational Health and Safety Consultation is a practical guide for meeting

the duty - to - consult requirements set out in the Act and Regulation. The
code references relevant sections of the Act and Regulation as they arise
and includes :
o instruction on the provisions of the Act and the Regulation
o practical guidance and tools to assist industry to implement and maintain
meaningful and effective consultative arrangements
o case studies highlighting how various workplaces undertake consultation
about health and safety.

Training :

Occupational health and safety ( OHS ) consultation training focuses on :

← how to ensure effective and meaningful consultation
← how to systematically manage health and safety.

Clause 31 of the Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001 ( OHS

Regulation 2001 ) provides detail on training that must be provided to OHS
members and representatives . The training must be undertaken as soon as
possible after the election of committees or representatives, unless approved
training has already been undertaken . The code of practice recommends that
training should be held within three months of election. Training should be
completed within two months. The employer must consult about the

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arrangements for training of OHS committees and representatives ( and
members in other agreed arrangements ), with regard to:
o training needs
o when training will occur
o who should deliver training
o how the training should be delivered ( i.e. should all members and
representatives be trained together ).

When deciding whether workers who have previously undertaken approved

training need to undertake training again, consider the following :
o how long ago the training was delivered ?
o legislative changes since the original training
o differences between the learning outcomes of the original OHS
Consultation training course and the learning outcomes set out in the
code of practice
o whether more effective consultation would result from the current training.

Training must be provided by :

o a trainer who is accredited to provide that course of training
o a registered provider, under the Vocational Education and Training
Accreditation Act 1990, whose registration extends to providing a course of
occupational health and safety consultation training.

The description of the topics, learning aims and participant learning

outcomes are defined in the OHS Regulation 2001 and the code of practice ,
and must be covered in the training.

Managing Safety Risks :

What are Hazards ?

The Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001 defines a hazard as ‘

anything ( including work practices or procedures ) that has the potential to
harm the health or safety of a person’ .

Hazard identification , risk assessment, and elimination or control offer the

best opportunity for reducing workplace injury or illness.

Hazards arise from :

o the work environment

o the use of machinery and substances

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o poor work design
o inappropriate systems and procedures.

Hazards can be classified into five broad areas :

o physical eg. noise, radiation, light, vibration
o chemical eg. poisons, dusts
o biological eg. viruses, plants, parasites
o mechanical/electrical eg. slips, trips and falls, tools, electrical equipment
o psychological eg. fatigue, violence, bullying.

Hazard management plans can be developed after hazards have been

classified, eg. a physical hazard management plan.

It is important for workers to be aware of hazards. Your occupational health

and safety committee may recommend hazard specific training.

What harms hazards can cause ?

Once a hazard has been identified, an employer is required, in consultation

with their workers , to determine how likely it is that someone could be
harmed and how serious the injury or illness may be . Review any available
information about the hazard , such as :
o information supplied to you by the manufacturer of the product or
equipment ( handbooks / operating manuals )
o material safety data sheets ( MSDS ) prepared by the supplier of a
hazardous substance
o experience from the workplace with the hazard or similar hazards, such
as workers’ experience or injury data
o Guidance material to help you assess potential risks for particular
hazards, processes and work tasks
o codes of practice to give you direction and guidance on the identification
and control of specific hazards
o Indian Standards that set out specifications for a range of equipment,
products and materials to ensure that they are safe and of a good
quality.

If a hazard presents an immediate and serious risk, it may be necessary to

take interim steps to control the risk. For instance, stopping work in a
potentially contaminated atmosphere until the exact level of exposure to
contaminants and appropriate controls can be identified.

How to control risks ?

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Having identified hazards and determined that people are at risk of injury or
illness from them, there is a legal obligation for employers to do something
about them.

Clause 11 of the Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001 states that
an employer must eliminate any reasonably foreseeable hazard and , if this is
not practical, must control the risks. Clause 5 explains the meaning of ‘
control of risks ’.

If elimination of the hazard is not possible , then the risk still exists and
should be minimised by using the most effective method , in the following
order :

1. substituting the system of work or machinery with something safer

2. isolating the hazard
3. minimising the risk by introducing engineering controls eg .: guard rail ,
scaffolding
4. minimising the risk by adopting administrative controls eg .: warning
signs, safe work practices
5. using personal protective equipment eg.: safety glasses, ear muffs.

If no single control is sufficient, a combination of the above controls needs

to be put in place to minimise the risk to the lowest level that is
reasonably practical.

The measures at the fourth and fifth levels are less effective, and require
more frequent reviews of the hazards and systems of work.

Once implemented, control strategies should be documented. They also need

to be properly used and maintained, and training should be provided where
necessary.

Ongoing monitoring and review are necessary to ensure the continuing

appropriateness of controls and to encourage continual improvement.

Working Environment Hazards :

Employers have a variety of obligations in relation to the working

environment.

These particular requirements relate to :

o Working space
o Lighting

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o Hot and cold working environments
o Noise management
o Other obligations

Working space :

Clause 45 of the Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001 ( OHS

Regulation 2001 ) states that the employers must :
o provide sufficient working space to allow people to work safely
o ensure that floors and surfaces are constructed and maintained to
minimise the possibility of slips, trips and falls
o ensure that people are able to move about a place of work safely and
unhindered.

Lighting :

Clause 46 of the OHS Regulation 2001 states that employers must :

o provide adequate lighting to allow workers to work safely, move safely, and
enter and exit the workplace safely ( including from emergency exits )
o ensure that there is not excessive glare or reflection
o ensure that lighting allows persons who are not workers to move safely
within the place of work.

Hot and cold working environments :

Clauses 47 and 48 of the OHS Regulation 2001 state that employers must :
o provide adequate ventilation and air movement in indoor environments
that may become hot
o provide adequate access to heated or sheltered areas and warm clothing
or other personal protective equipment if employees are exposed to cold
o provide appropriate work and rest regimes relative to physical fitness,
general health, medication taken and body weight appropriate for both hot
and cold working environments.

Noise Management :

Clause 49 of the OHS Regulation 2001 states that employers must not allow
exposure to noise levels that exceed an eight - hour noise equivalent of 85
dB ( A ) or peak at more than 140 dB ( C ).

Other obligations :

The OHS Regulation 2001 also states that employers have responsibilities in
relation to :

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o atmosphere – keeping exposure to atmospheric contaminants as low as
practicable and maintaining adequate ventilation ( clauses 50–55 )
o working at heights – prevention of falls, falling objects, scaffolding, lifts,
brittle or fragile roof, building maintenance ( clauses 56–61 )
o fire prevention ( clause 62 )
o electricity ( clauses 63–65 )
o confined spaces ( clauses 66–78 )
o manual handling ( clauses 79–81 ).

Managing Safety Risks :

In occupational health and safety ( OHS ) terms, risk management is the

process of recognising situations that have the potential to cause harm to
people or property, and doing something to prevent a harmful situation
occurring or a person being harmed .

Risk management is a process of well - defined steps that, when taken in

sequence, allow you to make informed decisions about how best to avoid or
control the impact of risks.

Risk management involves:

o hazard identification defining the problem

o risk assessment determining how serious the problem is
o risk elimination or control deciding what needs to be done to solve the
problem
o reviewing risk assessments if, for instance, new information becomes
available about the hazardous nature of a substance or process.

The Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001 imposes obligations on

all employers to implement risk management processes in all workplaces .
Employers must take reasonable care to identify any foreseeable hazard that
has the potential to harm the health and safety of workers or anyone else
in the workplace.

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 9. WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION ACT

The Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923 was enacted to help workmen face the
hardships resulting from accidents. These legal provisions apply equally to women
workers also. An employer liable to provide monetary compensation to a disabled
workman, or to his dependents, in case of his death, if the disablement or death
occurs “out of and in the course of employment.”

Any worker employed in any of a wide variety of hazardous occupations who has
suffered an injury is eligible for compensation. If he dies, his dependents can claim
the benefits provided by the Act. The injury must disable him for more than 3 days,
totally or partially. The disablement means the loss in the earning capacity of a
workman in every employment which he was capable of doing at the time of the
accidents. Its effect may be temporary or permanent (Schedule 1). To get
compensation for an occupational disease, a workman must have been employed in

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the specified occupation for a continuous period of at least 6 months. If the
compensation is not paid within one month after the date due, a simple interest at
6% per annum on the arrears can be recovered from the employer.

Workers compensation provides protection to workers and their employers in the

event of a work related injury or disease. Through the workers compensation
system injured workers may have an entitlement to weekly payments, lump sums
for permanent impairment (and pain and suffering where applicable), payment of
medical bills, provision of legal assistance to pursue a claim and intensive
rehabilitation assistance.

Responsibilities during an accident / injury :

Responsibility of Employer :

When there is an injury at work, the employer must provide the injured worker with
:
o first aid and/or transport to medical treatment
o name of the insurer
o company name and employer contact details
o a claim form, if requested by the worker
o suitable duties
o any assistance that will help the worker to recover and return-to-work quickly.

Responsibility of Employee :

When there is an injury at work , the injured worker must :

o seek medical attention
o notify the employer as soon as possible
o record their name, the date and cause of the injury in the employer’s
Register of Injuries
o sign the medical certificate, if one is required
o participate and cooperate with the development and implementation of an
injury management plan
o comply with requests made by the insurance company with regard to
their claim
o make all efforts to return to work as soon as possible.

Responsibility of Insurer :
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When notified of an injury, the insurer must :
o contact the worker and the employer within three days, and consult with
the treating doctor, to ensure that the worker receives necessary
assistance to recover and return to work
o commence provisional liability payments of weekly benefits and medical
expenses within seven days, unless a reasonable excuse exists
o develop an injury management plan for a worker with a significant injury
o cooperate with its obligations under the injury management plan

Claims process :

How does an injured worker claim worker’s compensation ?

Before making a claim, the injured worker or their representative must

advise the employer that an injury has occurred, and provide medical
information. An injured worker does not, in most cases, need to send a
written claim form to the insurer to receive workers compensation . Instead,
once the insurer has been told of an injury ( by the employer, the worker or
a third party ), the following will occur :
o provisional liability payments will start within seven days ( for most
injured workers )
o the insurer will investigate the facts and decide to either continue or stop
further payments. Most of the information that the insurer needs to make
a decision about workers compensation will be available from the
employer, the worker and the treating doctor.

There are occasions, however, when a worker will need to submit a written
claim form, such as:

o if the insurer requests one ( eg. if the insurer is notified two months after
the injury )
o if the worker needs weekly payments for more than 12 weeks
o if the insurer decides to not start provisional liability payments, or stops
making provisional liability payments, and the worker disagrees.

How does the insurer decide whether to accept the claim ?

Before provisional liability payments begin or a claim is accepted, the insurer

requires certain facts. It will investigate the matter by questioning the
employer and the worker, and seeking information from the treating doctor.

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Under the Worker’s Compensation Act, 1923, a person is only entitled to
worker’s compensation if :

o the person is a ‘ worker ’ or a ‘ deemed ’ worker

o the injury is work - related
o the work was a substantial contributing factor to the injury
o the person is covered by workers compensation legislation.

How soon must the insurer make a decision on the claim ?

Within seven days of being informed – verbally, electronically, by claim form,

etc – that an injury has occurred, the insurer must begin provisional liability
payments to the injured worker, unless there is a reasonable excuse to not
start payments. The Insurer must also decide how long provisional liability
payments will continue, up to a maximum of 12 weeks.

If, following the initial notification of injury and commencement of provisional

liability payments, a claim form is submitted ( after, say, four weeks ), the
insurer has either 21 days, or until the period of provisional liability
expires , to make a decision. Based on the type of injury and incapacity, the
insurer may decide to extend provisional liability for a further four weeks.

A claim for workers compensation should be made within six months of

the date of the injury. In special circumstances this can be extended to
three years.

A worker is not entitled to compensation unless notice of the injury has

been given to the employer as soon as possible after the injury, and before
the worker has voluntarily left the employment in which the worker was at
the time of the injury.

Permanent Impairment :

A worker who has received an injury that results in permanent impairment

may be entitled to receive lump sum compensation payments in addition to
weekly benefits.

Agreements for lump sum payments for permanent impairment and pain
and suffering require the insurer to be satisfied that the worker has
obtained independent legal advice prior to accepting payment. The insurer is

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required to record evidence that this advice has been obtained and the
details of the agreement.

An injured worker who has agreed to a lump sum payment for permanent
impairment is not entitle to receive additional compensation unless there has
been an increase in the degree of permanent impairment that occurred after
the payment was made.

Eligibility for worker’s compensation benefits :

A person who is a ‘ worker’ or deemed to be a worker under the Workplace

Injury Management and Workers Compensation Act, 1923 is eligible to claim
workers compensation if they suffer a work - related injury. A worker
includes :
o those who work for an employer, under an oral or written contract of
service or apprenticeship
o ‘ deemed’ workers
o full - time, part - time or casual workers.

Benefits entitled to injured worker :

Depending on the individual claim and the type, nature and severity of the
injury , an injured worker may be eligible for the following benefits :

o weekly benefits
o permanent impairment benefits
o fees for medical or related treatment
o maximum amounts & prescribed rates for other benefits
o death benefits and funeral expenses
o common law damages
o commutations

1. Weekly benefits :

Benefits to injured workers who are totally unfit to work :

For the first 26 weeks that a worker is totally unfit for work ( total incapacity ), the
workers compensation payments are at the award rate or enterprise agreement rate

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of pay, capped at a maximum weekly amount. Overtime, shift-work, payments for
special expenses and penalty rates are excluded.

For casual workers not employed under an award rate, workers compensation
payments are based on what the worker earned over the past 12 months.

After 26 weeks of total incapacity, the workers compensation payments are at the
statutory rate, which varies if the worker has a dependent spouse and/or children.

Benefits to injured workers who return to work on suitable duties :

If a worker returns to work on partial duties and earns less than before
the injury – because they may be working part - time or the suitable duties
are at a lower pay rate than their pre - injury job – then an additional
amount, called ‘ make – up ’ pay, will be paid.

‘ Make – up ’ pay is the difference between the worker’s normal gross weekly
wages before the injury ( including overtime, shift work , payments for special
expenses and penalty rates ) and the actual weekly earning after the injury
( i.e. the value of duties worked ). The amount of ‘ make – up ’ pay is limited
to the award rate for the first 26 weeks of partial fitness for work and to
the statutory rate ( capped at a maximum amount ) for any weeks of partial
fitness for work beyond 26 weeks.

Benefits to injured workers who are fit for suitable duties but no
duties are available :

If there are no suitable duties and the worker is involved in rehabilitation,

retraining or job-seeking, they may receive an amount known as a 'section 38
payment', which includes:

o not more than the award rate of pay within the first 26 weeks of incapacity
o not more than 80 percent of the award rate from 27 to 52 weeks of incapacity.

1. Permanent impairment benefits :

If a worker has a permanent impairment as a result of a workplace injury or illness,

they may be entitled to receive a payment under section 66 of the Workers
Compensation Act 1923.

To receive compensation, the worker will need to lodge a claim that gives an
evaluation of permanent loss or permanent impairment (including any entitlement
for ‘ pain and suffering ’ ). The evaluation will be expressed as a percentage loss of a
given body part/system.
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A worker who has received an injury that results in permanent impairment
may be entitled to receive lump sum compensation payments in addition to
weekly benefits.

Agreements for lump sum payments for permanent impairment and pain and
suffering require the insurer to be satisfied that the worker has obtained
independent legal advice prior to accepting payment. The insurer is required to
record evidence that this advice has been obtained and the details of the agreement.

An injured worker who has agreed to a lump sum payment for permanent
impairment is not entitle to receive additional compensation unless there has
been an increase in the degree of permanent impairment that occurred after
the payment was made.

2. Fees for medical or related treatment :

Fees for medical or related treatment include payments made to certain

medical specialists, hospitals and other health service providers in respect of
injured workers . Some of these fees are regulated under the Worker’s
Compensation Act,1923

3. Maximum amounts & prescribed rates for other benefits :

The maximum amount of benefits payable to an injured worker under the Workers
Compensation Act, 1923 for medical, hospital, ambulance and occupational
rehabilitation services, together with benefits payable for travel expenses and
damage to artificial aids or clothing, can be found under 'further information'.

4. Death benefits and funeral expenses :

Dependants of a worker who died as a result of a workplace injury are entitled to :

o the lump sum payment applicable at the date of death

o weekly payments to dependent children who were wholly dependent on the
worker
o reasonable funeral expenses.

5. Common law damages :

A common law claim is made when an injured worker sues their employer in court
for damages. To be eligible to take action under common law, three criteria must be
met:
o the worker must demonstrate negligence of the employer or a fellow employee

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o the injured worker must have a permanent impairment that is at least a 15
percent whole person impairment
o the claim cannot be started for at least six months after the worker gave notice
of the injury to the employer, or not more than three years after the date of
injury.

Common law claims are heard in the District or Supreme Courts. Initially, the
Workers Compensation Commission attempts to mediate and reach settlement
through discussion and agreement of all parties.

Damages are paid as one lump sum, to cover past and future economic loss only.
They can be reduced if the worker’s own negligence contributed to the injury.

A common law settlement cancels all other entitlements to workers compensation

benefits. If a common law claim is not successful, the worker will continue to
receive workers compensation under the statutory scheme

6. Commutations :

A commutation is an injured worker’s entitlement to workers compensation benefits

paid out as a lump sum of money.

A commutation is only available under the following circumstances:

o the injured worker must have a permanent impairment that is at least a 15

percent whole person impairment
o compensation for permanent impairment and pain and suffering has been paid
o the worker must be entitled to ongoing weekly benefits and must have received
weekly benefits regularly and periodically during the previous six months
o it is more than two years since the worker first received compensation for the
injury
o all opportunities for injury management and return-to-work have been
exhausted
o weekly benefits have not been stopped or reduced as a result of the worker not
cooperating with the injury management plan
o the worker has received independent legal advice
o all agreements must be registered with the Workers Compensation Commission.

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 10. RISK MANAGEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
Controlling loss when in business is vital. Should any incidents occur, all
aspects of a company can be disrupted. Even if full recovery is available
from an insurance policy, there may be delays and interruptions. Parts of the
business not affected can also suffer. Even those in separate buildings or
different locations might not escape the consequences.

Preventing problems occurring makes more sense than trying to solve them
once they have happened. This means implementing a risk management
programme. Such a programme would identify potential threats and establish
mechanisms and routines to minimise any possible impact. It also means
planning a recovery strategy that will get the business back to normal
working capacity with the minimum of time and fuss.

This is challenging work and is best done with expert assistance.

Project risk management has been intensively discussed in recent years.

Projects are becoming shared efforts of multiple parties – construction
industry is a good example of an area, where the project outcome can be
extremely complex. Still, research on how the project risk management should

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be adopted to the network environment is scarce. This study’s objective is to
identify the risks that are occur and the ways to manage risks in the co-
operation of the whole project network. The focus of the study is put on the
informal risk management means. The purpose is to emphasize other than
legally binding contracts as risk management means.

In recent years, intensive research and development has been done in the
area of project risk management. It is widely recognised as one of the most
critical procedures and capability areas in the field of project management.
There is a statistically significant relationship between management support
for risk management processes and a reported project success. However,
shortcomings and improvement opportunities in this field have been
identified. Some of the shortcomings are related to the ever increasing
complexity of projects. Subcontracting is expanding since many companies are
focusing solely on their core businesses, which results in more complex
project networks and greater numbers of project participants. The scarcely
studied viewpoint in the project risk management field is related to this
complexity. Although the interaction between project actors occurs at many
different levels , research done to study how networks act in preventing or
mitigating risks is moderate.

Construction projects are characterized as very complex projects, where

uncertainty comes from various sources. Construction projects gather together
hundreds of stakeholders, which makes it difficult to study a network as a
whole. But at the same time, these projects offer an ideal environment for
network and risk management research. Additionally, construction projects are
frequently used in management research, and several different tools and
techniques have already been developed and especially for this type of
project. However, there is a gap between risk management techniques and
their practical application by construction contractors.

Risk management is one of the most critical project management practices

to ensure a project be successfully completed. Risk management is thus in
direct relation to the successful project completion. Project management
literature describes a detailed and widely accepted risk management process,
which is constructed basically from four iterative phases : risk identification ,
risk estimation, risk response planning and execution, often managing the
risk management process is included. When dealing with risks, the potential
for improvement should also be taken into account, for example to undertake
the project with fewer resources or to take advantage of an unexpected
window of opportunity. Risks are at the very core of the business : risks and
opportunities are linked; there are no opportunities without risks related to
them. Thus risks actually raise the value of a project; usually higher risks
bring higher opportunities. Since opportunities and threats are seldom
independent, they can also be dealt with at the same time. For example,

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many researchers prefer to use the word ‘ uncertainty ’ instead of ‘ risk ’, to
stress the point that a risk has two sides, both negative and positive. The
purpose of the risk management process in a wider sense should not solely
be to ensure a successful project completion but also to increase the
expectations of project goals and objectives. It means that project risk
management should be turned into project uncertainty management. Risk
management is not limited to a few processes, but includes much
more in order to have a complete view of the suggested risk management
process.

Although risk is widely studied, it still lacks a clear and shared concept
definition : risk is often only perceived as an unwanted, unfavourable
consequence. Such a definition embodies two misleading concepts : first,
among professionals there is an established consensus that risk needs to be
viewed as having both negative and positive consequences. Second, risk is
not only related to events, i.e. single points of action, but risk also relates to
future project conditions. Conditions may turn out to be favourable or
unfavourable. The point is that future project conditions are hard to predict
in the early stages of the project life - cycle. In addition, conditions can
change during the project life - cycle and the risk is that the conditions are
different, and potentially more severe than was first estimated. Risks
analyzed only as certain events are further criticised for not taking the
degree of impact into consideration. Risks are seldom on - off - types,
meaning that risks do not either happen or “ not – happen ”, the impact of
the risk varies greatly, depending on the conditions at the time of the
possible occurrence. Variability and the level of predictability ( uncertainty ) of
the future scenarios determine the quality of risk analysis done today.

Therefore many researchers have suggested that the term risk should be
replaced with a more neutral term that could embody a larger scope of
than
risk traditionally denotes. The term uncertainty is suggested to replace risk
because it can easily embody the variability and ambiguity of risk.
Uncertainty which matters is critical to all projects and that this uncertainty
relates to more than just time and cost objectives of a project. An
uncertainty includes for example problems like which parties ought to be
involved, their motives and alignment of project objectives with corporate
strategy.

According to the authors, managing these uncertainties efficiently is a best

practice in project risk management. Same authors continued that risks are
caused by a lack of certainty and that uncertainty is especially prevalent in
the early project phases. Since not all factors can be predicted at the onset
of a project, yet decisions still have to be made, there is a risk that the
outcome of these decisions is something other than what is expected. In this

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study risk is defined in a way that holds to in every sense of the term
discussed above.

Following mentioned are some of the risk management techniques to be

undertaken during various construction practices :

1. Risk Management during demolition works :

Demolition is more hazardous than construction activity. It poses danger to

men working on it, the public, equipment, adjoining structures as well as the
environment. Hence, adequate attention should be paid to its planning and
execution, through various stages, so as to minimize the risk of accidents
and injuries to personnel involved in it.

The nature of precautions that need to be taken depends on the type and
height of the structure, reasons for its demolition, equipments to be used,
duration, costs and the available technical know – how.

General precautions :

o Danger signals should be conspicuously posted around the structure as

well as its doors and openings.
o During night time, a red light should be placed on and around the
structure to be demolished.

o Watchmen should be posted at entry points.

o Safety gear and personal protective equipments should be supplied to all

the workers and their use to be enforced

o Electrical wires, telephone lines and water pipes should be switched off
when demolition work is in progress.

o Protected walkways and passageways should be provided for the use of

workers and others.

Safety precautions during demolition of the structure :

Removal of a member may weaken the side – walls of an adjoining

structure. To prevent any possible damage, the side – walls should be
supported each time until permanent protection is provided. In case of
anticipated danger to an adjoining structure, get the latter vacated.

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If a structure under demolition has been partially wrecked by fire, explosion
or other catastrophe, the walls and damaged roofs should be shored or
braced suitably.

If the structure to be demolished is more than two – storeyed or 7.5 m high,

the adjacent road should be closed, or a side – walk constructed on it.

A toe – board, at least 1 m high above the roof of the shed, should be
constructed on the outside edge and ends of the side – walk. The roof of the
side walk should be capable of sustaining a load of 730 kg/m 2.

Before demolishing a structure, attention should be paid to its structural

design and condition of the concrete : beams, columns and walls. Pneumatic
drilled hand shearing machine or gas cutting set should be used to cut and
demolish large quantity of concrete.

Hydraulic tools used in the demolition range from ordinary hydraulic

breakers to highly specialized concrete crushing jaws and steel cutting
shears. Concrete upto 1m thick may be cut with an abrasive water jet. The
heart of the abrasive water jet cutting system has a small nozzle in which
water is pressurized upto 4200 kg/cm2 and combined with solid abrasives to
create a high velocity cutting jet. Cutting with a high velocity water jet
minimizes dust and eliminates vibration and fire hazards.

Precast reinforced concrete units used in structures are normally held in

position by the strength of joints made in situ or on supporting walls.
Before demolition of joint structures, their supporting mechanisms should be
studied. For demolishing pre – stressed reinforced concrete, the advice of an
expert should be taken.

Safety precautions during demolition of the walls and floor :

In case the walls are demolished manually, it should be done part by part.
Lateral bracing should be provided if the height of a wall is more than
15 times its thickness and if it is in weak condition. The wall should no be
allowed to fall as a single mass on the floor of the building. The debris
accumulated on the floor should be removed.

The structural or load supporting members on any floor should not be cut
or removed until all the storeys above that floor have been demolished.
Floors can be demolished by manual labour or with the help of equipments.
About 300 mm wide slit should be cut in the first stage for the entire
length of the slab along which it spans. The opening should then be
increased to the desired width in suitable stages. Sheet planks 250 mm wide
and 50 mm thick and placed 0.4 m apart should be allowed for workmen.
When floors are removed, no worker should be allowed to work in that area,
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or directly underneath; and such areas should be properly barricaded.
Demolition should start only after the floor and the surrounding area have
been cleared off persons and debris upto a distance of 6 m.

If the surface of the concrete is smooth and regular, it may be cut with
saws, abrasive water jets or pneumatic / hydraulic breaker. The choice of
method is relative to the type of demolition required. Often shears and
cutters are mounted on the boom of a hydraulic excavator for braking
reinforced concrete. Derricks used for lowering the steel structure should rest
on strong supports and should not be overloaded. A standard signal system
should be used and workers instructed not to drop the load but lower it
slowly.

Safety precautions during demolition of the other parts of structure :

The building under demolition may have jack arches, brick cantilevers,
reinforced concrete, pre – cast concrete, pre – stressed concrete, etc. The mode
of demolition will vary according to the type of the structure. Heavy bulks of
timber and steel beams should be supported before cutting at the
extremities and then lowered to a safe working place.

In jack arches, the rods between the main supporting beams should not be
cut until the arch or series of arches are safely removed. For brick arches,
expert advice should be obtained at all stages of demolition and it should
be supervised by an experienced person.

Safety precautions during removal of debris :

One of the biggest problems in any demolition work is the disposal of the
waste material. Normally, it is dumped near the demolished structure or on
public works. Materials should be thrown on ground only after taking
adequate precautions. Wooden or metal chutes should be used for dropping
the waste. Debris should also be dropped through the hole or floor without
use of chute. Guard – rails may be provided on surfaces on which men stand
to dump materials.

Safety precautions during mechanical demolition of the structure :

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The mechanical devices for demolition include weight balls, power shovels,
concrete saw, etc. The selection of the best method is a function partly of
time, money and the surrounding environment.

The following mentioned precautions should be taken :

o The area of demolition should be barricaded for a minimum distance of

1.5 times the height of the wall.
o While the mechanical device is in operation, no worker should be allowed
to enter the building under demolition.

o The device should be so located as to avoid the falling debris.

o The mechanical device should not cause any damage to the adjacent
structures, power – lines, etc.

Irrespective of the method chosen for demolition or the size of the job, the
following safety precautions should be undertaken :

Services :

Gas, water, electricity and other services to the structure should be properly
capped before starting demolition. Electricity or other lines needed to aid
demolition should be of approved heavy duty construction and kept
adequately protected along a known path.

Access :

All movements of people within the structure should be on the designated

routes, i.e. through prescribed doorways, stairways or specially constructed
walkways with fixed ladders. Removal of debris should also follow an agreed
route. All other openings, horizontal and vertical, should be blocked off
completely to avoid danger from falling material. Even openings needed for
debris removal should be blocked when not in use.

Loading :

Demolition may seriously change the loading designs. Any wall or floor
required to carry excess weight of the stored material, or likely to be
subjected to undue pressure from waste, must be adequately shored to
withstand the extra loading. At no time should the debris be allowed to
accumulate and become too heavy for the floor. High impact load from falling
debris is another source of unsafe loading. In general, no area of wall or

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slab greater than 3 sq.m. should be allowed to fall on any floor at one
time. The lower walls of a building are particularly susceptible to the effects
of destructive loading as they are not designed for it. Wind loadings shall
also be considered. Under no circumstances should the walls be left standing
overnight if they are not plumb and strong enough to resist toppling by
wind pressure. If wall stability id in doubt, demolition should continue down
to the nearest structural cross – member; alternatively temporary shoring
should be erected. In general, no section of a wall more than one storey
high should be left standing unsupported at any time unless it was
specifically designed to stand higher.

Structural members :

When demolishing a structure from the top – down, supports at the lower
level should not be cut or removed until demolition at the upper level is
complete. Beams and columns that are cut should be well – secured with
wire ropes or chains. If the volume of debris is expected to be large, the
ground floor space to dump it should be increased.

Worker protection :

Workers engaged in demolition jobs should always stand on a firm base.

Free ends of cut members may be needed as work platforms and must
therefore be shored.

Other hazards :

All glass and combustible material should be removed from the structure
before the demolition begins. Removal of asbestos and polychlorinated
biphenyls must be done in accordance with the regulations set by the
Occupational Safety and Health rules as well as the Environmental
Protection rules. These materials can be extremely dangerous to the workers.

2. Risk management during tunnelling works :

Causes of hazards :

The hazards involved in tunnelling and underground works are mainly due
to the following operations :

 Drilling
 Explosives and blasting
 Mucking plant and equipment

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 Supporting the excavation

Drilling :

Drilling of holes is done by pneumatic rock drills mounted on the booms of

the machines designed for underground works or from the drill platforms. A
few basic precautions, if taken, can make the drilling operations safe. The
drill platforms should be sturdy and well-designed to give a rigid working
place; and their surfaces should be kept clean and non – slippery. Air – hoses
should be damage free.

The drilling should be resumed after ensuring that there are no misfired
charges which the drill may strike. Finally, the charging of the drilled holes
and the drilling should not be carried out simultaneously in the same area.

Mucking plant and equipment :

Before starting the mucking operations, the reversible ventilation fans should
be run till the fumes caused explosives are removed. The Engineer-In-Charge
( EIC ) concerned should be satisfied about the condition. The excavated
profile should be carefully examined for loose rock, and scaled down before
starting mucking operations.

If rail mounted tip wagons and locomotives are employed, the maintenance of
the tracks, crossings and switches should be carried out regularly to avoid
derailment. If diesel engine dumpers and loaders are used, they should be
maintained properly so that the exhaust fumes are not excessive.

Supporting the excavation :

After the mucking operation is over, the profile of excavation should be

examined by an experienced person who should decide whether the support
in the form of rock bolts, steel ribs or shot – concrete is required before any
further operation is carried out.

In case of rock bolts, safety measures for drilling the holes should be
observed before the bolts are fixed. The normal precautions for the erection
of steel works, including those of welding, should be taken in the case of
steel ribs.

Tunnelling Machine :

The use of tunnelling machines for boring reduce the hazards as it

eliminates drilling and blasting operations, reduces environmental pollution
and poses less risk of collapsing of ground surface. For safety in the

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operation of tunnelling machines, a mole should be used where the tunnel
length is more than 500 metres. Their electrical connections and cables
should be well insulated and the hydraulic hoses should be able to
withstand high pressures. Care should be taken that the operator is well
protected in the cabin and otherwise is comfortable.

Tunnelling in soft ground :

In case of tunnelling in soft ground the bridging period is so short that

steel supports cannot be erected. Therefore, the bridging time should be
improved by shotcreting and the excavation supported to the extent feasible.
Excavation of tunnels by drilling holes and blasting with explosives should
normally avoided in soft ground.

Electrical safety precautions during tunnelling :

 All equipments and cables should be capable of withstanding the damage

likely to be caused by water, dust and humid atmosphere.
 Suitable notices should be displayed where the voltage is more than
220 volts.
 Only qualified electricians should be allowed to work on electrical
installations
 Switches and electrical installations should be properly earthed and placed
on high ground or platform.
 The persons working in the tunnel must be provided with suitable
protective gear – safety helmets, safety shoes, hand – gloves, etc.
 The workers from the underground works should be withdrawn in case of
prolonged ventilation failure or heavy rush of ground – water.
 Good house – keeping should be maintained for successful tunnelling
operations.
 All debris, refuse, tools and equipments not required for any operation
should be removed from the tunnel.
 Proper and sufficient drainage conditions should be provide inside the
tunnel.
 All equipments and machines should be maintained in good working order.
 The EIC should inspect the machinery and equipment frequently and
ensure that they are in good working condition.
 Gears and moving parts should be protected from dust and guarded to
prevent accidental contact by operators.
 Only experienced men should be allowed to operate the power plant.

3.Risk management for fire prevention and control on

construction sites :

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Fire at a construction site can endanger the lives of workers and others
who happen to be on the site. A fire during the course of construction also
can result in severe structural damage; destruction of machinery, equipment
or materials; and untimely delay in project completion. The fire – loss potential
during the construction phase is far greater than after project completion.
During construction, hazards inherently associated with building operations
are continually being generated. At the same time, permanent fire protection
systems and equipment are usually not yet in place or, at best, only partially
in service. Likewise, vertical and horizontal fire – related structures ( i.e. walls,
floors, doors, etc. ), designed to minimize fire spread, are usually not completed
until late in the construction schedule.

Fire protection plan :

It is essential, therefore, that an effective fire prevention and extinguishing

plan be developed before the onset of construction. The plan should be put
into practice as soon as construction operations begin and should be closely
followed throughout the course of construction. The fire protection plan is a
vital segment of the overall project safety program. Required detail will
depend on the size and complexity of the construction operations involved.
This data sheet lists the elements that should be covered in the plan.

Assignment of responsibility and authority :

Project management – whether owner, construction manager, prime contractor

or a combination thereof – must clearly assign and spell out the
responsibility for site fire protection before the start of the project. All
contractors and subcontractors should be made aware of this responsibility
and authority assignment. Procedures should be established for expedient
handling of “ imminent danger ” – type hazards.

Coordination with outside agencies :

Determine applicable requirements concerning such items as temporary power

and lighting, blasting, storage of flammables and temporary heating devices,
and the like.

The local fire department should be made aware of construction plans and
should be kept up to date during the course of construction regarding items
such as access to the site during both working and non – working hours;
and the location of standpipe systems, pump connections, fuel storage,
stairways, elevators, hoists, power and fuel shutoffs, emergency generators, and
fixed – fire extinguishing systems. The fire department also may provide a
source for training in the proper use of first aid, fire extinguishers and

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standpipe hose systems. Inviting the local fire department to inspect the
worksite can be beneficial for both parties. Fire departments should be made
aware of chemicals or hazardous substances on site.

Other agencies, such as local police authorities and utility companies, should
be consulted concerning such items as site security; location of underground
utilities; and emergency shutoff of electricity, gas and water. A liaison may be
necessary with agencies such as the National Weather Service when the site
is subject to tornadoes, hurricanes, floods or other natural hazards.
Procedures should be established for early warning, orderly shutdown of
construction operations, and protection of workers and property. List an
appropriate “ One Call ” number.

Fire prevention inspections :

Periodic site inspections should be conducted by the person responsible for

fire prevention and control, or someone who has been delegated to this duty.
It is essential that the individual making the inspection be competent in
hazard identification as well as the corrective measures required for
elimination or control of all hazards noted. The fire prevention inspection
report should be written and received by project management. Include an
inspection form.

Fire investigation :

Regardless of its size or resultant damage, every fire should be investigated

to determine its cause and to evaluate the effectiveness of its
extinguishment.

Each investigation should yield information for corrective measures designed

to minimize the possibility of recurrence and, where needed, to improve fire
suppression.

Training in emergency procedures :

Worker response in a fire – emergency situation is directly related to

training. All workers on site should be aware of the procedure for reporting
a fire and evacuating the worksite. These procedures should be posted in
prominent areas. All workers should be trained concerning these procedures.

Emergency telephone numbers should be available to all the workers. An

alarm system should be provided to alert all workers of a fire emergency.

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Designate a location where all workers will assemble following evacuation
and confirm that all personnel have been safely evacuated.

Selected workers on each work shift should be trained in the proper use of
portable fire extinguishers. Training should address the four classifications of
fire, the type of extinguishers suitable for each class and the proper
technique to be used in operating each type. Extinguisher suppliers or the
local fire department may be willing to provide, or assist in, this training.

Notify the fire department first. Then utilize the fire extinguishers by trained
personnel for the initial small stage of fire.

Types of fires :

Class A fires occur in wood, rubber, paper, cloth and most plastics. The most
effective type of extinguishing agent is one using water, or solutions
containing large concentrations of water, because the ‘‘ quenching – cooling ’’
effect reduces the temperature of the burning material below its ignition
temperature. Fire extinguishers suitable for this type of fire are designated
with a classification of “ A ” on the label.

Class B fires occur in flammable or combustible liquids, such as petroleum

products and greases. A “ blanketing – smothering ” effect of an agent that
excludes oxygen or inhibits the chemical chain reaction is most effective.
Extinguishers labeled “ Class B ” employ carbon dioxide, dry chemical, Halon
or foam.

Class C fires involve electrical equipment. The extinguishing agent must be

non – conductive. Carbon dioxide, dry chemical and Halon are the normal
types used for electrical fires.

Class D fires involve combustible metals such as aluminum, magnesium,

zirconium and titanium. The use of water and some other conventional types
of extinguishing agents are ineffective and may cause a violent reaction.
These fires can be extinguished with specially prepared agents. Where this
hazard exists, extinguishing agents with a D – class rating should be
provided. All on – site fire extinguishers should be serviced and inspected.

Cutting and welding :

Cutting and welding sparks cause more construction fires than any
other ignition source. The person responsible for fire safety should implement
fire protection systems and ensure adequate precautions are taken. Special
safeguards may be needed for combustible materials, such as relocating the

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combustibles or covering them with flameproof tarpaulins. At some locations,
it may be unsafe to use a torch regardless of the precautions taken. Store
fuel gas and oxygen cylinders upright and secure in safe locations, protected
from high temperatures and adequately separated from each other. Obtain
hot work permits. Establish a fire watch before and after cutting.

Flammable and combustible liquids :

The storage and use of flammable liquids is a hazard. Fuels, solvents, paints
and adhesives are among those liquids requiring control and safeguarding.
Controls include proper storage and adequate ventilation.

Woodworking :

When appropriate, the woodworking area should be set up in a remote area

of the project. Where possible, dust – collecting apparatus should be installed
for power equipment. Dust, scraps and refuse should be removed regularly
and properly disposed off. Smoking should be prohibited in the area.

Automatic sprinklers :

Expedite the installation of automatic sprinklers. Underground mains, hydrants

and a source of water should be provided in the earliest stages of
construction. The goal should be to get sprinklers in service ahead of
combustible occupancy and immediately following combustible construction.
In multi – story buildings, capped standpipes with hose connections should be
extended upward as the various floors are constructed. There should be a
conspicuously marked fire department pump connection on the outside of
the building at street level. The local fire department should be aware of the
existence of the connection as soon as it is in service.

Security service and fire alarms :

Provide watch service at night and during non – working days as soon as
construction is started for construction projects. Make sure the security
service is familiar with special fire hazards.

Temporary heating :

Local codes may vary as to the types of heating equipment and fuel storage
arrangements permitted. All heating equipment must be provided with proper
clearance from combustible materials and with necessary ventilation. Fuels
must be properly stored and handled. Heating equipment must be properly
maintained and operated by trained personnel. Temporary enclosures should
be made with flame – resistant materials.

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Combustible materials :

A wide range of combustible materials is likely to be found on a

construction project. These include form materials; scaffolding; shoring; and
many building materials such as plastics, trim and roofing material. Such
materials should be stored in a remote location away from other hazards.
Quantities that are kept inside the building should be minimal and stored
away from construction activities. Surplus quantities should be removed from
the site as soon as possible.

House – keeping :

All combustible refuse, including scrap materials, packaging and waste paper
should be removed regularly. Oily rags should be separated from other refuse
and stored in closed metal waste – cans. On – site burning is prohibited .

Temporary electrical equipment :

Temporary electrical installations often present serious fire and shock

hazards to employees. All electrical installations and repairs should be
performed by qualified personnel. The type and size of conductors should be
adequate for the expected load. Proper fuses or circuit breakers must be
provided. Conductors must be located off floors where possible and be
installed so as not to be subject to physical damage. In areas containing
flammable vapors, smoking or dusts, only electrical equipment specifically
designed for use in such hazardous locations should be used.

Equipment maintenance :

An important part of fire protection is proper maintenance of equipment,

particularly gasoline - or diesel – powered types. Attention should be given to
fuel tanks and lines, carburetors, hydraulic reservoirs, and exhaust systems.
For fixed equipment such as power units for hoists, exhausts and muffler
systems should be clear of combustible materials. Equipment should be
regularly inspected and maintained by qualified personnel, and complete
records should be maintained. Give particular attention to fueling methods.
Mobile equipment should be fueled outside the building.
Blasting :

Highly specialized controls are necessary whenever explosives of any kind are
to be used. All recognized precautions relating to qualification of personnel,
storage locations, containers, transportation and handling should be strictly
followed.

Temporary structures :
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Temporary offices, storage sheds and other temporary structures should
preferably be separated from other structures and storage areas. Temporary
structures located inside the building should be of non – combustible
construction or protected by automatic sprinklers. Temporary structures
located outside should be separated by 30 feet and not closely clustered.

Smoking :

Smoking should be prohibited in the vicinity of hazardous operations or

locations. “ No Smoking ” signs should be placed in hazardous areas and
strictly enforced. If specified smoking areas are provided, suitable ash
receptacles should be provided.

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