Mechanical Vibrations

Chapter 1:
Fundamental of Vibration

Dr. Azma Putra

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Department of Structure and Materials

Semester I/2014-2015

What you will get from this course

Nothing

Something

Lots of thing

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 Introduction

Most engineering structures vibrate:

machines, cars, aircraft, etc
Materials becoming lighter, more flexible, engines becoming faster
need to model, design, analyze, understand, treat

Vibration is usually (relatively) small, oscillatory motion about

a static equilibrium position

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Effect of vibration: Structural failure

Fatigue

*Courtesy of Mobius ILearn interactive

Machine
failure

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 Effect of vibration: Structural failure

Fatigue in pipeline

Case study:
PETRONAS Malaysia LNG, Bintulu, Sarawak
Cracked pipe, one module had to be shut down
Loss RM25 million/day

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Effect of vibration: Noise

Piling Railway

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 Effect of vibration: Instabilities

Flutter

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Effect of vibration: Health

White finger: Hand-arm vibration syndrome

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 What causes vibration?

Imperfection in machine or structure

Design
Manufacturing defect
Installation
Assembly
Operations
Maintenance

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How to quantify the vibration?

1. Measurement and/or Simulation

2. Analysis: frequency, amplitude and phase

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 Where to apply the knowledge?

1. Vibration isolation

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2. Aircraft – Ground vibration test

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 3. Structural vibration

Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH)

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Comfort - Customer demand

Which one requires more treatment to control vibration?

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 4. Maintenance/Vibration monitoring

Rotating machinery Plant piping system: oil and gas

Most industrial problems !!

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5. Building design

Millenium Bridge – London (2000)

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 VIBRATION: CAN IT BE FRIEND?

Most vibrations are undesirable, but there are many instances

where vibrations are useful:

Tooth cleaning
Massage chair
Music instrument
Heartbeat
Vibration energy harvesting

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Terminologies and Definitions

Ingredients in vibration:

Mass - store of kinetic energy

Stiffness - store of potential (strain) energy
Damping - dissipate energy
Force - provide energy

Can you identify mass, stiffness and damping

from a piece sheet of a panel?

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 Most contents of this course assume that the force
and the resulting motion are time harmonic

i.e. a periodic motion that repeats at regular interval.

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Three important results from vibration measurement:

1. Amplitude - HOW MUCH

2. Frequency - HOW FAST

3. Phase - HOW IT IS VIBRATING

*Courtesy of Mobius ILearn interactive

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 What is amplitude?

Amplitude is the level of vibration from the ‘equilibrium position’.

It can be displacement, velocity or acceleration.

maximum amplitude:
ymax A
instantaneous amplitude:

y (t to ) B

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Amplitude: Time signal Desciptor

x(t)
T
Amplitude

Peak RMS Average

Time
Peak-Peak

T T
1 1
RMS x 2 (t )dt Average | x(t ) | dt
T T
0 0

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 What is frequency?

Frequency is the number of ‘cycles’ repeated per second.

The unit is Heartz (Hz)

1
f
T

T is the period,
i.e. the time required to
complete one cycle

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Low frequency vs. High frequency

Which light has the highest flashing frequency?

Which wave has the highest frequency?

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 What is phase?

Blue curve leads the green curve by π/2 radians

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Example of a sinusoidal signal

General expression of a sinusoidal signal: x(t ) A sin(ωt φ)

x(t ) 0.2sin(150t 3.14)

Amplitude (peak value) = 0.2 m

Frequency = 150 rad/s or 23.9 Hz
Peak-peak = 0.4 m
Phase = 3.14 rad or 180o
Period = 0.04 s
Average = 0.1 m
RMS = 0.14 m

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 Complex Exponential Notation
frequency

Write time harmonic quantity as x(t ) Xe jωt

where
amplitude
(usually complex)
jωt
e cos ωt j sin ωt

However in ‘real world’ we see Re x(t)

x(t ) X cos(ωt φ) x(t ) Xe jωt

For short,
we just write
magnitude phase
(absolute, real)

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HOW?

Suppose X a jb

Show that:

(1). X a2 b2

(2). X X e jφ

(3). x(t ) X cos(ωt φ)

1 b
| X | = max. magnitude φ tan = phase
a

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 Problem examples

a. A time harmonic motion at 1 kHz has a peak acceleration of 100g

(1 g = 9.8 ms-2). What is the peak displacement?

(Ans. 0.0248 mm)

b. A time harmonic force f(t) = (4 + j3)ejωt produces a response

x(t) = (2 - j)ejωt.
Calculate the magnitude and the phase of the force.
Calculate the magnitude and the phase of the displacement.
Find the velocity per unit force magnitude, assuming ω = 5.

(Ans. 5 N, 0.644 rad, 2.24 m, -0.464, 0.447 N/m, 2.24 m/s/N)

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X X e j = |X|cos (ϕ) + j|X|sin (ϕ)

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 Summary of Complex Exponential Notation

x(t ) Xe jωt

Implicitly carries phase information

Makes life easy but introduce complex numbers

Used widely in frequency response methods

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Vibration units: Definitions

Displacement:

The distance travel by the mass, how far up and down

it is moving

Velocity:

Rate change of displacement. For example, how far it can

cover in one second

Acceleration:

Rate change of velocity. How quickly the mass

is speeding up or slowing down

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 Converting vibration units

Displacement:

x(t ) Xe jωt
Velocity:
dx(t )
v (t ) x jωXe jωt
dt
Acceleration:
dv (t ) d 2 x (t )
a(t ) x ω2 Xe jωt
dt dt 2

Velocity leads displacement by 90o

Velocity lags acceleration by 90o

*Note phase difference between them

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x(t ) Xe jωt
Lead

Lag

v (t ) jωXe jωt

a(t ) (j j )ω2 Xe jωt

Note on the imaginary sign

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 Displacement
Velocity
Acceleration

270ooo
270

90ooo
90
90 180ooo
180
180 ωt

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displacement
probe

Maximum If the sensor measures maximum

displacement displacement at point A,
at which location is the maximum
A
acceleration?

The maximum velocity?

D B

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 Free vibration - no external forces act on the system

Forced vibration - forces act on the system

Damped/undamped system - damping does/doesn’t exist

What is the phase difference between the two systems?

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FREE VIBRATION

System vibrates at its natural frequency

x (t )

x(t ) A sin(ωn t )

Natural frequency

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 FORCED VIBRATION

System vibrates at its forcing frequency

x (t )

F (t )

x(t ) A sin(ωf t )

Forcing frequency

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We deal with only linear system.

same frequency as input

magnitude change

output proportional
to input
superposition holds

all components linear linear vibration (idealisation)

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 Modeling

Degree of Freedom (DOF): number of independent coordinates

to describe the motion.

Coordinates may be:

displacement of some points
rotation
other (modal amplitudes, waves, etc)

Number depends on:

how complex the system is
modeling simplifications + assumptions
(how we choose to model it)

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Example:

Modelling vibration
of a motor cycle

suspension design
Bounce +wheel hop
(1 DOF)
(3 DOF)

Effect of motorcycle
vibration to rider
comfort (4 DOF) Simplification (2 DOF)

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 Could you try to model this system?

Missile carrier: isolating the vibration from the ground

Mass of missile

Isolator

Mass of truck

Suspension

road input

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Stiffness and Flexibility

Stiffness arises from any structural component that deforms (elastically)

under action of forces.

F kx

x : deformation (m) k : spring constant (N/m)

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 Examples

vibration mounting

Engineering structures

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Spring in series

Carry same force !!

Extension = sum of individual extension

F
F k1y , F k2 ( x y) k2 x F
k1

1 x 1 1
keq F k1 k2

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 Spring in parallel

Have same extension !!

Total force = sum of forces in each spring

F1 k1x
F
F2 k2 x keq k1 k2
x
F F1 F2

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The equivalent stiffness can be found by considering:

force-deformation relation

potential energy-deformation relation (Chapter 2)

F
k
x

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 Cantilever beam
For cantilever with length L and a tip load F giving displacement x

3EI
F x
L3

EI : bending stiffness F
L

Note that this is the

stiffness only at the tip of 3EI
the cantilever k
L3

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Series or Parallel?

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 Shaft

Torque T produces rotation θ

GJ
T θ
L

G : Shear modulus

J : Polar moment of area of

shaft cross section

GJ
k
L

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Helical spring

Gd 4
k
64nR 3

G : Shear modulus of spring material

d : Diameter of wire

2R : Diameter of turn

n : Number of turn

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 STIFFNESS TABLE

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STIFFNESS TABLE
(cont.)

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 Linearisation
x r sin θ

If small displacement, i.e. θ is small:

θ3
sin θ θ ... θ
3!

Thus x rθ

θ x
r

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x1 ? x1 b
x2 ? x2 a
x3 ? x3 c

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 POTENTIAL ENERGY
= work done from unstreched position

x x
V Fdx (kx ) dx 1
2
kx 2
0 0

‘Linear’ spring equivalent stiffness ‘Torsional’ spring equivalent stiffness

V 1
k x2
2 eq V 1
keq θ 2
2

k1
keq k2 keq k1 k2 R 2
R2
More discussion in Chapter 2
**note: we should relate x and θ
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References

B. R. Mace, ISVR Lecture Notes, Univ. of Southampton

D. J. Inman, Engineering Vibrations, 3rd Ed., Pearson

S. Rao, Mechanical Vibrations, 5th Ed., Pearson

Animations courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Kettering University, USA

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