A

PROJECT REPORT
ON
PATIENT MONITORING SYSTEM

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

Requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor Of Technology
in
Bio-Medical Engineering
By

K. KRISHNA GANESH (07241A1115)

H.R. RANJAN (07241A1124)

Department Of Bio-Medical Engineering

GokarajuRangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology
(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University)
Hyderabad
2011
 Department of Bio-Medical Engineering
GokarajuRangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology
(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University)

Hyderabad

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled “PATIENT MONITORING SYSTEM ”
has been submitted by
K.KRISHNA GANESH (07241A1115)
H.R.RANJAN (07241A1124)

For partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of

Bachelor of Technology in Bio-Medical Engineering from
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad.
The results embodied in this project have not been submitted to any other
University or Institution for the award of any degree or diploma.

External Examiner Head of Department

Mrs. T.Padma
Professor & HOD
Dept of Bio-Medical Engineering
 DEPARTMNENT OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that K. KRISHNA GANESH, H.R. RANJAN students of final year B.M.E (Bio-Medical

Engineering) of Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute Of Engineering And Technology, affiliated to Jawaharlal

Nehru Technological University have completed a project work titled “PATIENT MONITORING SYSTEM”

in the department of Bio-Medical Engineering at GRIET.

Project Guide: Project In charge:

SURESH, SWATHI DESIRAJU

Asst.Professer Asst.Professer
Dept of Bio-Medical Engg Dept of Bio-Medical Engg
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

There are many people who have helped us directly or indirectly in the successful
completion of our project. We would like to take this opportunity to thank one and all.

First of all we would like to express our deep sense of gratitude towards our project
Guide Suresh, Asst Professor Dept. of BME for always being available whenever we require her
guidance as well as for motivating us throughout the project work.

We are also grateful to the Mrs T.Padma, (Head of Dept.of BME for her valuable
guidance during our project. We would like to express our deep gratitude towards our teaching
and non-teaching staff for giving their valuable suggestions and co operation for doing our
project.

We are also deeply indebted to Dr. Jandhyala. N. Murthy, Principal, Gokaraju

Rangaraju institute of engineering and technology for providing necessary facilities during the
execution of this project.

We would like to thank all our friends for their help and constructive criticism during our project
period. Finally, we are very much indebted to our parents for their moral support and encouragement to
achieve higher goals. we have no words to express our gratitude and still we are very thankful to our
parents who have shown us this world and for every support they gave us.

Signature Signature

K. KRISHNA GANESH H.R. RANJAN

(07241A1115) (07241A1124)
 ABSTRACT :

Our project is a working model which incorporates sensors to measure parameters like body
temperature, heart beat rate, respiratory rate and ECG;. A micro-controller board is used for
analyzing the inputs from the patient and any abnormality felt by the patient causes the
monitoring system to give an alarm. Also all the process parameters within an interval selectable
by the user are recorded online. This is very useful for future analysis and review of patient’s
health condition. For more versatile medical applications, this project can be improvised, by
incorporating blood pressure monitoring systems, dental sensors and annunciation systems,
thereby making it useful in hospitals as a very efficient and dedicated patient care system.
 CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE NO
1. BLOCK DIAGRAM 1

2. INTRODUCTION 2

3. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 4

4. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION 5

5. HARDWARE DETAILS 9

6. SOFTWARE DETAILS 51

7. OUTPUTS 68

8. FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS 72

9. CONCLUSION 74

10. BIBLIOGRAPHY 75
BLOCK DIAGRAM
INTRODUCTION

MEASUREMENT OF RESPIRATORY RATE:

Thermister is used for the measurement of body temperature and respiratory temperature. This
thermister is a passive transducer and it’s resistance depends on the beat being applied on it. We
have arranged the sensor in the potential divider circuit. This sensor exhibits a large change in
resistance with a change in body temperature. The respiratory rate is determined by holding the
sensor near the nose. The temperature sensor part is attached to the patient whose temperature
has to be measured, which changes the values and thus the corresponding change in the
temperature is displayed on the monitor graphically. Also all temperature measurements are
updated in the patients database. Here in our project we use bead temperature sensor.

SALINE MONITORING SYSTEM:

For saline monitoring the infrared emitter and detector are placed in a position such that the
saline bottle passes between them. They are placed near the nect of the saline bottle. As long as
the saline is present , the path of the infrared rays is blocked and the infrared detector is blocked
from collecting infrared rays from the emitter. Aand so the output will indicate normal saline
status. The software is written to give an audio alert when saline level falls below the safe level.
PATIENT CALLING SYSTEM:

The patient caliing system consists of four switches which when pressed gives display on the
screen and activities an audio alert indicating that patient is calling.These switches are placed in
the vicinity of the patient to enable medical access in an emergency.

HEART BEAT MONITOR:

The patient’s heart beat rate is monitored using photoelectric sensor which can sense the
patient’s pulse rate. This method of tracking the heart rate is more efficient than the traditional
method which derives the same from ecg graph.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

Heart Beat Rate Sensor Cirtuit:

Monitoring the heart beat rate of the patient can be easily accomplished by analyzing the
ECG pulse . Here, the ECG pulse is amplified and the average time interval or the instantaneous
time interval between two successive R peaks is measured, from which the heart beat rate is
derived. But this method fails to indicate heart blocks immediately and so photo electric pulse
transducers are used.

The pulse rate monitoring method indicates a heart block immediately by sensing the
cessation of blood circulation in the limb terminals. This technique uses photoelectric
transducers which are easy to apply then the 3 ECG electrodes. Also the output signal amplitude
is large with better signal to noise ratio.

The finger probe used for pulse pick up consists of a Ga As infrared LED and a silicon
NPN phototransistor mounted in an enclosure that fits over the tip of the patients’ finger. The
peak spectral emission of the LED is at 0.94 mm with a 0.707 peak bandwidth of 0.04mm. The
silicon phototransistor is sensitive to radiation between 0.4 and 1.1.mm. Due to the narrow bond
of the spectrum involved the radiation heat output is minimized. The photo transistor is used as
an emitter follower configuration. The IR signal from the LED is transmitted through the finger
tip of the patient’s finger and the conductivity of the phototransistor depends on the amount of
radiation reaching it with each contraction of the heart, blood is forced to the extremities and
amount of blood in finger increases. This alters the optical density and so the IR signal
transmission through the finger reduces, causing a correspondence variation in phototransistor
output. The phototransistor is connected as part of a voltage divider circuit, with 10KΩ and 22
KΩ carbon resistors and produces a voltage pulse that closely follows the heart beat rate . This
pulse output is given to the bit 4 of the port D of the microcontroller for signal processing.
Measurement procedure
1. Attach the Pleth (finger/ear lobe clip) to either the fingertip or to the ear lobe.

2. Wait for a short while for the signal to stabilise. The subject should stayreasonably still –
muscle movements will influence the signal. The red LEDon the Sensor housing will start to
flash in time with the heartbeat. If used onthe finger the subject may feel a throbbing sensation.
Note for EasySenseAdvanced and Logger users: if the red LED does notstart to flash, and the
LCD display on the EasySenseunit is blank, press any ofthe buttons on the top panel of the
EasySenseunit to wake it up.

3. Once a regular heart rate is detected, begin recording data.

SALINE STATUS MONITORING CIRCUIT:

The saline water injection plays a key role in the treatment and recovery of many a patient that
requires constant monitoring. This condition can be fulfilled by using IR sensors which can
detect a drop in the saline below the quantity. By means of annunciation systems, the hospital
staff can be informed and an action of replacing the saline can be easily accomplished before the
bottle becomes empty. Also the usage of the GSM modem facilitates sending of saline status to
the doctor concerned for any further action required.

The circuit uses an IR emitter and an IR detector which are placed in a straight line with
the saline bottle in between, at the point representing the preset saline level. The presence of
saline water, in a full bottle, refracts the emitted radiation, thus generating no output at the IR
detector. When the saline level falls below the preset value; the emitted IR radiation causes a
photoelectric current from the detector. The detector output is an analog quantity which is made
to drive a switching NPN transistor BC107 to get a binary output from the collector of the
transistor. This digital output is fed to the pin 23 of the PIC micro controller, corresponding to
port bit 4. The signal is processed and the saline status is displayed on the screen. In case of the
saline becoming empty the annunciation systems are activated.

PATIENT CALL SWITCHES CIRCUIT :

The patient calling system consists of four switches when pressed gives display on the screen
and activates an audio alert indicating that a patient is calling. These switches are placed in the
vicinity of the patient to enable medical access in an emergency.

BODY RESPIRATORY RATECIRCUIT :

The rate measuring circuit uses a temperature sensor for measuring the respiration rate.A
thermistor is a ceramic semiconductor which exhibits a large change in resistance with a change
in its body temperature. The thermistors have much better sensitivity than RTD’s and are
therefore better suited for precision temperature measurements. The availability of high
resistance values allows the thermistors to be used with long extension leads since the lead
resistance or contact resistance effects can be greatly diminished. The non-linearity of the
thermistor resistance-temperature characteristics outs a practical limit on the temperature span
over which a thermistor can be operated in measurement or control circuit RTD’s have lower
sensitivity and are more linear and can therefore be used in applications, where the temperature
spans are very wide. Thermistors has other important advantages over RTD’s in that they are
available in smaller sizes, with faster response times, at lower costs and with greater resistance to
shock and vibration effects.

In this circuit wehave arranged thermistor in the form of potential divider when
thermistor is R1 and a potentiator is acting as a R2 which forms potential divider network and
produces an output from potential divider network which is given to analog input channel of the
micro controller.

In general to obtain clear and constant output with respect to the input change, the sensor
must be low power consumer. If we draw a lowest current sensitivity the thermistor will improve
and provides better performance. Due to the above grounds we have constructed the thermistor
circuits to produce low milli volts which can be easily digitalized by the transistor. If not the
sensor will to drive large output voltage may cause self heating of the device. Self heating means
large current flows through the thermistor create heat on it without accepting the body
temperature.This voltage is given to the transistor so that number of ones is counted in the
microcontroller which is given as voltage from the transistor.
HARDWARE DETAILS

Hardware used in the project are as follows:

1. Microcontroller-89s52

2. LCD Display

3. Photo Transistor

4. IR Emitter and Detector

5. LED

6. Switches

7. LM35D

8. Transistors

9. Resistors

10. Capacitors

11. Battery

12. Buzzer

13. Diodes
MICRO CONTROLLER 89S52:

Definition

A Microcontroller is a single-chip microcomputer that contains all the componentssuch as the

CPU, RAM, some form of ROM, I/O ports, and timers.Unlike a generalpurpose computer, which
also includes all of these components, a microcontroller is designed for a very specific task – to
control a particular system. Microcontrollers are sometimes calledembedded microcontrollers,
which just means that they are part of an embedded system. A microprocessor is a general-
purpose digital computer with central processing unit (CPU), which contains arithmetic and logic
unit (ALU), a program counter (PC), a stack pointer (SP), some working registers, a clock timing
circuit, and interrupts circuits. The main disadvantage of microprocessor is that it has no on-chip
memory. So we are going for micro controller since it has on-board
programmable ROM and I/O that can be programmed for various control functions

ATMEL 89S52

AT89S52 MICROCONTROLLER
The microcontroller development effort resulted in the 8051 architecture, which was first
introduced in 1980 and has gone on to be arguably the most popular micro controller architecture
available. The 8051 is a very complete micro controller with a large amount of built in control
store (ROM &EPROM) andRAM, enhanced I/O ports, and the ability to access external
memory. The maximum clock frequency with an 8051 micro controller can execute
instructions is 20MHZ. Microcontroller is a true computer on chip. The design incorporates
all of the features found in a microprocessor: CPU, ALU, PC, SP and registers.
It also has the other features needed to, make complete computer: ROM, RAM, parallel I/O,
serial I/O, counters and a clock circuit.The 89C51/89C52/89C54/89C58 contains a non-volatile
FLASH program memory that is parallel programmable. For devices that are serial
programmable (In-System Programmable (ISP) and In-Application Programmable (IAP) with a
boot loader)All three families are Single-Chip 8-bit Microcontrollers manufactured in
advanced CMOS process and are Derivatives of the 80C51 microcontroller family.All the
devices have the same instruction set as the 80C51.
Features

• Compatible with MCS®-51 Products

• 8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory

– Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles

• 4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range

• Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz

• Three-level Program Memory Lock

• 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM

• 32 Programmable I/O Lines

• Three 16-bit Timer/Counters

• Eight Interrupt Sources

• Full Duplex UART Serial Channel

• Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

• Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode

• Watchdog Timer

• Dual Data Pointer

• Power-off Flag

• Fast Programming Time

• Flexible ISP Programming (Byte and Page Mode)

• Green (Pb/Halide-free) Packaging Option

Description The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with

8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s
high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the indus-try-standard
80C51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory pro-grammer. By combining
a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel
AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective
solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard
features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers,
three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port,
on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for
operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The
Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt
system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM con-tents but freezes the
oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.

The AT89s52 is a low power, high performance CMOS 8-bit micro computer with 8Kbytes of
flash programmable and erasable read onlymemory(PEROM).The device is
manufactured using Atmel’s high density nonvolatile memory technology and is
compatible with the industry standard 80c51 and 80C52 instruction set and pin out.
The on-chip flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in- system or by a
conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU
with flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89s52 Is a powerful microcomputer
which provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded
control applications. The main advantages of 89s52 over 8051 are

1. Software Compatibility
2. Program Compatibility
3. Rewritability
The 89s52 microcontroller has an excellent software compatability, i.e. the software used
can be applicable to any other microcontroller. The program written on this
microcontroller can be carried to any base. Program compatibility is the major advantage
in 89s52. The program can be used in any other advanced microcontroler. The program
can be reloaded and changed for nearly 1000 times.
PIN DIAGRAM OF 89S52
ARCHITECTURE OF 89S52
The AT89s52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes ofFlash,256 bytes of RAM, 32
I/O lines, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vectortwo-levelinterrupt architecture, a full-duplex
serial port, on-chip oscillator, andclock circuitry.In addition, the AT89s52 is designed with static
logic for operation down to zerofrequency and supports two software selectable power saving
modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and
interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM
contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next
hardware reset.

PIN DESCRIPTION:

VCC :Supply voltage.

GND:Ground.

Port 0

Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight
TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high impedance inputs.
Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed lower order address/data bus during accesses
to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internalpullups.Port 0 also receives
the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program
verification. External pullupsare required during program verification.

Port 1

Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the
inter-nal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being
pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1
can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter
2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively, as shown in the follow-ing table. Port 1 also receives
the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.

Port 2

Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the
inter-nal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being
pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order
address byte during fetches from external program memory and dur-ing accesses to external data
memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong
internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit
addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2
also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash program-ming
and verification.

P1.0 T2 (external count input to Timer/Counter 2), clock-out

P1.1 T2EX (Timer/Counter 2 capture/reload trigger and direction control)

P1.5 MOSI (used for In-System Programming)

P1.6 MISO (used for In-System Programming)

P1.7 SCK (used for In-System Programming)

Port 3

Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the
inter-nal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being
pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 receives some control signals
for Flash programming and verification. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special
features of the AT89S52, as shown in the fol-lowing table.

RST Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets
the device. This pin drives high for 98 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The
DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state
of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled.

ALE/PROG Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the
address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG)
during Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the
oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however,
that one ALE pulse is skipped dur-ing each access to external data memory. If desired, ALE
operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active
only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the
ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.

P3.0 RXD (serial input port)

P3.1 TXD (serial output port)

P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0)

P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1)

P3.4 T0 (timer 0 external input)

P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input)

P3.6 WR (external data memory write strobe)

P3.7 RD (external data memory read strobe)

PSEN Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory.
When the AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice
each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to exter-
nal data memory.

EA/VPP External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the
device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH.
Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA
should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt
programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming.

XTAL1Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.

XTAL2Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

Special Function Registers A map of the on-chip memory area called the Special Function
Register (SFR) space is shown in Table 5-1. Note that not all of the addresses are occupied, and
unoccupied addresses may not be imple-mented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses
will in general return random data, and write accesses will have an indeterminate effect. User
software should not write 1s to these unlisted locations, since they may be used in future
products to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or inactive values of the new bits will
always be 0. Timer 2 Registers: Control and status bits are contained in registers T2CON (shown
in Table 5- 2) and T2MOD (shown in Table 10-2) for Timer 2. The register pair (RCAP2H,
RCAP2L) are the Capture/Reload registers for Timer 2 in 16-bit capture mode or 16-bit auto-
reload mode. Interrupt Registers: The individual interrupt enable bits are in the IE register. Two
priorities can be set for each of the six interrupt sources in the IP register.

T2CON – Timer/Counter 2 Control Register

TF2 Timer 2 overflow flag set by a Timer 2 overflow and must be cleared by software.
TF2 will not be set when either RCLK = 1 or TCLK = 1.

EXF2 Timer 2 external flag set when either a capture or reload is caused by a negative
transition on T2EX and EXEN2 = 1. When Timer 2 interrupt is enabled, EXF2 = 1 will cause the
CPU to vector to the Timer 2 interrupt routine. EXF2 must be cleared by software. EXF2 does
not cause an interrupt in up/down counter mode (DCEN = 1).

RCLK Receive clock enable. When set, causes the serial port to use Timer 2 overflow
pulses for its receive clock in serial port Modes 1 and 3. RCLK = 0 causes Timer 1 overflow to
be used for the receive clock.

TCLK Transmit clock enable. When set, causes the serial port to use Timer 2 overflow
pulses for its transmit clock in serial port Modes 1 and 3. TCLK = 0 causes Timer 1 overflows to
be used for the transmit clock.

EXEN2 Timer 2 external enable. When set, allows a capture or reload to occur as a result of a
negative transition on T2EX if Timer 2 is not being used to clock the serial port. EXEN2 = 0
causes Timer 2 to ignore events at T2EX.

TR2 Start/Stop control for Timer 2. TR2 = 1 starts the timer.

C/T2 Timer or counter select for Timer 2. C/T2 = 0 for timer function. C/T2 = 1 for external
event counter (falling edge triggered). CP/RL2 Capture/Reload select. CP/RL2 = 1 causes
captures to occur on negative transitions at T2EX if EXEN2 = 1.

CP/RL2 = 0 causes automatic reloads to occur when Timer 2 overflows or negative transitions
occur at T2EX when EXEN2 = 1. When either RCLK or TCLK = 1, this bit is ignored and the
timer is forced to auto-reload on Timer 2 overflow.

AUXR: Auxiliary Register

Dual Data Pointer Registers: To facilitate accessing both internal and external data memory, two
banks of 16-bit Data Pointer Registers are provided: DP0 at SFR address locations 82H-83H and
DP1 at 84H-85H. Bit DPS = 0 in SFR AUXR1 selects DP0 and DPS = 1 selects DP1. The user
should ALWAYS initialize the DPS bit to the appropriate value before accessing the respective
Data Pointer Register. Power Off Flag: The Power Off Flag (POF) is located at bit 4 (PCON.4)
in the PCON SFR. POF is set to “1” during power up. It can be set and rest under software
control and is not affected by reset.

Memory Organization MCS-51 devices have a separate address space for Program and Data
Memory. Up to 64K bytes each of external Program and Data Memory can be addressed.

Program MemoryIf the EA pin is connected to GND, all program fetches are directed to
external memory. On the AT89S52, if EA is connected to VCC, program fetches to addresses
0000H through 1FFFH are directed to internal memory and fetches to addresses 2000H through
FFFFH are to external memory.

Data MemoryThe AT89S52 implements 256 bytes of on-chip RAM. The upper 128 bytes
occupy a parallel address space to the Special Function Registers. This means that the upper 128
bytes have the same addresses as the SFR space but are physically separate from SFR space.
When an instruction accesses an internal location above address 7FH, the address mode used in
the instruction specifies whether the CPU accesses the upper 128 bytes of RAM or the SFR
space. Instructions which use direct addressing access the SFR space. For example, the following
direct addressing instruction accesses the SFR at location 0A0H (which is P2). MOV 0A0H,
#data Instructions that use indirect addressing access the upper 128 bytes of RAM. For example,
the following indirect addressing instruction, where R0 contains 0A0H, accesses the data byte at
address 0A0H, rather than P2 (whose address is 0A0H). MOV @R0, #data Note that stack
operations are examples of indirect addressing, so the upper 128 bytes of data RAM are available
as stack space.

Watchdog Timer (One-time Enabled with Reset-out) The WDT is intended as a recovery
method in situations where the CPU may be subjected to software upsets. The WDT consists of a
14-bit counter and the Watchdog Timer Reset (WDTRST) SFR. The WDT is defaulted to disable
from exiting reset. To enable the WDT, a user must write 01EH and 0E1H in sequence to the
WDTRST register (SFR location 0A6H). When the WDT is enabled, it will increment every
machine cycle while the oscillator is running. The WDT timeout period is dependent on the
external clock frequency. There is no way to disable the WDT except through reset (either
hardware reset or WDT overflow reset). When WDT over-flows, it will drive an output RESET
HIGH pulse at the RST pin.

Using the WDTTo enable the WDT, a user must write 01EH and 0E1H in sequence to the
WDTRST register (SFR location 0A6H). When the WDT is enabled, the user needs to service it
by writing 01EH and 0E1H to WDTRST to avoid a WDT overflow. The 14-bit counter
overflows when it reaches 16383 (3FFFH), and this will reset the device. When the WDT is
enabled, it will increment every machine cycle while the oscillator is running. This means the
user must reset the WDT at least every 16383 machine cycles. To reset the WDT the user must
write 01EH and 0E1H to WDTRST. WDTRST is a write-only register. The WDT counter cannot
be read or written. When WDT overflows, it will generate an output RESET pulse at the RST
pin. The RESET pulse dura-tion is 98xTOSC, where TOSC = 1/FOSC. To make the best use of
the WDT, it should be serviced in those sections of code that will periodically be executed within
the time required to prevent a WDT reset.
WDT During Power-down and Idle In Power-down mode the oscillator stops, which means the
WDT also stops. While in Power-down mode, the user does not need to service the WDT. There
are two methods of exiting Power-down mode: by a hardware reset or via a level-activated
external interrupt which is enabled prior to entering Power-down mode. When Power-down is
exited with hardware reset, servicing the WDT should occur as it normally does whenever the
AT89S52 is reset. Exiting Power-down with an interrupt is significantly different. The interrupt
is held low long enough for the oscillator to stabilize. When the interrupt is brought high, the
interrupt is serviced. To prevent the WDT from resetting the device while the interrupt pin is
held low, the WDT is not started until the interrupt is pulled high. It is suggested that the WDT
be reset during the interrupt service for the interrupt used to exit Power-down mode. To ensure
that the WDT does not overflow within a few states of exiting Power-down, it is best to reset the
WDT just before entering Power-down mode. Before going into the IDLE mode, the WDIDLE
bit in SFR AUXR is used to determine whether the WDT continues to count if enabled. The
WDT keeps counting during IDLE (WDIDLE bit = 0) as the default state. To prevent the WDT
from resetting the AT89S52 while in IDLE mode, the user should always set up a timer that will
periodically exit IDLE, service the WDT, and reenter IDLE mode. With WDIDLE bit enabled,
the WDT will stop to count in IDLE mode and resumes the count upon exit from IDLE.

UARTThe UART in the AT89S52 operates the same way as the UART in the AT89C51 and
AT89C52. For further information on the UART operation, please click on the document link
below:

Timer 0 and 1Timer 0 and Timer 1 in the AT89S52 operate the same way as Timer 0 and Timer
1 in the AT89C51 and AT89C52. For further information on the timers’ operation, please click
on the document link below:
Timer 2 Timer 2 is a 16-bit Timer/Counter that can operate as either a timer or an event counter.
The type of operation is selected by bit C/T2 in the SFR T2CON (shown in Table 5-2). Timer 2
has three operating modes: capture, auto-reload (up or down counting), and baud rate generator.
The modes are selected by bits in T2CON, as shown in Table 10-1. Timer 2 consists of two 8-bit
registers, TH2 and TL2. In the Timer function, the TL2 register is incremented every machine
cycle. Since a machine cycle consists of 12 oscillator periods, the count rate is 1/12 of the oscil-
lator frequency. In the Counter function, the register is incremented in response to a 1-to-0
transition at its corre-sponding external input pin, T2. In this function, the external input is
sampled during S5P2 of every machine cycle. When the samples show a high in one cycle and a
low in the next cycle, the count is incremented. The new count value appears in the register
during S3P1 of the cycle following the one in which the transition was detected. Since two
machine cycles (24 oscillator periods) are required to recognize a 1-to-0 transition, the maximum
count rate is 1/24 of the oscillator frequency. To ensure that a given level is sampled at least once
before it changes, the level should be held for at least one full machine cycle.

Capture ModeIn the capture mode, two options are selected by bit EXEN2 in T2CON. If EXEN2
= 0, Timer 2 is a 16-bit timer or counter which upon overflow sets bit TF2 in T2CON. This bit
can then be used to generate an interrupt. If EXEN2 = 1, Timer 2 performs the same operation,
but a 1-to-0 transi-tion at external input T2EX also causes the current value in TH2 and TL2 to
be captured into RCAP2H and RCAP2L, respectively. In addition, the transition at T2EX causes
bit EXF2 in T2CON to be set. The EXF2 bit, like TF2, can generate an interrupt. The capture
mode is illus-trated in Figure 10-1.

Auto-reload (Up or Down Counter) Timer 2 can be programmed to count up or down when
configured in its 16-bit auto-reload mode. This feature is invoked by the DCEN (Down Counter
Enable) bit located in the SFR T2MOD (see Table 10-2). Upon reset, the DCEN bit is set to 0 so
that timer 2 will default to count up. When DCEN is set, Timer 2 can count up or down,
depending on the value of the T2EX pin.

T2MOD – Timer 2 Mode Control Register

Timer 2 automatically counting up when DCEN = 0. In this mode, two options are selected by
bit EXEN2 in T2CON. If EXEN2 = 0, Timer 2 counts up to 0FFFFH and then sets the TF2 bit
upon overflow. The overflow also causes the timer registers to be reloaded with the 16-bit value
in RCAP2H and RCAP2L. The values in Timer in Capture ModeRCAP2H and RCAP2L are
preset by software. If EXEN2 = 1, a 16-bit reload can be triggered either by an overflow or by a
1-to-0 transition at external input T2EX. This transition also sets the EXF2 bit. Both the TF2 and
EXF2 bits can generate an interrupt if enabled. Setting the DCEN bit enables Timer 2 to count up
or down, as shown in Figure 10-2. In this mode, the T2EX pin controls the direction of the count.
A logic 1 at T2EX makes Timer 2 count up. The timer will overflow at 0FFFFH and set the TF2
bit. This overflow also causes the 16-bit value in RCAP2H and RCAP2L to be reloaded into the
timer registers, TH2 and TL2, respectively. A logic 0 at T2EX makes Timer 2 count down. The
timer underflows when TH2 and TL2 equal the values stored in RCAP2H and RCAP2L. The
underflow sets the TF2 bit and causes 0FFFFH to be reloaded into the timer registers. The EXF2
bit toggles whenever Timer 2 overflows or underflows and can be used as a 17th bit of
resolution. In this operating mode, EXF2 does not flag an interrupt.
Baud Rate Generator Timer 2 is selected as the baud rate generator by setting TCLK and/or
RCLK in T2CON (Table 5-2). Note that the baud rates for transmit and receive can be different
if Timer 2 is used for the receiver or transmitter and Timer 1 is used for the other function.
Setting RCLK and/or TCLK puts Timer 2 into its baud rate generator mode, as shown in Figure
11-1. The baud rate generator mode is similar to the auto-reload mode, in that a rollover in TH2
causes the Timer 2 registers to be reloaded with the 16-bit value in registers RCAP2H and
RCAP2L, which are preset by software. The baud rates in Modes 1 and 3 are determined by
Timer 2’s overflow rate according to the fol-lowing equation. The Timer can be configured for
either timer or counter operation. In most applications, it is con-figured for timer operation
(CP/T2 = 0). The timer operation is different for Timer 2 when it is used as a baud rate generator.
Normally, as a timer, it increments every machine cycle (at 1/12 the oscillator frequency).As a
baud rate generator, however, it increments every state time (at 1/2 the oscillator frequency). The
baud rate formula is given below. where (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) is the content of RCAP2H and
RCAP2L taken as a 16-bit unsigned integer. Timer 2 as a baud rate generator is shown in Figure
11-1. This figure is valid only if RCLK or TCLK = 1 in T2CON. Note that a rollover in TH2
does not set TF2 and will not generate an inter-rupt. Note too, that if EXEN2 is set, a 1-to-0
transition in T2EX will set EXF2 but will not cause a reload from (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) to (TH2,
TL2). Thus, when Timer 2 is in use as a baud rate generator, T2EX can be used as an extra
external interrupt. Note that when Timer 2 is running (TR2 = 1) as a timer in the baud rate
generator mode, TH2 or TL2 should not be read from or written to. Under these conditions, the
Timer is incremented every state time, and the results of a read or write may not be accurate. The
RCAP2 registers may be read but should not be written to, because a write might overlap a
reload and cause write and/or reload errors. The timer should be turned off (clear TR2) before
accessing the Timer 2 or RCAP2 registers.

Programmable Clock Out A 50% duty cycle clock can be programmed to come out on
P1.0, as shown in Figure 12-1. This pin, besides being a regular I/O pin, has two alternate
functions. It can be programmed to input the external clock for Timer/Counter 2 or to output a
50% duty cycle clock ranging from 61 Hz to 4 MHz (for a 16-MHz operating frequency). To
configure the Timer/Counter 2 as a clock generator, bit C/T2 (T2CON.1) must be cleared and bit
T2OE (T2MOD.1) must be set. Bit TR2 (T2CON.2) starts and stops the timer. The clock-out
frequency depends on the oscillator frequency and the reload value of Timer 2 capture registers
(RCAP2H, RCAP2L), as shown in the following equation. In the clock-out mode, Timer 2 roll-
overs will not generate an interrupt. This behavior is similar to when Timer 2 is used as a baud-
rate generator. It is possible to use Timer 2 as a baud-rate gen-erator and a clock generator
simultaneously. Note, however, that the baud-rate and clock-out frequencies cannot be
determined independently from one another since they both use RCAP2H and RCAP2L.

Interrupts The AT89S52 has a total of six interrupt vectors: two external interrupts (INT0 and
INT1), three timer interrupts (Timers 0, 1, and 2), and the serial port interrupt. These interrupts
are all shown in Figure 13-1. Each of these interrupt sources can be individually enabled or
disabled by setting or clearing a bit in Special Function Register IE. IE also contains a global
disable bit, EA, which disables all interrupts at once. Note that Table 13-1 shows that bit position
IE.6 is unimplemented. User software should not write a 1 to this bit position, since it may be
used in future AT89 products. Timer 2 interrupt is generated by the logical OR of bits TF2 and
EXF2 in register T2CON. Nei-ther of these flags is cleared by hardware when the service routine
is vectored to. In fact, the service routine may have to determine whether it was TF2 or EXF2
that generated the interrupt, and that bit will have to be cleared in software. The Timer 0 and
Timer 1 flags, TF0 and TF1, are set at S5P2 of the cycle in which the timers overflow. The
values are then polled by the circuitry in the next cycle. However, the Timer 2 flag, TF2, is set at
S2P2 and is polled in the same cycle in which the timer overflows.

Oscillator Characteristics XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an
inverting amplifier that can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 16-
1. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external
clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven, as shown in Figure 16-
2. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the
internal clock-ing circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum
voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.

Idle Mode In idle mode, the CPU puts itself to sleep while all the on-chip peripherals remain
active. The mode is invoked by software. The content of the on-chip RAM and all the special
functions regis-ters remain unchanged during this mode. The idle mode can be terminated by any
enabled interrupt or by a hardware reset. Note that when idle mode is terminated by a hardware
reset, the device normally resumes pro-gram execution from where it left off, up to two machine
cycles before the internal reset algorithm takes control. On-chip hardware inhibits access to
internal RAM in this event, but access to the port pins is not inhibited. To eliminate the
possibility of an unexpected write to a port pin when idle mode is terminated by a reset, the
instruction following the one that invokes idle mode should not write to a port pin or to external
memory.

Power-down Mode In the Power-down mode, the oscillator is stopped, and the instruction that
invokes Power-down is the last instruction executed. The on-chip RAM and Special Function
Registers retain their values until the Power-down mode is terminated. Exit from Power-down
mode can be initiated either by a hardware reset or by an enabled external interrupt. Reset
redefines the SFRs but does not change the on-chip RAM. The reset should not be activated
before VCC is restored to its normal operating level and must be held active long enough to
allow the oscillator to restart and stabilize.
Programming the Flash – Parallel Mode The AT89S52 is shipped with the on-chip Flash
memory array ready to be programmed. The programming interface needs a high-voltage (12-
volt) program enable signal and is compatible with conventional third-party Flash or EPROM
programmers. The AT89S52 code memory array is programmed byte-by-byte.

Programming Algorithm: Before programming the AT89S52, the address, data, and
control signals should be set up according to the “Flash Programming Modes” (Table 22-1) and
Figure 22-1 and Figure 22-2. To program the AT89S52, take the following steps: 1. Input the
desired memory location on the address lines. 2. Input the appropriate data byte on the data lines.
3. Activate the correct combination of control signals. 4. Raise EA/VPP to 12V. 5. Pulse
ALE/PROG once to program a byte in the Flash array or the lock bits. The byte-write cycle is
self-timed and typically takes no more than 50 μs. Repeat steps 1 through 5, changing the
address and data for the entire array or until the end of the object file is reached.

Data Polling: The AT89S52 features Data Polling to indicate the end of a byte write cycle.
Dur-ing a write cycle, an attempted read of the last byte written will result in the complement of
the written data on P0.7. Once the write cycle has been completed, true data is valid on all
outputs, and the next cycle may begin. Data Polling may begin any time after a write cycle has
been initiated.

Ready/Busy: The progress of byte programming can also be monitored by the RDY/BSY
output signal. P3.0 is pulled low after ALE goes high during programming to indicate BUSY.
P3.0 is pulled high again when programming is done to indicate READY.
Program Verify: If lock bits LB1 and LB2 have not been programmed, the programmed code
data can be read back via the address and data lines for verification. The status of the individ-ual
lock bits can be verified directly by reading them back. Reading the Signature Bytes: The
signature bytes are read by the same procedure as a nor-mal verification of locations 000H,
100H, and 200H, except that P3.6 and P3.7 must be pulled to a logic low. The values returned
are as follows. (000H) = 1EH indicates manufactured by Atmel (100H) = 52H indicates
AT89S52 (200H) = 06H Chip Erase: In the parallel programming mode, a chip erase operation is
initiated by using the proper combination of control signals and by pulsing ALE/PROG low for a
duration of 200 ns - 500 ns. In the serial programming mode, a chip erase operation is initiated
by issuing the Chip Erase instruction. In this mode, chip erase is self-timed and takes about 500
ms. During chip erase, a serial read from any address location will return 00H at the data output.

Programming the Flash – Serial Mode The Code memory array can be programmed using the
serial ISP interface while RST is pulled to VCC. The serial interface consists of pins SCK, MOSI
(input) and MISO (output). After RST is set high, the Programming Enable instruction needs to
be executed first before other operations can be executed. Before a reprogramming sequence can
occur, a Chip Erase operation is required. The Chip Erase operation turns the content of every
memory location in the Code array into FFH. Either an external system clock can be supplied at
pin XTAL1 or a crystal needs to be connected across pins XTAL1 and XTAL2. The maximum
serial clock (SCK) frequency should be less than 1/16 of the crystal frequency. With a 33 MHz
oscillator clock, the maximum SCK frequency is 2 MHz.

Serial Programming Algorithm To program and verify the AT89S52 in the serial programming
mode, the following sequence is recommended: 1. Power-up sequence: a. Apply power between
VCC and GND pins. b. Set RST pin to “H”. If a crystal is not connected across pins XTAL1 and
XTAL2, apply a 3 MHz to 33 MHz clock to XTAL1 pin and wait for at least 10 milliseconds. 2.
Enable serial programming by sending the Programming Enable serial instruction to pin
MOSI/P1.5. The frequency of the shift clock supplied at pin SCK/P1.7 needs to be less than the
CPU clock at XTAL1 divided by 16. 3. The Code array is programmed one byte at a time in
either the Byte or Page mode. The write cycle is self-timed and typically takes less than 0.5 ms at
5V. 4. Any memory location can be verified by using the Read instruction which returns the
content at the selected address at serial output MISO/P1.6. 5. At the end of a programming
session, RST can be set low to commence normal device operation. Power-off sequence (if
needed): 1. Set XTAL1 to “L” (if a crystal is not used). 2. Set RST to “L”. 3. Turn VCC power
off. Data Polling: The Data Polling feature is also available in the serial mode. In this mode,
during a write cycle an attempted read of the last byte written will result in the complement of
the MSB of the serial output byte on MISO.
Serial Programming Instruction Set The Instruction Set for Serial Programming follows a 4-byte
protocol

Transistors as switches

Introduction
A key aspect of proper hacking is the use of transistors for switching things on and off. A
typicalexample is using a computer’s parallel port to turn some external device on. I used to do
this allthe time, but I’m not an electrical engineer, and I don’t claim to really remember anything
learned in the past about what’s happening at the silicon level in a transistor. So every time used
a transistor circuit in a project, I would promptly forget the proper configuration for doingit, and
everything I knew about which transistor type did what, and I’ve have to look it all upagain next
time.I assembled this document as a quick reference for myself, to avoid this painful lookup in
thefuture… notice I say “assembled”; this is basically a “google composite”, and I didn’t write
verymuch of it myself.Basically what I want to know when I look at this document is:

What transistor type do I need for my project?

What resistors do I need to use with this transistor?

How do I hook it up?

Notation

First some notation about transistor types and schematics.

schematics like this :

Transistors usually appear on To keep emitter notation straight, you can think of a PNP's
emitter “emitting” electrons, and an NPN's emitter “emitting” holes (positive charge). The
arrow in a schematic is always the emitter. The collector then “collects” current carriers (holes
or electrons).

The direction of the arrow on the emitter distinguishes the NPN from the PNP transistor. If the
arrow points in, (Points iN) the transistor is a PNP. On the other hand if the arrow points out, the
transistor is an NPN (Not Pointing iN).

Another point you should keep in mind is that the arrow always points in the direction of hole
(positive charge) flow, or from the P to N sections, no matter whether the P section is the emitter
or base

Notation aside, the three pins – base, emitter, collector – are typically labeled on the data sheet
for a transistor, or on the back of the box if you buy them at Radio Shack.
The Darlington transistor (I mention this because it’s a term one comes across frequently, and
because sometimes you actually need to use one for switching applications) is really two BJT’s
in one:

Darlingtons can be used to yield very high amplification of a control current (since a Darlington's
total gain is equal to the product of the gains of the two BJT transistors it is made from). These
are generally used for high-current loads.

Applications

In my typical application, I want to turn some device on and off with some source of voltage
(often the PC’s 3.3V parallel port). I can do this in two ways… I can connect the device’s ground
to the world’s ground all the time, and turn the device’s power on and off. Conversely, I can
connect power all the time, and switch the device’s ground connection on and off. In practice,
the latter is typically preferable. If I’m using a 3.3V source to switch on and off – for example –
a 12V or 9V device, clearly I can’t just power the device with my 3.3V source and expect it to
turn on, so it’s much easier to switch the device’s ground than the device’s power. NPN
transistors can be used to switch ground to a device. In this case, I would make the following
connections:

Device power to whatever power source I want to use

Device ground to the collector on my NPN transistor

Transistor emitter to “real” ground

My “switch” – whatever line I am able to control from my button or my computer or

whatever – to transistor base

If I make those connections, then connecting the base to high voltage (a little bit higher than
ground) will switch ground to the device and start the current-a-flowing. This is intuitive to me,
since on the side of my computer or whatever, a logical “1” means “yes, please let current pass”.
Here’s a schematic:
Notice there are a couple of resistors also. Resistor R1 controls the amount of switching current
that goes to the device. To compute a good value for R1, you need to know:

The current you intend to send through your load The voltage you’ll be using to switch your
transistor The HFE value for your transistor, which you typically get from the data sheet or the
box your transistors came in Skip to equation (6) if you just want to know the magic formula,
read on if you want just a tad more intuition. HFE is defined as (load current / base current),
(remember, a transistor is really a current amplifier), where load current is the amount of current
flowing through my device, and base current is the amount of current flowing from my switching
line to ground.
Transistor asAmplifiers

Purpose
The aim of this experiment is to develop a bipolar transistor amplifier with a voltage gain of
minus 25. The amplifier must accept input signals from a source impedance of 1 kand provide
an undistorted output amplitude of 5 V when driving a 560 load. The bandwidth should extend
from below 100 Hz to above 1 MHz.

Introduction
An electrical signal can be amplified by using a device which allows a small current or voltage to
control the flow of a much larger current from a dc power source. Transistors are the basic
device providing control of this kind. There are two general types of transistors, bipolar and
field-effect. Very roughly, the difference between these two types is that for bipolar devices an
input current controls the large current flow through the device, while for field-effect transistors
an input voltage provides the control. In this experiment we will build a two-stage amplifier
using two bipolar transistors. In most practical applications it is better to use an op-amp as a
source of gain rather than to build an amplifier from discrete transistors. A good understanding
of transistor fundamentals is nevertheless essential. Because op-amps are built from transistors, a
detailed understanding of opampbehavior, particularly input and output characteristics, must be
based on an understanding of transistors. We will learn in Experiments #9 and #10 about logic
devices, which are the basic elements of computers and other digital devices. These integrated
circuits are also made from transistors, and so the behavior of logic devices depends upon the
behavior of transistors. In addition to the importance of transistors as components of op-amps,
logic circuits, and an enormous variety of other integrated circuits, single transistors are still
important in many applications. For experiments they are especially useful as interface devices
between integrated circuits and sensors, indicators, and other devices used to communicate with
the outside world. The three terminals of a bipolar transistor are called the emitter, base, and
collector (Figure 7.1). A small current into the base controls a large current flow from the
collector to the emitter. The current at the base is typically one hundredth of the collector-emitter
current. Moreover, the large current flow is almost independent of the voltage across the
transistor from collector to emitter. This makes it possible to obtain a large amplification of
voltage by taking the output voltage from a resistor in series with the collector. We will begin by
constructing a common emitter amplifier, which operates on this principle.

A major fault of a single-stage common emitter amplifier is its high output impedance. This can
be cured by adding an emitter follower as a second stage. In this circuit the control signal is
again applied at the base, but the output is taken from the emitter. The emitter voltage precisely
follows the base voltage but more current is available from the emitter. The common emitter
stage and the emitter follower stage are by far the most common transistor circuit configurations.
Figure 7.1 Pin-out of 2N3904 and 1 k trimpot

Theory
CURRENT AMPLIFIER MODEL OF BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
From the simplest point of view a bipolar transistor is a current amplifier. The current flowing
from collector to emitter is equal to the base current multiplied by a factor. An NPN transistor
operates with the collector voltage at least a few tenths of a volt above the emitter voltage, and
with a current flowing into the base. The base-emitter junction then acts like a forward-biased
diode with an 0.6 V drop: VB VE + 0.6V. Under these conditions, the collector current is
proportional to the base current: IC = hFE IB. The constant of proportionality is called hFE
because it is one of the "hparameters," a set of numbers that give a complete description of the
small-signal properties of a transistor (see Bugg Section 17.4). It is important to keep in mind
that hFE is not really a constant. It depends on collector current (see H&H Fig. 2.78), and it
varies by 50% or more from device to
 Emitter follower stage Common emitter stage

Figure shows the two main transistor-based circuits we will consider. In the emitterfollowerstage
the output (emitter) voltage is simply related to the input (base) voltage by a diode drop of about
.6 eV. An ac signal of 1 volt amplitude on the input will therefore give an AC signal of 1 volt on
the output, i.e. the output just “follows” the input. As we will see later, the advantage of this
circuit is as a buffer due to a relatively high input and low output impedance. In the common
emitter stage of figure 7.2b, a 1 volt ac signal at the input will again cause a 1 volt ac signal at
the emitter. This will cause an ac current of 1volt/RE from the emitter to ground, and hence also
through Rc. Vout is therefore 15-Rc(1volt/RE) and we see that there is an ac voltage gain of –
Rc/RE. Although we are only looking to amplify the AC signal, it is nonetheless very important
to set up proper dc bias conditions or quiescent points. The first step is to fix the dc voltage of
the base with a voltage divider (R1 and R2 in Figure 7.3). The emitter voltage will then be 0.6 V
less than the base voltage. With the emitter voltage known, the current flowing from the emitter
is determined by the emitter resistor: IE = VE/RE. For an emitter follower, the collector is
usually tied to the positive supply voltage VCC. The only difference between biasing the emitter
follower and biasing the common emitter circuit is that the common emitter circuit always has a
collector resistor. The collector resistor does not change the base or emitter voltage, but the drop
across the collector resistor does determine the collector voltage: VC = VCC – ICRC.

Biased common emitter amplifier

There are three subtleties to keep in mind when biasing common-emitter or emitter-follower
circuits. First of all, the base bias voltage must be fixed by a low enough impedance so that
changes in the base current do not alter the base voltage. This is essential because the base
current depends on hFE and so is not a well determined quantity. If the base voltage is
determined by a divider (as in Figure 7.3), the divider impedance will be low enough when:
R1 R2 R1R2
R1 R2

As we will see in a moment, this equation just says that the impedance seen looking into the
divider (The Thevenin equivalent or R1||R2) should be much less that the impedance looking
into the base. Another point to keep in mind is that when you fix the quiescent point by choosing
the base divider ratio and the resistors RE and RC, you are also fixing the dc power dissipation in
the transistor: P = (VC – VE) IE. Be careful that you do not exceed the maximum allowed power
dissipation Pmax. Finally, the quiescent point determines the voltages at which the output will
clip. For a common emitter stage the maximum output voltage will be close to the positive
supply voltage VCC. The minimum output voltage occurs when the transistor saturates, which
happens when the collector voltage is no longer at least a few tenths of a volt above the emitter
voltage. We usually try to design common emitter stages for symmetrical clipping, which means
that the output can swing equal amounts above and below the quiescent point. The voltage gain
of the emitter follower stage is very close to unity. The common emitter stage, in contrast, can
have a large voltage gain:

A RC/RE

If we are interested in the ac gain, then RC and RE stand for the ac impedances attached to the
collector and emitter, which may be different from the dc resistances. In our circuit we use CE to
bypass part of the emitter resistor at the signal frequency.

INPUT AND OUTPUT IMPEDANCES

The input impedance is the same for both emitter followers and common emitter stages. The
input impedance looking into the base is
rinhFE1R

In this expression R is whatever impedance is connected to the emitter. For a common emitter, R
would usually just be the emitter resistor, but for an emitter follower R might be the emitter
resistor in parallel with the input impedance of the next stage. If you want the input impedance of
the whole stage, rather than just that looking into the base, you will have to consider rin in
parallel with the base bias resistors. The output impedance of a common emitter stage is just
equal to the collector resistor. The output impedance looking into the emitter of an emitter
follower is given by

routR/hFE1

Now R stands for whatever impedance is connected to the base. For our two-stage amplifier
shown in Figure 7.5, the emitter-follower base is connected to the collector of a common emitter
stage, and so R is the output impedance of that stage, which is equal to RC.

EBERS-MOLL MODEL OF BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

A slightly more detailed picture of the bipolar transistor is required to understand what happens
when the emitter resistor is very small. Instead of using the current amplifier model, one can take
the view that the collector current IC is controlled by the base-emitter voltage VBE. The
dependence of IC on VBE is definitely not linear, rather it is a very rapid exponential function.
The formula relating IC and VBE is called the Ebers-Moll equation, and it is discussed in H&H
For our purposes, the Ebers-Moll model only modifies our current amplifier model in one
important way. For small variations about the quiescent point, the transistor now acts as if it has
a small internal resistor re in series with the emitter
re25 1 mA/Ic)


The magnitude of the intrinsic emitter resistance re dependes on the collector current IC.
The presence of the intrinsic emitter resistance re modifies the above Equations (1) – (4). In
Equations (1) and (2) we should substitute RE RE + re, and for Equation (3) we need to
substitute R R + re. Equation (4) is modified to read

routR/hFE1)re .

The most important of these results is the modified Equation (2)

A RCRE re

which shows that the common emitter gain does not go to infinity when the external emitter
resistor goes to zero. Instead the gain goes to the finite value A = –RC / re.

COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER–VARIABLE GAIN

Connect the wiper of the 1.0 k trimpot RE through the bypass capacitor CE to ground. Verify

that

the quiescent point has not changed significantly. Observe the change in gain as you traverse the

full range of the trimpot using 10 kHz sine waves. Start with the contact at ground (bottom of

diagram) and move it up until CE bypasses all of RE. When approaching maximum gain turn

down the input amplitude (a long way) so that the output signals are still well shaped sine waves.

If the output is distorted the amplifier is not in its linear regime, and our formulas for the ac gain

are not correct. Compare the measured maximum gain with the value predicted in the homework
for several output amplitudes going down by factors of two. Do theory and experiment tend to

converge as Vout tends to zero?

COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER: INPUT AND OUTPUT IMPEDANCE

Set the amplifier gain to –25 for 10 kHz sine waves. What trimpot setting gives a gain of –25?.

(To see where the trimpot is set, remove it from the circuit and measure the resistance from cw to

wiper or from ccw to wiper.)

Simulate the required source impedance by inserting a 1 kresistor in series with the input.

What fraction of the original output amplitude do you see? Is this as expected? Remove the 1 k

resistor before the next test so that you test only one thing at a time. Connect a 560 load from

the output to ground. What fraction of the original output do you now see? Is this as expected?

EMITTER FOLLOWER OUTPUT STAGE

In the emitter follower circuit, the input signal is applied to the base of the transistor, but the

output is taken from the emitter. The emitter follower has unit gain, i.e. the emitter "follows" the

base voltage. The input impedance is high and the output impedance is low. Ordinarily the

quiescent base voltage is determined by a bias circuit. In the present case the collector voltage

VC of the previous circuit already has a value suitable for biasing the follower, so a direct dc

connection can be made between the two circuits. Assemble the emitter follower circuit shown in

Figure 7.5. Do not connect the 560 load to the output yet. Carry out appropriate dc diagnostic

tests. This time we expect the collector to be at +15 V, the base to be at the collector voltage of
the first stage, and the emitter to be about 0.6 V below the collector. Correct any problems before

moving on. Confirm that the voltage gain of the emitter follower is unity. Drive the complete

system with the function generator. Observe the ac amplitudes at the input of the emitter follower

and at the output. Measure the ac gain of the emitter follower stage. (Again you may need to add

a 220 kresistor to ground after Cout to keep the dc level at the scope input near ground.) You

may want to put the scope on ac coupling when you probe points with large dc offsets. Attach a

560 load from the output to ground. What fraction of the unloaded output do you now see?

Compare with your calculations.

TEMPERATURE SENSOR-LM35D:

The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors, whose output voltage is
linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 thus has an advantage
over linear temperature sensors calibrated in ° Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a
large constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling. The LM35 does
not require any external calibration or trimming to provide typical accuracies of ± 1/4°C at room
temperature and ± 3/4°C over a full -55 to +150°C temperature range.

Low cost is assured by trimming and calibration at the wafer level. The LM35's low output
impedance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration make interfacing to readout or control
circuitry especially easy. It can be used with single power supplies, or with plus and minus
supplies. As it draws only 60 µA from its supply, it has very low self-heating, less than 0.1°C in
still air. The LM35 is rated to operate over a -55° to +150°C temperature range, while the
LM35C is rated for a -40° to +110°C range (-10° with improved accuracy). The LM35 series is
available packaged in hermetic TO-46 transistor packages, while the LM35C, LM35CA, and
LM35D are also available in the plastic TO-92 transistor package. The LM35D is also available
in an 8-lead surface mount small outline package and a plastic TO-220 package.
Features
Calibrated directly in ° Celsius (Centigrade) Linear + 10.0 mV/°C scale factor 0.5°C accuracy
guaranteeable (at +25°C) Rated for full -55° to +150°C range Suitable for remote applications
Low cost due to wafer-level trimming Operates from 4 to 30 volts Less than 60 µA current drain
Low self-heating, 0.08°C in still air Nonlinearity only ± 1/4°C typical Low impedance output,
0.1 for 1 mA load Typical Applications DS005516-4 DS005516-3 FIGURE 1. Basic
Centigrade Temperature Sensor (+2°C to +150°C) Choose R1 = -VS/50 µA V OUT = +1,500
mV at +150°C = +250 mV at +25°C = -550 mV at -55°C FIGURE 2. Full-Range Centigrade
Temperature Sensor
LCD DISPLAY:

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat electronic visual display that uses the light
modulating properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCs do not emit light directly.
They are used in a wide range of applications including: computer monitors, television,
instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, signage, etc. They are common in consumer devices
such as video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones. LCDs have
displaced cathode ray tube(CRT) displays in most applications. They are usually more compact,
lightweight, portable, less expensive, more reliable, and easier on the eyes. They are available in
a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not use
phosphors, they cannot suffer image burn-in.
LCDs are more energy efficient and offer safer disposal than CRTs. Its low electrical power
consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an
electronically-modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled with liquid
crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in colour
or monochrome. The earliest discovery leading to the development of LCD technology, the
discovery of liquid crystals, dates from 1888.[1] By 2008, worldwide sales of televisions with
LCD screens had surpassed the sale of CRT units.
Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent
electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases)
perpendicular to each other. With no actual liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light
passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. In most of the
cases the liquid crystal has double refraction.[citation needed]
The surface of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal material are treated so as
to align the liquid crystal molecules in a particular direction. This treatment typically consists of
a thin polymer layer that is unidirectionally rubbed using, for example, a cloth. The direction of
the liquid crystal alignment is then defined by the direction of rubbing. Electrodes are made of a
transparent conductor called Indium Tin Oxide (ITO).

BUZZER:
A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical, electromechanical,
or electronic. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarms, timers and confirmation of
user input such as a mouse click or keystroke.
A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or other audio signal
source. Sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or a
beep. Electronic buzzers find many applications in modern days.

RESET SWITCH:
It is used to reset the lcd display screen such that the new readings can be taken.
LDR(LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR):
A photoresistor or light dependent resistor or cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell is a resistor whose
resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referred to as a
photoconductor.Aphotoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the
device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound
electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its
hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own
charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, e.g. silicon. In intrinsic devices the only
available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to
excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called
dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons
do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower
frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms
replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction.
This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.

Photoresistors come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can be found in
many consumer items such as camera light meters, street lights, clock radios, alarms, and
outdoor clocks.
They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small incandescent lamp or
light emitting diode to control gain reduction.
Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs (light dependent resistor) are used for
the mid infrared spectral region. Ge:Cu photoconductors are among the best far-infrared
detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.
Transducers are used for changing energy types.
LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE):
A light-emitting diode (LED) (pronounced /ˌɛl iː ˈdiː/[1]) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs
are used as indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as
a practical electronic component in 1962,[2] early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but
modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very
high brightness.When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able
to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is
called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon)
is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less than
1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in
reflection.[3] LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and
greater durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively
expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp
sources of comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation lighting,
automotive lighting (particularly indicators) and in traffic signals. The compact size of LEDs has
allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching
rates are useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the
remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other
domestic appliances.

PHOTO TRANSISTOR:NTE3037
Description:

BPW85 is a high speed and high sensitive silicon NPN epitaxial planar phototransistor in a
standard T–1 (ø 3 mm) plastic package. Due to its waterclear epoxy the device is sensitive to
visible and near infrared radiation. The viewing angle of 25_ makes it insensible to ambient
straylight.

Features
1.Fast response times
2. High photo sensitivity
3. Standard T–1 (ø 3 mm ) clear plastic package
4. Axial terminals
5. Angle of half sensitivity = 25_
6. Suitable for visible and near infrared radiation

Applications
Detector in electronic control and drive circuits

SWITCHES:
Normal on and off switches are used for the purpose of calling system and when the patient
presses one of these switches which is connected to microcontroller and this makes the buzzer to
give the alarm sound and make a display on the lcd screen.
Software details:

#include<reg51.h>

voidlcdcmd(unsigned char);

voidlcddata(unsigned char);

void delay(void);

sfrldata=0x80;

sbit s0=P3^0;

sbit s1=P3^1;

sbit s2=P3^2;

sbit s3=P3^3;

sbit saline status=P3^4;

sbit heart rate=P2^7;

sbit respiration rate=P1^5;

sbitrs=P1^0;

sbitrw=P1^1;

sbit en=P1^2;

sbit buzz=P2^0;

void main()

unsignedint i=0;

unsigned char name[]="water.0";

unsigned char class[]=“Emergency";

unsigned char cmd[]={0x01,0x0e,0x06,0x80,0x38,0};

unsigned char stmt[]=“need assistance";

unsigned char stmt1[]=“saline empty";

unsigned char bt,sec,sec100,min,r,t1,t2;

voidinitializelcd();

void delay(n);

buzz=0;

while(1)

if(s0==0)

if(s0==0)

buzz=0;

delay();

buzz=1;

for(i=0;cmd[i]!=0;i++)

lcdcmd(cmd[i]);

lcdcmd(0x85);

for(i=0;name[i]!='0';i++)

lcddata(name[i]);
 }

if(s1==0)

for(i=0;cmd[i]!=0;i++)

lcdcmd(cmd[i]);

lcdcmd(0xC3);

for(i=0;class[i]!='0';i++)

lcddata(class[i]);

if(s2==0)

for(i=0;cmd[i]!=0;i++)

lcdcmd(cmd[i]);

for(i=56;i<87;i++)

lcddata(i);
 }

if(s3==0)

for(i=0;cmd[i]!=0;i++)

lcdcmd(cmd[i]);

lcdcmd(0x80);

for(i=0;stmt[i]!='0';i++)

lcddata(stmt[i]);

if(s4==0)

for(i=0;cmd[i]!=0;i++)

lcdcmd(cmd[i]);

lcdcmd(0x80);

for(i=0;stmt1[i]!='0';i++)

{
lcddata(stmt1[i]);

voidlcdcmd(unsigned char a)

ldata=a;

delay();

rs=0;

rw=0;

en=1;

delay();

en=0;

return;

voidlcddata(unsigned char a)

ldata=a;

delay();

rs=1;

rw=0;

en=1;
delay();

en=0;

return;

void delay()

unsignedint i=0,j=0;

for(i=0;i<5;i++)

for(j=0;j<100;j++);

delay(1000);

initializelcd();

delay(1000);

gotoxy(0,0);

delay(1500);

printlcd("Welcome to H.R.M. ");

delay(500);

t1=0;t2=0;

//delay(15000);

while(1)

{
if(min>=1)

gotoxy(0,1);

delay(500);

bt=t1;

lcd_send_byte((bt/100)+48,1);

r=bt%100;

lcd_send_byte((r/10)+48,1);

lcd_send_byte((r%10)+48,1);

delay(500);

min=0;

}
SOFTWARE EXECUTION:
Software execution part of our project is being done on the keil software and the dumping of the
program into the microcontroller is done with the help of micro flash software and the execution
of the program is done in the following steps:

STEP 1: Starting a new project as shown in the figure

STEP2:Creating a new file and saving it as shown
STEP3:Choosing the family of micro controller which in our case is “ATMEL” as shown
STEP 4:Setting the frequency for the micro controller as shown which is 11.0592 hz in our
project.
STEP 5:Now pasting the project program in the project and save as shown
STEP 6:Now the saved program is add to the source group which is present in the new project
STEP 7:Executing the saved program as shown
STEP 8:After executing the program successfully it should be dumped into the micro
controller as shown in the figure
STEP 9:Now after the micro flash software is opened then the successfully executed program
is loaded into it as shown.

The program will be stored in the form of hex file and this hex file is loaded into this software
STEP 10:After the program is loaded then when the icon program is clicked then program will
get dumped into the micro controller and after getting dumped a message box will be displayed
with a message that the program is dumped successfully as shown
OUTPUTS:
The outputs for the inputs are as follows:

Output on the kit

OUTPUTS FOR PATIENT CALLING SYSTEM:
Output for 1st switch

Output for 2nd switch

Output for 3rd switch

OUTPUT FOR SALINE STATUS:

The outputs for the parameters can be directly seen on the kit and the above other important
things like the patient calling system and the saline status are not only displayed on the lcd
display but also are connected to a buzzer which gives an alarm sound or a beep sound and warns
the hospital staff that the patient is in need of some help from the staff. So these are the outputs
which are achieved in our project.
FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS

The human body scanning system could be made more sophisticated by incorporating
blood pressure and EEG sensors. The analog channel inputs AN4 and AN7 can be used and the
Port B can be programmed as an input port along with an additional ADC chip in the external
circuit.

Hospitable –wide wireless capability would allows doctor to occur the patients’
database using their word held computers.

The entire medical data acquisition could be made wireless and wearable. Such a
package would contain the circuiting for inputs from ECG sensors, EEG sensors, pressure
measurement and pulse rate transducers. This wearable module can transmit the data
continuously over a fiber optic link or through an internet digital radio. The received data can be
stored in separate memory and be processed by a microcontroller. This enhancement will enable
monitoring of patients to be more flexible and strain-free
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

This Project which demonstrates an automated patient monitoring system has its own
merits and demerits which are discussed below:
Merits:
2.The wireless alert system using WAP notifies physicians of critical results on
their cellular phones.
3.With online recoding of medical parameters, the workload of the case providers
and the nursing staff is reduced.
4.The clinical information database contains all data regarding the patients in
electronic form.
5.The patient call switches help emergency situations to be handled quickly.
Future enhancements can be easily implemented with the PLC controller.

De-Merits:
1.The heart beat sensor is highly temperature dependent and the dynamic
characteristics change with different levels of ambient light and temperature level.
2.The ECG amplifier needs a high CMRR and additional narrowband filters are
necessary to attenuate effects of mains and noise interference.
CONCLUSION:

Hence an attempt is made to design a device which not only acts as an alarm system but also
can measure the parameters of the body and the attempt made is successful.
BIBLOGRAPHY

1. Handbook of Bio-Medical Instrumentation - R.S.Khandpur

2. Bio-Medical Instrumentation and measurements - Leslie Cromwell

- Fred. J. Wejnbell
- Erich . A. Pleiffer

3. Linear Integrated Circuits - Roy Chowdary

4. IBM PC Handbook - IBM Corporation

5. www.microchip.com

6.VISUAL BASIC---- Ground Up - Gary Cornel