Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
November 1994
Pipeline Manual
First Edition November 1989
First Revision January 1990
Second Revision January 1991
Third Revision May 1993
Fourth Revision November 1994
Restricted Material
Technical Memorandum
The information in this Manual has been jointly developed by Chevron Corporation and its Operating
Companies. The Manual has been written to assist Chevron personnel in their work; as such, it may be
interpreted and used as seen fit by operating management.
Copyright 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 CHEVRON CORPORATION. All rights reserved. This docu-
ment contains proprietary information for use by Chevron Corporation, its subsidiaries, and affiliates. All
other uses require written permission.
Section Date
Front Matter November 1994
Table of Contents November 1994
References November 1994
Section 50 November 1994
Section 100 November 1988
Section 200 November 1988
Section 300 November 1994
Section 400 November 1994
Section 500 November 1988
Section 600 November 1988
Section 700 November 1994
Section 800 November 1988
Section 900 November 1994
Section 1000 May 1993
Section 2000 November 1994
Company Specifications
Data Sheets
Standard Drawings and Forms All specifications, drawings, and forms are
marked with thier latest revision dates.
Previous
Owner: Title:
Last First M.I.
Current
Owner: Title:
Last First M.I.
Company: Dept/Div:
Name
Address
Phone
Appendices
Appendix A Conversion Tables
Appendix B Directional Drilling
Appendix C Offshore Pipelines
Appendix D Operating Plan Guidelines
Appendix E Field Inspection Guidelines
Appendix F Development of Depth of Burial Diagrams
Appendix G Subsea Valves
Appendix H Guidelines for Weight-Coating on Submerged Pipelines
Appendix I Calculation of Bending Stress in Buried Pressurized Pipeline Due to External
Loads
References
Abstract
This section tells you how this manual is organized. A Quick-Reference Guide
(Figure 50-1) is provided to highlight key areas of the manual. A cross-reference
chart (Figure 50-2) relates the manual to others in the set.
Organization
The Pipeline Manual is part of a set of manuals produced by Chevron Research &
Technology Company in cooperation with all Operating Companies in the Corpora-
tion. Several of these manuals contain information directly related to pipelines.
• Piping
• Insulation and Refractories
• Fluid Flow
• Instrumentation and Control
• Coatings Corrosion Prevention
• Welding
All the manuals are interrelated; therefore, a list of cross references (at the end of
this section.) has been developed to assist you in finding related subject matter. The
index also aids in locating information in other manuals.
Each manual is organized using different-colored tabs to assist users in finding the
appropriate information quickly:
• White tabs are for table of contents, introduction, appendices, PC disks, index
and general purpose topics.
• Blue tabs denote Engineering Guidelines.
• Gray tabs denote Specifications, Data Sheets, Data Sheet Guides, and related
industry standards (API, ANSI).
• A Red tab marks a place for you to keep documents developed by your organi-
zation.
Part II - Specifications
This part of the manual contains: (1) general instructions for using specifications;
(2) model specifications, data sheets, and data sheet instructions that can be copied
or modified to local preferences; and, (3) industry standards (API, ANSI).
Change Bars, vertical black lines, have been used in the margins of the master speci-
fications to indicate where information has been added, changed, or deleted in refer-
ence to the last edition of the manual.
Abstract
The Pipeline Manual is a guide for the basic design and construction of pipeline
systems. It focuses on design fundamentals, guidelines for practical installations,
and specification and purchase of materials and services. It is applicable to small
gathering pipelines, large transmission pipeline systems and offshore pipelines. Its
guidelines encompass the experience of the Corporation’s Operating Companies.
The manual’s broad applicability makes it useful to both engineers and operating
personnel.
The Pipeline Manual is concerned only with pipelines. It does not provide design
information for pump stations, compressor stations or tank terminals, even though
these facilities may be covered by the pipeline design codes. The manual includes
certain topics related to operations and maintenance, but not a comprehensive
description of these functions.
The Pipeline Manual organizes in one place much of the Company’s information on
pipelines, presented in guideline form. It includes Company specifications which
are easily used by any Operating Company. Industry standards are also included.
For some subjects it advises reference to the more complete discussions in other
ETD manuals.
Contents Page
110 Contents
The Pipeline Manual is organized into two parts:
Part II - Specifications
• Section 2000 introduces the Specifications part of the manual and tells you
how to use the documents contained there.
• The Company Specifications section contains model format specifications with
comments and their corresponding data sheets.
• The Standard Forms and Drawings section contains forms and drawings that
pertain to the pipeline guidelines in this manual.
• The Industry Codes and Practices section provides the industry specifications
and practices that the Guidelines and Company Specifications reference.
• The Appendices provide references, conversion tables, sample specifications,
sample guidelines, and background design calculations.
requires compliance with the most stringent practice. For installations outside the
United States and Canada, the engineer responsible for piping design and construc-
tion should determine if there are national and local regulations pertaining to piping
design. The ANSI/ASME codes remain good guidelines where no other regulations
exist.
Abstract
This section focuses on the route selection decisions and activities that occur at the
beginning of a pipeline project and influence the character of the entire project.
Issues covered include preliminary route selection, project planning, regulatory and
jurisdictional research, surface considerations, environmental and technical surveys,
and final alignment and surveying. Careful and complete project planning mini-
mizes project cost and duration. This section was developed with a large cross-
country pipeline in mind, but most of the concepts can also be applied to smaller
jobs and offshore pipelines.
Contents Page
the method discussed in Section 420. This should also be done for any alternative
routes under consideration.
The hydraulic profile indicates approximate locations for intermediate pump
stations for both initial and future design line throughput capacity. Pump station
location may slightly influence final pipeline alignment, because of land avail-
ability, station access, electric power access, etc.
233 Permitting
Permitting procedure and timing must be determined for each governmental agency
and owner of an existing crossed facility. These will vary from agency to agency,
and not infrequently from time to time for the same agency. This information must
be developed as soon as possible so that priorities can be given to permitting proce-
dures that take the most time, or where sequential permit approvals are dependent
on prior approval by other agencies. Permitting authorities should be contacted at
an early stage regarding anticipated permit conditions and requirements affecting
construction, so that these can be incorporated into construction specifications
before inviting bids.
In the U.S., preparation, review and approval of an Environmental Impact Report
(EIR) is now required for nearly all cross-county pipelines. Under guidelines of the
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), the EIR process can add over a year to
the project schedule. Project timing and funding must allow for this. A number of
governmental agencies are likely to be involved in the EIR process, in addition to
the one(s) with jurisdiction over the land which the line traverses. One agency is
assigned as the lead agency, and has the responsibility for coordinating the others
and for conducting the public hearing and response process.
The EIR requires significant front end engineering to thoroughly cover the
proposed construction, since, once approved, permit conditions and mitigation
measures cannot be changed.
Preparation of the EIR, along with required surveys and the review, takes time.
Scheduling should make realistic allowances for this process, and every effort
should be made to keep the process on schedule. Environmental and technical
surveys are discussed in Section 240. Requirements for supplemental documenta-
tion, such as a construction operating plan, copy of the construction specification,
etc., should be determined for each permitting authority.
All permits should be obtained before starting construction, since unforseen delay
in granting a permit after construction starts will interrupt work and lead to high
standby charges. In some cases permitting authorities will issue a letter giving
approval to proceed pending formal execution of the permit.
damage claim settlements. Here again close coordination with field construction
engineers is important when the nature and extent of damages and the responsible
parties are in dispute.
construction crews, any minor alignment relocations are surveyed, and record data
for the completed facility are obtained.
Usually, aerial photography is done early in the design phase of the project, but
there may be situations in wilderness and remote areas in which the cost of
controlled aerial photogrammetry done after construction, with the cleared working
strip and markers over the pipeline visible, will be offset by reduced field survey
costs.
6. If plat determines that property contains only easement (not pipeline), draw
property line within right-of-way.
7. Property corner "ties" identify property limits more clearly (use a 1/16-in.
circle).
8. "X" after line list/parcel number denotes a road crossing, "R" a railroad
crossing. Show centerline and name of road or railroad. If crossing lies
between two properties use lower property number.
9. Line out "stationing &" if not used.
10. Horizontal pipeline footage through a property. This footage is on property
plat. Place footage number in line with line list/parcel number. Survey ties to
property lines, section corners, etc., are horizontal distances.
11. Place property line stationing (if shown) vertically on left side of property lines.
B. Aerial
12. Show scale used.
13. Indicate information concerning "start" of an alignment, e.g., continuation
drawing numbers, coordinate system reference, start of survey stationing
and/or matching stationing from a previous alignment sheet.
14. North arrow.
15. Plot pipeline line to scale with points of intersection (PI) symbols (1/16-in.
circles) indicating bearing changes. Plot valve symbols and bearings along
pipeline.
16. List of PI’s and stationing.
17. Milepost marker with stationing to left of extension line. Extension lines
extend to, but not through, pipeline line.
18. Line list/parcel number with leader to 1/6-in. dot at property location. Property
corner ties help identify plat. Show only property crossed by pipeline or within
right-of-way.
19. Identify county and state on each alignment sheet.
20. Identify any parallel pipeline(s).
21. Indicate road/railroad crossings with an oval, symbol and number, and leader
to road/railroad centerline. To avoid confusion, set leader at an angle to the
centerline.
22. Place crossing symbols as near point of crossing as possible. Make all symbols
same size as in legend.
23. Show property, rancho and grant names and boundaries. Reference only proper-
ties entered by pipeline. Show township and section lines with stationing.
C. Material Section
24. Pipeline line (same scale as aerial map).
25. Use extension and dimension lines and a box to identify pipe size, wall thick-
ness, grade, pipe ends, pipe manufacturing process and coating type.
26. Give beginning and ending stationing for concrete coatings, weights and
casings as found in field notebook.
27. Use and station cathodic protection symbols per legend and field notebook.
28. Place wall thickness (WT) changes next to extension line.
29. Show valves and refer to separate detail drawings if required.
30. Line up all matchlines. Indicate stationing and continuation sheets or start of
survey information.
D. Class Location Section
43. For gas pipelines, show class location boundaries.
E. Alignment Section
31. Show pipeline as a straight line with PI and valve symbols spaced to scale of
aerial strip.
32. Indicate crossings as found in field notebook. Place crossing symbols perpen-
dicular to pipeline at about the same location as in aerial strip with spacing as
much to scale as possible.
33. Place stationing and brief description of crossings below symbol in text
portion. Stationing relates to inventory (slope) distances, not horizontal
distances.
34. Indicate tie dimensions and reference in text when they appear in field note-
book.
35. Line up all matchlines with each other. Indicate stationing and continuation
sheets or start of survey information.
F. Profile
36. Record beginning station and end station.
37. Give elevation for centerline of pipeline. Use a consistent vertical scale on all
alignment sheets, large enough to show elevation changes of concern to
designer. In hilly terrain, break-points may be used.
38. Profile data is inadequate for calculating overbends and sagbends. Milepost
markers are set at or near calculated miles, but should not interfere with land
use.
G. Legend
44. Symbols used on alignment sheet.
45. Revision block.
46. Scale of aerial and alignment strips.
47. Date of plat.
48. Drawing title.
49. Drawing number.
Abstract
This section provides the engineer with guidance on selection of line pipe mate-
rials, requirements for bending in the field and in the shop, and selection and appli-
cation of coatings and linings for corrosion protection. Guidelines and
specifications are included. Specifications for line pipe materials, methods of
bending, and internal and external coatings are also included.
Contents Page
Seamless Pipe
Manufacturing of seamless (SMLS) pipe begins with a solid round billet that is
heated to about 2200°F and pierced to make a hollow cylinder. The cylinder passes
through several hot (1800-2200°F) rolling steps to make a pipe with the desired size
and wall thickness. Seamless pipe may be supplied as-rolled, or it may be heat
treated after rolling to improve its properties. Either normalizing or quenching and
tempering heat treatments may be used. Straightening if required is done either hot
or cold depending upon the mill practice.
Seamless pipe has greater variation in wall thickness that welded pipe. Also the
length variation in a particular lot or mill run is greater than welded pipe. The engi-
neer is advised to clearly specify the acceptable length variations on the purchase
order.
and its mechanical properties are determined by the original properties of the skelp.
Forming, final sizing, and straightening are all done cold.
ERW pipe has a better surface finish and can be more uniform in length than seam-
less. The advantage of better surface quality is that for FBE coated pipe there are
fewer problems with holidays in the coating.
Note The term ERW is used in this manual to refer to two processes for manufac-
turing electric welded (EW) pipe, and includes electric resistance welded (ERW)
and high frequency induction welded (HFI). The latter is the newer process. The
basic difference between the two processes is: the ERW process is conductive where
the heating of the vee formed by bringing the edges of the skelp together is
produced by flowing a high frequency current between the edges of the skelp prior
to pressing the edges together to form the weld; whereas in the HFI process, the
heat is generated by an induction coil placed around the formed skelp cylinder. HFI
is claimed to have the advantage of producing a higher heat flux across the weld
during the manufacturing and therefore is claimed to be more suitable for thicker
walls. Chevron has not made a quality distinction between the two processes.
ERW Weld Quality. Over 25 years ago, ERW pipe gained a reputation as poor
quality pipe. Most of the performance problems were associated with frequent field
leaks during field hydrotesting and operations caused by manufacturing defects in
the weld. Advances in skelp material quality, manufacturing processes, particularly
high frequency resistance and high frequency induction welding, and more accurate
and reliable NDE equipment especially ultrasonic testing have virtually eliminated
these problems. ERW pipe made today in a modern mill can be manufactured to be
equal in performance to seamless. Recommendations for specifying and ordering
ERW pipe are found in Section 316 and Figure 300-2.
Europe. Spiral weld pipe should be considered for large diameter lines ( greater
than 36 inches) in sweet service where it may be more economical than longitu-
dinal seam SAW. It can be purchased to a modified version of PPL-MS-1050. A
detailed review of the supplier is mandatory.
Other Processes
Corrosion resistant alloy (CRA) line pipe is essentially line pipe made from chro-
mium (13 Cr) and duplex stainless steel, nickel-chromium stainless steels (316) or
nickel alloys (Incoloy 825). It is covered in API Specification 5LC. CRA line pipe
is seeing increased applications as an alternative to chemical inhibition for corro-
sion control. It may be cost effective for high temperature streams >350°F (176C)
where inhibition is not feasible or in deep offshore applications whenever the total
cost of ownership is considered. This product is about 3 to 10 times the cost of
conventional carbon steel depending upon alloy grade and size. Consult a materials
engineer for assistance in selecting the appropriate alloy and specifications for the
environment.
Clad or Bimetallic pipe is a new technology for flowlines and gathering lines. This
line pipe product consists of a conventional steel line pipe backing to contain the
pressure and a “liner” of corrosion resistant alloy. This combination of materials
provides a high strength, cost competitive (with solid CRA) pipe up to grade X-65
in sizes over about 6 NPS. The lining material is selected on the basis of the envi-
ronment in the pipe. The lining may either be metallurgically bonded or hydrauli-
cally fitted into the steel pipe. For diameters of NPS 16 and larger this product is
made from clad plate. API specification 5LD contains the basic requirements for
the purchasing and inspection of clad pipe. In sizes over about 12 NPS it is the
preferred way to employ CRA. Justification for selection is usually based on the
total cost of ownership of the installation including operating expenses for corro-
sion control and monitoring. The CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering Unit
can assist in developing the proper ordering specification.
Coiled tubing refers to a continuously manufactured length (1000s of feet in
length) of electric welded tubing spooled on to a reel. Sizes range from about 3/4 to
5 inches. This product differs from reeled line pipe which is conventional API line
pipe of 40 to 60 foot lengths which have been welded together and rolled onto a
spool. Because coiled tubing is manufactured as a long length, thousands of feet, it
does not conform to all of the API 5L line pipe requirements, especially the weld
testing frequency and the prove up of NDE weld line indications. Coiled tubing was
developed and used for downhole workovers and is recently (early 90’s) being
considered for flowlines. Before coiled tubing is used for pressure flow line applica-
tions specialists in design, materials and quality assurance in CPTC and CRTC
should be consulted.
Furnace butt-welded pipe is similar to ERW pipe, except that the weld is made by
heating the edges of the plate in a furnace and then pressing them together. This
process does not produce good quality welds, and API 5L only permits it for grade
A25. The Company does not use grade A25 for pipelines.
Lap welded pipe is no longer made. However, there are still significant quantities
of this pipe in the ground.
Grade Limitations
Sweet Service. The Company has used line pipe up to grade X-65, but X-70 is used
by other operators. Grade X-80 should be considered where appropriate although
manufacturing experience with X-80 is currently very limited. The higher strength
grades become attractive in offshore laying operations where laying stresses and
not the operating pressure or hoop stresses may be governing the design. Experi-
mental higher strength grades up to grade X-100 are available on special order, but
they have not yet been widely used.
Sour Service. Chevron has used seamless pipe in grades X-52 and lower in sour
service without special requirements beyond API. However, the grade B seamless
being supplied today may contain additions of vanadium or columbium for strength-
ening if the carbon content is being kept low for weldability. These elements should
be controlled in the range shown in the Chevron specifications and the welding
procedures should be tested to assure that heat affected zones are not above 22
HRC. For seamless grades higher than X-52 the requirements of PPL-MS-4041
should apply. For welded SAW or ERW pipe the requirements of PPL-MS-4041
should apply to all grades. For ERW see the decision tree in Figure 300-2. One
difference driving different requirements between seamless and welded pipe in H2S
service is related to the manufacturing process. H2S environments result in charging
the pipeline steel with hydrogen which collects at inclusions within the steel. In
seamless pipe the inclusions are cigar shaped and are not deleterious, however in
welded pipe which is made from plate or strip the inclusions are pancake like. In
this case hydrogen blistering or stepwise (HIC) cracking can occur. The require-
ments of PPL-MS-4041 minimize the presence of the inclusions and require testing
of the steel for cracking sensitivity in H2S environments.
Weldability
The weldability of modern pipeline steel is typically determined by the chemical
composition of the pipe and not by the yield strength. API chemistry limits are
broad and if the steel is at the maximum limits of the API specified compositions,
weldability will be compromised. However, this is usually not the case for modern
steels. Manufacturers are controlling chemistry limits more tightly than required by
API and much of the line pipe being produced today has very good weldability.
Many of the X-grades of pipe (with carbon equivalents {CE}of 0.25-0.35%) are as
weldable as Grade B. The chemical composition and carbon equivalent require-
ments of PPL-MS-1050 and PPL-MS-4041 will ensure adequate weldability.
Note Carbon equivalent,CE, is determined by an equation of specific elements
(expressed as weight percent). If the value is less than 0.42% for general service or
0.38% for sour service the material is considered weldable. This equation only
applies to carbon and low alloy steels.
lower yield strength. Also the user should be cautious on accepting these grades for
H2S service.
Wall Thickness
Pipe diameter and wall thickness requirements are dictated by the fluid flow and
design pressure calculations. The calculation for required wall thickness is covered
in Section 440. For offshore pipelines, laying stresses and buckling considerations
can affect the selected wall thickness and the pipe strength. Refer to Section 930.
Length Variations
Length variation must also be addressed when specifying pipe. Length variation is
especially a critical factor when laying pipe off of a barge. Welding, inspection and
weld coating stations are all set at specific locations along the length of the barge. If
pipe has large variation in lengths it will take longer to lay the pipe because the
ends will not coincide with the work stations. Short lengths also give problems in
loading and unloading pipe onto trucks and barges.
The data sheet guide to the pipeline specifications in section 5.2 g gives guidance
on length tolerances.
Maximum
Line Size (OD) Allowable
and Strength Operating
Fluid Grade Pressure General Service Critical Service(1)
Liquid other All sizes and grades All pres- No tests recommended Absorbed Energy
than LPG sures average:20 ft-lbs 20 ft-lbs
minimum:15 ft-lbs 15 ft-lbs
Test Temperature: (2)
LPG All sizes and grades All pres- No tests recommended if lowest Abosrbed Energy
sures auto-refrigeration temperature is average: 15 ft-lbs
above 32°F minimum: 10 ft-lbs
(2)
Test Temperature:
Gas or Multi- 4-inch maximum Grade B or 3705 psi No tests recommended Absorbed Energy
Phase X-42 and maximum hoop maximum average: 20 ft-lbs
stress does not exceed 72% (ANSI Class minimum: 15 ft-lbs
(2)
of SMYS 1500) Test Temperature:
14-inch maximum Grade X-52 1480 psi Absorbed Energy Abosrbed Energy
or lower and maximum hoop maximum average: 20 ft-lbs average: 20 ft-lbs
stress does not exceed 72% (ANSI Class minimum: 15 ft-lbs minimum: 15 ft-lbs
(2)
of SMYS 600) Test Temperature:32°F 32°F Test Temperature:
14-inch maximum Higher All pres- Shear Area: (3) Shear Area: (4)
(4) (4)
strength grade or maximum sures Absorbed Energy: Absorbed Energy:
(2)
hoop stress greater than 72% Test Temperature: 32°F Test Temperature:
of SMYS
(3) (3)
16-inch and larger All Grades All pres- Shear Area: Shear Area:
sures Absorbed Area: (4) Absorbed Energy: (4)
(2)
Test Temperature: 32°F Test Temperature:
CO2 Any size Super-crit- Consult CRTC Materials and Consult CRTC Materials and
ical pres- Equipment Engineering Unit Equipment Engineering Unit
sures
Fig. 300-4 Schematic Drawing Showing Ductile to Brittle Transition Behavior in the Charpy
Impact Test
LPG Lines
LPG lines are a special case, because auto-refrigeration can cause very cold temper-
atures in the area of a leak as the line depressurizes. Brittle fracture of the line
could occur if the temperature falls below the transition temperature of the steel
while the line is still under substantial pressure. Although the ANSI B31.4 Code
does not require special treatment of LPG lines, we recommend fracture toughness
testing if the lowest auto-refrigeration temperature which could occur is below
32°F. This temperature must be calculated based on the specific composition of the
LPG. Mixtures containing large amounts of propane or butane will have lower auto-
refrigeration temperatures than those with mostly C5+ hydrocarbons. If the auto-
refrigeration temperature is above 32°F it is not necessary to specify Charpy impact
tests. If it is below 32°F, specify a minimum average energy of 15 ft-lbs at 32°F or
lower. Since it would be unlikely that the line would ever actually reach the lowest
auto-refrigeration temperature while under substantial pressure, it is not always
necessary to specify fracture toughness testing at that temperature. Consult CRTC
Materials and Equipment Engineering for recommended testing temperatures for
specific lines.
Fig. 300-6 Example of Ductile Fracture Analysis for Export Gas Line
3. Calculate Ductile Fracture Arrest Energy using equations from ANSI B31.8 Section
841.11
a. Battelle Columbus Laboratories (BCL) (AGA)
CVN = 0.0108σ2R1/3t1/3 = 31 ft-lbs
b. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
CVN = 0.0345σ3/2R1/2 = 31 ft-lbs
c. British Gas Council (BGC)
CVN = 0.0315σR/t1/2 = 23 ft-lbs
d. British Steel Corporation (BSC)
CVN = 0.00119σ2R = 23 ft-lbs
where:
CVN = full-size Charpy V-notch absorbed energy, ft-lb
σ = hoop stress, ksi
R = pipe radius, in.
t = wall thickness, in.
Company practice has generally been to specify Charpy impact testing for all gas
pipelines, with a minimum energy requirement of 20 ft-lbs at 32°F or the lowest
expected operating temperature of the line, whichever is lower. This level of frac-
ture toughness is adequate to prevent brittle fracture, and will also exceed the
ductile fracture arrest energy required for many small to medium diameter lines
with typical operating pressures. This practice is included in the requirements in
Figure 300-3, in addition to the Code requirements.
For lines up to 4 inch OD (3.5 inch NPS) which operate above 32°F and are
designed using API 5L Grade B or Grade X-42 pipe, fracture toughness testing is
not required unless the hoop stress exceeds 72% of SMYS, or the maximum allow-
able operating pressure exceeds ANSI Class 1500 limits (3705 psi at up to 100°F).
These lines do not have a significant risk of brittle fracture, and the calculated
energy requirement for ductile fracture arrest is low (less than 10 ft-lbs). For critical
service, which includes all lines with operating temperatures below 32°F, fracture
toughness testing should be specified with a minimum energy requirement of 20 ft-
lbs at 32°F or the lowest expected operating temperature (whichever is lower)
according to past Company practice. Note that API 5L SR5 does not cover testing
of pipe 4 inch OD and smaller because it specifies transverse specimens which
cannot be taken from small pipe without flattening. All of the requirements of API
5L SR5 should be followed, except that the specimen orientation should be changed
to longitudinal.
For lines up to 14 inch OD which are designed using API 5L Grade X-52 or
lower strength pipe with maximum allowable operating pressures up to ANSI
Class 600 limits (1480 psi at up to 100°F), a minimum energy requirement of 20
ft-lbs at 32°F or the lowest expected operating temperature (whichever is lower)
will be adequate to prevent both brittle and ductile fracture. Specifying this require-
ment is recommended in accordance with past Company practice, even though it is
not mandatory according to the Code. However, if the hoop stress exceeds 72% of
SMYS, then the Code requirements for shear area become mandatory and the
ductile fracture arrest energy requirement may exceed 20 ft-lbs. Also, if higher
strength pipe is used to reduce wall thickness requirements or the maximum allow-
able operating pressure exceeds 1480 psi, the ductile fracture arrest energy require-
ments may exceed 20 ft-lbs.
For lines up to 14 inch OD which fall outside the specific limits given above,
and for all lines 16 inch OD and larger, the minimum energy and shear area
requirements must be determined in accordance with the Code. There are four equa-
tions given for calculating the minimum energy required for ductile fracture arrest
(refer to Figure 300-7). Since all four equations generally give results which are
easily achievable with modern line pipe steels, we recommend using whichever
equation gives the highest value for the particular line in question. The specified
energy requirement should not be less than 20 ft-lbs, even if the calculated values
are lower. If the calculated values are below 10 ft-lbs, consult CRTC Materials and
Equipment Engineering regarding whether or not fracture toughness testing should
be waived (unless it is mandatory per the Code).
Note that, as stated in the Code, the equations for calculating the minimum energy
for ductile fracture arrest are based on pipelines transporting essentially pure
methane. Gas mixtures containing substantial amounts of heavier gasses such as
propane and butane will have different decompression behavior, and may require
higher Charpy energy to insure ductile fracture arrest. An arbitrary safety factor of
1.5 has sometimes been applied to the calculated energy requirements to account
for this “rich gas” effect. CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering can perform
an analysis of the decompression behavior of a gas mixture using a mainframe
computer program called EQUIPHASE to accurately determine the required
Charpy energy.
Company specifications require testing of the weld and heat affected zone of seam
welded pipe (ERW or SAW) in addition to the base metal whenever fracture tough-
ness tests are specified. The Code requirements for ductile fracture arrest energy are
not mandatory for the weld seam, based on the assumption that the weld seam in
each joint will be rotated with respect to the next joint. Therefore, a fracture would
destroy at most one joint of pipe before it arrests in the next joint. However, it has
been Company practice to apply the same requirements to the weld and heat
affected zone as for the base metal, and this has generally been achieved without
much difficulty. Contact CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering regarding
relaxation of this requirement if necessary.
CO2 Lines
CO2 lines which operate at super-critical pressures (where the CO2 is a dense phase
more like a liquid than a gas) are also a special case. Extremely high pressures
combined with auto-refrigeration concerns can result in fracture toughness require-
ments which are significantly greater than for typical natural gas pipelines. Crack
arrestors have been used for CO2 pipelines, as discussed in Section 448. Consult
CRTC and CPTC specialists for advice on design of high pressure CO2 pipelines.
314 Corrosion
Internal Corrosion
Carbon steel pipelines are typically designed with a zero corrosion allowance.
Adding a corrosion allowance should be an economic decision. Corrosion in pipe-
lines usually takes the form of pitting for which a corrosion allowance offers little
benefit. Corrosion can usually be controlled more economically with either inhibi-
tors or corrosion resistant linings.
In the special instances where corrosion allowances are desired the following rules
of thumb may be used:
• The corrosion allowance depends on the product or medium in the line.
• As small as possible corrosion allowance is usually selected because it will add
to the weight and cost of the line.
• For refined products the rule is zero to 1/32 inch (0.8mm).
• For crude lines with significant water the typical allowance is 1/16 to 1/8 inch
(1.60 to 3.20 mm).
• In gas lines that contain water, and CO2 or H2S an allowance of 1/8 inch is
reasonable.
• In special cases a higher allowance may be warranted.
• Pipelines carrying gas meeting transmission pipeline specifications should not
require a corrosion allowance.
In systems where corrosion cannot be controlled or carbon steel is inadequate,
several options can be considered:
• Internally lined pipe (e.g., cement-lined, plastic lined, or epoxy coated) is used
in water services. See Section 350 for more information.
External Corrosion
Codes B31.4 and B31.8 require external corrosion control of buried and underwater
pipelines by a combination of external coating (see Section 250 of the Coatings
Manual and Sections 340 and 444 of this manual) and cathodic protection (see
Section 460 of this manual and Section 500 of the Corrosion Prevention Manual).
It is not necessary to provide a corrosion allowance for pitting.
in sizes greater than about 10 NPS. All of the requirements and notes shown in the
tree must be adhered to since performance is dependent upon all of the require-
ments being met.
The first decision to be made in using the tree is to determine if the environment
will be corrosive. Commodity grade ERW pipe can undergo grooving corrosion of
the weld seam in low pH waters, salt water, and wet gas containing CO2. Grooving
corrosion is controlled by using a pipe chemistry with low sulfur (<0.005%),
calcium inclusion shape control, and normalizing heat treatment of the weld seam.
These requirements are in the Chevron specifications.
The decision tree contains two branches. The branch on the left is for non sour
service and the one on the right is for sour service. The left branch references PPL-
MS-1050 whereas the right branch references PPL-MS-4041. The numbers in the
ellipses refer to the supplementary requirements in these specifications. The CSR
numbers refer to the list of supplementary requirements. The notes are special
instructions or procedures. The mill class refers to the approved list (also see
Figure 300-4) in AQUAII which is maintained by the Quality Assurance team in
CRTC. Mill surveillance requirements are also recommended based on mill class.
assigned. Mills capable of manufacturing the highest quality of pipe are assigned a
class A. The classes are tied to specific applications based on severity of service.
Mill order quantities. For pipeline projects and major producing field projects
(such as gathering systems), the quantity of pipe required is usually large enough to
justify mill order purchase. PPL-MS-1050 and PPL-MS-4041 should be used to
supplement the requirements of API 5L and to assure that chemical composition,
mechanical properties and NDE are adequate. This will minimize weldability and
field bending problems during laying of the lines. For recommendations on inspec-
tions to be performed see Section 700.
Based on experience, ERW pipe will be generally less in cost compared to seamless
in sizes above about 10 to 12 NPS. However the engineer, when going out for pipe
cost quotations should consider the total cost of ownership including shipping,
coating, delivery time, etc. all of which could easily effect the economics of which
product is more cost effective.
ERW mill order purchases. In order to properly specify and purchase ERW,
consult the decision tree in Figure 300-2. This tree is intended to assist the facilities
engineer with selection of the proper Chevron specifications, supplementary
requirements that will provide the appropriate quality level of pipe and to give guid-
ance on the selection of the mill class. It is recommended that this chart be used
whenever ERW pipe is being purchased. If the pipe is coming out of stock, request
the mill test reports.
Pipe orders from distributor stock. For small projects, pipe is purchased “off- the-
shelf” from distributor stock. Purchasing pipe manufactured to API 5L, or other
similar industry standards typically has been the only option for small jobs. API 5L
pipe not meeting the additional requirements of PPL-MS-1050 General Service, or
PPL-MS-4041, Sour Service, is adequate for some services, but has had several
serious shortcomings. Some of these are:
• Broad chemical composition limits which can decrease weldability
• Mill hydrotest pressures as low as 60% of the specified minimum yield
strength (SMYS) which is usually lower than the field hydrotest
• Minimum NDE inspection requirements that may not be adequate for critical
services
In recent years, many manufacturers are gradually upgrading their standard product
to where it will meet many of the Chevron specification requirements. If the engi-
neer requires out of distributor stock (for ERW see next paragraph) it is recom-
mended that they request the mill test reports, and check these against the chemical
composition, NDE, and hydrotest requirements of the Chevron PPL-EG specifica-
tions. This pipe may be acceptable if it meets these requirements. If assistance is
required consult a quality assurance or metallurgy specialist in the Materials and
Equipment Engineering Unit at CRTC.
Wall Thickness
Seamless pipe can have significant variations in wall thickness. The thickness can
be determined by ultrasonic measurements (see Section 710). Field bending specifi-
cations for seamless pipe require that the thinnest wall be positioned on the inside
radius during bending, because the wall on the outside of the bend will be thinned
during the bending process. This minimizes the chance that the outside of the bend
will have wall thicknesses below the minimum tolerance for the original pipe.
Welded pipe does not have significant wall thickness variations.
vertical plane. This is a workmanship requirement and, providing all of the other
Code and specification requirements are met, should not be the sole reason for
rejection of a bend.
Sizing Plate
Each field bend must be able to pass a sizing plate of a size specified in the bending
specification. This can be used to confirm the Code requirement that “pipe diameter
should not be reduced by more than 2.5% of the nominal pipe diameter.”
Sizing plates that confirm that an inspection pig will be able to pass through the
line are typically not necessary for field bends. Field bends are typically 18D and
above, and the problem with inspection pig passage usually does not begin until
bends are 12D and below.
Bending Formulas
57.3° × bend length
(1) Bend radius = -----------------------------------------------
bend angle
where:
Bend radius and bend length are measured in pipe diameters
Bend angle is in degrees
D = nominal pipe diameter, ft
D × 100%
(2) Cold forming strain = -------------------------------------
2 × bend radius
for pipe diameters greater than 34 inches). Small bending machines (e.g., Cojaflex
PB Special) can bend 2- to 12-inch diameter pipe. The bend radius can be as low as
1.5 times the pipe diameter (3D bends are routine) for small diameter pipe.
Figure 300-8 gives some basic induction bending terminology.
Induction bending overcomes most of the deficiencies of furnace hot bending and
has several additional advantages:
• High dimensional accuracy.
• Various bend angles and multiple plane bends.
• Off-the-shelf seamless and ERW pipe may be induction bent to avoid small
quantities of special order pipe. The weld metal in SAW pipe can be a problem.
Note The induction bending temperature cycle can significantly affect the mechan-
ical properties (strength and/or impact toughness) of the pipe as detailed below.
• Low alloy steel pipe (e.g., ASME P4 & P5) will be strengthened significantly
by induction bending and is normally cooled by air quenching rather than
water quenching during induction bending. The air quench will minimize the
hardness and the risk of cracking. These grades require tempering following
induction bending.
• Austenitic stainless steel pipe (e.g., Type 316), which receives some of its
strength from cold work, will have its strength reduced by the induction
bending thermal cycle. In addition, the beginning and end of the bend will have
reduced corrosion resistance similar to that experienced in weld heat affected
zones. If corrosion resistance or resistance to stress corrosion cracking is
required, only low carbon or stabilized grades (e.g., 304L, 316L, 317L, 321, or
347) of stainless steel should be induction bent.
In summary, all induction bent pipe (except austenitic stainless steels—Type 3XX)
should be tempered following bending to reduce the strength and hardness and to
improve the impact toughness of the pipe. Tempering should be waived only on
certain nonsour-service, high-strength grades when tempering would be detrimental
to the final strength and/or impact toughness—and then only after prototype bends
are made and shown to meet the service requirements.
pipe, CAN3-Z245.1 line pipe, and API SPEC 5L line pipe). Submerged arc welded,
seamless, or electric resistance welded (ERW) pipe may all be bent according to
this specification.
Austenitic stainless steels (e.g., Type 3XX) may also be bent by induction bending.
They have been excluded from the model specification for simplicity. A hard copy
and PC disk copy of PPL-MS-4737 are contained in this volume.
Applicable Specifications
General. There are several specifications you may use for cement lining steel pipe:
• API RP 10E, Recommended Practice for Application of Cement Lining to
Tubular Goods, Handling, Installation and Joining.
tions. Certification and testing are covered in Sections 4 and 6, respectively, in API
RP 10E.
Cement Lining Applicators. Listed below are several cement lining applicators.
The list is not complete, nor is it an “approved bidders” list.
Armor Cote, TX 915/332-0558
Permian Enterprises, TX 915/683-1084
Ameron, CA 213/268-4111
Spiniello Construction Co., CA 213/835-2111
Heitkamp, CT 203/274-5468
Burke Industries, CA 408/297-3500
Progressive Fabricators, MO 314/385-5477
Thompson Pipe and Steel, CO 303/289-4080
U.S. Pipe and Foundry, AL 205/254-7000
American Cast Iron Pipe Co., AL 205/325-7701
Bitco, CA 415/233-7373
Shaw Pipe Protection, Alberta
Welding procedures for cement-lined steel pipe have traditionally been standard
pipeline procedures, with incomplete penetration on the root pass to avoid damage
to the cement and gasket. Electrodes have generally been of the EXX10 type. Some
recent experience in Canada has suggested that these electrodes, which leave more
hydrogen in the weld, may combine with the stress riser of the incomplete penetra-
tion weld to produce root cracks.
A welding procedure using EXX18 low hydrogen electrodes and an inconel wire-
reinforced composition gasket has been developed by Chevron Canada Resources.
The procedure allows more weld penetration (90+%) and thus a stronger weld. The
procedure is downhill for NPS 2 pipe and uphill for NPS 3 and larger. The uphill
procedure appears slower but will save on repair time. Contact the Design and
Construction Group in Calgary for further information.
Branch Connections. Branch connections are preferably made with cement-lined
tees. Branches may be made with bosses or weld-o-lets that have been fabricated
into a pipe spool and cement-lined in the shop. Good advance planning and design
will allow ordering shop lined branch components with connections and fittings
attached. If field cutting must be done use a hole saw. A hole saw is a cylindrical
saw attached to a drill. A cement-lined weld-o-let should be welded on and the
internal lining repaired with a repair compound such as X-Pando.
Field torch-cutting for branches should be avoided as this damages the cement
lining. Repatching these damaged areas is difficult, especially for small connections
and fittings. Ordering extra tees, fittings, and flanges will prevent delays in field
work and result in better lining integrity.
361 General
This section describes piping items with specific application to pipeline service that
are commonly used in pipeline systems:
• Through-conduit valves
• Closures and appurtenances for scraper traps
• Casing insulators and seals
• Special repair fittings
Other items commonly used but also found in plant piping systems are also
described:
• Branch connections
• Wall-thickness transition pieces
For other piping components where use is the same as for plant piping systems see
Sections 200 and 300 of the Piping Manual.
Flexible, nonconducting, water-tight sleeves with end diameters that match the
casing and the line pipe and stainless steel bands that clamp the end seals around
the line pipe and the casing
Expandable synthetic rubber rings that fit between the line pipe and the casing
(Link-Seal)
Typical insulator assemblies and flexible seals are made by Pipeline Seals and Insu-
lator Inc., Houston, TX; and F. H. Maloney Co., Houston, TX. Link-Seal brand ring
seals are made by Thunderline Corp., Wayne, MI.
• Plidco “Split + Sleeve.” This is a longitudinally split sleeve that bolts around
the line pipe to make a seal. It also can be sealwelded to the line after flow is
resumed.
• Plidco “+ Flange.” A flanged fitting that slips over the line pipe and clamps
and seals around the pipe. It also can be subsequently sealwelded to the line.
• Plidco “Smith + Clamp.” This fitting plugs pinhole leaks while the line is
under pressure. It should be considered as a temporary short-term measure
until permanent sleeve repairs or pipe replacement can be made.
• Plidco “Hot Tapping + Saddle.” This is a split sleeve with flanged branch
connection for hot taps where surrounding conditions do not permit welding,
including underwater tie-ins. If conditions subsequently permit, it can be seal-
welded.
• Custom/Special: Plidco will also custom design and fabricate special repair
fittings for almost any application.
forged fittings are often costly and unavailable. Localized reinforcement is not
recommended.
Main line branch tee connections that are larger than about 25% of the line diam-
eter should be provided with bar grates so that scrapers will not get caught at the
branch. See Standard Drawing GA-L99880.
systems with high CO2 content and for wet sour gas service with high CO 2 content.
The Company has installed duplex piping for:
• North Rankin “A” Platform (Sandvik 2205 SS) for various services
• Hidalgo Platform for brine blowdown from vapor compression watermaker
The cost of this special-order pipe may be less than solid alloy material. Mills that
have produced duplex pipe are:
• Japan Steel Works, Japan
• Sumitomo Metals, Japan
• Sandvik, Sweden
• Tubacex, Spain
API Specification 5LC, Corrosion-Resistant Line Pipe, is suggested for use in
ordering pipe, with additional specifications for the particular service conditions
provided by the Materials and Equipment Engineering Unit of CRTC.
380 References
1. American Water Works Association (AWWA). AWWA Standard for Cement-
Mortar Protective Lining and Coating for Steel Water Pipe -4 In. and Larger—
Shop Applied. AWWA C205-85.
2. Fruck, Giovanetto, Purdy. Engineering Aspects of Cement Lined Pipelines for
Use in Water Systems. 1976.
3. Murphy, C.A. Cement-lined Pipe Failure; Water Injection System, Virden
Canada. June 30, 1982 (Mat Lab File 70.20).
4. Mishael, S.J. Richmond HPSW Mortar Linings. October 11, 1983 (Mat Lab
File 70.20).
5. Price, J.E. Guidelines for Selection of Line Pipe and Use of Specifications EG-
1050-E and EG 4041. August 10, 1987 (Mat Lab File 67.20).
6. Kohut, G.B. ERW Line Pipe Guidelines. December 19, 1994 (MEEU File 67.0).
Abstract
This section discusses the many considerations involved in the engineering design
of pipelines. It covers the design scope for the pipeline facility—not the associated
station and terminal facility (although station and terminal piping are included in
pipeline codes for transportation systems). This section relates regulatory jurisdic-
tion to the selection of an appropriate design code. Hydraulic calculations, line
sizing, stress analysis, pipe wall thickness calculations, pipe and coating selection,
and ancillary considerations are discussed in relation to the various codes and the
Company’s preferred practices. Pipeline crossings, appurtenances, and cathodic
protection facilities are also discussed.
Contents Page
Canada
In Canada, jurisdiction for pipeline design and operation is either federal or provin-
cial. In general, interprovincial transmission pipelines and pipelines designated as
involving national priorities are regulated by the National Energy Board and are
certificated pipelines. The Company is not, as yet, involved in transmission pipeline
operations in Canada and therefore is not usually concerned with the National
Energy Board regulations.
Intraprovincial transmission, interfield, and gathering system pipelines are provin-
cially regulated. Alberta, British Columbia and Saskatchewan have well established
government departments to handle pipelines. The other provinces impose varying
degrees of control. Most of the Company’s Canadian operations are in Alberta,
British Columbia, Manitoba and Saskatchewan.
Alberta’s Pipeline Act is enforced by the Energy Resources Conservation Board.
The Board issues its Pipeline Regulations and the Oil and Gas Conservation Regula-
tions. These regulations govern pipeline design, licensing, construction, testing, and
record keeping, and exercise influence over routing, measurement, and environ-
mental issues. For information on other provinces, contact Chevron Canada
Resources Limited in Calgary, Alberta.
Other Locations
Legal requirements for pipeline design and operation in other geographical loca-
tions must be determined individually. If regulations do not exist or are less restric-
tive than U.S. regulations, the pipeline facilities should be designed to the
applicable ANSI/ASME code.
412 Codes
ANSI/ASME Code B31.4
ANSI/ASME Code B31.4, Liquid Transportation Systems for Hydrocarbons,
Liquid Petroleum Gas, Anhydrous Ammonia, and Alcohols is incorporated by refer-
ence in 49 CFR 195. It is also a sound basis, although not legally required, for cross-
country water and water slurry pipelines, allowing their future conversion to oil or
other hazardous liquid service. A copy of Code B31.4 may be found in this manual
under Industry Codes and Practices.
Code B31.4 establishes requirements for safe design, construction, inspection,
testing and maintenance of pipeline systems transporting liquids such as crude oil,
condensate, natural gasoline, natural gas liquids, liquified petroleum gas, liquid
alcohol, liquid anhydrous ammonia, and liquid petroleum products. The Company
has used this code for Gilsonite and phosphate slurry pipelines. Figure 400.1.1 in
Code B31.4 (1986 Addenda) shows the range of facilities covered by the code.
Among these are pump stations, tank farms, terminals, pressure reducing stations
and metering stations.
Code B31.4 does not apply to auxiliary station piping such as water, air, steam,
lubricating oil, gas and fuel; piping at or below 15 psig, piping with metal tempera-
tures above 250°F or below -20°F; or field production facilities and pipelines.
420 Hydraulics
Pressures required to move design flows through a pipeline system are calculated
from the fluid properties, pipe diameter and line length. Pertinent fluid properties
for basic hydraulic calculations are viscosity and specific gravity at the tempera-
tures and pressures of the fluid in the line.
These calculations indicate a range of feasible pipe diameters and tentative spacing
of pump or compressor stations along the line. Section 430 should be reviewed as a
guide for initially selecting pipe diameters for a particular system. As design
becomes final, hydraulic calculations are refined to determine conditions for over-
pressure control during line shut-off and surges.
The design flow, or line throughput rate, is established by the operating organiza-
tion, which should define as closely as possible the expected maximum and
minimum rates, and forecast future yearly throughput requirements. This informa-
tion is critical in determining the most economic line size. Once line size is deter-
mined and pipe is selected, hydraulic calculations can be made to determine flows
for variables in operating conditions, future expansion of system capacity by the
addition of pump or compressor stations, and line capacity if the system is
converted to different service.
liquid and gas transmission lines, although pipeline handbooks and general hydrau-
lics texts may also be used.
pump discharge heads, pressures are expressed in feet of the fluid in the line as well
as pounds per square inch (psi). Formulas to convert to pressure units of pounds per
square inch, or vice versa, are:
cantly because of demand fluctuations and should be considered in setting the load
factor that determines design flow rate, expressed in standard cubic feet per oper-
ating day (SCFOD).
Multistock Flow
Calculations for crude lines handling a range of specific gravities and for product
pipelines must allow for (1) the presence in the line of stocks with differing phys-
ical properties and (2) deliveries from the line at several points. The latter consider-
ably reduces the volume of products going through to the terminal compared to
throughput at the initial station. To avoid excessive mixing of products, the line
flow should be within the turbulent region. At low flow rates, batching pigs can be
used to minimize interface mixing.
Slurry pipelines usually operate within a narrow range of flow rates—with the
minimum rate adequate to keep solids in suspension and the maximum low enough
to avoid excessive abrasion and erosion. A wide range of net solid throughput is
achieved by frequent batching of slurry and water, or by displacing slurry with
water at intervals, then shutting down and restarting. To establish maximum and
minimum pressure drops, calculations should be made for slurry alone and water
alone.
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Non-Newtonian fluids should be handled on a case-by-case basis. Their viscosity
characteristics change significantly with flow rate and as a result of the fluid’s
hydraulic and temperature “history.” Pretreatment, heating, addition of pour depres-
sants or flow improvers, and a combination of strategies have been used success-
fully to facilitate pumping of these oils through pipelines. Line restart after
shutdown is likely to require special investigation and study.
Refer to the Materials and Engineering Analysis Division of the Engineering Tech-
nology Department for assistance on any pipeline system involving an oil or slurry
having non-Newtonian properties. See also Section 1000 of the Fluid Flow Manual
for a discussion of non-Newtonian fluids.
Supercritical Fluids
A supercritical fluid is a gas compressed to a pressure greater than the saturation
pressure, at temperatures greater than the critical temperature. The critical
temperature is the temperature at which the gas cannot be liquified at any pressure.
Supercritical fluids behave like compressible liquids, or gases as dense as a liquid.
Pipeline transport of carbon dioxide as a supercritical fluid has become more
common in recent years. The viscosity of supercritical CO2 is very low, but the
density varies significantly with pressure, temperature and amounts of other gases
present as impurities. Moreover, changes in pressure result in temperature changes.
Hydraulic calculations can be made with the PIPEFLOW-2 computer program (see
the Fluid Flow Manual, Section 1100 and Appendix E) incorporating density data
for pressures and temperatures along the line. Calculations for supercritical hydro-
carbons can be handled in a similar manner.
• The approximate terminal pressure (in feet of head) at the end of the line (or
section of line) required, for example, for the fluid to pass through terminal
manifolding and piping and into tankage at design flow
• Hydraulic gradient data, in feet of pressure drop per mile at design flow rate
(or maximum and minimum rates), for one or several pipe sizes
A basic plot of this data is indicated in Figure 400-2.
A hydraulic control point is a high-elevation point that governs the inlet head for
its section of line. Often, hydraulic control points are encountered, and the
hydraulic gradient must clear the ground elevation control point. Two situations
may result as indicated in Figure 400-3:
(a) The hydraulic gradient is continued to the end of the line, resulting in a
residual pressure at the end of the line, for which back pressure control must
be provided.
(b) Without back pressure control, a length of line will flow only partially full, in
what is called a cascade or slack-line condition.
Fig. 400-2 Hydraulic Gradients Fig. 400-3 Hydraulic Profile: Backpressure Control
A slack line should be avoided because it results in erratic correlation of the line
input and output meters, which makes leak detection by metering instrumentation
impossible. For products pipelines the volume of interface mixture between succes-
sive products is uncontrollable in a slack-line, and product mixing is severe in
downhill sections downstream from the control point. In rare instances slack-line
operation may be considered so that back-pressure control is not required.
The actual pressure in the pipeline at any point along the route equals the difference
between the hydraulic gradient and the ground elevation (see Figure 400-4).
With multistock flow where two or more stocks having appreciably different
viscosities and specific gravities are in the same line, higher pressures may develop
at intermediate points along the line than if there were only one stock. In
Figure 400-5 the trailing stock has the lower viscosity and, therefore, a less steep
hydraulic gradient than the leading stock. With pump station and terminal discharge
pressures P1 and P2 fixed, the locus of pressures at the interface between the stocks
is arched upwards. The pressure H in feet of stock A at a distance of x miles along
the line of total length L is given by:
E 1 + H 1 – ( R E 2 + H 2 ) + ( R – 1 )E x
H = R ( E 2 + H 2 – E x ) + ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
x
1 + r ------------
L–x
(Eq. 400-3)
where:
(specific gravity stock B)
R = --------------------------------------------------------------
( specific gravity stock A )
( hydraulic gradient stock A )
r = --------------------------------------------------------------------
( hydraulic gradient stock B )
Fig. 400-4 Hydraulic Profile: Line Pressure Fig. 400-5 Hydraulic Profile: Multistock Flow
Note that while the two hydraulic gradients vary, since the throughput will not be
constant for fixed station and terminal pressures, their ratio is essentially constant.
If there are injection or take off points along the line, so that flow in the main line
is increased or decreased, the different hydraulic gradients need to be plotted in
succession along the line for the changed flow rates.
Section 436 discusses economic analysis for line sizing. Sensitivity analyses may
be in order if the estimating basis for items such as construction costs and pumping
energy costs is uncertain.
In some situations, other elements may affect economic evaluation of alternatives,
such as:
• Line routing
• Heated-line facilities, heating method, initial line temperature, pipe insulation,
and heating energy
Sensitivity analysis may be appropriate if alternative routes involve uncertainties in
comparative construction costs or costs for permitting, right-of-way acquisition and
damages, or if heated-line systems involve uncertainties in line heat losses and
heating energy cost.
Pi D
t = ---------
2S
(Eq. 400-4)
where:
t = pressure design wall thickness, in.
Pi = internal design gage pressure, psig
D = outside diameter, in.
S = allowable stress value, psi
Code B31.4, Section 402.3.1, establishes the allowable stress value S; Code B31.4,
Table 402.3.1(a), tabulates allowable stress values for pipe of various specifications,
manufacturing methods and grades. As a preliminary design basis for line sizing,
API Specification 5L Grade X60 pipe is suggested, for which S = 0.72 x 60,000 =
43,200 psi. For oil lines, which normally do not require any corrosion allowance,
the nominal wall thickness tn equals the pressure design wall thickness t. The hoop
stress formula then becomes:
Pi D
t n = -----------------
86,400
tn
or P i = 86,400 ⋅ ----
D
(Eq. 400-5)
Pipe wall thicknesses commonly manufactured are given in API SPEC 5L, Section
6, Table 6.2.
Where back pressure control will cause high pressures in the pipeline beyond the
control point, perhaps necessitating heavier wall pipe, two remedies are available:
• Install one or more pressure reducing stations to dissipate the pressure and
bring the gradient closer to the ground elevation
• Reduce the pipe diameter to steepen the gradient
The second alternative may seem to be an economical solution, but is not suggested
for preliminary estimates. The smaller diameter is likely to be a bottleneck in
capacity expansion of the pipeline. However, it should be considered in a final
design stage. A scraper trap station will be needed at the point of size change so
that different size inspection pigs can be run. A power-recovery turbine should also
be considered as an alternative to wasting power through a control valve.
Figure 400-7 shows gradients for a reasonable line size, with station locations, for:
• An initial design throughput requiring an intermediate pump station (otherwise
pump discharge head at the initial pump station would be excessive) and a pres-
sure-reducing station to reduce line pressures upstream of the terminal.
• Future system expansion by addition of a pump station, resulting in a new
gradient and throughput rate. Pump discharge head at the intermediate pump
station is higher, but now matches the initial station discharge head. Although
the pressure-reducing station is not needed at the future maximum throughput,
pressure-control facilities will still be needed there and at the terminal to
prevent overpressuring the line at low flow rates in the lower-elevation section
and in the terminal piping.
Figure 400-7 also indicates the effect on gradients of a reduced size pipe as an alter-
native to the pressure-reducing station. Figure 400-8 shows gradients for a design
throughput for three alternative line sizes, and corresponding station facilities.
Pipe allowable pressures, determined by calculations described in Section 432 and
converted to head in feet of fluid, should also be shown on the hydraulic gradient
diagram, as indicated on Figure 400-9. The dashed line indicating the calculated
pipe allowable pressure for a particular wall thickness parallels the ground profile.
In Figure 400-9, for the section of the pipeline between the initial pump station and
the intermediate pump station, pipe with wall thickness “a” is needed for a distance
downstream of the initial pump station, but at higher elevations, this allowable pres-
sure rating is greater than required. Therefore, in the following section, thinner wall
pipe (“b” and “c”) is satisfactory. If the line were to be blocked while pumps were
running, the gradient at no flow would be horizontal, indicated as “pump shut-off.”
Pipe wall thickness should be selected so that pipe allowable pressures are equal to
or greater than line pressures under pump shut-off conditions. In Figure 400-9, only
wall thickness “e” fails to meet this criterion. In this example, wall thickness “e”
represents a considerable savings in weight and dollars compared to the wall thick-
ness required for the shutoff condition against intermediate station pumps.
In many cases, wall thicknesses of older pipelines were telescoped; that is, pipe
wall thickness for successive sections of line were only adequate for line pressures
at flow conditions, not for a blocked line situation. At a time when the higher
strength grades of pipe were not available, appreciable savings could be realized by
telescoping. Telescoping is also done by using lower grades of pipe. However tele-
scoping introduces the hazard of overpressuring the line under pump shutoff condi-
tions and often limits system expansion by adding intermediate pump stations.
Telescoping should generally be avoided.
Pumping horsepower requirements for the various alternatives can now be calcu-
lated (Equation 400-6). For preliminary estimates a pump efficiency of 70% can be
used for centrifugal pumps in pipeline service. For reciprocating pumps, use 90%.
Q bpod ⋅ H ft ⋅ SG
bhp = ----------------------------------------
136,000 ⋅ PE
Q gpm ⋅ P psi
= ----------------------------
1714 ⋅ PE
(Eq. 400-6)
where:
bhp = pump brake horsepower
Qgpm = flow rate, gpm
Qbpod = flow rate, BPOD
H = pump discharge head, ft
SG = specific gravity
P = pump discharge pressure, psi
PE = pump efficiency
Other features can be indicated on the hydraulic profile, such as pipe coatings,
major river crossings, line valves, scraper trap manifolds, cased crossings, and areas
with special construction problems.
Pipe Cost
The cost of the pipe generally represents 25% to 50% of the total line cost, and the
use of a reliable cost will go a long way toward assuring a realistic total estimate.
For mill runs purchasing can usually obtain informal quotes from steel mills, based
on total tonnage required, within a week. The price can be FOB mill or FOB desti-
nation. In the former case, freight charges from mill to destination must be
obtained. European and Japanese sources should be included, particularly for
foreign projects. Experience has shown that market fluctuations make it risky to use
pipe costs from previous jobs and escalate them by an index.
In calculating the tonnage of steel required, allow for heavier wall pipe for river and
highway crossings. Also allow for waste and for the difference between the hori-
zontal length of the line and its actual slope length. Even for lines laid through
mountainous terrain, an allowance of 1% to 2% is usually adequate. For short
producing field lines, both allowances combined (wastage and slope length) are
about 5%.
Coatings
Although final coating selection involves a thorough study of alternatives and
design conditions, order-of-magnitude coating costs for line sizing can usually be
based on the following:
• For normal soils, preferably plant-applied fusion-bonded epoxy or extruded
polyethylene
• For hot lines, plant-applied extruded polyethylene up to 150°F, fusion bonded
epoxy up to 200°F
• For wet or corrosive soil conditions, plant-applied extruded polyethylene, or
fusion-bonded epoxy
Reference should be made to Section 340 of this manual and to the Coatings
Manual for full descriptions of these coatings.
Purchasing can usually obtain informal quotes from coating material suppliers or
plant applicators within a few days. When the coating is plant-applied the applica-
tion cost as well as the material cost is included. The cost of unloading the bare
pipe from the delivery cars and reloading the coated pipe onto rail cars or stringing
trucks and the cost for shipping coated pipe to the job should be included.
Where circumstances favor coating applied over the ditch, the labor cost of applica-
tion is part of the construction contract. When estimating the material cost allow-
ances should be included for waste (15% to 20%) and for shipping costs.
Miscellaneous Materials
Block valve installations, scraper traps, cathodic protection equipment, line
markers, casing pipe and other items of material may be required. It is generally
accurate enough to estimate all these items together as a percentage of pipe cost.
The figure should be at least 5%; for short lines or lines with an unusual number of
appurtenances the figure can be as high as 10%.
Pipeline Construction
A realistic estimate of the construction cost requires judgment in evaluating such
factors as terrain, weather, availability of labor and competent welders, access, and
remoteness from living and service facilities. In preparing an order-of-magnitude
estimate it is not possible to evaluate these individually, but their composite effect
on costs must be appraised.
The basic construction cost covers clearing and grading, stringing pipe, ditching,
welding, application of coating as required for the particular coating system,
lowering, backfilling, cleanup and testing. It is generally estimated on the basis of
dollars per linear foot. Unit construction costs for many existing pipelines are avail-
able from various sources, such as Company project cost statements and magazines
such as the Oil and Gas Journal which publish data on pipeline projects.
Methods for estimating basic construction cost include the following:
• Review available data to find a similar size line crossing terrain similar to the
area in question. Use judgment to make adjustments for the particular condi-
tions
• When time is available, consult with several pipeline contractors and obtain
informal estimates. Their figures should be realistic, particularly if they have
actual construction experience in the same geographical area
• Develop a daily cost for the labor and equipment needed for a pipeline spread.
An estimate is then required of the rate of construction progress over the route
to determine the total length of the construction period. The daily spread cost
multiplied by the days to construct represents the construction cost. The daily
spread cost must include items such as contractor’s overhead and profit. On
foreign jobs there may be an additional lump sum to cover mobilization
A special situation occurs if the pipeline is located in city or suburban streets. The
contractor will be required to limit his daily operations to a short distance. He may
not be permitted to leave any ditch open overnight. Delays are likely on account of
unanticipated underground interferences. He will therefore use a city spread that is
much smaller in terms of the amount of equipment and number of men than the
normal pipeline spread. Construction progress will be measured in terms of 500 to
1500 feet per day as compared to 5,000 to 10,000 feet per day for open country
terrain. Also, the removal and replacement of paving will be a significant cost item.
Installation costs for major river crossings, line valves and scraper traps, casing,
cathodic protection stations, and pipeline markers are generally estimated on a
lump sum per unit basis. Cost data for these items is available from past Company
jobs and the published data mentioned previously. By far the largest items are river
crossings, which require special equipment and involvement with government agen-
cies. If possible, contractors should be consulted in developing the lump sum cost
for a major river crossing.
Pump Stations
For the preliminary estimate, four major decisions must be made regarding pump
stations:
• Type of pump. Although centrifugal pumps are the usual choice, reciprocating
pumps may be indicated for high viscosity stock because of the centrifugal
pump’s low efficiency in this service. The Pump Manual provides criteria for
choosing a pump and the Mechanical and Electrical Systems Division of the
Engineering Technology Department can give advice
• Type of driver. Electric motors are the usual choice unless electric power is
unavailable or some other fuel, such as natural gas, is available at a signifi-
cantly lower cost. Diesel engines can be modified to burn crude oil but this
generally requires a substantial investment in equipment to filter and condition
the crude oil. Turbines are used in remote areas where electric power is unavail-
able because they require fewer auxiliary facilities, have lower maintenance
requirements, and are adaptable to remote control
• Type of operation. Remote operation of some or all intermediate pump
stations should be considered. This is common practice in the United States,
where labor costs are high. It is also desirable wherever nearby housing and
associated facilities are unavailable
• Amount of standby capacity. The initial design of a line usually must
consider standby capacity to assure the desired line operating factor. Standby
capacity is less necessary in subsequent expansions as the consequences of the
loss of a pump or even a station become less severe. The total installed horse-
power is the basis for estimating investment cost
The investment cost of pump stations can be estimated by breaking the facility into
components, as follows:
• Fixed cost. This covers items that are largely independent of the amount of
horsepower to be installed. These are land, site development, buildings, living
quarters and maintenance facilities. These can be estimated as a lump sum
applicable to each station
• Variable cost. The remaining station facilities, such as pumps and drivers,
manifolding, instrumentation, and power supply are related to the size of the
station. These can be estimated on the basis of dollars per installed horsepower.
This figure will also vary with the type of pump and driver. Diesel stations cost
more than electric stations; reciprocating pump stations cost more than centrif-
ugal pump stations
• Technical services. The fixed cost plus the product of variable cost times
installed horsepower equals the total station cost. These unit costs must include
an allowance for the technical services required to design and construct the
station, generally 10% to 25% of the total station cost
• Communications
• Station tankage
• Cathodic Protection
Contingency, Escalation
Contingencies must be provided for, including costs which have been overlooked
and factors contributing to cost that have not been realistically evaluated. The
percentage allowed for contingencies depends on the time available to prepare the
estimate and the confidence in the figures developed. The minimum contingency
should be 10%, although 15% is normally used and a higher figure may be appro-
priate.
If the pipeline is an unusually large project, requiring two or three years to design
and construct, an allowance for future escalation should be included. If no escala-
tion is included, this should be clearly stated in the estimate.
less to operate for a given throughput. Where Company-owned stock is used to fill
the line initially, the value of the line fill should be added to the estimated system
investment.
The analysis requires calculation of the incremental cost of building the larger line
and the incremental savings realized in operating it over the forecast life of the pipe-
line. Operating costs may vary over time for both the base and alternate cases if the
throughput varies (e.g., for an oil field with increasing, then declining production
rates), or if power costs change (due to energy costs, inflation, etc). If an increase in
throughput requires adding pump stations or looping the line, the additional invest-
ment costs must be included at the time these facilities are required. Cost elements
which are the same for both cases (the incremental cost is zero) can be ignored for
this comparative analysis.
An economic analysis computer program such as CASHFLO (sponsored by Corpo-
rate Planning & Analytical) can calculate a rate of return (ROR) and payout (in
years) for the incremental cost of the larger line based on the annual savings in oper-
ating (pumping) costs. CASHFLO also incorporates the effects of depreciation and
taxes on the annual cash flow. If the ROR on the increment meets or exceeds
current standards for this type of investment, then the larger line size is
“economic.” This analysis can be repeated for successive line sizes until the ROR
no longer justifies the incremental investment.
work is needed? Must access roads be constructed? Are there environmental and
ecological considerations that will affect construction progress and timing?
Hydraulics
The fluid characteristics and volumes used in the preliminary design should be
reviewed and confirmed. The viscosity and pour point of a crude oil must be
accurate; if there is any doubt, samples should be obtained and a pumpability study
performed. Care should be taken to assure that the sample obtained is truly repre-
sentative. The volumes to be transported, particularly the forecast of future require-
ments, should be reviewed and confirmed. A forecast of future throughputs is
essential.
Pipeline Construction
Improving the estimate for pipeline construction should have the highest priority.
Making a reconnaissance trip is particularly important, providing the engineer with
a first-hand appreciation of the various conditions that will determine the construc-
tion cost.
Preferably, one or more contractors should be asked to inspect the route and submit
informal figures on construction costs, but it is best if the engineer conducts the
inspection trip separately with each contractor. Contractors are generally willing to
provide this service because it gives them an early look at a potential project. Varia-
tions in the figures submitted by different contractors may reflect different evalua-
tions of construction difficulties, or a difference in their interest in doing the job (or
in their need for work). It is difficult but necessary to assess the effect of the overall
construction market on bids.
The engineer should make an independent estimate of construction costs after he
has seen the terrain and talked to contractors about the equipment and labor force
they would use. Construction elements such as river crossings, block valves,
scraper traps, and cathodic protection facilities, should be re-estimated in light of
any information that has been developed. The estimating methods and sources of
cost data are the same ones discussed in Section 435. The daily spread method
described there is particularly useful.
Technical Services
To develop a detailed estimate for each technical service element it is first neces-
sary to prepare a schedule and a Company manpower forecast for the design and
construction phases of the project.
The construction period is fixed by the availability of pipe and the completion date.
This dictates the number of spreads required for the job, which, in turn, affects the
number of Company personnel assigned to the field for supervision and inspection.
Engineering and drafting. In estimating the cost of engineering and drafting for
design, include the time already spent on preliminary estimates and feasibility
studies.
Purchasing and expediting. The percentages of material costs to be used in calcu-
lating purchasing, inspection and expediting burdens should be defined.
Specialists. A schedule and contracting plan for outside specialists should be made,
and the anticipated scope of work for each defined. Reference to previous projects,
informal discussions with technical service contractors, and consultation with
Company organizations involved in environmental affairs and technical investiga-
tions are recommended.
• Cost elements are not as complex and are limited to differentials for pipe and
coating, pipeline construction, pump station installed horsepower, and oper-
ating power costs. All other costs are not significantly affected by pipe size or
pumping requirements.
On short lines attention must still be given to:
• Fluid properties, particularly if the temperature entering the line is higher
than ambient, as from a production wellhead or gas compressor, and the fluid
is cooled in the pipeline. See the Fluid Flow Manual, Section 900.
• Hydraulic calculations and hydraulic profiles for alternative line sizes and
corresponding pumping requirements. Note that pumping may not be required
if adequate initial pressure is available. See the Fluid Flow Manual, Section
400.
• Economic analysis involving pipeline and pump station costs, and operating
power costs using criteria suitable for local conditions.
442 Pipe Stress and Wall Thickness Calculations for Liquid Pipelines per
ANSI/ASME Code B31.4
The following sections of Code B31.4 Chapter II (Design) are particularly impor-
tant for pipeline design:
• Part 1, Conditions and Criteria
– Section 401, Design Conditions
– Section 402, Design Criteria
S = 0.72 × E × SMYS
(Eq. 400-7)
where:
0.72 = Design factor based on nominal wall thickness tn. In setting this
design factor, the code committee gave due consideration to and
made allowance for the underthickness tolerance and maximum
allowable depth of imperfections provided for in the specifica-
tions approved by Code B31.4
E = Weld joint factor per Section 402.4.3 and Table 402.4.3 of Code
B31.4. For pipe normally considered for new lines, E = 1.00
SMYS = Specified minimum yield strength, psi
Although mill tests for particular runs of pipe may indicate actual minimum yield
strength values higher than the Specified Minimum Yield Strength (SMYS), in no
case where Code B31.4 refers to SMYS shall a higher value be used in establishing
the allowable stress value; (Section 402.3.1(g) of Code B31.4).
Table 402.3.1(a) of Code B31.4 tabulates allowable stress values for pipe of various
specifications, manufacturing methods, and grades, based on the above, for use
with piping systems within the scope of Code B31.4.
Sections 402.3.1(b),(c), and (d) of Code B31.4 cover allowable stresses for used
(reclaimed) pipe, pipe of unknown origin, and cold-worked pipe that has subse-
quently been heated to 600°F or higher. Section 402.3.1(e) limits allowable stress
values in shear and bearing. Section 402.3.1(f) limits tensile and compressive stress
values for pipe and other steel materials when used in structural supports and
restraints.
Section 402.3.2 of Code B31.4 covers allowable stress values due to sustained loads
and thermal expansion for the following stresses:
• Internal pressure stresses. The calculated stresses due to internal pressure
shall not exceed the applicable allowable stress value S determined by 402.3.1
(a), (c), or (d) except as permitted by other subparagraphs of 402.3.
• External pressure stresses. Stresses due to external pressure shall be consid-
ered safe when the wall thickness of the piping components meets the require-
ments of 403 and 404.
• Allowable expansion stresses (as for heated oil lines). The allowable stress
values for the equivalent tensile stress in 419.6.4(b) for restrained lines shall
not exceed 90% SMYS of the of the pipe. The allowable stress range, SA, in
419.6.4(c) for unrestrained lines shall not exceed 72% of SMYS of the pipe.
• Additive longitudinal stresses. The sum of the longitudinal stresses due to
pressure, weight, and other sustained external loadings (see 419.6.4(c)) shall
not exceed 75% of the allowable stress value specified for SA under “allowable
expansion stresses.”
• Additive circumferential stresses. The sum of the circumferential stresses
from both internal design pressure and external load in pipe installed without
casing under railroads and highways [see Code Section 434.13.4(c)] shall not
exceed the applicable allowable stress value S determined by Code Section
402.3.1(a), (b), (c), or (d).
Section 402.3.3 of Code B31.4 covers limits of calculated stresses due to occasional
loads in operation and test conditions.
Pi D
t = ---------
2S
or
2St
P i = --------
D
(Eq. 400-8)
where:
t = pressure design wall thickness, in.
Pi = internal design gage pressure, psi
D = nominal outside diameter, in.
S = allowable stress value, psi, (per Section 402.3.1(a) of Code
B31.4)
Per Section 404.1.1 of Code B31.4 the nominal wall thickness tn of straight
sections of steel line pipe shall be equal to or greater than the sum of the pressure
design wall thickness, and allowances for threading and grooving, corrosion, and
prudent protective measures:
tn ≥ t + A
(Eq. 400-9)
where A = sum of allowances for:
• Threading and grooving (per Section 402.4.2 of Code B31.4) (zero for welded
line)
• Corrosion (per Section 402.4.1 of Code B31.4) (zero if the line is protected
against internal and external corrosion per Chapter VIII of Code B31.4). For
stocks where corrosion (or slurry erosion) is expected, a corrosion allowance
must be provided, and consultation with the Materials and Engineering Anal-
ysis Division of the Engineering Technology Department is recommended
• Increase in wall thickness as a reasonable protective measure (under Section
402.1 of Code B31.4) to prevent damage from unusual external conditions at
river crossings, offshore and inland coastal water areas, bridges, areas of heavy
traffic, long self-supported spans, and unstable ground, or from vibration, the
weight of special attachments, or abnormal thermal conditions
The nominal wall thickness shall not be less than the minimum required by
prudence to resist damage and maintain roundness during handling and welding.
The appropriate minimum should be evaluated for the particular installation condi-
tions. As a rough guide, the following is suggested:
• 0.188 inch wall for sizes up to and including NPS 12
• 0.219 inch wall for NPS 14 through 24
• A maximum D/tn ratio of 120 for pipe over NPS 24
These represent minimums for reasonable cross-country laying conditions. Consid-
eration must also be given to buckling of double-jointed lengths of pipe and to
fatigue stresses if extensive cyclical loading is possible during transport from the
mill to the job site. The latter problem is discussed in API Recommended Practices
RP 5L1, Railroad Transportation of Line Pipe; RP 5L5, Marine Transportation of
Line Pipe; and RP 5L6, Transportation of Line Pipe on Inland Waterways.
443 Pipe Stress and Wall Thickness Calculations for Gas Transmission
Pipelines per ANSI/ASME Code B31.8
The organization and some aspects of the design procedure in Code B31.8 differ
from Code B31.4. See especially Code B31.8 Chapter IV, Design, Installation, and
Testing, Sections 840 and 841.
2St
P = -------- ⋅ F ⋅ E ⋅ T
D
PD
t = ------------------------------
2S ⋅ F ⋅ E ⋅ T
(Eq. 400-10)
where:
P = design pressure, psig
D = nominal outside diameter, in.
t = nominal wall thickness, in.
S = specified minimum yield strength (SMYS), psi, stipulated in the
Specifications to the manufacturer
Burial Cover
Sufficient cover to protect the pipeline should be provided both for existing condi-
tions and for any anticipated grading, cultivation, or developments that would
require a very costly lowering of the line in the future. Company practice in many
areas, especially for production field lines, is to increase cover over required mini-
mums, since the cost of a deeper ditch in normal excavation is small compared to
the added protection; five feet is recommended. Deeper burial is usually required
for heated lines to provide restraint, and water and slurry lines should be buried
below the ground frost depth.
In some areas, it is advisable to place a yellow warning tape about a foot above the
pipe to serve as a marker to anyone excavating across the right-of-way. Yellow
Terra-Tape is one such tape and can be purchased with a metallic strip for burial
over fiberglass pipe.
Minimum Cover for Liquid Lines. Section 434.6 of Code B31.4 requires the
cover over the top of a line to be appropriate for surface use of the land and for a
normal depth of cultivation, and sufficient to protect against loads imposed by road
and rail traffic. Code B31.4 Table 434.6(a) gives minimum requirements for cover.
See Figure 400-10.
Restrained Lines
It is important to examine the effect of temperature differentials in a heated line
restrained by burial or equivalent anchorage, and the resulting combination of
tensile (positive) hoop stresses and compressive (negative) longitudinal stresses.
Section 419 of Code B31.4 deals with expansion and flexibility; the following anal-
ysis will indicate whether detailed study is advisable. The Materials and Engi-
neering Analysis Division of the Engineering Technology Department can assist in
these calculations.
The net longitudinal compressive stress due to the combined effects of internal pres-
sure and temperature rise are computed using the following equation from Section
419.6.4(b) of Code B31.4:
S L = E α ∆T – ν S H
(Eq. 400-11)
where:
SL = longitudinal compressive stress, psi
SH = hoop stress due to fluid pressure, psi (=PD/2t)
∆T = T2 - T1
T1 = temperature at time of installation, °F
T2 = maximum operating temperature, °F
E = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (= 30 × 106 psi)
α = Linear coefficient of thermal expansion of steel, in./in./ °F (= 6.5
× 10-6/ °F)
ν = Poisson’s ratio for steel (= 0.3)
so:
SL = (30 × 106 × 6.5 × 10-6 × ∆T) - 0.3 SH
= 195 ∆T - 0.3 SH
If the temperature rise is great enough, the compressive stress caused by the
restraint on pipe growth will exceed the tensile stress due to internal pressure. If the
net longitudinal stress, SL, becomes compressive, then absolute values are used for
pipe stresses in accordance with the Tresca Maximum Shear Theory, as follows:
temperature and soil type, diagrams for a specific pipe—one for overbends and one
for sidebends—should be developed relating depth of cover to angle of bend, as
indicated in Figure 400-12. See Appendix F for the method used to develop these
diagrams.
Fig. 400-12 Depth of Burial vs. Angle of Bend (See Fig. 400-13 Transition from Underground to Above-
Appendix F) ground Pipe
Consider a pipeline in the transition zone without anchors (see Figure 400-13). The
transition of stress and strain between points A and B is assumed to be linear, with
the length L dependent on the longitudinal resistance of the soil (pipe-soil friction),
as follows:
At point A:
Net longitudinal stress SL = Eα ∆T - ν SH
= 200∆T - 0.3SH (compressive)
Longitudinal strain = 0
(Eq. 400-14)
At point B:
Longitudinal strain ε B
S L B νS H
= α∆T = ---------- – ----------
E E
SH
= Eα ∆T + ------- – 0.3S H ⁄ E
2
200∆T + 0.2S H
= -
--------------------------------------
E
(Eq. 400-15)
The length L over which the transition occurs depends on the longitudinal soil resis-
tance (pipe-soil friction) Fs, and can be determined by:
( S LB – S LA )
L = A pm ------------------------------- ft
Fs
SH
------- + 200∆T – 0.3S H
2
= A pm --------------------------------------------------------
FS
200∆T + 0.2S H
= A pm --------------------------------------
Fs
(Eq. 400-16)
where:
Apm = Area of pipe metal, in.2
It is recommended that a soils consultant or the Civil and Structural Division of the
Engineering Technology Department be consulted for appropriate values of soil
resistance Fs, since Fs is highly variable with type of soil. For rough approximations
of soil resistance in sand and clay, the following can be used.
• Sand
Fs = 2.25 D Hπ
(Eq. 400-17)
where:
Fs = soil resistance, lb/ft
D = outside diameter of pipe, in.
H = burial cover, ft
Sand density assumed to be 100 lb/ft3
π
F S = --- ⋅ αS u
2
• Clay
(Eq. 400-18)
where:
αSu = cohesion, lb/ft2
The value of αSu can range from 75 lb/ft2 in loose disturbed clay to 1500 lb/ft2 for
compacted stiff clay. A range of 200 to 300 lb/ft2 is suggested for general soils.
The total movement at point B will be the average strain from point A to point B
over the length L, or:
∆L = (εB/2) × L
If the expected expansion ∆L at point B has adverse effects on aboveground piping
or support arrangements that cannot be accommodated by providing flexibility, then
anchors must be designed to constrain the deflection. The force F acting on the
anchor simply becomes the stress difference across the anchor times the metal area
of the pipe, or:
F = Apm (SLA - SLB)
= Apm [(200 ∆T - 0.3 SH) + 0.5 SH]
= Apm (200∆T + 0.2 SH)
This force can be very great. The design of the anchor itself should be in accor-
dance with good practices of civil engineering including consultation with a
geotechnical consultant. Considerations should include soil friction and lateral
bearing pressure, transfer of loads from the pipe to the anchor, transfer of loads
from the anchor to the soil, and whether other loads from aboveground piping
should be superimposed. The Civil and Structural Division of the Engineering Tech-
nology Department may be consulted if problems are encountered.
Fault Movement
It is critically important to design pipeline for possible fault movement and the
accompanying ground ruptures which can occur along an extended length of the
fault. Fault movement is not necessarily confined to a single fault plane or zone, but
may occur at substantial distances from the main trace of the fault.
Pipeline alignment in fault zones should be such that the expected fault movement
will produce tensile stresses in pipe—not compressive stresses, which are likely to
promote buckling failure. Pipelines should be laid in relatively straight sections in
areas of potential faulting and ground rupture, crossing the fault at an angle of
between 60 and 80 degrees, without sharp changes in direction and elevation that
could act as anchors. Depth of cover over the pipe should be minimized to reduce
soil restraint during fault movement, and backfill should be loose to medium gran-
ular soil without cobbles or boulders. If native soil differs substantially from this,
oversize trenches should be excavated for a distance of about 200 feet on each side
of and through the fault zone. Use of heavier wall pipe in the fault zone will
increase the pipe’s tolerance for fault displacement at a given level of maximum
tensile strain, as will a hard, smooth coating such as fusion-bonded epoxy. It is
suggested that heavy wall pipe and epoxy coating, with controlled backfill and
cover, be used for a distance of 1000 feet on each side of and through the fault zone.
Landslides
Landslides are mass movements of the ground and can be triggered by seismic
shaking. Slopes showing signs of recent movement and instability may be seismic
risk areas, depending on the nature of ground movement. If slope instability
involves deep translations and rotational displacement, the potential ground move-
ments in the vicinity of the pipeline may be very large, and, in light of the substan-
tial costs required to stabilize such slopes, relocation of the pipeline must be
considered. If, on the other hand, instability involves slumps and shallow slides,
slope stabilization may be an effective means of correcting the difficulties and
promoting long-term performance. When crossing a zone of potential instability, it
is generally better to locate the line along a contour of constant elevation at a rela-
tively shallow burial depth. This minimizes grading slope disturbance, and lessens
the chance of compressive strains imposed by slope movement at oblique angles to
the pipeline.
Liquefaction
Liquefaction is the transformation of a saturated cohesionless soil, such as loose to
medium-dense sands and nonplastic silts, from a solid to a liquid state as a result of
increased pore pressure and loss of shear strength. Liquefaction can lead to lateral
ground spreading, loss of bearing, and uplift of buried objects due to buoyancy.
Areas that are particularly vulnerable to liquefaction include loose fills near water-
fronts, toe areas of alluvial fans and deltas, active flood plains, river channels, and
saturated colluvial deposits. The combined consequences of lateral spreading of the
ground and buoyancy is a severe condition for a buried line, and it is difficult to
pinpoint zones of potential spreading within a region susceptible to liquefaction.
Under these conditions, it seems prudent to evaluate pipeline performance for the
entire region in terms of its response to lateral spreading. Pipelines that can accom-
modate moderate amounts of lateral spreading should be able to sustain deforma-
tions from buoyant forces. A suggested design solution is to design the line to be
buoyant under earthquake condition, with shallow burial so that its upward move-
ment is limited. In areas where landslides or liquefaction may occur, it may be
prudent to locate line block valves or check valves, as appropriate, on either side of
the seismic hazard zone.
and would resume operation after careful inspection of facilities, and appropriate
repair measures or pipe replacement as might be needed.
The ASCE Guidelines point out that in the dual design earthquake concept the
lower level PDE should be considered the earthquake for which design criteria in
regulations and codes are intended; current codes are for earthquakes that have
return periods of the same order as other extreme environmental conditions asso-
ciated with wind, rain, snow, etc. The higher level (and less likely) CDE, however,
is associated with a design level that goes beyond the intent of codes. Under these
conditions code stress criteria should be relaxed somewhat and strain criteria should
be introduced. The strain criteria used generally allow the pipeline to take advan-
tage of available ductility without rupture.
Fig. 400-14 Recommended Allowable Strain Criteria for Above Ground and Underground Oil
and Gas Pipelines and Piping
Strain Component Allowable Strain
Internal pressure, live and dead loads, plus Tension: 2% to 5%. Only applicable to
local, nonvibratory induced loads such as straight sections of pipe. In regions and
faulting, slope instability, and liquefaction. field bends, more restrictive criteria should
be used.
Compression: Onset of wrinkling.
Internal pressure, live and dead loads, plus 50% to 100% of the onset of wrinkling.
shaking effects due to the CDE
447 Crossings
Nearly all pipelines involve water crossings, highway and railroad crossings, and
crossings of other pipelines. Permits are always required from regulatory agencies
and owners of existing facilities, and requirements set forth in the permits must be
met.
General guidelines for design are included in the following Codes:
• ANSI/ASME Code B31.4 for liquid lines
– Section 434.6, Ditching
– Section 434.13, Special Crossings
• ANSI/ASME Code B31.8 for gas transmission lines
– Section 841.13, Protection of Pipelines and Mains From Hazards
– Section 841.143, Clearance Between Pipelines or Mains and Other Under-
ground Structures
– Section 841.144, Casing Requirements Under Railroads, Highway, Roads
or Streets
– Section 862.117, Casings
Ws + ρwA – Wp
W c = ----------------------------------------
ρw
1 – -------
ρc
(Eq. 400-19)
For which the outside diameter, Dc, of the weight-coated pipe will be
Ws + ρc A – W p
D c = 13.5 --------------------------------------
ρc – ρw
Wc
= 13.5 -------- + A
ρc
Dc – D
t c = -----------------
2
(Eq. 400-20)
where:
A = cross-sectional area of corrosion-coated pipe of outside diameter
D (without weight-coating), ft2
= 0.00545 D2
Ws = submerged weight of pipe and coating, lb/ft
Wc = weight of concrete in air, lb/ft
Wp = weight of pipe in air, lb/ft
D = diameter, ft
tc = concrete thickness, ft
ρc = density of weight-coating, lb/ft3 (approx. 140 for normal concrete
weight-coating)
ρw = density of water or cohesionless backfill, lb/ft3
To calculate the submerged weight for pipe that is already weight-coated:
Wc
W S = ( W p + W c ) – ρ w -------- + A
ρc
(Eq. 400-21)
crossing during the service life of the pipeline. A high-quality coating is used on
the crossing section consisting of fusion bonded epoxy, often with an outer coating
of smooth concrete. Where traffic cannot be diverted to allow open trenching, the
line pipe is installed by the same boring and jacking method used for casing installa-
tion.
External loading due to traffic over the line must be carefully assessed and, if neces-
sary, depth of burial, pipe wall thickness or both increased. Sections 402.3.2(e) and
434.13.4(c) of Code B31.4 for oil lines requires that the sum of circumferential
stresses due to internal design pressure and external load shall not exceed the appli-
cable allowable stress value S determined by Code B31.4 Section 402.3.1. Metal
fatigue by cyclical loading at crossings subject to high-density heavy traffic must
also be considered. Code B31.8 for gas transmission lines approaches design for
uncased crossings by adjusting to the construction type design factor F in accor-
dance with Code B31.8 Table 841.15A.
Cased Crossings. Pipeline crossings of highways and railroads have traditionally
been made by installing a casing pipe, at least two sizes larger than the line pipe, by
boring and jacking. Short sections of casing pipe are sequentially welded to the
casing during the jacking process; usually the casing pipe is not coated. The line
pipe can then be pushed through the casing, supported on electrically non-conduc-
tive spacer supports. The annular openings at both ends of the casing are sealed
with end caps of electrically non-conductive material. Electrically insulating the
line pipe from the casing pipe is critical in order to properly maintain the line under
cathodic protection. See Section 364 for descriptions of casing insulators and seals.
Company preference is for uncased crossings wherever feasible and acceptable to
the authority because, over time, differential settlement between the casing and line
pipe has been known to damage the nonconductive spacers, end seals and pipe
coating. This results in failure of cathodic protection on the line, and requires very
costly maintenance to repair or replace the crossing. Government regulations
require correction of shorted casings, with fines assessed if corrections are not
made in a timely fashion.
Pressure Surges
The pressure surges that result from rapid shutoff of liquid flow in a pipe are
normally not severe for pipelines. Section 800 of the Fluid Flow Manual gives a
simplified method for calculating pressure surges. Section 402.2.4 of Code B31.4,
Ratings—Allowance for Variations from Normal Operations, requires that surge
calculations be made, along with adequate provision to ensure that the level of pres-
sure rise does not exceed the allowable design pressure at any point in the system
by more than 10%. Section 454 of this manual discusses line pressure control and
relief.
speed. See Section 313 for a more detailed discussion and the toughness required
by ANSI and recommended by Chevron.
When crack arrestors are indicated by semi-empirical calculations or experimental
testing, mechanical sleeve collars, joints of heavier wall pipe, or both can be placed,
as necessary or as prudent, at intervals and at critical locations such as river and
highway crossings and line valves. Both were used on the Chevron-managed 16-
inch CO2 pipeline constructed in 1985 from Rock Springs, Wyoming, to Rangely,
Colorado. See Figure 400-15 for the crack arrestor installation guidelines for that
project.
Line valves should be located near roads or other easily accessed locations so they
can be quickly reached for emergency operation and are conveniently accessible for
maintenance. The valve manifold assemblies should preferably be above grade
within a fenced enclosure. This provides good maintenance access, and any leakage
at flanges or connections is readily visible. Where this is not practical for larger
sizes or not allowed by permitting restrictions, the valves must be installed in below-
grade boxes or vaults.
Below-grade installation poses the problems of ground water and run-off water
drainage, as well as the possibility of an explosive condition developing in a
confined space. Alternatively, the main line valves and branch piping can be coated
and buried, with the pump-around valves, pressure gage connections, and main line
valve handwheels or operators above grade within a fenced enclosure. This arrange-
ment is suitable for ball valves, but less satisfactory for gate valves. Risk of
vandalism may be a consideration for any aboveground facility.
Fig. 400-16 Mainline Block Valve Manifold with Fig. 400-17 Mainline Block Valve Manifold with
Pumparound Valves Blowdown Connections
Scraper traps are installed at the initial pump station, most intermediate pump
stations, and at the terminal. If spacing between the intermediate pump stations
eventually installed is considerably closer than needed for scraper runs, it is
possible to arrange valving and pump operation so that scrapers will run through
the mainline valves at the station without an incoming trap on the suction side of
the station and an outgoing trap on the discharge side of the station.
Cross-country pipelines should have permanent facilities to run scrapers, even
though expected operating conditions may never or only very infrequently require
scraper runs. Where permanent scraper traps are not installed, or if pipeline
construction sequence dictates initial scraper runs in sections where designs do not
provide for a scraper trap, temporary removable scraper traps can be used, usually
designed and provided by the construction contractor.
Scraper Type. The type of scrapers to be run, both for operation and maintenance
inspection, influences manifold design. There are four basic types of scrapers, all
moved along the line by the fluid flow:
• A series of disc cups, usually with sealing lips on the circumference, mounted
on a central shaft, often with wire brushes or blade scrapers for cleaning
• A cylindrical plastic plug (usually polyurethane) with a variety of surfaces
from plain foam to hard plastic with grit or wire embedded
• A sphere, inflated to slightly larger diameter than the line ID
• Inspection pigs, propelled by disc cups and containing electronic equipment to
measure and record pipe wall thickness
The length of the scraper trap barrel should easily accommodate the length of
scraper to be run. Usually the barrel length will be determined by the length of an
inspection pig. If several scrapers are to be run in a spaced series, the barrel of the
incoming scraper trap must accommodate at least two. Also, there must be clear-
ance at the end of the barrel to handle a scraper for insertion or removal.
The length and mechanical configuration of scrapers and inspection pigs also will
determine the minimum radius of bends in the main line, whether at scraper trap
manifolds or anywhere else in the main line. If spheres are ever to be used, branch
tee connections should not be larger than about 60% of the mainline diameter or
there is a risk that flow will pass around the sphere, and the sphere will not move
past the branch. For large lines where scrapers cannot be readily lifted by one or
two men, davits or trolleys should be provided.
Material Scraped From Pipe Walls. Waxy sludge that accumulates ahead of
scrapers in lines carrying waxy crude oils is of particular concern: the barrel
volume must be sufficient to contain a sludge plug as well as the scraper. Often the
volume of the sludge plug can be reduced using a bypass pig, which allows some
flow through the scraper to dilute the wax accumulation, or wax chopper grates on
the outlet connection from an incoming barrel to break up the sludge flowing to
booster pump suction or on down the line.
Pigging on gas transmission lines is usually done to remove dust, dirt, and small
amounts of liquid. In remote locations, the dirty gas ahead of the scraper can often
be discharged to the atmosphere, but at other locations dust collecting facilities
must be provided for pollution control.
Stock Drained From the Scraper Trap Barrel. The scraper trap barrels on liquid
lines must be drained before opening the barrel to insert or remove scrapers. Most
of the liquid can usually be drained to a station sump, with the sump pump
discharging to the incoming line, station tankage, or to a tank truck. At remote
scraper traps where there are no other facilities a permanent or portable pump can
be used to transfer oil from the scraper trap barrel to the main line or to a tank
truck. Some liquid will still drain when the barrel is opened and from the scraper
when it is removed. To contain this drainage, a slab with containment curb and
drain should be provided, with a grating above the slab as a walking surface.
Scraper Trap Foundations. Scraper traps generally only require sufficient support
to hold the barrel and fluid weight. However some pipelines may require special
foundations to account for:
• Expansion of hot lines
• Uplift forces generated by impact of liquid slugs in gas lines
Scraper Detectors
Scraper trap manifolds usually include a mechanical device to indicate passage of a
scraper. The indication may be visual at the device, or electrically transmitted to a
local panel or remote location. On outgoing traps the device is normally installed
downstream of the trap block valve and normal-flow tee. On incoming traps the
device is normally installed in a short section of line-size pipe downstream of the
trap block valve. Sometimes a second device is located a distance upstream to give
an advance signal of an incoming scraper.
Code References
Section 434.17 of Code B31.4 gives general guidelines for scraper traps; Code
B31.8 has no specific reference to scraper traps. For gas lines in cold climates
aboveground piping will likely require special materials. Special attention must be
given to sour lines since it may be necessary to provide a nitrogen purge before
opening the scraper trap panel.
• Duration of batteries and maximum memory data storage capability (to deter-
mine length of line that can be inspected in one run for a given flow rate)
• Installing permanent position markers for locating the position of the pig along
the line
The types of valves (check, gate, ball, etc.) and the minimum bore of the valves that
the inspection pig will have to pass through.
Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) and Ultrasonic (US) inspection tools are used to
detect wall metal loss. Presently, MFL tools are more widely used due to the limita-
tions of Ultrasonic inspection tools. Since Ultrasonic tools require a liquid
couplant, these tools cannot be used to detect corrosion damage in gas or mixed
phase pipelines unless the tool is run inside a liquid or gel slug. In addition, Ultra-
sonic tools require much cleaner pipe surfaces than MFL tools. Ultrasonic tools
may not detect serious corrosion pitting due to minimum wall thickness require-
ments. Ultrasonic tools are capable of providing direct quantitative measurement of
the pipe wall. As Ultrasonic technology improves it will become more competitive
with MFL technology, but it will never completely replace MFL technology due to
its limitations.
There are two types of MFL inspection pigs: conventional and advanced. Conven-
tional (these are also called first generation or low resolution MFL inspection pigs)
MFL pigs provide qualitative information which is sufficient for many applications.
Advanced (these are also called second generation or high resolution MFL inspec-
tion pigs) MFL pigs provide quantitative information after some data processing.
The most widely used conventional MFL pigs are: Linalog of Tuboscope Pipeline
Services in Houston, Texas, USA, Vetcolog of Vetco Pipeline Services in Houston,
Texas, USA, and Magnescan of Pipetronix in Toronto, Canada. The most widely
used advanced MFL pig is the British Gas On-Line tool of the British Gas On-Line
Inspection Center in Newcastle, UK. Other advanced MFL pigs are under develop-
ment and should be on the market soon.
The number of sensors vary with each advanced MFL pig. One vendor claims to
have a high resolution MFL pig, but his tool has only a few more sensors than a
conventional Linalog pig. The greater the number of sensors, the higher the resolu-
tion of the MFL tool. Inspection cost increases as resolution increases, therefore use
high resolution tools only when it can be economically justified.
The most widely used ultrasonic metal loss smart pigs are the Ultrascan by
Pipetronix of Karlsruhe, Germany, NKK in Tokyo, Japan, and Flawsonic by TDW
in Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA.
The following should be considered when planning an inspection run and choosing
a pipeline inspection contractor:
• Pipeline Medium (gas, liquid, or mixed phase) and the effects on the inspection
pig
• The flow rate range required for satisfactory inspection
of more than 10% of the internal design pressure at any point in the piping system
and equipment.
Section 845 of Code B31.8 for gas transmission lines covers Control and Limiting
of Gas Pressure. Section 845.212 describes types of protective devices, and Section
845.3 covers design requirements for pressure relief and pressure limiting installa-
tions. Section 845.411 requires pressure relief facilities to have the capacity and be
set to prevent line pressure from exceeding the MAOP plus 10%, or the pressure
which produces a hoop stress of 75% of SMYS, whichever is lower.
Referring to the hydraulic profile for a liquid pipeline system, the hydraulic
gradient at no-flow, with pumps still operating, becomes a horizontal line as indi-
cated in Figure 400-19. Prudent pipe design usually provides sufficient wall thick-
ness so that allowable pipe stress is not exceeded by closing a block valve against
operating pumps or compressors. However, there are situations where, because of a
large ground elevation differential, it is economic to provide pipe wall thickness
adequate for normal operating line pressures rather than substantially greater wall
thickness needed for shutoff conditions. Line relief must then be provided,
discharging into tankage specifically assigned to relief at the terminal or at relief
stations.
The hydraulic profile for a line relief situation is indicated in Figure 400-19. In this
example, the line pipe is of the same grade and wall thickness for the entire length,
and, with no-flow shut-off at the terminal, the pipe at the lower elevations upstream
of the terminal would be overpressured. The hydraulic gradient that keeps line pres-
sures below the maximum allowable pressure establishes the maximum relief set-
pressure and the minimum relief flow that the relief system must handle. To be
conservative, the relief facility should be designed for somewhat lower set pressure
and greater flow than indicated in Figure 400-19.
For pressure control equipment, see the Instrumentation and Control Manual, or
consult with the Instrumentation and Control Group of the Engineering Technology
Department. For line relief, if needed to prevent overpressuring of liquid pipelines
under shutoff conditions or to limit surge pressure rises, the Grove Flexflow valve
system, manufactured by Grove Valve and Regulator Company of Oakland, Cali-
fornia, or similar equipment, is recommended. This type of valve is designed for
pipeline application, for which conventional safety valves are not normally suitable.
Design of the slug catcher must both effect vapor-liquid disengagement and provide
sufficient volume to contain the slug. Hence, one must make a realistic determina-
tion of the largest possible slug relative to the capacity of the liquid outlet line, and
then be generous in sizing the slug catcher. Where slugs are expected with scraper
runs, the frequency of scraper runs will be a factor in establishing the slug volume.
The pressure rating of the slug catcher should be the same as the pipeline upstream
of the slug catcher. Often, the harp is more economic than a heavy-wall large
vessel. The incoming pipeline is manifolded into the harp’s parallel lengths of pipe,
which are slightly inclined so as to drain toward the vapor and liquid outlets on
each pipe. These outlets are manifolded to vapor and liquid headers. This arrange-
ment allows for future increase in capacity by adding more parallel lengths of pipe.
461 General
External corrosion of pipelines is controlled by application of a pipe coating and
nearly always by a cathodic protection (CP) system requiring design and installa-
tion of facilities along the line. Cathodic protection is required by regulations for
pipelines under governmental jurisdiction.
Control of internal corrosion, if anticipated to be a problem, is handled either by
internally lining the pipe, or by injecting a corrosion inhibitor into the fluid. In
either case, no facilities along the pipeline are required. The following sections
briefly describe cathodic protection facilities for pipelines so that they can be incor-
porated in overall system design.
There are two types of cathodic protection systems: impressed current and galvanic
anode. Generally, for long cross-country pipelines, the impressed current system is
the economic choice. However, an economic analysis should be made to determine
the proper choice.
Data on soil resistivity is important for the design of a cathodic protection system.
A field survey along the route early in the project design phase is usually
warranted, and should be made in conjunction with the geotechnical survey. For
design principles and details refer to the Corrosion Prevention Manual, and to the
Materials and Engineering Analysis Division of the Engineering Technology
Department. In many cases it is advisable to engage a technical contractor special-
izing in cathodic protection.
470 References
1. Guidelines for the Seismic Design of Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems. Committee
on Gas and Liquid Fuel Lifelines. ASCE Technical Council on Lifeline Earth-
quake Engineering. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1984.
2. Kennedy, R.R. et al. Seismic Design of Oil Pipeline Systems, Journal of the
Technical Councils of ACSE, Vol. 105, No. TC-1. New York: American
Society of Civil Engineers, April, 1979.
3. J.N.H. Tiratsoo. Pipeline Pigging Technology. Houston: Gulf Publishing
Company, 1987.
Abstract
This section discusses Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Systems
(SCADA) and provides checklists of options to be considered when installing or
upgrading SCADA systems.
Contents Page
510 Overview
"Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition" (SCADA) systems are real-time
computer systems used to monitor and control equipment or facilities located over
long distances. Real-time means that the information retrieved and presented for
monitoring and control is 5-60 seconds old. Devices that are controlled may be in
unmanned, isolated locations, hundreds of miles away from the operator or user of
the SCADA system.
While SCADA systems impact the measurement, dispatching, scheduling, and
accounting of our pipeline systems, this section does not specifically cover these
four areas. This section provides information for project, operations, and mainte-
nance personnel covering master station hardware and software, communications,
and field equipment.
For pipeline operations, a SCADA system enables one operator from one central
location to safely and efficiently move commodities through miles of pipelines.
SCADA systems are not unique to pipeline systems, but are also used for electric
power and water distribution systems. The SCADA system will assist maintenance
people in tracking, locating, and resolving problems in the pipeline systems. The
Company has operational SCADA systems in place for pipelines that transport
crude oil, petroleum products, CO2, natural gas, LPG, and phosphate slurry.
Figure 500-1 is an example of a simple pipeline system transporting crude oil from
a production platform to two terminals. Figure 500-2 illustrates how a SCADA
system could be incorporated to enable monitoring and control capabilities from a
central master station location. In this example, operators at the master station (24
hours a day, 7 days a week) monitor the various temperatures, pressures, flow rates,
tank levels, valve status, and pump status on the pipeline. The operators may also
start and stop pumps and open and close valves to safely transport the crude oil
from the platform to the two terminals.
At the other end of the communications link at the operating facility is either an
RTU or a PLC that monitors or controls equipment via field instrumentation.
Figure 500-3 shows examples of typical data monitored by SCADA systems and
typical supervisory control functions.
540 Hardware
543 Protocol
The master station and RTU’s or PLC’s communicate via some "protocol," which is
a predefined format for the hardware and software to communicate. Generally, each
SCADA system, RTU, and PLC has a standard protocol peculiar to that vendor. But
more often SCADA systems, RTU’s and PLC’s are adapted via programming to be
able to communicate in a standardized protocol for a particular SCADA system.
Each instrument has its own characteristics that must be selected to match the
expected operating situation and the RTU or PLC requirements.
Additional information is available from the following sources:
• Electrical Manual
• Instrumentation and Control Manual
• API Recommended Practice 2350, Overfill Protection for Petroleum Storage
Tanks
After identification of voice and data requirements for SCADA systems, CTD can
determine the appropriate type of equipment to use: microwave, radio, phone lines,
fiber optics, cable, or satellite.
The review of requirements for data circuits for SCADA systems should consider
the following items:
• Number of points and RTU’s/PLC’s
• System update times or scan rates
• BAUD rates (transmission rates)
• Channel loading levels
• Expansion requirements
• Reliability or percent availability
• Redundancy
Sizing
Consider existing, known future requirements and spare space when sizing SCADA
systems. Parameters include the following:
• Number of RTU’s and PLC’s
• Number of telemetered points by type (analog, digital, accumulator)
• Number of calculated points by type
• Number of tabular and graphic displays
• Number of communication channels
• Number of CRTs and keyboards
• Number of loggers
• Trending data (duration and frequency of collection, number of points)
• Number of calculations
• Number of consoles
• Number of pipelines
• Number of sections per pipeline
• Number of receipts per pipeline
• Number of deliveries per pipeline
Initially SCADA systems should have 50-100% spare CPU memory and disk space.
The number of communication channels, consoles, and loggers should be expand-
able. In general, one should know what the limits are of each parameter and what is
required to expand each parameter.
Performance
Performance testing should take place at the Factory Acceptance Test (FAT) before
shipment from the vendor facilities and during Field Acceptance Test (Field AT)
onsite before the system is operational. The Field AT is usually a subset of the tests
executed during the FAT. An Availability Test is also executed onsite starting when
the SCADA system is operational (see below). Performance testing may be
executed on the operational system as required to collect data. The term Site Accep-
tance Test (SAT) is used to refer to onsite testing of SCADA systems. Sometimes
this includes both the Field AT and Availability Test—sometimes SAT only refer-
ences the Availability Test.
Performance should be executed under conditions similar to the ultimate load the
system is expected to handle. Spare memory and disk space for expansion should
be unallocated during testing. RTU simulators and modified scan rates may be used
to simulate loading conditions. Editors and trending should be active. Several
samples of measurements should be taken during performance testing to accumu-
late minimum, maximum, and average values. Testing should be performed with
backup devices offline to ensure that performance is not impacted.
Typical performance-time measurements include the following:
• Display response
• Alarm acknowledge
• Control commands completion
• Change of state or analog limit violation detection
• Screen lock while hardcopying
• Dispatcher data entry response
• Failover
Other measurements to consider with respect to the computer system are:
• CPU free time (should average 50% or more)
• System input/output (I/O) measurements (For example, if maximum disk
accesses that a system should see are 30 accesses per second, then the perfor-
mance target should be 15 accesses per second.)
• Channel loading and system update times
572 Availability
Availability is the percentage time that the SCADA system hardware and software
is fully operational.
Availability % = 100 (1 - (scheduled + unscheduled downtime)/total time)
The target for the availability of a SCADA system should be 99.91%, which is less
than 1-1/2 minutes of downtime per day.
Another factor in availability is the number of unscheduled restarts. These may be
caused by both hardware and software failures, and in general, the target should be
no restarts. However, reasonableness will tell us that one unscheduled restart per
day is too many and one per month may be tolerable.
Master station hardware is configured with no single point of failure in mind. We
can lose one CPU and still be 100% operational.
An Availability Test is executed once a system is operational and lasts for 30 to 60
days during which time all scheduled and unscheduled downtime (and restarts) are
recorded. The agreed test procedures must address how software failures will be
handled and how failures of individual backup devices will be handled.
573 Communications
All SCADA systems should have a display or report that tracks RTU/PLC commu-
nications error statistics. Our target for communications availability should be
99.5%. However, this percent is usually a percent of successful scans of RTU’s
versus total scans attempted—not a percent of time that communications are avail-
able.
The communications error statistics report should have the following features:
• Errors in absolute values and percent
• Manual resettable period as well as hourly, daily, and monthly statistics
• RTU/PLC errors distinguishable from communication errors
• Errors reportable on an RTU, PLC, port, communication type, and vendor basis
580 Projects
In addition to the following items, API Publication No. 1113, "Pipeline Supervisory
Control Center Checklist", provides a list of items to consider when developing or
modifying a pipeline control center.
• Testing
– Requirements for a FAT, Field AT, and SAT clearly scoped and performed;
test plans written by the SCADA vendor or ETD, but approved by the
responsible engineer before testing begins.
– Optional baseline testing before FAT, a useful progress milestone
• Installation and Commissioning
– Coordination and planning required between RTU/PLC field personnel,
dispatching, communications, hardware, and software personnel
– Point-to-point RTU/PLC commissioning needed to verify the data base
and displays
• Documentation
– Should be clearly scoped in functional specification
– Should be part of acceptance criteria on final milestone
• Training
– Usually an operations responsibility with project personnel bringing one
Operations Representative up to speed on the system, who then trains the
Dispatchers
– For the first few days that a SCADA system operational, project or opera-
tions personnel thoroughly knowledgeable in the operation of the SCADA
system hardware and software should physically sit with the dispatchers
24 hours a day to answer questions as they arise; this in addition to more
structured training.
• Vendors
– ETD is currently providing a MODSCAN SCADA system running on
DEC’s PDP family of 16-bit CPU’s.
– ETD has a project in progress to migrate MODSCAN’s functionality to
the 32-bit VAX environment—known as the UNICORN system
– Other vendors to consider for pipeline SCADA projects: Control Applica-
tions, Modular Data Systems, Valmet (Sentrol), and Texas Instruments
(Rexnord/Tano).
• Selection Criteria
– Field-proven hardware and software
– Maintainability
– Availability of hardware and software support personnel
– Cost
– Expandability
– Meeting functional requirements
– Off-the-shelf, standard hardware and software versus custom
– Reliability
583 Communications
Communications projects are handled by CTD. We identify our requirements as
discussed in Section 560, and CTD prepares the A/R and handles the project.
591 Maintenance
Inventory requirements for hardware spares will be subject to your maintenance
philosophy: repair to board level or repair to component level or use hardware main-
tenance contract or operating personnel.
Whole unit spares may sometimes be assembled and used for hardware board
testing, software development, and/or operator training. Hardware maintenance
activities should be logged for tracking recurring problems with specific compo-
nents and for tracking general requirement for maintenance.
Two levels of SCADA software maintenance are required. The first level includes
making data base changes, making display changes, editing system parameters,
tuning leak detection limits, restarting the SCADA system, supporting the checkout
of RTU’s and PLC’s, and making backups of the software. The first level support
should be readily available on a daily basis.
The second level of software support is to understand the SCADA software design
to be able to make programming changes and correct software problems. The
second level of software support should be onsite through SAT and continue onsite
as required until the software is stable enough not to require a daily presence.
SCADA software support (levels one and two) may be provided by Operations
personnel, ETD, or by a contractor.
The following items should be logged and documented from a maintenance view-
point:
• Software problems
• Software changes
• Log of changes made to the online system
• Technical notes for the programmer/engineer who is responsible for level one
and level two software maintenance support
• Master station block diagrams
• Communications configurations
Abstract
This section discusses the methods and practices of pipeline construction on land. It
presents brief descriptions of pipelining activities from grading to cleanup. Within
these descriptions are recommendations, tips, and hints on ways to obtain a better
product. It covers safety and general installation considerations, welding practices,
treatment of coatings, crossings and appurtences, and guidelines on contract admin-
istration and construction planning and organization activities.
Contents Page
The Code of Federal Regulations Title 49, Parts 192 and 195, and ANSI/ASME
Codes B31.4 and B31.8 contain sections pertaining to pipeline construction
methods. State regulations may have further requirements. Many sections of these
codes give general guidelines with few specific requirements. The Company
construction specification should incorporate all relevant regulation and code
requirements as well as Company specifications for the particular pipeline project.
If field changes are made that deviate from or supplement provisions in the
construction specification, Company field personnel should refer to federal and
state regulations and the ANSI/ASME codes to ensure compliance.
Note Note on Terminology
The pipeline right-of-way on a property has a specified width within which the
Company has the right to construct and maintain one (or possibly more) pipelines
with appurtenances. Payments are made to landowners for this right, and to land-
owners or tenants for all damages resulting from construction or maintenance both
within and outside the defined width of a right-of-way.
Construction forces commonly use the term right-of-way to describe the full
construction working strip needed for construction of the line, very often a greater
width than the actual right-of-way. The contractor should not encroach on lands
outside the agreed working area.
A pipe joint is a separate length of pipe, usually about 40 feet or 60 feet long, as
shipped from the mill, A double-joint is made by welding two joints together at a
field double-jointing yard before the pipe is strung along the pipeline route. A field
joint is a field-applied corrosion coating over the uncoated (cut-back) ends of plant-
coated pipe at the weld joining two pipe joints.
610 Safety
Construction contracts, practices, and procedures must incorporate safety require-
ments to protect:
• Company and contractor personnel and equipment
• Pipeline facilities under construction
• Facilities of the Company and others lying within and adjacent to the pipeline
right-of-way and construction working area
• Landowners, tenants and property, livestock, and crops on lands the pipeline
crosses
• The public, their property and lands
Specific construction operations and hazards that are likely to need particular atten-
tion are:
• Excavation sloping and shoring
• Blasting
• Radiation sources (welding and radiography)
• Grass and brush fires
• Work over water
• Crossing roads, pipelines, cables, overhead power, and telephone lines
• Parallel existing pipelines
• Testing and dewatering
Company and contractor operations must comply with federal, state and local regu-
lations. Construction and service contractor compliance with these regulations is
required by contract terms and conditions. It is a responsibility of the Company
field organization to monitor and ensure the contractor’s compliance, but it is impor-
tant that the proper contractual relationship be maintained in giving directives and
instructions to contractors.
Regulations and standards of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) apply to construction activities. If pipelines cross lands subject to the
Mining Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) pipeline construction work
must comply with its regulations even though not a mining activity.
Pipeline construction work is generally classified as a peculiar risk under the law.
Industrial injuries can be severe and can expose the Company to significant
liability. Recent court decisions (Jimenez, 1986) have held that an owner may be
liable if a contractor’s employee is injured and the owner makes no effort to warn of
the risk involved.
Before construction activities begin the Company field construction organization
should develop and subsequently maintain:
Land owners along the right-of-way must be contacted well ahead of construction
by a construction representative or right-of-way agent, or both. This contact serves
to keep the land owners informed of construction progress and to review special
construction conditions that may or may not show in the right-of-way agreements.
Obstacles such as buried lines, culverts, irrigation ditches, siphons and orchards
should be discussed with the landowners, locations established precisely, and
construction procedures discussed in order to minimize inconvenience. Agreements
with property owners regarding reasonable special conditions during construction
must be documented, distributed and updated for use by contractor and Company
field personnel to ensure that the owners’ special requirements are followed.
The Company construction representative should make preliminary contacts with
the various owners and authorities for existing facilities crossed by the line to estab-
lish procedures for notification and inspection of the crossed facility during
construction.
Trench Excavation
Trench excavation ("ditching") includes all work to construct the trench for the
pipe. The most favorable ditching conditions are level terrain and rock-free dirt,
where one or more wheel trenching machines can move down the graded working
strip, excavating a neat, vertical-sided trench and giving a uniform spoil bank. In
rough terrain or in areas having boulders and cobbles in the soil, excavation is done
by backhoes. At wet locations such as creekbeds, backhoes, draglines, or clam-
shells do the excavating.
In rocky terrain heavy-duty rippers mounted on bulldozers are often adequate to
loosen the rock for subsequent excavation by backhoes. When the rock cannot be
handled by rippers, wagon drills or drills suspended from sideboom tractors are
used to bore holes in the rock along the ditchline. The rock is then blasted, with the
broken rock removed from the ditch by backhoes. Blasting should be done before
the pipe is strung since flying rock will damage the pipe. If it becomes necessary to
shoot rock in cultivated areas or in the vicinity of pipe or surface structures, the
blast should be thoroughly matted to contain all fragments. Six-by-six timbers
lashed side by side with wire rope typically provide an adequate mat. Also, it may
be necessary to reduce the powder charge in order to blast safely. (Blasting must be
conducted by certified individuals.) Blasting alongside an existing buried pipeline
must be handled very cautiously to avoid damage. Normally delay-type blasting
caps should be used to stagger the individual detonations in any one charge, thereby
reducing the peak shock transmitted to the adjacent structure. The safe charge to
use is a function of the formation (granite, shale, lava, caliche), the depth of the
drill hole, and the proximity to existing structures; it must be determined locally by
experienced powder men. Test holes may be dug alongside an existing line in the
vicinity of blasting to determine if the pipe moves as a result of the shock.
Because a pipeline cannot follow the bottom of the ditch precisely, a little extra
depth should be allowed to ensure obtaining required cover. This extra depth can be
obtained at almost no extra expense during the initial ditching operation, but
reditching or, worse, lowering the line after it has been welded and lowered-in is a
very expensive and unsatisfactory alternative. The Company construction represen-
tative should make it clear to the contractor that such rework is at his cost.
Company personnel should avoid passing judgment on the depth of ditch, as this
may be interpreted by the contractor as relieving him of his responsibility to obtain
the required cover and may lead to poor workmanship or additional cost to the
Company. (Company’s acceptance or rejection of depth of cover should be made as
the pipe is laid, before backfilling.)
At washes and gullies the trench must be cut well below the bottom of these depres-
sions, with gradual approaches on either side to avoid vertical bends in the pipe.
Frequently, loose soil will be bulldozed into a sharp wash during grading. "False
ditch" or ditch constructed in loose soil overlaying the natural bottom will be
eroded with the first rain and leave the pipe exposed or inadequately covered. The
depth of ditch must be measured from the original ground elevation.
Many right-of-way and permit agreements for cultivated or grazing land require
topsoil to be removed, preserved, and replaced on top of the backfill. Normally, this
requires ditching twice, removing the topsoil first and throwing it out farthest from
the ditch. The remainder of the ditch can be completed with the spoil bank adjacent
to the ditch. This will permit the backfilling operation to replace the spoil in the
proper sequence.
Padding
Where rock and rocky soils could damage the pipe coating during laying and
covering of the line, suitable bedding and backfill material must be provided. As
the first step in achieving rock-free material around the pipe, normally a minimum
of 6 inches of dirt or sand is brought in from another source and placed in the ditch
Fig. 600-1 Angle of Repose for Sloping of Excavations Fig. 600-2 Excavation Benching for Compact Soil
bottom. Preferably, this padding material is preferably spread uniformly along the
trench, but it is often acceptable to place padding in about three-foot long piles at
15- to 20-foot intervals along the ditch. Alternatively, sandbags filled with dirt or
sand may be used to support the pipe off the ditch bottom, but care should be taken
that spacing is close enough so that bearing loads at the sandbags do not damage
the coating. Arrangements for acquiring and hauling padding dirt are normally the
contractor’s responsibility, but should be monitored by Company field personnel to
ensure the contractor is not getting material without proper arrangements.
Where there is extensive rock and a scarcity of bedding and backfill soil, costs to
obtain and haul suitable material will be great and other alternatives to protect the
coating such as a tough "rockshield" wrapping or a urethane foam should be consid-
ered. The rockshield should be perforated so that it does not shield the pipe from
cathodic protection current. The construction specification must be clear on the
shielding method to be used because of the cost significance in bidding and
construction.
Company field personnel should confirm that the stringing foreman has full infor-
mation on the locations along the line for changes in pipe wall thickness and
coating.
Prior to stringing, stockpiled pipe or pipe directly off-loaded from railcars or barges
should be visually inspected. Cracked coatings, pipe that is dented and damaged in
transit, and pipe with out-of-round ends normally should be repaired before being
strung. Any transit damage should be documented so that claims may be made
against the carrier and disputes with the construction contractor prevented. See
Section 740 for recommendations on stockyard inspection.
Field plants for yard coating, double-jointing pipe, or both may be established at
one or more stockpile sites. Special handling is required to avoid injury to the
coating and may involve padded trucks and unloading with special hooks. Because
of its increased length double-joint pipe may require special-steering pipe trailers
regulated by law.
Bending
Changes in direction and elevation of the ditch require bending of the pipe to fit the
contour. Side bends will be laid in a horizontal plane; over bends and sag bends in
the vertical; and combination bends in three dimensions. Normally bends can be
of sufficiently long radius so that they are bent in the field. Tight bends need to be
made in a shop equipped for induction-bending and then shipped to the field.
Sections 320 and 330 of this manual cover bending of line pipe.
Care must be taken during field bending to prevent wrinkling of the pipe wall, flat-
tening or buckling of the pipe, and damage to the coating. Bends should be checked
to see that they are within tolerances for ovality. This may be especially important
during the initial days of spread operation in the event that the pipe-bending
foreman is inexperienced or careless. Pipe bends that exceed tolerance for reduction
in diameter may obstruct the passage of scrapers during testing. Also, a flat spot in
the pipe is a point of weakness.
Small-diameter pipe, generally NPS 12 or less, can be bent satisfactorily using a
bending shoe attached at the bottom of the boom on a sideboom tractor. The angle
of bend is visually judged by the bending crew.
Bending of larger-diameter pipe is accomplished by horizontal or vertical bending
machines powered hydraulically or by cable systems. The angle of bend can be
closely controlled with the machine. Ditch angles are usually measured by the
bending crew with hand survey instruments in advance of the actual bending opera-
tion.
Each joint of pipe should be evenly strung end-to-end ahead of the lineup crew so
that the position of the bend in a particular joint of pipe will fit the ditch when that
joint is subsequently welded into the line.
second "hot pass" weld is sometimes required by the welding procedure or to alle-
viate a cracking tendency.) This crew generally sets the pace for the spread and thus
is the "money-maker" for the contractor. Problems of quality workmanship and
productivity of this crew are critical and must be resolved quickly; speed is desir-
able, but it must not be achieved at the expense of good workmanship.
Equipment with the pipe gang includes two or three sideboom tractors, welding
machines (often the "stringer bead" machine is mounted on one of the sideboom
tractors), and usually a water-sprinkler truck to control dust as equipment and vehi-
cles move along the construction working strip.
Before lineup, the beveled ends of each joint are thoroughly cleaned with power
tools. The full length of the inside of the pipe is visually inspected for dirt and
debris. A swab should be pulled through each joint to remove any dirt and debris.
A sideboom tractor moves the pipe joint into position for alignment and supports
the pipe until the "stringer bead" is complete. The pipe is aligned with the aid of
lineup clamps. Internal clamps are normally used on lines NPS 10 and larger.
External clamps are usually used on smaller sizes. The now self-supporting pipe is
then lowered to timber skids along the side of the trench, and the "hot pass" is made
before the weld area cools. Clamps are then removed and the process is repeated for
a new pipe joint.
The longitudinal weld seams on adjoining joints of ERW or SAW pipe should be
offset from each other by at least 3 inches or 30 degrees, whichever is greater.
Seams are normally alternated at the ten o’clock and two o’clock positions.
At appropriate intervals along the continuously welded line, a weld is not made,
and an overlap of a few feet is left at the unwelded ends of the pipe. Later when the
line is lowered into the ditch, "tie-in" welds will be made to complete the line. This
allowance for tie-ins permits some expansion and contraction of the welded pipe
without upsetting the skids and some adjustment of the pipe to the ditch during
lowering-in that would not be possible if the pipe were welded in a continuous
string. Since tie-in welds are more expensive and require more time than a produc-
tion weld, there may be a tendency on the part of the contractor to neglect tie-ins
and to weld up long straight sections of pipe continuously. This practice should be
watched for by Company field personnel and corrected. The proper distance
between tie-ins depends on local conditions and should be determined on the job.
The ends of the pipe at tie-in gaps should be capped temporarily with tight-fitting
"night caps." This prevents foreign objects and animals from entering the pipe
between the time it is welded and the time when the tie-ins are made. Experience
has shown that open ends will cause trouble later in construction—small animals
may crawl in the pipe; pieces of wood, including skids, may be left in an open end
and welded in; and dirt, weld rod, odd pieces of clothing, and other foreign objects
are sometimes found. Contractors may wish to substitute burlap sacks tied over the
ends of the pipe or may insert a skid half way, leaving half the skid projecting.
Neither of these alternatives is satisfactory.
Radiographic Inspection
After individual welds are completed and cooled, field radiographic inspection is
done, following the inspection specifications. One, or more often two radiographers
perform this work, using a radioactive source or a portable X-ray unit and a dark-
room mounted on a heavy-duty pickup truck. Review and interpretation of radio-
graphs of the day’s welding progress should be completed by the end of that same
day and be available to the Company welding inspector periodically during the day.
See Section 750 for guidelines on radiography.
When 100% radiography is required, one radiographic team and equipment set is
needed for production welding and a second for tie-ins and backup.
Weld Repairs
Welds requiring repairs, as determined by visual or radiographic inspection, must
be clearly marked and visibly flagged so that they are not coated over. Repair work
is usually done either by welders from the welding crew outside of regular working
hours or more often by the tie-in crew welders. Repaired welds should be radio-
graphed again.
625 Coating
Field Joints and Coating Repairs on Plant-Coated Pipe
Following radiographic acceptance of welds, a small crew puts on the specified
coating at field joints, makes repairs to obviously damaged plant-applied coating,
and inspects the coating with a holiday detector ("jeep"). The holiday detector must
be operated and maintained in accordance with the manufacturer’s directions for
the particular detector and coating. This work is done while the line is supported on
skids. Heat shrinkable sleeves ("shrink sleeves") are most frequently used at field
joints on extruded polyethylene, fusion-bonded epoxy, and coal-tar-enamel coated
lines, and are manually applied with hand-held torches for heating. On fusion-
bonded epoxy coated lines, an epoxy coating is sometimes specified—either
painted on or fusion-bonded with field induction-heating equipment. Hot-mix
Somastic field joints are used on Somastic-coated pipe. Whatever the field joint
method, thorough cleaning of bare steel and overlapped plant coating is required.
Backfilling
Backfilling the line should follow closely behind lowering-in and be complete
within a few hundred feet of the lowering-in operation at the end of each day,
because thermal expansion and contraction of the exposed pipe may cause coating
damage where the pipe lies on hard, uneven trench bottom. Tie-in and weld repair
locations, cathodic protection test station locations, and block valve and scraper
trap sites are backfilled as those items of work are completed.
With rock-free soil, backfilling is effectively accomplished by angle bulldozers or
by special tractor-mounted backfiller attachments. Backfill soil should be placed so
it rolls down the sloping face of the backfill, and is not dropped directly onto the
pipe. Backfill material should be mounded up over the ditch to allow for settlement.
The amount of berm (crown or roach) required depends on size of the ditch and soil
conditions, and should be determined locally. If the right-of-way or permit agree-
ment requires that excavated top soil be placed as the top portion of backfill, back-
filling must be done accordingly.
Where rocky soil is not suitable for backfilling, suitable "shading" material should
be placed a minimum of 6 inches around and over the pipe. As with padding,
shading dirt or sand will need to be brought in from another source. Shading needs
to be done with care so that rocks from the sides or edges of the trench do not
become loosened and fall onto the pipe. As with backfilling, sufficient shading
should be done on the same day as lowering-in to prevent damage to the coating by
thermal movements or by rocks falling from the sides of the ditch. Once the line is
satisfactorily shaded, backfilling with excavated rocky spoil can proceed, but the
next 12 inches of backfill should be graded so there is no rock over three inches in
diameter.
In rocky terrain, if no source of suitable padding and shading material is available
within reasonable distance, "rockshield" wrapping around the pipe to protect the
coating is suggested. Various types are available; the "rockshield" should be perfo-
rated or a mesh, so as not to shield cathodic protection currents from the pipe.
On steep slopes where backfill is likely to wash out in heavy rains, trench plugs—
sandbag "breakers" or urethane-foam plugs—should be placed at intervals around
and over the pipe to fill the trench to control surface runoff and limit the length of
backfill that would be washed out by erosion.
Grade Restoration
Where side-hill cuts are made in grading the construction working strip, present
practice and permit conditions generally require that the original grade be restored.
Segregated topsoil should be spread over the final graded surface. Bulldozers are
used for this work, possibly with some backhoe assistance in steeper terrain. In
gently sloping country, motor graders may be adequate. Grade restoration generally
follows tie-ins and installation of cathodic protection test leads.
Grade restoration should also include measures for erosion control. Cross-drain
ditches should be located at intervals on slopes to direct water across the construc-
tion working strip and avoid channelling along the backfill berm. Other measures
include riprap at water-course banks and scattered straw or soil treatment to control
dust in wind-blown areas.
Cleanup
Cleanup of the construction working strip is very important for the Company’s
public relations and should have close monitoring by Company field personnel.
• Fences must be replaced and left in as good or better condition than before
construction
• All debris including rock in cultivated and grazing areas, scattered during the
construction operation, must be removed
• Irrigation ditches and drainage canals not temporarily flumed must be restored
as soon as possible to allow irrigation water and drainage to agricultural lands.
In restoring irrigation ditches, permanent repairs must ensure that ditch may be
placed in service without washing out
Extent and timing of cleanup work needed is determined by land use and type of
terrain. Cleanup operations are done concurrently with grade restoration.
Trash and debris generated by construction activities should be picked up and prop-
erly disposed of daily by the crews responsible, e.g., weld rod stubs, coating
containers, used oil filters, and discarded parts after equipment maintenance.
Any construction activity done after the cleanup crew has left an area, such as late
installation of appurtenances or line repairs during testing, must include cleanup at
that area of work.
627 Tie-Ins and Weld Repairs, Cathodic Protection Test Stations, Line
Markers
Separate crews follow the main pipe laying activities. A tie-in crew handles pipe fit-
up, welding, and coating at line tie-ins and usually makes weld repairs and installs
coating field joints at the repaired welds. The crew equipment usually includes two
sideboom tractors and a bulldozer.
Short pieces of pipe cut off at the tie-ins should be clearly marked to identify pipe
grade and wall thickness. Pieces over six feet long should be moved ahead and
welded into the line to minimize wastage.
A two-man crew usually installs cathodic protection test stations, making CAD-
welded cable connections to the pipe and to crossed lines and running the cable
leads to a postmounted test box. Company field personnel should closely monitor
this work to ensure test stations are at reasonably accessible locations and proper
cable color coding is followed. Backfilling of the line at test stations is usually done
by the bulldozer working with the backfilling, tie-in, or grade restoration crews.
After backfilling and grade restoration, a small crew installs line location warning
markers and aerial markers. Aerial mile post markers are located at approximate
mile-post stations where they will not interfere with surface use of the land; line
stationing at these markers is normally determined with the completion alignment
survey.
628 Revegetation
Reseeding and fertilizing uncultivated land is becoming a common practice. It is
often a requirement of right-of-way and permit conditions, usually specifying a
particular seed mixture, or may be a prudent measure to control surface erosion of
the disturbed soil on the construction working strip. Timing of reseeding may be
influenced by seasonal conditions. This work is normally done by a specialist
subcontractor to the construction contractor, but may be contracted directly by the
Company. Responsibility for reseeding of areas where germination is unsuccessful
should be clearly defined in contract specifications.
In some cases, right-of-way and permit conditions may require more extensive
revegetation, such as replacing trees and ornamental plants. These cases need to be
handled as the particular situation demands.
Replanting of cultivated crops is left to the landowner or tenant. Damage payments
cover loss of crops and costs to replant and restore the land.
630 Welding
The most common method for welding pipelines in the field is the shielded metal
arc welding (SMAW) process, using cellulosic (EXX10) electrodes. The direction
of welding is normally downhill. Electrodes are selected to meet the mechanical
properties (tensile strength and toughness) of the pipe and for welding characteris-
tics needed to obtain sound welds.
Both welding procedures and welders are required to be qualified by the code
covering the pipeline system. The codes require direct Company involvement in the
qualifications of both procedures and welders. For welding procedures, this can be
accomplished by either actually witnessing all qualifications or providing Company-
qualified welding procedures. All welder qualifications should preferably be
witnessed by the Company. Records must be kept of each qualified welding proce-
dure being used and all welder qualification tests.
Both ANSI/ASME B31.4 and B31.8 permit qualification of procedures and welders
to either API 1104 or ASME Section IX. Generally, API 1104 is the more appro-
priate code for pipeline welding and is the reference for discussion of welding
procedure and welder performance qualifications in the sections that follow.
API STD 1104 is included in this manual. See Section 860 of this manual regarding
maintenance welding.
Joint Design (Essential Variable). The most frequently used joint design is a V-
groove having the configuration shown in Figure 600-3. Offset (high-low) during
fitup should be restricted to 1/16 inch maximum. Offset greater than 1/16 inch
should be reduced by equally distributing it around the circumference of the pipe.
Filler Metal (Essential Variable) and Number of Beads. The American Welding
Society specification and electrode classification is listed. For SMAW, AWS
Specification A5.1 or A5.5 is used, depending upon the minimum tensile strength
of the electrodes. Note that minimum tensile strength (ksi) is indicated by the first
1. Qualification at the maximum strength qualifies all of the lower strength materials within the group.
two digits of the electrode classification and is different from the pipe groupings
that are based on SMYS. Electrode sizes and minimum number of beads commonly
used are shown in the table and with the sketch on Page 2 of the procedure specifi-
cation. Company practice requires a minimum of three weld passes and limits
maximum electrode sizes as follows:
Stringer Bead Hot Pass, Filler and Cap Passes
5/32 in. max. 3/16 in. max.
Electrodes furnished by Lincoln Electric Company are most commonly used. These
are listed in Figure 600-4 by trade name, AWS class and specification, group, and
typical API material grade application.
is done with the pipe rotated about a horizontal axis and the welding performed
near or at the top center for a flat position weld. Position welding can be done with
the pipe axis horizontal, vertical, or sloping. When the pipe axis is horizontal, the
position of the weld is vertical. If the pipe axis is to be other than horizontal, it
should be clearly described.
Direction of Welding (Essential Variable). The direction of welding for position
welding using cellulosic electrodes is normally downhill for pipeline welders.
Downhill welding is much quicker than uphill welding. The direction of welding
does not apply if the position of the weld is flat (roll welding) or horizontal (where
the pipe axis is vertical).
Number of Welders. For position welding, the number of welders varies with pipe
size. Generally, two welders can be used for pipe sizes over NPS 8 and three for
pipe sizes over about NPS 24. The use of more than one welder helps to balance
shrinkage stresses and increase productivity.
Time Lapse Between Passes (Essential Variable). For welding with cellulosic
electrodes, the time lapse between completing the stringer bead and starting the hot
pass is important to avoid cracking. Good practice is to start the hot pass within five
minutes of completing the stringer bead. Where the hot pass cannot be started
within five minutes, the stringer bead should be reheated to 100°F minimum and
checked for cracking prior to welding. Weld joints that have not had the stringer
bead completed at the end of the day should be rejected.
Type of Lineup Clamp. This refers to the method of aligning the pipe and whether
internal or external lineup clamps are used. In rare cases, lineup clamps will not be
used and "none required" should be stated.
Removal of Lineup Clamp. The percent completion of the stringer bead required
before removal of the lineup clamp should be specified. For internal lineup clamps,
generally 100% of the stringer bead is completed before removal is permitted. For
external lineup clamps, API STD 1104 requires not less than 50% of the stringer
bead to be completed in equal segments around the circumference before removal is
permitted.
Cleaning. Standard pipeline procedure is to grind the root pass and power wire
brush all remaining passes.
Preheat and Stress Relief (Postweld Heat Treatment). Preheat requirements will
vary with pipe grade, carbon equivalent, and wall thickness. Preheat is generally not
required except for low initial pipe temperature, repair welds, and heavier wall
thicknesses. Both Codes B31.4 and B31.8 require preheat for carbon steel when the
carbon content exceeds 0.32% or the carbon equivalent (C +Mn/4) exceeds 0.65%
(this is a simplified carbon equivalent used only for determining the need to
preheat). These are extreme cases for most pipe materials and rarely will be cause
for preheat. For pipe temperatures below 40°F, preheat of 100°F minimum should
be used. A preheat of 200°F minimum should be used for wall thicknesses of one
inch or greater and all weld repairs.
Stress relief is normally not required for wall thicknesses of 1-1/4 inches and less.
(Code B31.4 permits up to 1-1/2 inches with 200°F preheat over 1-1/4 inches.)
When stress relief is required, the temperature range and holding time should be
specified.
Shielding Gas and Flow Rate (Essential Variable). Applies only to the gas
shielded processes (i.e., GTAW, GMAW, and FCAW).
Shielding Flux (Essential Variable). Applies only to the granular flux used for
submerged arc welding.
Speed of Travel (Essential Variable). Travel speed should be specified as a range.
The following are typical ranges for vertical down welding with cellulosic elec-
trodes on larger pipe (e.g., over NPS 6 ).
Electrode Travel Speed,
Weld Pass Diameter, in. in./min
Stringer 5/32 9-15
Hot Pass 5/32 10-14
Filler 3/16 8-12
Cap 3/16 7-9
a cylinder of pipe at least 12 inches in length or 1.5-times pipe diameter for sizes up
through NPS 24, and equal to pipe diameter for larger sizes.
Code B31.4 Section 434.8.7 provides an alternate method for removal of arc burns
by grinding providing the minimum wall thickness is not violated. Complete
removal of arc burns is determined by progressively grinding and etching with a
20% solution of ammonium persulfate to check for the elimination of the hard heat-
affected zone. Any remaining hard zone will etch as a dark spot, and grinding is
progressively performed until the dark spot no longer appears after etching.
Weather Conditions
Weather conditions can adversely affect weld quality during construction and provi-
sion must be made for protection against wind, dust, cold, and rain. In warm, sunny
weather with wind speeds below 10 mph, no protection is generally needed during
welding. As wind speed increases and weather conditions change, protection
requirements can vary from simple wind breaks around the weld joint to full enclo-
sures for rainy or extremely cold conditions. For temperatures below 40°F, the
Company requires preheating of the weld joint to 100°F minimum. Completion of
the hot pass within 5 minutes of the stringer pass is required in all cases.
The best index of the adequacy of weather protection being provided is the
frequency of weld repairs due to excess porosity and any occurrence of cracking.
Either of these should initiate a Company response to check on the weather protec-
tion being provided. Wind and dust above 10 mph should be shielded from the weld
area during welding. Rain should not be permitted to fall on the weld joint until it
has naturally cooled to ambient temperature. Maintaining heat during welding is
one of the most important cracking avoidance measures, particularly at low ambient
temperatures. The method of preheat and weather protection should work together
to keep the weld clean, dry, and out of the wind during welding.
Welding
Access for welding is important for proper electrode angles and visibility of the
weld puddle. API STD 1104 requires 16 inches minimum working clearance
around pipe when it is welded above ground. Working clearance for welding in the
bell hole is not specified by API STD 1104, but 16 inches is still a good rule-of-
thumb to be used.
The starting and stopping locations in the weld are a source of defects in all passes
from the root through the cap pass, and API STD 1104 requires that no two beads
be started at the same location. This is generally not a problem on 100% X-ray
work as welders are sensitive to increasing their risk of repair from stacking up
start-stop locations on successive beads.
API STD 1104 requires pipe welds to be substantially uniform in cross-section
around the entire circumference. No point of the crown (cover pass) is permitted to
be below the outside surface of the pipe nor raised above the parent metal by more
than 1/16 inch. The face of the completed weld should be approximately 1/8 inch
wider than the width of the original groove.
Electrodes. The storage and handling of cellulosic electrodes is not difficult if
reasonable precautions are taken. The greatest damage that can occur results from
handling, and electrodes showing cracking or spauling of the coating should be
scrapped. The moisture level for cellulosic electrodes is normally quite high (3-5%)
and atmospheric exposure is generally not a problem unless they are mistreated,
i.e., allowed to become wet, contaminated (with dirt, grease, etc.), or dried out. In
these cases, electrodes should be scrapped.
Identification. The identification of the welders for each weld is important quality
control information and should be shown on or adjacent to each weld. Identification
should be semipermanent (paint stick or equal) and should identify all welders.
Stamping should not be permitted. Stringer bead welder identification should be
discernable from the other welders. The identification of the welders for each weld
should be picked up by the radiography crew and transferred to the record sheets
for the radiographs. Quality control is discussed in Section 700, but early identifica-
tion of substandard welders is important for corrective action. See also Model Spec-
ification PPL-MS-1564.
650 Crossings
Section 440 of this manual describes design considerations for river and stream
crossing, highway and railroad crossings, and crossing of other pipelines, and
includes construction method alternatives for these crossings. Construction specifi-
cations should define crossing details meeting design requirements and permit
conditions required by the owner or authority responsible for the facility crossed.
Company field personnel must contact field representatives of these owners or
authorities to inform them and clarify details of permit conditions.
Banks of streams and dry washes should be excavated so that the pipe can be
"roped-in" without field bends at the banks. Heavy runoff from spring thaws or rain-
storms can cause severe flooding and stream courses may change drastically.
Corrective work to lower the line in such a situation is at best difficult, but is more
easily done if the line was originally installed without sags or overbends at the
banks. Where there is evidence of recent meandering of a stream in flat bottom
land, it may be advisable to excavate sufficient depth across the entire bottom land
to maintain the pipeline below the natural channel bed elevation.
Crossings of seasonally dry river and stream beds should be scheduled to take
advantage of dry working conditions, even if it means using a separate crew or
contractor out of sequence with other work. Similarly, for wet crossings, it may be
economic to schedule crossing work during low water flow. Winter crossings may
be made using snow bridges for streams (with care taken not to place debris into the
water course) or with ice bridges on larger rivers and lakes.
Crossing designs should specify required line weighting to assure stability when
submerged, as well as pipe wall thickness and coating. See the discussion on cross-
ings in Section 440. Whether or not weighting is needed, it is advisable to fill the
line with water after installation to its proper depth. Weighting may be required
across flood plains adjacent to a river, as well as at the actual crossing.
Company field personnel should examine and evaluate actual conditions at cross-
ings well in advance of construction. Construction problems can be anticipated and
any significant discrepancies or oversights in designs can be identified.
Occasionally, where horizontal drilling or trenching is not feasible because of rock,
cliffs, or environmental restrictions, the pipeline can be installed on a bridge. The
bridge may be constructed solely for the pipeline or an existing structure may be
used if permission can be obtained. Pipeline bridges are generally suspension types
with horizontal cables to limit pipe sway. At long crossings with relatively small
diameter pipe, wind induced vibration may become a problem and additional
measures may be needed. At short crossings an arched configuration of the pipe
itself may be possible and economic.
660 Appurtenances
Section 450 of this manual describes line valve manifolds, scraper trap manifolds,
line pressure control and relief, "slug catchers," vents, drains, and line markers.
Section 360 describes piping components that go into piping for appurtenances.
Construction specifications should define details for those appurtenances. Shop
fabrication of piping assemblies with appropriate shop inspection, is recommended
for economy and better quality control; subassemblies may be necessary because of
size restriction. If field welding is required other than buttwelding for which pipe
line welders have been qualified, a suitable field welding procedure must be devel-
oped and welders qualified for piping fabrication welding.
690 References
1. Hosmanek, Max. Pipeline Construction. Austin, Texas; Petroleum Extension
Service, Division of Continuing Education, the University of Texas. 1984.
2. Schurr, B. Manual of Practical Pipeline Construction. Houston: Gulf
Publishing Company, 1982.
Abstract
This section discusses the nondestructive inspection methods used for line pipe,
from mill purchase to installation in the ground. It provides guidance on the
purpose, the suitability, and the application of mill surveillance and field inspection
(pipeyard). The makeup and duties of inspection and/or monitoring crews are
detailed. Pipeline welding inspection and pipeline coatings inspection are covered.
This section also covers the construction activities of hydrotesting, dewatering and
drying, and the organization of large and small field inspection activities.
For inservice inspection of pipe wall thickness conditions using electronic inspec-
tion pigs, see Sections 453 and 831.
Contents Page
(720)(730)
(710)(710)
(710)(730)
(710)(730)
(710)(730) (710)(730)
(710)(730)
(750)(730)
(710)(730)
(710)
(710)(740)
(710)(750)(750)
(750)
• API STD 1104, Standard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities
See Section 790 for additional references.
Visual Inspection
Visual examination is the first level of material inspection. It involves the use of the
eyes, either unaided or with a low power magnifier, to look for imperfections and
flaws.
Visual inspection has obvious advantages: it is easy, straightforward, fast, and inex-
pensive; it requires little special equipment and provides important information
with regard to pipe surfaces. Its limitations include an inability to evaluate metal
interior, so other methods such as radiography and ultrasonics must sometimes
complement visual examination.
On bare pipe, visual inspection detects gouges, ERW weld irregularities (excessive
trim or flash), SAW weld irregularities (contour, high-low, undercuts), dents, scale,
pits, scores, notches, and sometimes laps or seams. For butt welds, visual examina-
tion is useful for detecting surface porosity, high-low (with access to inside
surface), bead contour, and severe undercutting. Visual examination of the weld
bevel can reveal damage, seams and laminations.
The typical tools for visual inspection are magnifying glasses, flashlights, and
mirrors. To look down the ID of pipes and tubes, an instrument called a borescope
is used. Flexible fiber optic scopes are also available that permit the transmission of
light and images around corners or through twisted or crooked channels.
Gages, micrometers, calipers, rulers, tapes, etc., are also used for visual inspection.
These devices are used to verify dimensions such as bevels, thickness and diameter.
Experience is required in the use of some of these tools.
General
Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a nondestructive method for detecting surface
discontinuities or cracks in magnetic materials. MPI using AC current can also
detect defects that are slightly subsurface, but is not totally reliable for this purpose.
Basic Principle
The basic principle of magnetic particle inspection involves the following steps:
• Creating a magnetic field in the material so that magnetic poles are set up at
discontinuities
• Applying magnetic particles to the surface of the material
• Visually examining the surface for any concentrations of the particles and eval-
uating the cause of the concentration (indication)
Interpretation
Interpretation of magnetic particle inspection is usually done by eye. The cause of
indications can usually be seen unaided, but sometimes a magnifying glass is
required. Indications are marked with a waxed crayon or paint. Depending upon the
job specifications, indications are sometimes probed to investigate depth or to deter-
mine if the indication is merely superficial.
EMI inspection is sometimes included in the mill’s quality control line. These units
are adjusted for mill production speeds (which may exceed 200 feet per minute) but
are generally not as accurate as field EMI units which operate at approximately 40
feet per minute. EMI services can also be purchased in the field. This inspection is
very common for downhole casing and tubing but is performed on line pipe only in
special cases.
One cautionary note is necessary. Any residual magnetism in the pipe will cause
welding difficulties. The surveillance inspection should ensure the EMI unit does
not leave residual magnetism greater than 30 gauss when measuring with an elec-
tronic magnetometer (gaussmeter). If a mechanical magnetometer is used, the
residual magnetism should not exceed 8-10 gauss.
Radiographic Inspection
Introduction
Radiography (also called RT) is a nondestructive test method that uses X-rays or
gamma rays to detect defects in solid materials. A radiograph is a shadow picture
produced by passing the rays through an object and onto a film. Thin sections of
metal absorb less radiation and, therefore, make a dark pattern on the film. Thick
sections allow less of the radiation energy to reach the film, producing a lighter
image. For example, where porosity exists in a weld, there is effectively less solid
material to absorb the radiation, resulting in characteristic dark round spots on the
film. See Figure 700-4 for a simplified sketch of the technique.
Radiography is the most commonly used weld inspection method for evaluating
weld integrity; it is not generally used on the line pipe body. One advantage is that
source, governs exposure time. Figure 700-6 shows the effect of changes in vari-
ables such as radiation source and film type on radiograph quality.
Screens
Radiographic film is held in a cassette, sandwiched between two screens. The two
principal screen types are lead foil and fluorescent.
Lead foil screens are the most widely used and give higher quality exposures than
fluorescent screens. Lead screens serve a dual purpose: they act as intensifiers by
emitting electrons and characteristic rays under the action of the primary radiation
that aid in producing the radiograph. At the same time, they act as filters to absorb
the scattered radiation that tends to fog the film. Lead screen thicknesses vary with
source strength from 0.001 inch to 0.01 inch.
Fluorescent screens are usually made of calcium tungstate crystals deposited on a
thin background material. The X-rays or gamma rays cause these crystals to emit
light that intensifies the film image. They decrease the necessary exposure time,
compared with lead, but give less image sharpness. Most authorities and Company
specifications discourage the use of fluorescent screens, since the sacrifice in film
quality can result in the masking of significant defects.
Either type of screen must be in close contact with the film during the exposure for
good image sharpness. Also, the screens must be free from blemishes, scratches,
dents, and any dirt that could be recorded on the film and misinterpreted as a defect
in the weld.
Image Sharpness
Other factors being equal, fine grained film produces the sharper image, but the size
of the source is also a factor: the smaller the source size, the sharper the image.
Increasing the source-to-film distance compensates for a large source. In general,
the source-to-film distance should be at least seven times the thickness of the mate-
rial being radiographed. Most radiographic work is done at much higher ratios,
such as 30:1. Vibration or movement of the source or film during an exposure will
cause a fuzzy image.
Penetrameters
A penetrameter indicates the image quality or sensitivity of the radiograph and is
the true test of a radiographic procedure. In the United States, penetrameters
usually consist of thin strips of metal with various size holes. In other countries,
fine wires or small spheres may be used. Penetrameters are placed on the part being
radiographed, and the ability of the radiograph to show a particular hole size or
wire establishes the image quality. Figure 17 in API STD 1104 details the configura-
tion of a penetrameter.
The penetrameter image is the inspector’s most important tool for evaluating the
quality of the radiograph. He should know the penetrameter requirement for the
work or item he is inspecting and make sure the proper type is used in an accept-
able manner. The applicable specification or code usually requires that penetrame-
ters be properly shimmed to compensate for weld reinforcement and be placed on
the source side of the weld.
Film Processing
Many factors are important during film processing to assure quality radiographs.
The most important are fresh, clean, properly mixed solutions, proper developer
bath temperature (68°F is ideal), appropriate development time, and proper agita-
tion, washing, fixing, and drying.
Viewing of Radiographs
To properly interpret a radiograph, the viewing equipment should be in a darkened
room. To prevent films placed against it for viewing from overheating and curling,
the illuminator should have an adjustable cold fluorescent light or incandescent
bulbs with forced ventilation.
Commercially available variable intensity viewers are more versatile and provide
particular advantages when viewing high or low density negatives. The film should
be placed on the viewer and all light visible around the edges masked off. The first
thing an inspector should look for is the penetrameter, to see if it is the proper size
and shows evidence of good film quality, i.e., the outline of the penetrameter and
two-thickness (or 2T) hole are visible.
Quite often a film artifact is mistaken for a weld defect. The principal causes of
such artifacts are:
• Dirty, scratched, or bent screens, which cause imperfections in the image
• Localized pressure on a film, which causes easily recognizable pressure
marks when the film is processed
• Poor processing techniques, such as water marks from improper drying and
scratches from handling
It is the inspector’s duty to learn to recognize film artifacts. Most film artifacts
become obvious when the film surface is viewed at an oblique angle under white
light.
Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic (UT) inspection methods use sound waves to detect internal, external,
and subsurface defects including those in ERW and SAW pipe weld seams, the
depth of surface imperfections, and wall thickness. A transducer which can both
transmit and receive a sound wave is placed on the material. With the aid of a
couplant, such as grease, oil, or water, the sound beam penetrates the material and
travels in a straight line until it hits a reflecting surface. This may be the opposite
surface of the material, a crack or seam penetrating from the OD or ID, a subsur-
face crack or seam, a lamination in the material, weld porosity, undercutting, high-
low, or lack of weld fusion. The beam reflects off this surface and is detected by the
receiver portion of the transducer. Electronics convert the time it takes the beam to
traverse the material to a length dimension. Note that flaws must be approximately
perpendicular to the sound beam (plus or minus 10 to 15 degrees) to reflect effec-
tively back to the transducer.
Fig. 700-9 Compression Wave Ultrasonics, Wall Thinning, Showing CRT Display
ERW weldline inspection to be performed using UT or EMI, does not define loca-
tion (e.g., after hydrostatic testing), and allows V10 or Buttress notches or a drilled
hole as calibration standards.
Fig. 700-11 Inspection Recommendations for Mill-Order Pipe, Chevron, or API Specifications
General Service Critical Service(1)
SMLS ERW SAW SMLS ERW SAW SMLS ERW SAW SMLS ERW SAW
Job Site Visual(9) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
(1) Critical service is defined as high pressure gas >1440 psig, offshore, populated areas, or sour service.
(2) Example: 3400 ft of 12-3/4 inches x 0.219 wall.
(3) Not usually applicable, since mill surveillance is recommended for critical service.
(4) This could vary from a random visual to 100% visual depending on the extent of other inspection(s) done. (It may also include dimen-
sional checks such as ring gaging pipe ends.)
(5) See decision tree in Section 312 - refer to the mill class definition explanation which denotes when and how much weld seam UT may
be required. For API pipe, additional weld seam UT may be required - consult with CRTC’s Quality Assurance Team.
(6) Case by case basis; consult with CRTC’s Quality Assurance Team.
(7) Consider if previous problems with mill occurred or pipe is in critical service as defined in (1). In the case of mills which do not perform
any EMI or UT, a minimum of 10% (General Service) or 25% (Critical Service) is recommended.
(8) See decision tree in Section 312 and supplemental specification requirements noted therein.
(9) For pipe body and bevel handling damage; inspection typically done by welding Contractor personnel.
(10) The material test reports (MTR’s) should be reviewed for conformance to API and/or Chevron requirements for all pipe not subjected to
mill surveillance. Special emphasis is placed on the Carbon Equivalent (for weldability) and mechanical properties.
Fig. 700-12 Inspection Recommendations for Distributor Stock Pipe from Approved Sources(1) (2)
(Post Mill at Pipeyard)
(1) An approved source is a mill that CRTC’s Quality Assurance has audited and approved.
(2) This pipe will be API with no chance of mill surveillance.
(3) Critical service is defined as high pressure gas > 1440 psig, offshore, populated areas, or sour service.
(4) This could vary from random visual to 100% visual depending on the extent of other inspection(s) done. (It may also include dimen-
sional checks such as ring gaging pipe ends.)
(5) See decision tree in Section 312 - refer to the mill class definition explanation which denotes when and how much weld seam UT may
be required. For API pipe, additional weld seam UT may be required - consult with CRTC’s Quality Assurance Team. (From nonap-
proved sources a minimum 25% frequency for General Service; a minimum 50% frequency for Critical Service.)
(6) Case by case basis; consult with CRTC’s Quality Assurance Team. (From nonapproved sources a minimum 25% frequency for Critical
Service.)
(7) Consider if previous problems with mill occurred or pipe is in critical service as defined in (3). In the case of nonapproved sources or
approved sources which do not perform any routine EMI or UT, a minimum 10% frequency for General Service; a minimum 25%
frequency for Critical Service.
(8) See decision tree in Section 312 and supplemental specification requirements noted therein.
(9) For pipe body and bevel handling damage; inspection typically done by welding contractor personnel.
(10) The material test reports (MTR’s) should be reviewed for conformance to API and/or Chevron requirements for all pipe not subjected
to mill surveillance. Special emphasis is placed on the Carbon Equivalent (for weldability) and mechanical properties.
(11) Other inspection methods may also be appropriate on a case by case basis. These include: full length MPI; Pipe end MPI; UT of ERW
or SAW pipe ends for laminations; and so on. Consult CRTC’s Quality Assurance Team for guidance.
(4)
Submerged Arc Weld TWO
(SAW)
(1) Some factors which affect team makeup are:
a. Mill layout/general practices: compact or spread out facility; mechanical testing done concurrently with mill run or subsequently;
NDT prove-up near inspection unit or at a remote location.
b. Seamless mill: typically do not monitor pipe rolling or steel making.
c. Specific order requirements: diameter of pipe; general or critical service; sweet or sour service; quantity of pipe in order; number of
supplemental requirements specified; Chevron specifications or API.
d. Other: approved or nonapproved source; well-documented history on mill or no information.
(2) Seamless pipe inspectors. Concentrate mill surveillance on final full body NDE (60%). Balance of inspectors time spent monitoring the
following, as applicable: hydrostatic testing (5%); final inspection bench (15%); mechanical testing (10%); verify length and marking
requirements, pipe handling (damage), collecting /tabulating daily reject figures, report writing, and so on (10%).
(3) ERW pipe inspectors. Concentrate mill surveillance on two areas: the pipe welding/seam normalizing operations; and the final weld
seam UT. There is typcially a shift leader and a full time UT weldline inspector for each shift. The shift leader monitors pipe
welding/seam normalizing (70%). Balance of monitoring time spent on the following, as applicable: final bench inspection; hydrostatic
testing; mechanical testing; verify length and marking requirements, pipe handling (damage), collecting/tabulating daily reject figures,
report writing, and so on. The UT weldline inspector monitors final UT weldline inspection (70 - 90%) and utilizes balance of time to
monitor UT of pipe ends (if applicable), and assists shift leader at final bench inspection.
(4) SAW pipe inspectors. Concentrate mill surveillance on two areas: the pipe welding operations; and the final weld seam UT. There is
typically a shift leader and a full time UT weldline inspector for each shift. The shift leader monitors pipe welding (60%). Balance of
monitoring time spent on the following, as applicable: final bench inspection; hydrostatic testing; pipe expansion; mechanical testing;
verify length and marking requirements, pipe handling (damage), collecting/tabulating daily reject figures, report writing, and so on. The
UT weldline inspector monitors final UT weldline inspection (70%) and utilizes balance of time to review radiographs, monitor UT of
pipe ends (if applicable), and assists shift leader at final bench inspection.
• Verifies dimensions are done and recorded per the frequencies and procedures
agreed upon in the pre-production meeting. These dimensional checks include
pipe body outside diameter (o.d.), pipe end o.d., wall thickness, end square-
ness, bevel, root face, internal taper (seamless), and straightness.
• Verify length, marking, demagnetization, ERW weld flash or trim, SAW weld
contour, etc., meet order requirements.
• Verify that pipe to be subsequently coated is free of mill varnish, grease,
slivers, sharp protrusions, etc.
• Witnesses the periodic calibration of the nondestructive testing equipment to
assure its proper operation.
• Reviews the radiographs on a spot check basis to assure proper interpretation.
The number of radiographs reviewed will vary depending upon the results of
the spot check.
• Periodically witnesses the fluoroscopic inspection and assures that the speed of
travel and settings are such that the penetrameter can be clearly defined.
• Periodically checks railcars, trucks or ship holds before loading for debris and
attachments that may damage pipe.
• Periodically checks the loaded cars, trucks or ship holds to assure that they are
loaded in accordance with API RP 5L1, Railroad Transportation of Line Pipe
or API RP 5LW, Transportation of Line Pipe on Barges and Marine Vessels, or
other specified recommended practices approved by the purchaser. This inspec-
tion should include a spot check for body and bevel damage due to improper
handling during loading.
• Checks hydrostatic testing charts and operation for conformance to order
requirements. Includes verification that test gages and recorders are in current
calibration.
• Checks the welding and repair welding operation for compliance with the
mill’s procedures. This includes a review of the procedure qualification test
records and the performance test records of each welder to assure that the
requirements of Appendix B of the API SPEC 5L are met. Particular attention
should be taken to assure that low hydrogen electrodes, if used, are stored in an
electrode dry rod box.
• Checks loading crane hooks to assure that they are properly designed to elimi-
nate bevel damage.
• Witness as many mechanical tests as possible to assure that the test procedure
is correct and all test equipment is in current calibration. This should include a
spot check of the test specimen measurements.
• Assures that the proper number of tests are made and the chemical and mechan-
ical properties meet the required specifications.
• Assures that all shipping documents and mill chemical and mechanical test
certificates are collected by the mill and forwarded to the Company office at
the immediate completion of pipe production. If they are not then available, the
mill personnel must be advised to forward them to the Company purchasing
agent or project engineer.
• Immediately reports any serious problems to the Company for review.
• Collects the daily reject figures including types of rejects from all applicable
sources, checks them for accuracy and forwards a summary of them to the
Company at the required frequency (sometimes daily) and at the completion of
the inspection assignment.
• Tabulates the total number of feet of each size and wall thickness of pipe
accepted each day, and keeps a cumulative record so that the status of the order
is known at all times.
NPS, checking the wall thickness of each pipe, close visual examination of each
pipe, and so on. These duties essentially duplicated everything randomly checked
by the mill bench inspectors and much more. This type of extensive dimensional
and visual examination would now only be considered for nonapproved mills (or
substandard mills) with whom Chevron has no previous experience or knowledge.
Some of these duties may still be applicable for very critical orders. Consult with
CRTC’s Quality Assurance Team for guidance.
Reporting
Contract inspectors forward all reports, tallies, and problems to the Chevron Project
Engineer or Quality Assurance Engineer who is handling the order.
• Combined shear and compression wave UT. These units are typically perma-
nently mounted under roof units. although there are one or two such units avail-
able which are mobile, which are capable of scanning both the pipe body and
pipe weld seam. They use angle transducers for detecting longitudinal and
circumferential defects and straight (compression) wave transducers for wall
thickness.
• Radiographic inspection. Radiography is not done in the field to inspect pipe.
It is, however, the most common method to inspect girth welds during pipeline
construction and is discussed in Section 712 and 740.
Large companies providing field inspection services include the following:
• Tuboscope Vetco International
P.O. Box 808
Houston, TX 77001-0808
Ph: 713-456-8881
Fax: 713-456-6197
• Ico, Inc.
9400 Bamboo
Houston, TX 77041
Ph: 713-462-4622
Fax: 713-462-4821
Small companies providing field inspection include the following:
• A&A Tubular Inspection, Inc.
3075 Walnut Ave
Long Beach, CA 90807
Ph: 310-981-2351
Fax: 310-981-2354
(Also have a Houston, TX., location)
(UT Weldline Inspection ONLY)
• Reliant Oilfield Services, Inc.
Rt. 1, Box 143
Linden, TX 75563
Ph: 903-756-5656
Fax: 903-756-5283
Third-Party Inspectors
These inspectors monitor the service company inspection crews. They may be
employed by an inspection agency such as Moody-Tottrup, or may be independent
contractors. Typically, a few small independent contractors, which have been devel-
oped over many years, are used for monitoring. The experience of these individuals
may include former employment with an inspection service company, line pipe
user, or manufacturer. These individuals may have formal test certifications from
the American Society of Nondestructive Testing (ASNT).
A list of qualified third-party surveillance inspectors is maintained by CRTC’s
Quality Assurance Team, which should be contacted if these services are required.
• Grade. Higher grades (X-60 and greater) are used for high pressure lines and
have thinner walls
• Weld Method. ERW versus SAW
• Mill Origin. Some mills have better equipment for producing and inspecting
pipe than others
Groups within Chevron that may be consulted to give guidance on pipe inspection
include the following:
• CRTC, Materials and Equipment Engineering, Quality Assurance
– 510-242-4612 (Richmond)
– 510-242-3381 (Richmond - alternate)
• CRTC, Materials and Equipment Engineering, Metallurgy
– 510-242-3245
• The welding is performed as required by the procedure and has been checked
for:
– Pipe fit-up and alignment. Offset and gap dimensions are within tolerances
– Correct preheat
– Sound stringer pass without cracks, undercut, or excessive porosity. Proper
grinding for the hot pass
– Adherence to the maximum time permitted between the stringer and hot
pass
– Interpass cleaning (power wire bushing) and grinding starts and stops as
needed
– Fit-up clamps used as specified in the procedures
– Correct types (AWS classification) and diameters of electrodes. Electrodes
are in good condition for welding (i.e., free of damage and contamination)
– Correct welding polarity. (Generally DC+, but DC- is sometimes used for
the root pass with certain electrodes, such as Lincoln 5P and HYP)
– Staggered starts and stops to avoid alignment with other passes
– No cracks, undercut, or excessive porosity in any bead
– Minimum number of passes as specified in the procedure for the thickness
(but not less than three)
– Correct reinforcement and width of the cap pass and no excessive undercut
of the pipe
– Welder identification marked in a manner not injurious to the pipe but
permanent enough for pickup by the X-ray crew
– Weather, wind, and dust conditions not adverse to good welding practice
• Defect repairs do not exceed more than one repair at any given location in a
pipe weld, and the welder contributing to the defect is identified
Radiographic Procedure
Before any radiography can be performed on a pipeline, a detailed procedure for
the production of radiographs must be prepared, recorded, and demonstrated by the
radiographic contractor to produce acceptable radiographs, in accordance with
Section 8.0 of API STD 1104. API STD 1104 requires demonstration on test shots
that the radiographic procedure produces acceptable radiographs. A written proce-
dure is required that includes at least the following:
• Radiation source. Covers type of radiation source, effective source or focal
spot size, and voltage rating of X-ray equipment.
• Intensifying screens. Describes the type and placement of screens, and lead
screen thickness (see Section 712). Lead screens are preferred for pipeline
work. An exception is offshore construction from a lay barge, where remote-
operated, battery-powered, crawler-mounted internal X-ray heads are
frequently used. These generally employ fluorescent screens to minimize expo-
sure times and battery recharging frequency. Intermediate speed fluorescent
intensifying screens (e.g., Du Pont Conex NDT 5) with fine grain medium
speed film have proved satisfactory for this application. Fluorescent screens are
very sensitive to dirt, dust, and scratches, and must be kept immaculately clean
and replaced more frequently than lead screens.
• Film. Film brand rather than film type should be specified, along with the
number of films per cassette. Where more than one film per cassette is speci-
fied, how they will be viewed should be stated (e.g., single film viewing or
double film viewing). In the past film type designations (Type 1 or 2) have
been accepted in lieu of brand names. However, because of significant varia-
tions in the grain size and speed of films meeting the same type, this designa-
tion should not be used to obtain equivalent radiographic quality by
substitutions made solely on the basis of film type.
• Exposure Geometry. Exposure geometry refers to the relative placement of
the source of radiation, pipe weld, film, penetrameters and lead markers (for
film intervals and reference). The number of exposures per weld is also stated.
Variations include the following:
– SWE/SWV. Single-wall exposure with single-wall viewing. The radiation
source is positioned for single-wall penetration. A typical setup would be
with the source on the inside and the film on the outside. When the source
is centered inside of the pipe, a single 360-degree exposure of the weld
can be made.
– DWE/SWV. Double-wall exposure with single-wall viewing. The radia-
tion source is positioned for double wall penetration, but only the weld
from “one” wall (i.e., one side of the pipe) is recorded on the film. A
typical setup is with the source on the outside of the pipe and the film on
the opposite side. A minimum of three 120-degree exposures are required
if the source is positioned within 1/2 inch of the pipe, otherwise four 90-
degree exposures are required (see Figure 700-14).
– DWE/DWV. Double-wall exposure with double-wall viewing. The radia-
tion source is positioned for double wall penetration, with welds on “both”
walls recorded on the film. NPS 3 and smaller pipe requires this technique
with the radiation beam offset so that the source side and film side
portions of the weld do not overlap in the area of the radiograph to be eval-
uated. Two or more exposures (N) are required with each shot, separated
by 180 degrees divided by N.
• Exposure Conditions. The exposure conditions depend on the exposure
parameters of the radiation source (either X-ray or radioisotope). For X-ray
units, they are measured in milliamperes, peak X-ray voltage (KVP), and expo-
sure time. For radioisotopes they are measured in curie minutes.
Cracks None allowed except shallow crater cracks in the cap pass with maximum length (1)
of 5/32".
(2)
Incomplete Penetration at Root Pass Max 1" length in 12" of weld, or 8% of weld length for welds less than 12" long. Max
individual length 1".
(2)
Incomplete Penetration Due to High- Max individual length 2". Max total length of 3" in 12" of continuous weld.
Low Flow
Incomplete Fusion at Root Pass Max of 1" length in 12" of weld, or 8% of weld length for welds less than 12". Max (2)
Incomplete Fusion at Sidewall or Cold Max individual length of 2". Max total length 2" in 12" of continuous weld.
Lap
Burn-Through (NPS 2 and Larger) Max 1/4" or wall thickness, whichever is less, in any dimension. Max total length of
1/2" in 12" of weld.
Internal Concavity If radiographic image of internal concavity is less dense than base metal, any
length is allowable. If more dense, then see burn-through above.
(3)
Undercut at Root Pass or Cap Pass Max allowable depth is 1/32" or 12 1/2% wall thickness, whichever is less. Max 2"
(Radiograph Plus Visual) length in any 12" or 1/6 of weld length, whichever is less, for depth of 1/64" to 1/32"
or 6 to 12% of wall thickness, whichever is less. Depths less than 1/64" acceptable
regardless of length.
Slag Inclusions (NPS 2 and Larger) Elongated: Max width 1/16". Max length 2".
Parallel slag lines: considered separate if width of either exceeds 1/32".
Isolated slag inclusions: max width 1/8" and 1/2" total length in any 12" of weld. No
more than four isolated inclusions of 1/8" max width in any 12".
Porosity Spherical and piping: Max dimension 1/8" or 25% of wall thickness, whichever is
less (6.61, 6.63). Max distribution shown in API STD 1104.
Cluster: Max area of 1/2" diameter with individual pore dimension of 1/16 in. Max
total length is 1/2" of weld.
Hollow bead: Max individual length 1/2 “.<R>Max 2" total length in 12" of weld with
individual discontinuities exceeding 1/4" in length separated by at least 2".
Weld Reinforcement at Finish Bead Max 1/16" by approximately 1/8" wider than original groove.
Accumulation of Discontinuities Maximum of 2" in any 12" or 8% of weld length excluding high-low and undercut
condition.
General Rights of rejection: “Since NDT methods give two-dimensional results only, the
Company may reject welds which appear to meet these standards of acceptability,
if in its opinion the depth of the defect may be detrimental to the strength of the
weld.”
(1) Cracks of any kind are detrimental and should not be allowed.
(2) For sour service (partial pressure of H2S ≥ 0.5 psi (0.35 kPa)) Chevron Canada Resources specifies none allowed. CAN3-Z183 and
CAN/CSA-Z184 codes suggest “additional restrictions on internal surface imperfections may be warranted for sour service.”
(3) As for Note 2, but only at the root pass.
where the concern is crevice corrosion. The notes to Figure 700-15 show the more
stringent requirements.
The use of more stringent standards should be carefully considered for each project.
In some areas it may be impossible to enforce higher standards because the welder
expertise is not available. Inability to meet higher specified standards after the
project has started could lead to disputes with regulatory agencies.
Section 434.8.5(a)(4) of Code B31.4 and Section 826.2(b) of Code B31.8 stipulate
these frequencies. Section 6.2.8.2 of CAN3-Z183 and Section 6.2.8.2.2 of
CAN/CSA-Z184 provide similar frequencies.
For noncritical lines the basic code frequency is quite low. In some cases this means
the radiographic crew is underworked. It is therefore usual to have the crew work
steadily for the full shift (if the crew is onsite anyway). For a small extra expense
for added film, you can thus achieve up to 50% inspection coverage and greatly
increased confidence.
External
• Fusion-bonded epoxy
• Extruded plastic film
• Coal tar enamel
• Tape
• Shrink sleeves
Internal
• Fusion-bonded epoxy
• Cement-lining
For guidelines on other external and internal coatings consult with nonmetallic and
pipeline coating specialists in the CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering Unit.
Specifications
These specifications are typical of those used for external coating inspection:
• COM-MS-4042, Fusion Bonded Epoxy for External Pipeline Coating.
• COM-MS-5006, Coal-Tar Enamel Corrosion Coating of Submarine Pipelines.
• NACE T-10D-10, Proposed Standard, Application Performance and Quality
Control of Plant-applied Fusion Bonded Epoxy External Pipe Coating.
• NACE RP-02 74-74, High Voltage Electrical Inspection of Pipeline Coatings
Prior to Installing.
• NACE T-10D-9C, Proposed Standard, Holiday Detection of Fusion Bonded
External Pipeline Coating of 10 to 30 mils.
• NACE RP-01 85-85, Extruded Polyolefin Resin Coating Systems for Under-
ground or Submerged Pipe.
• PA-129, Chevron Point Arguello Specification, Extruded Polyethylene Corro-
sion Coating with Butyl Adhesive. (CRTC Materials Division File No. 6.55.70)
• For wrap-around sleeves, the total slippage of the closure patch during applica-
tion should not exceed 1/2 inch
• The sleeve should overlap the adjacent mill coating by at least 2 inches on each
side
Holiday Detection. Perform detection in conjunction with the regular holiday
detection for the coating, before lowering into the ditch.
Destructive Inspection. Perform window testing on one sleeve of every 50
installed or twice per shift, whichever is the greater. On each sleeve tested, cut at
least one window in each of the overlap area, across the field girth weld, and in the
body of the sleeve. There should be no evidence of either voids extending to bare
metal (or mill coating) or areas of no adhesion. The girth weld should be
completely covered by adhesive.
Sleeve application is acceptable if both of the following requirements are met:
• The maximum dimension of any of these defects does not exceed 2 inches
• At least 95% of the adhesive layer is free of voids and/or lack of adhesion
If the sleeve does not meet the acceptance criteria above, the adjacent sleeves in
both directions should be destructively tested until acceptable installations are
found.
9. Ensure the overall safety of personnel, and suitability of equipment used in the
lowering-in and backfill operations.
10. Ensure that mechanical equipment does not damage the pipe during back-
filling, and that backfill material has no rocks or hard objects that may damage
coating.
Procedure
Along with the source of water, the most important concern in developing a proce-
dure for testing a long cross-country pipeline is the test pressures for different
sections of the line. These depend on design operating pressures, maximum allow-
able pipe pressures for various wall thicknesses, and ground elevations.
A procedure may be incorporated in the construction specification, but is more
often developed by the Company field organization in coordination with the
construction contractor. The procedure needs to be carefully thought through to
achieve an efficient and safe testing program.
Water Supply
Because of the large volume of water usually needed to fill the line, the source of
water establishes the point from which scrapers are run. Appropriate arrangements
must be made for acquisition of water supply. Booster pumps from a river or lake
and a temporary line to the pipeline may have to be installed. Often, temporary
scraper traps are needed to send and receive the construction completion test pigs.
The pressure test pump will normally be located with the pump for the scraper run
and line fill, but subsequently may need to be relocated down the line for sections
that require higher test pressures. If the flow for scraper run and line fill should be
the reverse of the direction of flow for normal operating, attention should be given
to check valves that might stop the reverse flow or block the pigs.
Water should be free from silt (screened with 200 mesh and filtered if necessary),
and noncorrosive and non-scale-forming for the period of time before the line is
dewatered and displaced with oil or gas. An oxygen scavenger is not usually
warranted, since, once free oxygen in the fill water is consumed by a negligible
amount of corrosion of the pipe wall, no further corrosion takes place. However, if
water is to be left in the line for a long period, it should be treated with a biocide
(such as glutaraldehyde) to prevent growth of anaerobic bacteria, which can
produce H2S and cause sulfide cracking of the pipe steel.
Biocides are often toxic and arrangements for their use and disposal should be
made well in advance. You should consider refilling the line after hydrotesting and
injecting the biocide into the second fill to avoid uncontrolled spills should pipe
Preliminary Testing
Preliminary testing of pipe strings before installation is recommended for sections
of line that may not be accessible later, such as major river crossings. Similarly, it
may be prudent to test short sections of line immediately after installation in cases
where later pipe or weld replacement would be difficult (and much more costly)
after the installation crew and equipment have left the site; for instance, at major
highway and main line railroad crossings, main irrigation canal crossings, etc.
Contractors
Construction contractors may perform testing operations with their own personnel
and equipment, or may subcontract to testing specialist contractors. In some cases,
the Company has conducted testing with assistance from contractor personnel.
Communications
Radio communications should be available during testing, connecting all personnel
with a central location, either directly or through relayed message links. A
Company engineer who is well acquainted with the testing program and basic
hydraulic calculations should be on duty or on call throughout the period of comple-
tion testing to initiate or approve modifications to the program and respond to line
failures if they occur.
Records
Clear and accurate records should be kept of all testing procedures and data. This is
required for lines under governmental jurisdiction and also by ANSI/ASME Codes.
See Section 830 for guidelines on inservice inspection and testing.
bends. If any such are present, the pig will either be stopped by the deformed
pipe, or will arrive at the incoming scraper trap with a severely bent gaging
plate.
Pumping equipment and water supply for a typical completion scraper run should
have a flow capacity corresponding to a velocity of roughly two miles per hour in
the pipeline, at a discharge pressure sufficient to overcome hydrostatic head and
fluid friction loss plus at least 100 psi to move the pigs. If debris in the line is
expected, higher pressure may be needed. A typical sequence of pumping and pigs
might be as follows:
• Approximately one-half mile of “wash” water (since dry dirt, dust, and mill
scale, even without larger trash, tends to pack and plug the scraper)
• A three- or four-cup displacement pig
• Approximately one-half mile of water, or at least 15 minutes’ pumping
• A second three- or four-cup displacement pig
• Again, approximately one-half mile of water, or at least 15 minutes’ pumping
• A three- or four-cup pig with a gaging plate in front of the first cup or in the
center of the pig
• Water to fill the line, unless additional brush scrapers at intervals of at least 15
minutes are used to further clean pipe walls because of service requirements, or
additional multicup pigs are considered necessary to displace air pockets in
particularly rough (up-and-down) terrain
Gaging Plates
The gaging plate diameter should be 93% of the minimum nominal internal diam-
eter of pipe in the particular section of line being tested. The plate should be accu-
rately machined, and the diameter, measured by micrometer calipers, should be
stamped on the plate. Three-eighths inch minimum thickness is suggested for a
steel plate (one-half inch if aluminum), so that it is not likely to be deformed by a
restricted pipe cross-section. The leading edge of the plate should be chamfered.
For large-diameter lines a steel reinforcing plate slightly smaller than the gaging
plate may be advisable.
If after running through the line, the gaging plate is deformed, nicked, or gouged,
possible causes should be reviewed and judgment made on accepting the line as
satisfactory. A gaging plate may catch on weld “icicles,” small pebbles, or other
acceptable irregularities at line appurtenances, as well as unacceptable deformed
pipe.
Monitoring Progress
While running the pigs, it is strongly recommended that the water volume pumped
into the line be metered and pressures at the pump continuously observed at conve-
nient locations down the line. Meter and pressure data versus time should be
recorded at a minimum of 15-minute intervals and whenever any sudden rise or
drop in pressure occurs. A pressure recorder should also be used. These data can be
used to analyze the location of the series of pigs should they hang up or plug.
Slight, repeated pressure variations are normal, since the pigs often momentarily
slow down until pressure builds up behind them, and then speed up.
It is also strongly recommended to follow the scrapers, continuously if the terrain
allows, or, otherwise, wherever the line is readily accessible. A scraping of the cups
inside the pipe can be heard while walking along the line but is likely to be
drowned out by vehicle engine noise. Sound-amplifying devices are very helpful,
with detector probes set into the ground or directly on the pipe, where accessible, as
at intermediate line block valves. A record should be kept of location versus time
when following the pigs. The temperatures of the water pumped into the line and of
the water that arrives with the pigs in the incoming scraper trap should be recorded;
this information is not pertinent to the scraper run, but may be useful in analyzing
hydrotest data. All this documentation may seem unnecessary after an uneventful,
satisfactory scraper run, but can be vital when trying to analyze locations of
suspected bad pipe or stuck pigs.
Pigs equipped with sonic transmitters can be detected and precisely located from
ground level. Because of cost and logistics they are not often used, but may be
warranted in situations where exploratory excavations to locate bad pipe or stuck
pigs would be very costly or impractical.
On long downhill slopes where pigs with a relatively small amount of water behind
them will run away from the line-fill water, an attempt should be made to hold a
back-pressure at the incoming scraper trap equivalent to the elevation head behind
the pigs.
Water Disposal
Arrangements for disposal of water received with the pigs, and later the displaced
line-fill water, should be carefully planned, particularly if environmental conditions
control disposal into natural drainage. In any case the water received with the pigs
should be run to a settling pond to catch mill scale and debris before it is released.
When the first displacement pig arrives at the incoming scraper trap, pumping
should be stopped until the pig and any debris are removed from the trap. Providing
the trap barrel is long enough to hold them, several of the following pigs can be
received without stopping flow, since there will be no large debris with them.
Should a pig stop at plugged or deformed pipe and have to be cut out of the line, it
is usually necessary to repeat that series of pigs from the outgoing scraper trap,
unless the plug is near the end of the section tested and little water has been lost
and little air has entered the line behind the pigs.
blocking the line in to hold pressure, and observing line pressure for a period of
time to determine if the line is tight.
Code Requirements
Section 437.4 of ANSI/ASME Code B31.4 covers hydrotesting of liquid lines, and
requires proof testing of every point in the system to not less than 1.25 times the
internal design pressure at that point for not less than 4 hours, followed by a
reduced pressure of not less than 1.1 times the internal design pressure for not less
than 4 hours. In other words, where lines are designed for maximum design pres-
sures stressing the pipe to 72% of specified minimum yield strength (SMYS), the
test pressure produces stresses of 90% of SMYS. API RP 1110, Recommended
Practice for Pressure Testing of Liquid Petroleum Pipelines, gives guidelines for
hydrotesting procedures and equipment, and a test record and certification form.
Section 841.3 of ANSI/ASME Code B31.8 covers testing of gas lines, and requires
testing for at least 2 hours to the pressures tabulated in Code B31.8 Table 841.322
(e). Depending on the Location Class the test pressure ranges from 79% to 56% of
SMYS if the maximum design pressure is based on design factors 0.72 to 0.40. See
Section 443 of this manual. Code B31.8 allows testing with air or gas in Location
Class 1 and air in Location Class 2, as well as with water. Code B31.8 has other
provisions for special circumstances.
Company Practice
Company practice is to test liquid lines to a pressure corresponding to 90% of
SMYS regardless of maximum design operating pressure, unless limited to a lower
pressure by valve or flange test pressure, and holding for a minimum of 24 hours or
as long as needed to determine that there is no unaccounted-for line leakage. Stabili-
zation of water temperature at ground temperatures and absorption of air remaining
in the line into the water take some time, usually much longer than the 4-hour Code
minimum, and affect the pressure in the line. After these effects have stabilized,
pressure will hold constant in a tight line. Occasionally, very slight leakage at a
flange, valve packing, or gage connection cannot be corrected, and this loss of
water can be related to a continuing loss of line pressure.
For gas lines Company practice is to test them hydrostatically with water to at least
the Code minimum test pressures and usually higher—up to 90% of SMYS,
depending on location, service, and cost of repairs in event of pipe or weld failure.
The test period should be a minimum of 24 hours, or as long as needed to deter-
mine that there is no unaccounted-for line leakage. For station piping which is
mostly aboveground, the shorter test periods allowed by the Codes are satisfactory.
is rarely limited by valve or flange test pressure (nominally 1.5 times maximum
allowable operating pressure for the valve or flange), but this should be checked.
For a short line having the same pipe grade and wall thickness for the entire length,
in level terrain, the hydrotest pressure P (psi) is readily calculated as follows:
• Section C-D. The low point downstream of C is the point for 90% SMYS.
Hydrotest pressure is elevation C-D minus the elevation at the low point, in
feet of design fluid. With the test pump at A, the test pressure at the pump is
elevation C-D minus elevation PS, in feet of design fluid.
Sections C-D, B-C, and A-B could be pressured in sequence at their respective
hydrotest pressures. However, if the test pump were at a source of water at the low
point near C, section C-D could be pressured but the test pump would then have to
be moved first to C to test section B-C, then to B to test section A-B, with the test
pressures at the pump taking into account the ground elevations at the pump when
pressuring the section.
The permissible maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) for the pipe-
line is established by the hydrostatic test. For pipelines in liquid service, the MAOP
at each point along the line is 1/1.25—or 0.80—times the hydrotest pressure at that
point, as indicated for location x on Figure 700-17. A more convenient calculation
for the MAOP at location x in psi, established by hydrotest, is given by the
following:
where:
tn = actual nominal wall thickness of the pipe, in.
tmin = pressure design wall thickness, in. (equal to the nominal wall
thickness less the corrosion/erosion allowance)
This hydrotest pressure should be used as a basis in selecting valve and flange
ratings. Valves and flanges having lower test pressure than the pipe hydrotest pres-
sure must be isolated so they are not overpressured.
Establishing hydrotest pressures for the line sections—and corresponding pressures
for the test pump discharge and for different locations along the line—does not
involve complex calculations. It does require a logical analysis of pressures calcu-
lated by the hoop stress equation, and a careful accounting for hydrostatic head
differentials for the different ground elevations along the line.
in the tank, and (3) pump stroke counter reading. At about 20-minute intervals
check the pressure recorder readings against the deadweight pressures to
confirm that the recorder is functioning properly. If there should be a sudden
drop in pressure, indicating a line break, record the pressure just before the
drop and stop pumping.
5. When the test pressure is reached, stop the test pump. Care must be taken not
to exceed the maximum test pressure, particularly for short lines. If the pres-
sure should drop below test pressure within a few minutes and then appear to
stabilize, resume pumping to raise the pressure to test pressure again while
continuing to observe and record data. Disconnect the pump from the line.
Continue observing and recording deadweight pressures at 5-minute intervals
for at least an hour, and 15 minutes thereafter until the end of the test.
6. In the event warm ground temperatures cause the line pressure to increase
above the maximum test pressure, water must be bled slowly and carefully
from the line to lower the pressure to test pressure. The water should be
drained to the tank so that the volume can be accurately measured, using the
deadweight tester for pressure data while lowering the line pressure. If line
pressure again rises to the maximum, this operation will need to be repeated.
7. In many cases the line pressure drops after first reaching test pressure, either
because the water has cooled to ground temperature or because of air absorp-
tion into the water at high pressure. If the drop is due to these effects, the rate
of pressure drop will decrease and the pressure will eventually stabilize and
hold. If pressure drops appreciably before finally stabilizing, the pressuring
pump should be reconnected and the pressure raised to test pressure, again
observing and recording data.
8. If the pressure drop has stabilized and the pressure held steady for at least 4
hours, the test can be considered satisfactory after 24 hours, or after 4 hours of
stabilized pressure if this takes longer than 24 hours.
9. At the end of a satisfactory test in which there are line block valves at the ends
of the section under test, the line is depressured until there is a positive pres-
sure of, say, 50 psi at the high point of the section. If it is necessary to make a
welded or flanged connection to the next section of line, then the line will have
to be drained sufficiently to make the connection.
While pressuring the line and holding pressure, all connections and manifolds in
the test section should be closely monitored for leakage and failure. Where feasible
work should be done to correct any leakage.
• A ground profile for the section of line to be tested, with a diagram showing
locations of scraper traps, block valves and check valves, pressure instruments,
and temperature instruments
• A diagram of the pumping and metering system for the scraper run and line
fill, from water source to the pipeline connection, including pressure-
measuring instruments, and a list of equipment data. If filtering or treatment of
the water is needed, the diagram should include this equipment
• A list of pigs to be run, gage plate diameter, and volumes of water to be
pumped ahead of and between pigs
• A list of detection devices for following and locating pigs
• A diagram for the pressure test pump system, from water source to the connec-
tion to the pipeline, including equipment for measuring volume of water
pumped into the line, pressure-measuring instruments, provision for overpres-
sure relief, and a list of equipment data
• Maximum and minimum test pressures at the pump and the primary pressure
instrumentation
• Calculated test pressures at other locations along the line
• Minimum period for holding the line at test pressure
• Calculation methods for analyzing effects of water temperature change, air
volume in the line, and water compression
• Identification of connections and appurtenances on the line that must be
blinded, plugged or disconnected. Mainline valves may be equipped with body
relief valves that must be plugged or removed. Hydrotest pressure should not
be applied to a closed valve if the pressure differential across the valve exceeds
the valve test shutoff pressure
• Precautions and measures required if ambient or night chill temperature is
below freezing
• Procedures required if daytime temperature and solar radiation effects on
exposed pipe or test equipment are likely to cause pressures to increase above
the maximum
• Safety precautions
• Communications units for Company and contractor
• Test personnel organizations for Company and contractor
• Notification of government agencies, where test witnessing is required
• List of agencies to be notified in event of a water spill resulting from a line
rupture
• Arrangement for aerial inspection service in event of line rupture or leak
The overall testing program should be described in outline form, with a tentative
schedule for the scraper run and pressure testing. This should indicate personnel
duties and work schedule for testing crews. Testing usually is done on a 24-hour-
per-day basis, possibly with a short interval between line fill and pressure testing. A
definite hour-by-hour schedule for the program cannot be set, since the rate of pig
travel and times to build up to pressure test and hold at test pressure can only be
estimated. Allowances must be considered for maintenance of test equipment and
possible pipe leaks and repairs.
(Eq. 700-4)
where:
dV = incremental volume in same units as V
V = fill volume of the section under test
dP = incremental pressure, psi
D = outside diameter, in.
t = wall thickness, in.
E = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi
= 30 x 106 psi
ν = Poisson’s ratio = 0.3
C = Bulk compressibility factor of liquid, per psi (the reciprocal of
the bulk modulus). See Figure 700-20.
The above equation thus becomes:
(Eq. 700-5)
Approximate values of C for water are shown in Figure 700-20.
Temperature changes will cause pressure changes in a tight line. The effect of the
thermal expansion (or contraction) of water, offset by the thermal circumferential
expansion (or contraction) of the pipe, yields a volume-temperature relationship
(for a restrained line) as follows:
(Eq. 700-6)
where:
β = volumetric coefficient of expansion of liquid/°F. See
Figure 700-21.
α = linear coefficient of expansion of the pipe per °F
= 6.5 x 10-6 per °F for steel
dT = temperature change, °F
From Equations 700-5 and 700-6, a pressure-temperature equation for a tight line is
as follows:
(Eq. 700-7)
Values of β for water are given in Figure 700-21.
For a long buried pipeline it is not feasible to measure the pipe/water temperatures
for the length of the line, and difficult to predict the effect daily ambient tempera-
ture variations may have on pipe and water temperature. It is important to allow
sufficient time after line fill for water temperatures to equalize with ground tempera-
tures. The time for equalizing will be a function of the differential between the
source water temperature and ground temperatures, as well as of the pipe diameter.
For a relatively long section of line, the temperature of the fill water reaching the
end of the section with the initial scraper run pigs will probably be close to the
ground temperature. Thus, an approximate temperature differential between water
entering the line and the ground can be estimated and used in judging the time
needed for water temperatures to equalize with ground temperatures.
Any air remaining in the test section will complicate an analysis of the pressure-
volume data obtained in hydrotesting. With increasing pressure, air is absorbed into
the water at an indeterminate rate—probably fairly quickly—until the saturation
point is reached. Once absorbed the air has no further effect, but any remaining free
air behaves as a compressed gas. The volume of this air can be calculated by
comparing the actual pressure-volume relationship from the hydrotest data at the
test pressure range with the theoretical pressure-volume relationship, as follows.
Using test data:
(Eq. 700-8)
A calculation for the percentage volume of free air in the test section then is:
(Eq. 700-9)
where P1 and P2 are absolute pressures, psia.
If there is some doubt whether sufficient time has been allowed for air absorption
and water-ground temperature equalization, allow some time, then bleed a
measured volume of water from the line, record the corresponding drop in pressure,
and use these data to calculate the percentage volume of free air.
Temperature changes and air in a test section cannot be calculated with great preci-
sion, but the calculations given can indicate the range of their effects for purposes
of analyzing a very slow drop in pressure. Additional temperature measurements
along the line may be warranted. Compressed free air hides the size of a slow leak,
and so should not be overlooked if its volume is more than a few percent.
Pipe Rupture
In the case of pipe rupture, pressures at the test pump and at available locations
along the section under test should be reported as soon as possible. Analysis of
hydrostatic heads will pinpoint the location of the rupture, or narrow the length of
line in which the rupture must have occurred. For example (referring to
Figure 700-19) the location of a pipe rupture that has occurred while testing section
B, where the observed hydrostatic head at the test pump at the river crossing corre-
sponds to the ground elevation differential between the river and the future pump
station, would be in the vicinity of the future pump station. However, if the terrain
is nearly level, line pressures will be essentially zero, and visual inspection along
the entire length under test will be necessary to locate the rupture. Unless under-
water, a pipe rupture is often easily spotted, as a wet area where the water has
drained out and usually by a pit washed out by the sudden release of water.
Leak Location
In the case of gradual loss of pressure, indicating a leak, the line should be repres-
sured to the hydrotest pressure. If there are line block valves within the section
under test, they should be closed to isolate shorter sections of line, and pressures
observed to determine the section with the leak.
Finding a leak (see Figure 700-22) may be difficult and time consuming. The leak
may or may not show as a wet spot on the ground, depending on the amount of
leakage and nature of the soil. The rate of leakage (volume) should be correlated
with the rate of pressure drop. This will give an indication of the amount of water
that has leaked out, the rate of leakage as time goes on, and the likelihood of
observing it. Sonic detection devices may be helpful in locating the leak (see
Section 840). Leaks from small defects in the pipe or weld usually increase with
time as the hole is enlarged by the “wire drawing” action of the water at high pres-
sure. On short lines it may be feasible to displace the water with air to which a
mercaptan odorizer has been added, and locate the leak by odor.
In wet areas or swamp, if a preliminary hydrotest has not been performed on the
pipe strings, addition of a biologically acceptable red or yellow dye to the line-fill
water may be warranted to help locate a leak.
Aerial Observation
Aerial inspection of the route under test is a good way to quickly search for the
location of a rupture or leak. Arrangements for aerial inspection and radio commu-
nications between plane and ground should be made in advance of the test so that
no time is lost if a rupture or leak occurs.
ment of the water. However, gas lines may require displacement with nitrogen or
drying to prevent hydrate formation. Dehydrating may be necessary to prevent
corrosion, as for CO2 service.
771 Dewatering
The basic dewatering procedure involves running a series of displacement pigs or
spheres propelled by the normal stock in the line, putting the pipeline system into
operating readiness. Some important factors to consider are as follows:
Disposal of the Displaced Water. Disposal of the displaced volume or water at the
intended flow rate should be planned carefully and must be acceptable to environ-
mental authorities. If the volume of water presents a problem at the pipeline
terminal, it may be feasible to release some of the water at intermediate points. If
treatment chemicals have been added to the water, environmental consequences
must be considered, particularly if biocides have been added to the fill water. See
Section 760.
For Liquid Lines. An adequate inventory of stock should be available to displace
the line or sections of line that can be isolated by block valves until another supply
of stock can be accumulated and dewatering resumed. While displacing water with
oil, the hydraulic profile for a two-stock system should be recognized (see
Section 420).
For Heated Oil Lines. A procedure must be developed for raising ground tempera-
tures sufficiently to avoid cooling heavy or waxy oil to temperatures that would
cause plugging when initially introducing it into the system. This may involve
startup with heated light oil or diluted heavy oil, or circulation of hot water. See
Section 810 for precautions involving initial warmup of hot lines.
For Gas Lines. To displace the water in hilly or mountainous terrain, sufficient
pressure must be available to overcome the hydrostatic head of the water. If there
are appreciable elevation differences along the line, control of pressure, rate of gas
flow into the line, and rate of water released should be carefully planned, with
consideration of the expansion of gas when it overcomes hydrostatic head at high
points and as fluid friction of the water decreases.
If gas pressure is not sufficient to overcome the hydrostatic head, the line must be
drained to the extent practical and nitrogen used for further dewatering to avoid
explosive gas-air mixtures. In calculating the required pressure and resultant
volume of nitrogen needed for displacement, the cumulative effect of the water
remaining in undrained low spots along the line must be taken into account.
Gas lines operating at pressures at which hydrate formation occurs must be dried or
have methanol injected to prevent hydrate formation. See Section 820.
781 Objectives
Although its primary function is to monitor and enforce the technical provisions of
the construction specifications, the Company field inspection organization, as part
of the construction supervision team, is responsible for achieving the overall project
objectives outlined in Section 670. Because construction operations for cross-
country pipelines extend over a considerable distance, individual inspectors and
field engineers must act as Company representatives in dealing with landowners,
tenants, governmental agencies and the public, in addition to inspecting craft work-
manship. They also have a very important role in enforcing Contractor compliance
with safe work practices (see Section 810).
790 References
Note Consult the latest edition of each reference for information.
General
1. Welding Inspection, American Welding Society. New York.
2. Guide for the Nondestructive Inspection of Welds, American Welding Society,
AWS B1.10. New York.
3. API Recommended Practice 5L8 for Field Inspection of New Line Pipe.
Visual Inspection
4. ANSI/ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V, Article 9. New York.
5. ANSI/ASME B31.4., Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping Systems, New
York.
6. ANSI/ASME B31.8., Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping, New York.
7. API STD. 1104, Standard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities, Wash-
ington, D.C.
Radiographic Inspection
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 03.03 - Nondestructive Testing (Refer-
ence No. 13 - 17):
13. ASTM E-94, Standard Guide for Radiographic Testing.
14. ASTM E-142, Standard Method for Controlling Quality of Radiographic
Testing.
15. ASTM E-390, Standard Reference Radiographs for Steel Fusion Welds.
16. ASTM E-1316, Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations,
Section D, Gamma- and X-Radiology.
Ultrasonic Inspection
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 03.03 - Nondestructive Testing (Refer-
ence No. 21 - 24):
21. ASTM E-164, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Contact Examination of Weld-
ments.
22. ASTM E-1316, Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations,
Section I, Ultrasonic Examination.
23. ASTM E-213, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Examination of Metal Pipe
and Tubing.
24. ASTM E-587, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Angle-Beam Examination by
the Contact Method.
25. ANSI/ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V, Articles 4 and 5.
New York.
Abstract
This section discusses several topics related to pipeline operations and mainte-
nance. It is not a comprehensive description of the organization and procedures for
operating and maintaining a pipeline system.
Contents Page
810 Safety
their solubility behavior. When the gas contains more than about 5% CO2 and/or
H2S, one should correct for the acid gas components, especially above 700 psia.
Figure 800-1 shows one correlation for lean, sweet natural gases containing more
than 70% methane and small amounts of heavy ends. This figure has been widely
used for gas dehydrator design and is adequate for most first approximations. In the
figure, hydrates will probably form for conditions below and to the left of the
hydrate formation line.
For systems that are more complicated, a more rigorous treatment should be
performed. The methods in the GPSA Data Book offer correction factors for most
deviations from normal. However, for best results, a gas compositional modelling
computer program, such as PPROP (available on the VM System), should be used.
Hydrates most commonly form when wet gas is expanded. Figures 800-2 to 800-7
correlate gas gravity with permissible gas expansion without forming hydrates.
Like Figure 800-1 they are first approximations only.
(Eq. 800-1)
Fig. 800-2 Pressure-Temperature Curves for Fig. 800-3 Permissible Expansion of a 0.6 Gravity
Predicting Hydrate Formation Natural Gas without Hydrate Formation
Fig. 800-4 Permissible Expansion of a 0.7 Gravity Fig. 800-5 Permissible Expansion of a 0.8 Gravity
Natural Gas without Hydrate Formation Natural Gas without Hydrate Formation
Fig. 800-6 Permissible Expansion of a 0.9 Gravity Fig. 800-7 Permissible Expansion of a 0.1 Gravity
Natural Gas without Hydrate Formation Natural Gas without Hydrate Formation
where:
d = difference between gas hydrate temperature and system tempera-
ture, °F
KH = 4000 for glycols
= 2335 for methanol
I = inhibitor ratio, lbm/MMSCF
MW = molecular weight of inhibitor
The total quantity of inhibitor injected must also be sufficient to inhibit the vapor
phase and provide for the solubility of the inhibitor in any liquid hydrocarbons.
Significant quantities of methanol will vaporize while glycol will not. The total
quantity of inhibitor needed in the vapor phase may be three times that needed for
the water phase.
Hydrates that form in pipelines must be treated carefully. Because pressure helps
form hydrates, depressuring the pipeline will often let the hydrate sublime. This is
the simplest method for lines that can be taken out of service.
When service must be maintained, large amounts of inhibitor (methanol is preferred
for this) may be injected. Sometimes the application of increased pressure will
loosen and blow out the hydrates. One must be careful not to exceed the maximum
allowable operating pressure (MAOP) of the pipeline.
For problem blockages in short gathering lines, try depressuring and circulation
with hot oil to heat the hydrate and the pipe. Pressure is often applied in conjunc-
tion with the hot oil. Again, be careful not to exceed the MAOP or maximum
temperature of the pipeline or its coating.
In extreme cases, the only solution is to sectionalize the pipeline by hot-tapping to
locate and remove the hydrate plug.
but specific inspection and testing measures and frequency are not defined. Each
pipeline operating organization should therefore develop a program suitable for its
particular facility. Other than where federal or state regulations mandate specific
inspection and testing intervals, the program must be tailored to the individual pipe-
line system. Consultation with Chevron Pipe Line Company is suggested for guide-
lines on in-service inspection and testing.
• Line pack or standup testing with the fluid normally handled after isolating
the section, at a pressure not exceeding the maximum operating pressure
The maximum allowable operating pressure should be determined taking into
consideration actual normal and abnormal operating pressures, limitations by
design codes for pipe grades and wall thickness, and limitations by valves, flanges
or other line appurtenances.
Operating demands usually limit the time available for testing. Therefore, the test
procedure must be well planned, giving consideration to all aspects and contingen-
cies. All needed facilities, including communications, should be ready, as well as
materials and construction equipment in event of a leak or a break. When testing in
wet weather or wet areas, consideration of using a water-soluble dye in the test
water may be warranted for identifying leak locations. Disposal of displacement
water must be arranged to comply with environmental restrictions.
Lines that have been idle for over 3 months and up to a year should have a satisfac-
tory standup test before returning to service. A line that has been idle for a year or
more should be hydrostatically tested with water to 1.25 times the maximum oper-
ating pressure before returning to service.
Guidelines for testing operating pipelines are available from Chevron Pipe Line
Company. These guidelines recommend that lines tested periodically be held at test
pressure for at least 4 hours. Also see Section 770 for discussion of completion
testing of new pipelines.
Wall Thickness
Pipelines with a wall thickness of 0.188 inch and above can be hot tapped with low
hydrogen electrodes without risk of burn through. Thinner wall thicknesses require
special procedures. See Section 500 of the Piping Manual. Wall thickness at the
point of hot tap should be checked by ultrasonic testing.
Welding Procedure
Low Hydrogen Electrodes. Only welding procedures and welders qualified with
low hydrogen electrodes (vertical up) should be used for hot taps and repair welds
on live pipelines. Low hydrogen electrodes have both a lower risk of burning
through and of weld cracking.
Welding Electrode Selection. For high strength pipe, the electrode strength must
be selected to match the pipe strength.
Pipe Grade
Special welding considerations are not required for the high strength X grades (X56
and above). These grades of steel have chemistries that are designed to be very
weldable. A weld rod with sufficient strength should be selected for these grades.
Inspection
Preweld Inspection. Prior to hot tapping, the wall thickness at the proposed hot tap
location should be checked with an ultrasonic thickness gauge.
Postweld Inspection. Following completion of the hot tap welding, a visual inspec-
tion and magnetic particle inspection of the attachment welds should be done.
Inspection methods and procedures are explained in Section 700 of this manual.
Also useful are Stopple fittings, used with sandwich valves and Stopple plugging
machines, such as furnished by T. D. Williamson, Tulsa, Oklahoma. These are
installed before cutting out a sectional pipe and will plug the line to avoid draining
the line. T. D. Williamson’s Lock-O-Ring flanges can be provided on the Stopple
fittings and for flanges on hot-tapped tees for temporary by-pass lines so that Lock-
O-Ring plugs can be inserted after line modifications are made, so that it is not
necessary to leave branch valves on the line. Refer to T. D. Williamson catalog for
details of use and installation.
be returned to service in good condition. This practice requires shutting down the
pipeline; when schedule considerations make this impractical, other repair methods
have to be employed, such as Plidco sleeves or full encirclement welded sleeves.
Full encirclement sleeves are recommended for repairs because, when properly
installed, they are load bearing, and Type B sleeves (fillet welded ends—see
Figure 800-9) are pressure retaining for through-wall defects. The practice of using
partial sleeves (half soles) is restricted by the codes to lower strength, older mate-
rials and has generally been discontinued because of the stress intensification along
the longitudinal fillet welds and the greater risk of failure if a surface defect such as
undercut or toe crack has been left.
Another application of full encirclement sleeves has been for the attachment of
anode leads when greater than a No. 15 Cadweld charge is required because of the
risk of copper contamination and cracking on the surface of the pipe. Direct attach-
ment of the anode leads to the pipe has been permitted for Cadwelds using a No. 15
or smaller charge.
Because full encirclement sleeves are generally used to repair pipelines that cannot
be taken out of service, their use must be given the same considerations as required
for hot tapping. These are:
• Stability of the product in the pipeline during welding and risk of explosive
reaction (e.g., spontaneous decomposition of ethylene)
• Minimum thickness to avoid burnthrough (0.188 inch)
• Reducing the operating pressure (generally to two-thirds or less) during repair
for personnel safety and to allow the sleeve to share hoop stress at operating
pressure. This is frequently not possible with liquids that convert into a vapor
at lower pressures (e.g., liquid petroleum gas and carbon dioxide)
• Risk of hydrogen cracking in the heat-affected zone for sour service operating
conditions
Welding Procedures
API RP 1107 covers Recommended Pipe Line Maintenance Welding Practices for
qualification of welding procedures and welders for full encirclement sleeves.
Welding procedures qualified to API RP 1107 are valid within the range of essen-
tial variables of their qualification. The test assembly for procedure qualification is
shown in Figure 800-10. Changes in essential variables requiring requalification are:
Welder Qualification
Welder qualification requirements for pipeline welding are discussed in
Section 750. The multiple qualification test does not qualify for sleeve welding
performed with low hydrogen (E7018) electrodes as recommended later on in this
section. The use of low hydrogen electrodes requires a separate welder qualification
test (a separate welding procedure qualification test is also required) which consists
of welding with the pipe and sleeve positioned 45 degrees from the horizontal (see
Figure 800-11). Essential variables requiring requalification are:
• Change in process
• Change in direction of welding (vertical uphill versus vertical downhill)
• Change from cellulosic to low hydrogen electrodes
• Change in diameter group except qualification on NPS 12 pipe qualifies for all
pipe diameters
• Change in nominal wall thickness group (same as procedure)
Sleeve Design
Several options exist regarding the design of full encirclement sleeves. Choices
exist for the welding of the ends of the sleeves and the joint design of the longi-
tudinal seams (see Types A and B sleeves in Figure 800-9)[1]. Sleeves with the
ends not welded are referred to as Type A sleeves. Type B sleeves have welded
ends. Longitudinal seams are either butt welded or lap welded using a butt strap.
The Company practice is to weld the ends (Type B sleeve) in order to retain pres-
sure and prevent corrosion in the crevice between the sleeve and the pipe. The use
of lap-welded joints is not recommended because tests [1] have shown them to be
inferior to butt-welded sleeves. The joint preparation for the butt welds in the sleeve
should be beveled and have a gap sufficient to be able to obtain a full penetration
weld. Full penetration sleeve welds will penetrate into the carrier pipe. In cases
where local wall thinning causes the wall thickness under the sleeve welds to be
less than 0.188 inch, a thin mild steel backing strip (1/16 inch) should be used to
help prevent burnthrough. These should be slipped underneath the sleeve as shown
in Figure 800-12. Backing strip material should be weldable and compatible with
the pipeline material. Materials other than mild steel should not be used.
In all cases, a sleeve should be fit as tightly as possible against the pipe in order to
provide structural strength. Sleeve thickness should provide sufficient strength to at
least match the line pipe strength or system flange rating pressure, whichever is
limiting. Where line pipe is limiting, sleeve thickness can be calculated as follows:
(Eq. 800-2)
where:
Ts = minimum sleeve thickness, in.
Tp = nominal pipe thickness, in.
Sp = SMYS for pipe, psi
Ss = SMYS for sleeve, psi
D = pipe outside diameter, in.
If flange rating pressure Pf is limiting,
(Eq. 800-3)
In either case, the sleeve thickness should not be less than the pipe wall thickness.
Welding
From the section on hot tapping, it can be noted that welding sleeves on pipelines
containing fluids can produce faster quench rates in the welds and heat-affected
zones. Depending upon the grade and carbon equivalent (C.E.) of the pipe,
heat-affected zone hardness can rise above the threshold where cracking can occur
if hydrogen is present from the weld metal. This is called hydrogen-assisted
cracking and is generally thought to require a microhardness above about 350
Vickers (Rc 35) in the heat-affected zone, high tensile stress, and a source of
hydrogen for it to occur. Heat-affected zone hardness is difficult to control because
more frequently than not, pipeline materials, thicknesses, and fluids being carried
will combine to produce fast cooling rates and high hardness. Residual stresses are
inherent to the welding process and also difficult to reduce. Of the three variables,
only hydrogen can be controlled to reduce the risk of cracking. This can be done
through the use of a welding procedure using low hydrogen electrodes (E7018). An
additional feature of using low hydrogen electrodes is their characteristic of less
penetration than obtained with cellulosic electrodes (e.g., E6010 and E7010)
conventionally used for pipeline welding. This provides an additional margin of
safety to avoid burnthrough when welding on thinner materials.
Dents
When full encirclement sleeves are used to repair dents, the space between the dent
and the sleeve should be filled with a hardenable material like an epoxy resin so
there is good contact between the pipe and the sleeve. One method is to apply the
epoxy resin to the dent with a trowel and then contour it to the original pipe circum-
ference before the sleeve is installed and welded in place. Care should be taken to
assure that the void between the sleeve and the pipe is completely filled.
Inspection
The fillet welds at the ends of full encirclement sleeves have been the site of under-
bead cracking which was the cause of at least one recent pipeline failure [2]. While
the use of cellulosic electrodes and higher strength pipe (X52) were separated out
as the main causes of cracking, it was brought out that inspection of these welds
should be routinely done even with low hydrogen electrodes. Inspection should be
by visual examination and magnetic particle inspection. Particular attention should
be given to looking for cracks along the toe of the fillet on the pipeline side.
• A contingency repair plan should be prepared for corrective actions for situa-
tions of varying degrees of severity. It should identify (1) recurring problems
requiring routine periodic correction, (2) problems that may arise for which
standard procedures can be implemented without engineering involvement, and
(3) critical problems requiring engineering investigation and resolution. Neces-
sary materials and construction equipment to make repairs on an urgent basis
should be available near the areas of risk
• A postevent monitoring plan with checklist for reporting as soon as possible
whether damage is severe or relatively minor. The initial inspection checklist
should identify specific system components and ground conditions that are
good indicators of damage. Ground condition indicators include: ground
cracks; misalignment of roads, trees, fences, pole lines, railroad tracks, etc.;
ground sags, sinkholes, or uplifts; signs of damage to other nearby utility lines.
As soon as possible after strong events, a thorough investigation should be
made by responsible operations and technical personnel to determine the condi-
tion of the pipeline, safety of resuming operations, and necessary corrective
repairs or replacement
In making repairs to a line damaged by ground displacement, precautions should be
taken in cutting the pipe to avoid fire or injury in view of likely sudden release of
high strain energy stored in the line. Also precautions should be taken for possible
hydrocarbon spills in the soil and for unstable ground conditions.
• Factors that affect lowering—the pipe, the pipeline and its condition, terrain,
soil, and stress
• Safety—pressure reduction, excavation safety, response to emergencies, protec-
tion of personnel and the public
• Stresses—existing stress in the pipeline, lowering induced stresses, measuring
and calculating stresses, support spacing, safe limits on stresses
• Failure modes—ruptures, leaks, or buckles from improper lowering operations
• Procedures—Initial review, trench types and profiles, lowering alternatives,
measuring stresses, minimizing temporary stresses, inspection
The following computer programs are available from Chevron Pipeline Co., San
Francisco.
PDROP. Calculates trench length, maximum pipeline stress, and added stress for
free deflection of a pipeline
TRENCHZ. Calculates trench length and profile during lowering while keeping
below a given stress limit
SUPPORT. Calculates the range of distance between pipeline supports required to
minimize the stress in the pipeline during lowering
PLIFT. Calculates the lift-off lengths, maximum stress, and force required to lift
the center of the pipeline to the specified height. (This program can be used to deter-
mine initial pipeline stress)
These programs have been validated. However, the TRENCHZ program may not
produce exact results in every situation, especially with small diameter pipelines,
due to the inaccuracy of the PC FORTRAN in calculating soil/pipeline interaction
stresses. The accuracy level is adequate for most pipeline applications.
890 References
1. Kiefner, J. F., Repair of Line Pipe Defects by Full Encirclement Sleeves,
Welding Journal, June 1977.
2. U.S. Department of Transportation, Office of Pipeline Safety. Alert Notice.
March 13, 1987.
3. Kiefner, J. F., T. A. Wall, N. D. Ghadiali, K. Prabhat, and E. C. Rodabaugh,
Guidelines for Lowering Pipelines While in Service, Batelle Columbus Labora-
tories, February 25, 1985.
Abstract
This section discusses worldwide offshore pipeline design and construction prac-
tices. These practices are similar in many respects to onshore practices. This section
focuses on the U.S. regulations for design techniques, construction methods, and
specialized components required for offshore pipelines. It also discusses subsea
pipeline repairs.
The position taken by this Offshore section of the manual is that a minimum the
Company will use U.S. Standards and Codes, worldwide, but not necessarily U.S.
regulations in foreign locations. Where there are no regulations, Company Pipeline
specifications govern. Regulations on a worldwide basis, are not covered since they
are quite different in some countries.
Contents Page
DOT Pipelines
• Part 192—Transportation of Natural and Other Gas by Pipeline: Minimum
Federal Safety Standards
• Part 195—Transportation of Hazardous Liquids by Pipeline
DOI Pipelines
• Part 250—Oil and Gas and Sulfur Operations in the Outer Continental Shelf
The two governing Departments concerned with pipeline-related matters are the
Department of the Interior (DOI) and the Department of Transportation (DOT). Per
their Memorandum of Understanding, the DOI’s area of responsibility includes
those pipeline facilities beginning where hydrocarbons are first produced and
continuing to the outlet flange at each facility where the produced hydrocarbons are
first separated, dehydrated, or otherwise processed. The DOT’s area of responsi-
bility extends from this outlet flange shoreward. See Section 991.
The major source of regulations pertaining to both DOT onshore and offshore
liquid pipeline design is 49 CFR 195, which contains a complete list of industry
standards, codes, and specifications (see Part 195.3) that are incorporated. The most
valuable is ANSI/ASME B31.4 which contains design requirements in Chapter 2.
Corrosion allowance, internal pressure, and external pressure are discussed, as well
as the presentation of equations (also see Section 410).
Similarly, the major source of regulations pertaining to both DOT onshore and
offshore gas pipelines is 49 CFR 192. Appendix A of Part 192 contains a list of
industry standards, codes, and specifications that are incorporated. This includes
ANSI/ASME B31.8. Multiphase pipelines shall be designed in accordance with
ANSI/ASME B31.8.
Annual reports and incident reports for DOT pipelines are covered by 49 CFR 191.
DOI offshore pipelines are regulated by 30 CFR 250. This document is a “must” for
offshore liquid and gas pipelines. Documents incorporated by reference are given in
Part 250.1. Subpart J contains requirements for “Pipelines and Pipeline Rights-of-
Way.”
are first processed. The criteria also apply to any transportation piping facilities
located on a production platform after separation and treatment, including meter
facilities, gas compression facilities, liquid pumps, and associated piping and appur-
tenances.
Each overseas location may have similar requirements to obtain approval of pipe-
line permits.
914 Certification
Following completion of pipeline construction, in the U.S., a completion report
must be filed with the permitting agency (for DOI pipelines, see 30 CFR Part
250.158). Information to be included in the completion report includes an “as-built”
plat showing coordinates of key pipeline locations, a complete set of all hydrostatic
test data, and the results of the hydrostatic test. The permitting agency reviews this
information and, if everything is in order, issues a letter of certification. The letter
of certification must be maintained on record for the life of the pipeline.
survey coverage is arranged for and provides appropriate descriptions for right-of-
way applications.
Route selection progresses in stages. Initially, based on available seabed informa-
tion and general routing requirements, a possible corridor is identified. As site-
specific information from surveys and pipeline design becomes available, the align-
ment is firmed. In certain instances, optional alignments may be carried, until an
installation technique is selected.
The following factors should be addressed during the route selection process.
(Items 3 through 10 are design considerations.)
1. End points. At a platform, the location of risers or J-tubes will suggest routing.
The location of a riser on a particular face of a platform can lead in many cases
to lines having significant curvature. The minimum curvature is determined
based on the nominal tension and soil friction, see Section 936. This is not
normally necessary for thermal expansion or other stress considerations. A
pipeline end manifold (PLEM) will also have a preferred approach. A shore
crossing point will fix the termination and influence the associated alignment.
2. Intermediate points. Current or future plans may include additional tie-ins from
other facilities. It may be advantageous to run the first line close to these other
locations and thus minimize the expense of connecting the other pipelines.
Should tap valves be installed on the line as it is laid, it is preferred that they be
in a straight run to minimize the rolling tendency.
3. Thermal expansion. An allowance may be necessary for thermal expansion. An
offset (or “Z” bend) is typically provided in these cases.
4. Access by others. In congested areas, for example around platforms, the ability
to install all anticipated facilities (pipelines, cables, mooring systems) should
be provided for. A clear area should be left for a Jack-up drilling rig (or Tender
drilling rig mooring) for applicable water depths/platforms.
5. Line crossings. Crossings are undesirable because they are expensive and may
require future inspection and maintenance. They should be avoided if it is
possible to reroute the pipeline at lesser expense, see Section 969.
6. Tie-in methods. Flanges, mechanical connectors, or welding are typically used.
The need for flexibility using spools, deflect-to-connect methods, etc., will
suggest different pipeline routing.
7. Installation method. The ability to spot the pipeline in a location is important.
Towing techniques usually require a straighter alignment than surface deploy-
ment from lay or reel barges. Whether the pipeline is laid to or from an end
point will likely influence the local route. For multiple lines, the ability to
maintain separation is critical. The installation method, pipeline, and seabed
characteristics will determine the allowable curvature (or minimum radius) in
the alignment (see Section 936).
provides adequate water depth for common lay barges may prove to be a less
expensive option than a direct route through shallow water.
Minimum water depths for pipeline routing should consider the effect of tidal
variations and ground swells in addition to the minimum draft requirements of
the lay vessel. For instance, in Nigeria, swells in excess of 8 ft were recorded
during the installation of the Inda pipeline; this made installation of the pipe-
line in water depths less than 20 ft along the shore approach difficult and more
dangerous than installation in deeper waters.
922 Surveying
Once the area of possible construction is defined, surveys are contracted to obtain
site-specific information supporting design and/or agency requirements. This
includes bathymetry, seabed characteristics, soil properties, stratigraphy, hazards,
cultural resources, biological activity, and environmental data. Survey data acquisi-
tion should be appropriately scheduled as there can be time constraints on the
acceptability of the data by agencies.
A good understanding of the regional shallow geology often helps in anticipating
geohazards and planning the scope of the surveys. In the Gulf of Mexico, one can
expect complex seafloor conditions on the continental slope and relatively uniform
conditions on the shelf.
To avoid expensive remobilizations, a firm understanding of the coverage and field
data requirements should be in hand before initiating the survey process. While the
offshore work can be done relatively quickly, it is relatively expensive. Be sure that
adequate data is collected to satisfy the regulatory agencies and the contractors
bidding on the project, and to allow for possible modifications to the proposed
route. Data reduction is time consuming. The data use and the consequences of vari-
ances should be well understood. This will permit making decisions on data acquisi-
tion alternates. For example, if jetting into the seabed is planned, obtaining a soil
boring may be attractive to ensure that contractors are working with confirmed, and
not inferred, data. This is not necessary in mature areas, such as the Gulf of
Mexico, if the Company has confirmed data for the block/area.
Agencies will typically have requirements for conducting pre- and postconstruction
surveys. The type of survey, tie-line spacing, report format, and raw data to be
collected should be identified. (Note: Federal and State requirements are usually
different in some respects. Discussion of the proposed program with the involved
agencies is recommended prior to bidding and data acquisition.)
Surveys are generally conducted simultaneously from a surface vessel on a predeter-
mined survey grid. Today, satellite positioning is the primary system for conducting
offshore surveys and locating construction vessels. Alternatively, a radio posi-
tioning system from shore or fixed platforms could be established to locate the
vessel while conducting the surveys. There are a few radio positioning systems still
in use but are considered secondary systems in most cases. Navigational posi-
tioning system accuracy can be plus or minus 20 feet, depending on the system.
Current MMS requirements specify a minimum accuracy of five meters or less.
Bathymetry
Echo sounders are run continuously over the area; and the trace, after calibrating
for the effects of salinity and temperature, provides raw depth readings. These must
be further adjusted for tides and transducer location to develop depths related to a
datum (e.g., mean-lower low water, MLLW). The data are contoured and an isobath
map produced. Analog profiles of the bathometry are used to detect gas rising to the
surface from the sea floor.
Side-Scan Sonar
A tool is towed behind the boat at a constant height above the seafloor along a
predetermined grid that will provide a 100 percent coverage of the area of interest.
Sonic pulses are emitted toward the seabed, reflected, and received by the tool and
recorded on the boat. The shadows and shading on the record are interpreted for
seabed materials and objects on the sea floor. Obstructions, outcrops, anchor scars,
pipelines, etc., can be identified and mapped. A mosaic of the side scan records can
be assembled showing the seabed configuration, but is not required by the MMS as
a part of the preconstruction survey documentation. The MMS only requires a
paper copy of the side scan data. A short baseline acoustic tracking system may be
used to rovide more accurate positioning of the sonar tool. However, such a
tracking system does not improve the quality of the side-scan data. Side-scan sonar
data is also used to identify gas rising to the surface from the sea floor.
Use of side-scan sonar can be limited in locations close to platforms and structures
because of difficulties towing the tool close to the platform and signal reflection
from structural members can cause distorted images. Radial scan sonars (i.e. those
tools that provide a full 360° coverage around a point) are widely available. These
are designed to be deployed from platforms. Divers are often used to supplement
side scan-conar near platforms and structures.
Magnetometers
A tool is towed behind the boat on the surface, continuously recording the magnetic
field. Magnetometers are commonly used to locate pipelines and metallic objects.
Changes are correlated with ferrous metal objects, and large changes may be identi-
fied on the side-scan sonar records. Magnetic anomalies are one means of estab-
lishing cultural resources, but because of the limited data collected on the survey,
significant features may be missed. This is particularly true of data from a surface-
towed tool in deep water. MMS standards are normally 1 gamma sensitivity with a
noise level not exceeding 3 gammas peak-to-peak (i.e., plus or minus 1.5 gammas).
Gradiometers, which consist of an array of magnetometer sensors, are often used
for similar applications.
meters within the upper 15 meters of sediment.) The energy source is typically
piezo-electric or electromechanical. De-coupling and/or active compensation for
wave heave is used in seastates greater than Beaufort Force 2 to achieve clearly
interpretable recordings. In deep water, near-bottom towing or narrow-beam sound
sources are usually necessary to achieve cleaner horizontal resolution. The signals
are reflected when they reach different material interfaces and are recorded. The
traces sometimes allow interpretation of the seabed material and stratigraphy when
referenced to available samples. Faults, gas sands, mudslides, dip of subsurface
strata, sediment thickness, etc., can be mapped.
Medium depth acoustic profilers known as “sparkers” or “boomers”, that are often
used in seismic surveys, can be used to profile the subbottom to a depth of 300
meters. The MMS standards do not waive the use of medium depth acoustic
profiles for shallow hazards survey.
Sampling
Drop cores, grab samples, borings, and vibra cores are means for obtaining seabed
samples. The first two are relatively easy and inexpensive to deploy. However, they
may not obtain the required penetration. Grab samples may not always be represen-
tative, and later testing of soil engineering properties may be impossible or not
meaningful. Borings and vibra cores may be necessary in these circumstances.
Samples are preserved in a near-natural state and then analyzed in a laboratory to
determine the engineering properties needed for pipeline design.
In Situ Testing
Seafloor deployed cone penetrometer and field vane tests, when used in conjunction
with sampling at key locations can be an effective alternative to sampling alone.
These in-situ tests cause less disturbance to soil than drop cores and grab sampling.
They are also easier to set up than soil borings.
accomplished in terms of the strengths and weaknesses of the ROV’s and the tools
and techniques employed and 4) to identify research and development now
underway that will eliminate current ROV deficiencies in support of underwater
pipeline operations.
The main type of ROV used in support of offshore pipeline operations are tethered,
free-swimming vehicles. Best results using ROV’s can be achieved by employing
experienced operators and marine crew. In this regard, it is not wise to contract on
the basis of the lowest bidder, but based on previous experience/cost.
Subsea instrumentation for ROV pipeline support can include: cameras, pipe
trackers, cathodic protection, side scan or scanning sonar, sub-bottom profiler, alti-
tude/depth sensors, bottom profilers, monitors, ultrasonic thickness measurement
and dredges.
Potential application of this technology includes: route surveys, underwater inspec-
tion, maintenance and repair of offshore pipelines using various types of ROV’s,
manned submersibles, etc.
Submersibles
Manned vehicles can also be deployed. They serve the same function as ROV’s, but
put personnel in closer proximity.
Divers
In shallow water areas, for example at shore crossings, divers may be used to gather
seabed data. Video, still pictures, and samples can be obtained. One difficulty is
locating the diver during the survey. A staff protruding above the water and
surveyed from shore has been used effectively. Hand or jet probes have been used
to identify the thickness of loose sediments (15-foot maximum).
for heavily developed regions in the Gulf of Mexico shelf. In some frontier regions,
measurements and hindcasts may be needed. CPTC’s Facilities Engineering Depart-
ment - Offshore Systems Division (Contact: Cort Cooper, CTN 842-9119) can
provide environmental criteria using a combination of their extensive data base and
numerical models.
Offshore pipeline environmental criteria is slightly different than that required for
platform design. Environmental data is required for on-bottom stability design/anal-
ysis (see Section 935 for procedures). For shallow water depths, i.e. less than about
65 ft offshore West Africa, it is important to consider directionality in the wave and
current. The maximum wave height and current values may not be the most critical
if they are parallel to the pipeline. Lower values perpendicular to the line may result
in higher loads. CPTC should be given the pipeline route details so that direction-
ality can be considered in determining the worst case wave and current values.
930 Design
This section presents methods that permit determination of important pipeline
criteria necessary for preliminary selection of pipeline parameters. Figures 900-1
and 900-2, provided by Brown and Root, show all the steps required for preliminary
and detailed engineering design. Section 930 does not cover all of these. Also see
API RP 1111.
Pipeline Manual
900-15
November 1994
900 Offshore
Fig. 900-2 Detailed Engineering Design (Courtesy of Brown and Root)
November 1994
900 Offshore
900-16
Chevron Corporation
Pipeline Manual
Pipeline Manual 900 Offshore
Fig. 900-3 Notations for a Suspended Pipe and Curved Stinger, Conventional S-Curve Lay Barge
Type Of Pipe
Seamless and submerged arc welded pipe have been used exclusively for offshore
pipelines by the Company, until recently. For diameters up to NPS 16 seamless has
been used, while for diameters from 18 to 36 inches NPS double submerged arc
weld pipe (DSAW) has been used. Electric welded pipe (ERW) has been avoided
because of its past reputation for poor quality. However, pipe produced today in
Fig. 900-4 Suggested Values for Minimum Yields Strengths (ksi) for Pipe
Water Depth, Ft.
Pipe Diameter,
OD, In. 0-300 300-600 600-900 +900
6.625 35 42 52 60
8.625 35 42 52 65
10.750 35 42 60 65
12.750 35 42 65 65
14 42 42 65 65
16 42 52 65 65
18 52 60 65 65
20 52 60 65 65
24 52 60 65 65
30 60 65 65 65
36 60 65 65 65
modern mills with high quality material should be considered for offshore applica-
tions. ERW is available in sizes up to 24 inch NPS and is usually less in cost
compared to seamless above about 10 inches and with DSAW from 16 to 24 inches.
Savings of 20 to 25 % have been seen in bids on recent projects. See Section 300 of
this manual for an ERW selection decision tree which gives guidance on specifica-
tions, inspection and mill sources for ERW pipe.
Whenever the costs are comparable between ERW and seamless or between ERW
and DSAW , seamless pipe is the preferred product.
Electric welded pipe, including ERW can now be made with quality manufacture
and lower cost and should be considered for use in non-critical services. For
example, $4/ft (1992 dollars) can be saved as compared with seamless for a 12.75-
inch O.D., 0.500-inch wall thickness pipe having a length of 25 miles.
COPI/Chevron Nigeria plan to use ERW pipe for the Inda, Idama, Opuekeba and
Okan II projects where cost effective. A project specification was developed for the
Okan II Bid Package for seamless, DSAW or electric welded. (For future and
current projects, please contact CRTC’s Materials and Equipment Engineering
Unit, Richmond, CA for a list of qualified pipe manufacturers and prepara-
tion/review of line pipe specifications.)
Corrosion Allowance
Carbon steel pipelines have been commonly designed without corrosion allow-
ances. In services were corrosion is anticipated a corrosion allowance should be
considered to extend the life of the pipeline. Corrosion allowance for a water injec-
tion line may be taken as 0.125-inches. For conceptual design cost estimates
assume 0.0625-inches. For corrosive products such as high CO2/H2S/H2O gas, etc
please contact the CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering Group in Rich-
mond, CA for a recommendation on corrosion allowance. (See also Section 315 of
this manual and API 1111.)
PD D
t = -------- for ---- > 10
2S t
or,
PD D
t = ------------------------ for ---- ≤ 10
2S + 0.8P t
(Eq. 900-1)
where:
P = Internal design pressure, psig (the differential pressure between
the maximum internal pressure and the minimum external pres-
sure at any point in the pipeline system during normal flow or
static conditions)
D = Nominal outside diameter of the pipe, in.
S = Applicable allowable hoop stress value as provided below, psig
t = Nominal wall thickness, in.
From API RP 1111, the allowable hoop stress value(s) to be used for the above
design calculations for new pipe of known specification is:
S = F × E × SMYS × T
(Eq. 900-2)
where:
S = Allowable hoop stress value, psig, except when further limited as
follows: when pipe that has been cold worked for the purpose of
meeting the SMYS is heated to 316°C (600°F) or higher
(welding excepted), the allowable hoop stress (S) is limited to 75
percent of F × E × SMYS. (Comment: the S value shown in
ANSI/ASME B31.4, Table 402.3.1a is based on F = 0.72. When
other design factors are used, the value of S should be adjusted
accordingly.)
F = Construction factor, dimensionless
The design factor, F, should be equal to 0.72 for submarine gas
and liquid hydrocarbon pipelines; 0.60 for liquid risers; and 0.50
for gas risers.
Note Per ANSI/ASME B31.4 and B31.8, factors differ based on loading: 0.72 for
normal pressure; 0.9 for pipeline flooded during hydrotesting; 0.96 for combined
loading including operation and environment. Per API RP 14E, Section 1.2 the
design stress should be no greater than 0.6 times SMYS for production platform
risers. However, the 0.6 design factor does not meet the minimum requirement for
DOT gas lines. 49 CFR 192.111(d) requires a design factor of 0.50 or less for
risers on gas pipelines and must be used for gas pipeline risers on production plat-
forms in the U.S.
E = Weld joint factor (Refer to ANSI/ASME B31.4, Table 402.4.3 or
ANSI/ASME B31.8, Table 841.1B.) Note that E is equal to 1.00
for all pipe manufactured to API Specification 5L.
SMYS = Specified minimum yield strength, provided in the pipe manufac-
turing specifications, according to API 5L or B31.4 or B31.8.
T = Temperature derating factor, normally 1.0 (see B31.4 or B31.8
for high temperatures).
For the U.K. Sector of the North Sea , please refer to British Standard BS 8010,
Part 3 for the hoop stress and wall thickness formulae.
Buckle Propagation
Experiments on pipe buckling conducted by Battelle Columbus Laboratories in the
early 1970’s revealed a buckle phenomena referred to as a “propagating buckle.”
This describes the situation where a transverse dent (that may have been caused by
excessive bending during installation, dragging anchors, trawl board damage or by
any other cause) changes its configuration into a longitudinal buckle and propagates
along the pipe, possibly causing collapse along the entire pipeline length. The
driving energy that causes a buckle to propagate is the hydrostatic pressure.
The nature of a propagating buckle is that a greater pressure level is required to
initiate a propagating buckle (called the buckle initiation pressure, Pi) than the pres-
sure required to maintain propagation of the buckle (called the buckle propagation
pressure, Pp). As a consequence of this, a buckle initiated in an offshore pipeline
propagates and collapses the line until the external pressure becomes equal to or
less than the propagation pressure. This assumes that the pipe properties (wall thick-
ness and yield strength) remain the same.
Theoretical and experimental equations have been developed to predict the propaga-
tion pressure. A summary of the different equations that have been proposed to
predict buckle propagation pressure is presented as follows:
Source Pp , Propagation Pressure
Palmer π σy (t/D)2 (Eq. 900-3)
Battelle 34 σy (t/D)2.5 (Eq. 900-4)
DnV 1.15 π σy [t/(D-t)]2 (Eq. 900-5)
Kyriakides 14.5 σy (t/D)2.25 (Eq. 900-6)
Shell 24 σy (t/D)2.4 (Eq. 900-7)
Of the above equations, the theoretical one by Palmer (Equation 900-3) is the most
conservative.
K p ⋅ W d 0.4167
t = D -------------------
54σy
(Eq. 900-8)
where:
t = Minimum wall thickness to prevent buckle propagation, in.
D = Outside diameter of the pipe, in.
Kp = Safety factor of 1.20
Wd = Water depth, ft
σy = Specified minimum yield strength (SMYS), psi
Buckle Initiation
The pipeline D/t ratio may be sized so that it falls between the buckle initiation pres-
sure and the propagation pressure. This means that the hydrostatic water pressure
may or may not be high enough to transform a local buckle into a propagating
buckle. The uncertainty lies in the actual shape of the local buckle. If the pipeline
were designed to resist a propagating buckle, a local buckle would not be able to
propagate. This would be the only case where buckle arrestors would not be
required. (Note that the exact values where the initiation and propagation pressures
occur are subject to debate. There have been several different experimental
programs performed over the years to define these values and each has come up
with slightly different results.)
The initiation pressure depends on the geometry and, particularly, on the initial size
of the buckle. Pi may be significantly higher than Pp for minor damage, but may
approach Pp for a severely damaged pipe. If the local damage is a buckle developed
by pure bending, then Pi = 1.5 Pp. The two different experimental equations that
have been proposed to predict buckle initiation pressure are as follows.
Theoretical Pi, Initiation Pressure
Battelle 6.055 × 105 (t/D)2.064 (Eq. 900-9)
Shell 36 σy (t/D)2.4 (Eq. 900-10)
2E 1
P c = --------------2- -------------------------2-
1 – υ D D
---- ---- – 1
tt
(Eq. 900-11)
where:
Pc = Critical collapse pressure for the pipe, psi
E = Elastic modulus, psi
υ = Poisson’s ratio = 0.3
D = Pipe outside diameter, in.
t = Pipe wall thickness, in.
The critical elastic buckling pressure is valid for pipe with a very high D/t ratio
(greater than 75). In practice, residual ovalization is usually present, and significant
deformation of the pipe surface may occur prior to collapse. Hence, the hydrostatic
collapse pressure is also a function of the yield properties.
t 2
P c = 2σ e ⋅ ---- for σ e ≤ --- σ y
D 3
(Eq. 900-12)
or,
2
t 1 2σ y
P c = 2σ y ⋅ ---- 1 – --- ---------
D 3 3σ e
2
for σ e > --- σ y
3
where:
t 2
σ e = E ------------
D – t
(Eq. 900-13)
P c = K c W d /2.25
(Eq. 900-14)
where:
Kc = Safety factor to prevent collapse = 1.33
Wd = Water depth, ft
• Use either Figure 900-5 or 900-6, based on the above discussion of the pipelay
method. Reading down the column for the chosen pipe grade (i.e., minimum
yield strength), let Pc = P and interpolate to obtain D/t.
• Knowing the outside diameter of the pipe D; calculate the required minimum
wall thickness, t, to prevent collapse.
Alternatively, the “PLDESIGN” PC program or Shell’s equations for Pc may be
used. (See the PC program description provided below or Combined Bending and
Collapse, Eq. 900-16).
Design Criteria
Pipelines can be designed to meet propagation pressure criteria or collapse criteria.
For shallow water pipelines, the pipe should be designed to meet propagation
criteria (discussed earlier in this section).
For larger diameter pipelines or in water depths greater than about 1200 feet,
selecting a pipe wall thickness adequate to resist a propagating buckle can make the
pipe expensive, too heavy to install by conventional means, or, in the event of a
flooded pipeline during construction, the suspended pipe weight may become exces-
sive. Therefore, the less conservative collapse criterion discussed above should be
applied, and the use of buckle arrestors is necessary (see the discussion below). The
cost of materials continues to increase with increasing water depths beyond 1200
feet and is limited because of this change in the controlling wall thickness criterion.
For installation methods that require minimal submerged weight, the collapse
design criterion is preferred. In addition, tow methods induce minimal bending
stress in the pipe; therefore, the risk of inducing collapse is low. Pipe collapse
criteria, rather than buckle propagation, are preferred for all pipe diameters using
installation by towing methods. (If your application possibly falls in the last two
categories, we recommend that you contact the OS Division of CPTC for assis-
tance.)
(Eq. 900-15)
Fig. 900-5 Collapse Pressure PC (psi) for Pipe with Ovality ∆D/D = 1.5%. No Bending Applied.
Fig. 900-6 Collapse Pressure PC (psi) for Pipe with Ovality ∆D/D = 2.5%. No Bending Applied
where:
P = External pressure differential, psi
Pc = Critical external pressure for pure collapse, considering ovality of
the pipe, psi
ε = D/2ρ
= Critical bending strain at the maximum bending moment
ρ = Pipe centerline radius of curvature at maximum bending moment,
inch.
εc = Critical bending strain for pure bending, including ovality of the
pipe
If either the bending strain or the external pressure differential is zero, the equation
reduces to pure collapse or pure bending.
As shown in Figure 900-7, this equation represents a straight line. The particular
location of the failure function with respect to this failure boundary is controlled by
the values of σo, Po, and the out-of-roundness function g, which are in turn
controlled by the values of D/t, grade (yield strength, σy), and ovality (∆D/D) of the
pipe, as described in the equations below:
Pc = g Po = g [2 σ o / (D/t)]
(Eq. 900-16)
εc = g ε o = g [D / (2 ρo)]
(Eq. 900-17)
where:
Po = Critical external pressure for pure collapse of round pipe, psig
εo = t/(2D)
= Critical bending strain for pure bending of round pipe, inch/inch
ρo = Critical pipe radius of curvature for pure bending of round pipe,
inch
σo = σy σE / (σy2 + σE2)1/2
= Critical hoop stress for pure collapse of round pipe, psi
σE = 23.55 × 106/((D/t)-1)2, for steel pipe
= Critical hoop stress for elastic collapse, psi
σy = Pipe yield strength, psi
g = Out-of-roundness function
= 1 for perfectly round pipe
σo
P o = 2t ⋅ ------
D
∆D
d = --------
t
f( d ) = ( 1 + d2 )1 / 2 – d
σy
r = -------
σE
f ( d ) ( 1 + r 2 ) 0.5
g ( r, d ) = ------------------------------------------
-
( 1 + r 2 [ f ( d ) ] 2 ) 0.5
ε 1 D2
----- = ----- ⋅ --------
εo bo p t
(Eq. 900-18)
We assume: bo = 1
We substitute to obtain:
ε = σ ab /E, and
ε D σ ab
----- = ---- ---------------------------6-
εo t 14.75 ⋅ 10
(Eq. 900-19)
where:
σab = Allowable bending stress (for shallow water, use 0.8 σy; for ultra-
deep water sy may be used)
E = Modulus of Elasticity of pipe
(In ultra-deep water it may be necessary to allow plastic behavior for economic
reasons and/or maximum tension limitations on the available equipment. However,
this calculation is beyond the scope of this manual.)
Figure 900-8 gives the out-of-roundness function g for a pipe ovality of 1.5 percent,
for D/t’s from 10 to 50 and pipe grades from Grade B to X70. Figure 900-9 is for
an ovality of 2.5 percent.
We can then substitute the expressions in Equations 900-18 and Equation 900-19
into Equation 900-20 and solve for D/t by trial and error.
ε P
----- + ------ = g
εo Po
(Eq. 900-20)
Equation 900-20 can also be solved using Figures 900-5 through 900-8 if rewritten
as follows from Equation 900-16.
ε gP
----- + ------ = g
εo Pc
(Eq. 900-21)
A PC program is also available for the solution of these equations as described
below.
intended for use by engineers and designers during pipeline initial design, or for
verifying contractor’s analysis and data [19]. It is used to determine:
1. Pipe grade (See Section 931).
2. Minimum wall thickness for internal pressure design. (The default value for
corrosion allowance is 0.0625 inches.)
3. Minimum wall thickness for buckle propagation design.
4. Minimum wall thickness for critical collapse.
5. Minimum wall thickness for critical collapse with bending.
6. Basic buckle arrestor design parameters, when needed.
7. Cathodic protection system calculations for sacrificial zinc anodes.
The program also determines general recommended minimum wall thickness and
the feasibility of laying the pipeline using the pipe reel installation method. This
program is available through the OS Division of CPTC and is free-of-charge for
Chevron OPCO’s.
Buckle Arrestors
Buckle arrestors should be considered for use in all water depths where the pipe’s
buckle propagation pressure is less than or equal to the external hydrostatic pres-
sure (See the discussion on buckle propagation design above).
A buckle arrestor is a device, such as a thick pipe section or steel ring, which is
welded to or otherwise firmly attached to the pipeline. A properly designed system
of buckle arrestors can confine any propagating buckle to a relatively short span
which can be repaired at a tolerable cost. Sizes and strengths of buckle arrestors can
be determined from the design equations presented later in this section.
The spacing between arrestors is a discretionary choice between the increased cost
of installing arrestors at shorter intervals and the risk of failure of longer lengths of
pipeline, which would be expensive to repair.
When designing a system of buckle arrestors, it generally is better to err on the
conservative side, using arrestors that are “hell for stout” and installing plenty of
them. The spacing between buckle arrestors should be limited to the maximum
convenient repair length, which is about the length of a barge or ship used to assist
in the repair, i.e., in the range of 200 to 500 feet.
The propagation pressure of a long buckle arrestor (L/D >4) if exposed by itself to
external pressure can be expressed by analogy with Shell’s formula for Pp from
Equation 900-7 as:
h 2.4
P a = 24σ a ------
D a
(Eq. 900-22)
where:
Pa = Propagation pressure of arrestor, psi
σa = Yield strength of the arrestor, psi
h = Arrestor wall thickness, in.
Da = Outside diameter of the arrestor, in.
The maximum pressure for a buckle to propagate past the buckle arrestor depends
on the dimensions and mechanical properties of the pipe and the buckle arrestor
and is called the crossover pressure, Px. A buckle arrestor will be effective in stop-
ping and containing the propagating buckle provided the crossover pressure, Px, is
greater than the local hydrostatic pressure, P, plus a dynamic overpressure that is
generated during the deceleration of the propagating buckle. The following expres-
sions are for the crossover pressures, Px, of the various types of buckle arrestors, in
which the arrestor length, L, is a variable.
Integral-ring buckle arrestor:
(Eq. 900-25)
where:
F(c/D) = 0 if c/D >1/4
= 1 - 4c/D if c/D <1/4
L = Arrestor length, in.
D = Outside diameter of pipe
Px = Crossover pressure of arrestor, psi
Pp = Propagation pressure of pipe, psi
c = Clearance between arrestor and pipe, in.
t = Pipe wall thickness, in.
and,
P x = Kx P
where:
Kx = Safety factor of 1.5 for buckle arrestor
P = Hydrostatic pressure, psi
The term F(c/D) gives the reduction in the crossover pressure due to an initial clear-
ance, c, between the pipe O.D. and the arrestor I.D. The function “min” should be
interpreted to mean: compute the two factors and then choose the smaller value.
These two factors correspond to the two deformation modes that a pipe can assume
in attempting to crossover past an external free-ring buckle arrestor. The pipe cross
section will assume either the typical dogbone shape or a crescent shape, depending
on the relative stiffness of the pipe wall and the buckle arrestor wall. This change of
mode shape does not occur for welded-ring, internal-ring, or integral-ring buckle
arrestors.
h 2.4
P x = P a = 24σ a ------
Da
(Eq. 900-26)
Px = Pp + Pa
t 2.4 h 2.4
24σ y ---- + 24 σ a ------
D Da
(Eq. 900-27)
External free-ring buckle arrestor:
for a snug fit, F(c/D) = 1
(Eq. 900-28)
Fig. 900-11 Conceptual Pipeline Size Estimates for Water Depths Less Than 300 Feet
typically specified in 1/8 inch increments). If the actual submerged pipe weight per
foot is greater than the calculated minimum (required on-bottom stability)
submerged pipe weight, then additional weight is not required. Concrete coating,
anchoring, or rock dumping is required if the actual submerged pipe weight is less
than the calculated minimum (required on-bottom stability) submerged pipe weight.
(Selection of weight and corrosion coating are addressed in Sections 953 and 954.)
Water absorption should be considered when calculating the submerged weight of
concrete pipe. Typical values are 3 to 5 percent of the concrete weight in air.
The stability analysis should be performed for two conditions:
• 5-year storm, pipeline empty (laying)
• 100-year storm, pipeline filled with product (operational)
Note The 100-year storm case is only applicable if the pipe line is not trenched.
Further iterations are required for those cases in which the outer diameter is signifi-
cantly increased (1 in.) by the concrete jacket.
A pipeline design with a route that covers large water depth variations will involve
more than one design wave height/wave theory, which in turn will result in more
than one minimum required pipe weight. Therefore, an optimum design may
consist of several concrete coating thicknesses over the length of a pipeline.
Hydrodynamic Forces
Hydrodynamic forces, created by wave and current, are classified as drag, lift, and
inertial.
The hydrodynamic drag force (Fd)can be determined from the following equation:
Fd = (1/2) ρ Cd D U2
(Eq. 900-30)
Fl = (1/2) ρ Cl D U2
Fi = (1/4) π ρ Cm D2 U′
(Eq. 900-32)
The inertial force coefficient (Cm) should be set equal to 2.5 (see Equations 900-33
through 900-35 below for determining U′).
Environmental Parameters
For any particular location in the world, site-specific bottom currents, design wave
heights, design wave periods for a 5-year (laying operation) and 100-year (in-
service) storm return period can be obtained from the OS Division of CPTC in San
Ramon, CA.
A design wave height (significant wave height, Hs) will vary with depth (shoaling)
and with the angle between the wave crest and underwater contours (refraction
should be accounted for in determining a shallow water design wave height. In
shallow water, the design wave height may be limited to the “breaking wave
height.” Wave refraction, shoaling, and breaking effects are design details that
should be obtained from OS Division in San Ramon, CA. The design period (signif-
icant period, Ts) is not affected by variations
cosh ----------
2πZ
H
1 S S T g L
U = --- ----------------- --------------------------- cos θ
2 L
cosh ----------
2πd
L
(Eq. 900-33)
2πZ-
gπH S cosh --------- L
U′ = -------------- --------------------------- sin θ
L
cosh ----------
2πd
L
(Eq. 900-34)
where:
U = Horizontal particle velocity, ft/sec
U′ = Horizontal particle acceleration, ft/sec2
Fig. 900-13 Regions of Validity for Wave Theories (See the Shore Protection Manual)
Soil friction coefficients for clay/sand mixtures (sandy clay, clayey sand) should be
classified as either clay or sand depending on the higher concentration. A minimum
safety factor (SF) of 1.1 is recommended, but special circumstances (poor data,
regions of soil instability, sloping sea floor, etc.) may warrant a higher value and
more detailed analysis. 0.5 is typical of a stiff clay. A soft clay (like in Nigeria and
much of the Gulf of Mexico) can have a much higher friction factor when settling
of the pipe is considered. For this case, the use of 0.5 may lead to overly conserva-
tive designs.
If soil boring data is available, including an estimate of the Soils Cohesive Shear
Strength, if mostly clay or the Relative Density, if mostly sand, then the AGA’s
Level 2 procedure, described in Section 941 and [26], and the Company’s PC
program PLS may be used to calculate pipeline sinkage and on-bottom stability.
In addition to the written report, two interactive, PC-based computer programs were
developed to provide a means for rapid assessment of pipeline stability conditions.
Guidelines for these programs are provided in the report.
The report is useful in the assessment of liquefaction and scour for the design of
pipelines and an assessment of the Contractor’s proposed design.
Sediment Transport
Scour, erosion, natural backfilling, and other sediment transport phenomena also
affect pipeline stability. This will mainly depend on the soil type, bottom current
and the height of the pipe above the seafloor. Any embedment or elevation above
the seabed will reduce lift, drag, and inertial forces. Soil resistance forces will
increase significantly when sediment transport phenomena (i.e., sand waves, natural
backfilling, etc.) partially bury a pipeline, also see the comments above on spanning.
However, scour can increase a pipeline span and thus lead to vortex shedding prob-
lems.
Discussion of Results
During conventional pipelaying by the S-Curve method, the pipeline extends from
the tensioner, along the barge ramp, over a stinger and down to the seabed. Two
regions are typically defined along the pipe string. These are the overbend and the
sagbend regions (see Figure 900-3).
The overbend region includes the pipe string from the tensioner to the departure
(lift-off) point from the stinger or barge ramp. The sagbend region represents the
pipe from the inflection point, where the bending moment in the pipe is zero, to the
seabed.
In the overbend region, the barge ramp rollers and stinger are adjusted such that the
pipe bends gently downward toward the seabed. Often these rollers are set up at a
general radius of curvature, selected based on the pipe yield strength, σy, and a
Company design factor (typically 0.80 for shallow water). Even when the rollers
are not adjusted to a given radius of curvature, bending of the pipe is accomplished
in a “controlled” manner and the pipe is restrained from further bending by the
rollers.
The design factor of 80 percent of the yield strength is usually selected to allow for
localized increases in the moment at the rollers. In practice this is acceptable,
unless the rollers are spaced at large intervals and the pipe weight is very heavy. In
any case the pipe is subjected to controlled bending, and overstressing usually
occurs either in the sagbend due to insufficient tension or at the stinger tip due to
insufficient stinger length. Since bending is controlled in the overbend, in excep-
tional cases it is possible to allow 95 to 100 percent of the yield strength for the
combined maximum pipe stresses on the stinger, assuming that three dimensional,
finite element, static and dynamic calculations are performed, including the environ-
mental conditions, barge movement, etc. However, this should not be typical design
practice.
SEAPIPE-PC is designed to provide accurate analysis and results for both the
sagbend stresses and minimum stinger requirements. The required stinger length
calculated and provided as a result of the overall pipelaying analysis ensures a
smooth transition of pipe from overbend to sagbend. The program calculates the
minimum required stinger length for the given pipe and barge parameters and
tension. The stinger must be at least this long (but may be longer).
The calculated overbend stress is a result of pipe bending to the average overbend
radius and tension in the pipe. The sagbend stress is the combined stress due to
bending and tension and is calculated based on a two dimensional static analysis.
This accounts for tension in the pipe and includes large deflections where nonlinear
bending equations apply.
In analyzing a particular problem, the user is advised to make several runs varying
tension from a minimum likely value to a maximum likely value. Plots of the
maximum sagbend stress vs tension, required stinger length vs tension, and others
may then be developed (see Figure 900-17 and Reference [3]). The 180 ft length
limit criteria shown in Figure 900-17 is the actual length of the existing stinger.
Rs = T/(wf)
(Eq. 900-37)
where:
Rs = Minimum slippage radius, ft
T = “Nominal” bottom tension, lb (or that obtained from SEAPIPE-
PC analyses)
w = Pipe submerged weight, lb/ft
f = Pipe lateral friction coefficient in installation condition (typically
use the same as for on-bottom stability, see Section 935).
The expansion and longitudinal stresses due to pipe bending and design operating
pressure should be considered for the minimum route radius (see ANSI/ASME
B31.4, Section 402.3.2 (D) and B31.8a-1990). The minimum radius due to expan-
sion and longitudinal stresses for the line as laid, Ra, is calculated as follows:
Ra = ED/(24 σy Fd)
(Eq. 900-38)
where:
Ra = Minimum radius due to expansion and longitudinal stresses, ft
E = Modulus of elasticity of the pipe, psi
D = Pipe outside diameter, in.
σy = Pipe minimum yield strength, psi
Fd = 0.72 × 0.75 = 0.54
The larger of the two calculated radii, Rs or Ra, is the minimum radius permitted
along the pipeline route.
Design Considerations
The following items should be considered.
Expected Interaction. Dropped objects, fishing gear, anchors, and mudslides are
the major potential hazards for a pipeline and appurtenances. Based on the assumed
interaction, design forces can be developed. The design consideration should
adequately address impact and static pull forces generated by:
• Dropped objects that can vary in size and shape
• Fishing gear contacts. Studies have been done in the North Sea to quantify
trawling equipment/pipeline interaction; these data should be modified, as
required, to treat the fishing type, size, and methods in the area of concern;
impact forces and static pull forces are a function of these data.
• Small anchors can usually be designed in accordance with other design consid-
erations.
• Large anchor interaction is unlikely in some areas and control within the pipe-
line corridor may be possible. Because of the size of large anchors and the
seabed penetration, complete protection is not usually possible.
• Mudslides may require the use of a section of flexible pipe for pipeline/riser
connections and safety joints (shear connectors).
Access. The need to use, operate, and maintain the appurtenances will affect protec-
tion design. In this regard, tie-ins have an ongoing need, while supports or anchors
do not.
Installation. Protection devices for small appurtenances may be laid with the line;
however, line rotation is possible. This method is the most cost effective. Separate
structures installed after laying the pipeline are expensive and involve risk of pipe-
line damage.
Smooth Profile. Fishing compatibility requirements in most codes and permits
require pipelines to have a smooth profile. The intent is that fishing gear ride over
the facility without hanging up. In some instances, demonstrating the interaction
with tests is required.
Protection Options
A number of approaches are listed below. The method(s) selected should satisfy the
design criteria established in the preceding section and be cost effective.
Burial. In the Gulf of Mexico, tap valves have typically been buried to provide
protection. This requires hand jetting in the vicinity of the tap to ensure it is not
damaged. Access is restricted with burial. Possible shifting of seabed materials that
may expose the component should be considered.
Rock Cover. Placing gravel or larger rock over the appurtenance may provide the
required protection. Placement methods must ensure that the component will not be
damaged. Access is limited. Additional rock may be necessary if seabed currents or
interaction is a problem.
Mats. Enclosures in various shapes and sizes are available that can be placed over
an appurtenance, then filled with grout. Other mat designs involve concrete beams
tied together with threaded cables that provide some flexibility to conform to an
irregular shape. Care should be exercised in the design to ensure that the mats will
not become an obstruction.
Artificial Seaweed. Mats with buoyant artificial fibers are available to be placed in
the vicinity of an appurtenance. The fibers reduce the current velocity, allowing
sediments to deposit. In active seabed areas, buildup of material is quite rapid.
Protection is then obtained by the appurtenance becoming buried.
Shrouds. For small items concrete, steel, plastic, or fiberglass can be used. These
shrouds can have a smooth profile and may be deployed while laying. Large compo-
nents have been protected with concrete, steel, or fiberglass shrouds installed after
the pipeline is in position. These devices can become very large when sloped sides
are provided to ensure fishing gear will not be obstructed and clearances are suffi-
cient to accommodate all equipment and access requirements. Building a shroud by
stacking sand-cement bags in a pyramid shape is frequently used. Placing a
template with the desired final configuration has been used as a guide for the diver.
Interlocking or stacking the exposed bags may be necessary so they will not
dislodge and cause a hazard to fishermen.
Fig. 900-18 Cost Estimates for Short Pipelines in the Gulf of Mexico
Pressure Design
Determine the hoop pressure at the required depth:
External pressure = (depth)(ρ salt water)/144 in2 / ft2
= (200 ft)(62.4 lb/ft3)(1.03) / (144 in2/ft2)
= 89 psi
Internal pressure = 1000 psi
P = 1000 - 89 = 911 psi
Determine the allowable hoop stress from Equation 900-2 with:
E = 1.0
F = 0.72
and SMYS = 42,000 psi:
S = F ⋅ E ⋅ SMYS
From (Eq. 900-2)
= (0.72) (1.0) (42,000)
= 30,240 psi
Determine the required wall thickness from Equation 900-1:
t = PD / 2S
= (911)(14)/(2)(30,240)
= 0.21 in. (minimum for pressure design)
Therefore, since D/t = 67, it is valid to use the equation:
t = PD/2S
(Refer to Section 933 for applicable pressure design equation.)
Collapse Design
Determine the collapse pressure from Equation 900-14:
Pc = Kc Wd/2.25
From (Eq. 900-14)
= (1.33) (250)/2.25
= 148 psi
Using Figure 900-5, with Pc = 148 psi and grade X 42, determine the minimum
pipeline thickness. The D/t ratio is off the chart, but if we use a maximum D/t value
of 50, then the corresponding thickness would be t = 14/50 = 0.28 inches, which is
less than the buckle propagation criteria of t = 0.34 in.
P / Pc = 148/601
= 0.25
ε/εc = 0.00113/0.011
= 0.10
0.25 + 0.10 = 0.35 < 1
Therefore, the combined bending strain and collapse pressure = safe.
If the figure had indicated that it was unsafe, then an iteration process involving
increasing wall thicknesses would be required.
Pipeline Size
A standard pipeline thickness of 0.344 inches will be used for the on-bottom
stability and lay stress analyses. This standard wall thickness satisfies the governing
design criteria, which is the buckle propagation.
Fd = (0.5) ρ Cd D U2
= (0.5) (1.99) (1.0) (1.33) (3.46)2
= 15.8 lb/ft
Determine the hydrodynamic lift force from Equation 900-31:
Fl = 1/2 ρ Cl D U2
= 15.8 lb/ft
where:
Fl = hydrodynamic lift force, lb/ft
Fd = hydrodynamic drag force, lb/ft
D = pipe diameter, ft
Cd = drag force coefficient
Cl = lift force coefficient
ρ = fluid density, slugs
Determine the on-bottom stability safety factor from Equation 900-29 when the soil
friction for sand = 0.8 and the hydrodynamic inertial force is zero:
has obtained several computer programs through joint industry projects (JIP’s)
since 1978:
1. APJTUB - Analysis of J-Tube Riser Pull-Ins
APJTUB-PC was developed at our request by Applied Offshore Technology
(APTECH) of Houston, TX. It performs a detailed analysis of a steel pipeline
pull-in through a J-Tube riser. The analysis is based on a finite beam element
formulation. Nonlinear moment curvature properties are considered which
account for plastic pipe deformation and unloading and for ovalization of the
pipe during bending. The collapse condition is also examined during the pull to
ensure that the pipe does not buckle.
The program calculates the pull load, maximum strains and stresses, contact
loads and locations, and pipe free span parameters during pipe initiation into
the J-Tube and for each pull step thereafter.
The purpose of the J-Tube Riser Design Manual is to guide designers of J-
tubes and J-tube riser pipe installations, including the use of APJTUB-PC [5,
36]. The Manual considers the principal variables which affect pull loads and
pipe stresses, including entrance orientation and configuration, bend radius,
exit configuration, pipe size vs J-tube size, pipe coatings and material proper-
ties, for example. A discussion of basic equipment requirements is also
included.
The Manual guides the designer in appropriate choices of the APJTUB-PC
input variables and suggests suitable assumptions when exact values are not
available. The proper use of the program to optimize a design is also discussed.
Example problems and sensitivity of pull loads to variations of key parameters
are also provided.
The program has been verified by a field measurement program conducted by
Columbia Gas on Chevron’s Garden Banks Block 236 platform for a 16-inch
riser [20]. When actual pipe material properties and actual pipe installation
conditions are used the program accurately predicts observed results.
APJTUB-PC is available through the OS Division of CPTC in San Ramon, CA
and is free-of-charge for Chevron OPCO’s.
2. OFFPIPE - Pipelaying Static/Dynamic Analysis Capabilities
OFFPIPE is a static/dynamic, three dimensional, finite element PC program
developed specifically for the modeling and structural analysis of nonlinear
problems encountered in the installation of offshore pipelines [23]. The
program performs dynamic analyses for both regular and random seas,
including current. Analyses should be performed by the Offshore Systems
(OS) Division of CPTC. for the purpose of checking the contractor’s final
design calculations. The PC program performs the following:
because the tools have been developed based on full scale and near full scale
model tests. These tools represent the state-of-the-art in stability design and
model the complex behavior of pipes subjected to both wave and current loads.
The PC program can be used to perform conceptual and preliminary design of
pipelines for on-bottom stability and to assess the Contractor’s proposed
design."
6. Pipe Lift Analysis - PC Program (SEALIFT-PC) (Chevron/APTECH) [52]
Contractors frequently use barge single point crane or davits to lift a pipe end
to the surface for riser stalk-on or subsea flowline tie-ins.
SEALIFT was developed to solve single or multiple davit pick-up problems.
Pipe parameters, number of lifting points and their spacing and water depth are
specified inputs. The analysis of the lift includes all important parameters, such
as wire angles and take-up, tensions and pipe stresses at each lifting point until
the pipe end is at the specified distance above the water surface.
The program is “user-friendly”, IBM compatible and provides an efficient
design/analysis tool for pipeline davit pick-up in the form of a User’s Manual
and PC software.
The program is intended for use by engineers and designers during pipeline
initial design, and for general verification of the pipeline Contractor’s analysis.
It can also be used to plan actual pipe lifts and aid in designing the lift proce-
dures.
Multiple point lifts are generally limited to less than 350 ft water depth,
whereas single point pipe lifts are generally limited to about 800 ft water
depths.
7. Pipe Span Analyses - PC Program (SEASPAN-PC) (Chevron/APTECH)
[53]
SEASPAN-PC was developed to provide a span analysis, i.e. for vortex shed-
ding, and static loading. (To assess the hoop stress due to operating or
hydrotest the user should run PLDESIGN-PC. The PLS-PC Pipeline Stability
Computer Program can be used to calculate the inertial drag, lift, and inertial
forces (force per foot) which act on the pipeline. The SEAPIPE-PC program
can be used to estimate the pipeline residual tension from installation.)
SEASPAN-PC can also be used to determine the maximum clamp spacing for
conventional risers or the maximum allowable span length for pipe placed on
an irregular seabed. The user inputs the pipe parameters and environmental
design criteria. The static stress analysis is based on the beam analysis of pipe
segments. Tension in the pipe is included in the analysis. The seabottom is
assumed rigid. A pipe span may be subject to vortex oscillations if the excita-
tion frequency is close to the natural frequency of vibration of the pipe span.
The program is “user-friendly”, IBM compatible and provides an efficient
design/analysis tool for pipeline span static stresses and for vortex shedding in
the form of a User’s Manual and PC software.
The program is intended for use by engineers and designers during preliminary
or final riser/pipeline design, and for the verification of the pipeline
contractor’s analyses or as- builts to assess spans which do not meet specifica-
tions. It can also be used to plan modifications to stabilize a pipeline which
later develops spans after construction. This has occurred offshore California
and Australia.
The user is required to specify the basic pipe, span and current parameters.
(For vortex shedding, a 5-year storm condition should be used, if necessary
contact CPTC’s, Cort Cooper at 510-842-9119.) Several default values are
incorporated in the program to make it easy to use.
Should you need additional information or assistance in running/installing the PC
programs, please contact the OS Division of CPTC in San Ramon, CA.
line” for initial selection for rigid stingers. However, a longer length may be used
based on the contractor’s three dimensional pipelay analyses, which should include
environmental conditions, wave and current. It is preferable that the pipe does not
bear on the last stinger roller, since this may produce a large bending moment in the
pipe or shear stress due to vessel motion or low tension. With this in mind it is very
important to have a long enough stinger and the proper nominal vessel tension to
avoid these concerns.
The contractor shall carry out calculations for the following cases:
Case 1 : T nominal, W nominal, S nominal
Case 2 : T low, W nominal, S nominal
Case 3 : T high, W nominal, S nominal
Case 4 : T nominal, W nominal, S low
Case 5 : T nominal, W nominal, S high
For a grey fine to medium sand, the lateral soil friction coefficient may be taken as
0.9 for a newly laid pipeline which is empty and has not settled down in the seabed.
Pipelaying Initiation
The contractor shall issue a calculation note for the Company’s approval for
connecting of return sheaves at the bottom or top of any Company jacket leg for the
Applications
Typical applications of subsea pipeline valves are:
• Provision for platform isolation—a shut-in subsea valve/check valve installed
in the pipeline upstream and/or downstream of the platform riser can permit
the platform riser and facilities to be depressurized without depressurizing the
pipeline; such isolation valves also help minimize (or prevent) hydrocarbon
spills in case of pipeline damage (also see Section 958). The valves will not
necessarily minimize pollution from the pipeline, but will minimize pollution
from the platform.
• Control of product transfer between platforms and export loading facilities
• Tie-in of a peripheral field to an existing export system; a valved tee installed
during the laying of the trunk line provides for later tie-in of the lateral pipeline
with minimum disruption of the trunk line
• Interconnection of two or more trunk lines at a subsea pipeline junction
• Flow diversion and control for subsea production facilities such as production
fluid flow from templates, single and clustered satellite wells, and commin-
gling of production fluids and pigging of the pipelines
Design Considerations
Factors that influence or dictate the design and application requirements of subsea
pipeline valves are:
• System operating pressure and temperature
• Fluid composition including H2S, CO2, sand, and other solids
• Hydrate formation
• Valves in a static condition, either open or closed for long periods of time
during installation and operation
• Long service life requirement
• External corrosion from sea water
• Debris from product and construction activities
• Capability to test against a lateral without a spill or flow disruption
• Passage of pigs
• Restricted maintenance access due to a protective subsea structure
The sizes and pressure ratings of subsea ball valves are similar to those used on
land. Some of the commonly used subsea ball valve manufacturers, ranges of sizes
and pressure ratings, and design features are listed below:
Cooper Industries (See Appendix G)
2 through 48 inches 150, 300, 600 ANSI
2 through 36 inches 900 ANSI
2 through 30 inches 1500 ANSI
Cameron ball valves are generally forged steel, welded body design, chrome plated
alloy steel ball, and Nylon seal inserts. Injection ports are provided for both the
main valve bore and stem seals for injection of sealant for temporary repair of seal
leaks.
Grove Valve Co.
2 through 48 inches 150, 300, 600, 900 ANSI
2 through 20 inches 1500 ANSI
2 through 12 inches 2500 ANSI
Grove ball valves are cast or fabricated steel body design, with a nickel plated steel
ball, nickel plated steel metal-to-metal seat using a Viton O-ring back-up. The
metal-to-metal seals are designed to be bubble tight. An injection port is provided
for the main valve bore seals. A coal tar epoxy coating is available for application
to the exterior of the valve for additional corrosion protection.
Neles (See Appendix G)
1 through 36 inches 150, 300 ANSI
1 through 24 inches 600 ANSI
2 through 36 inches 900 ANSI
2 through 8 inches 1500 ANSI
Neles ball valves are a cast steel body design, with a stainless steel ball and Nylon
seats. Metal-to-metal seats are available using Stellite on stainless steel seats and a
chrome plated stainless steel ball. (However, a metal-to-metal seal may not provide
a bubble tight valve bore seal in this design.)
Other manufacturers of subsea pipeline valves include Cooper Oil Tool (WKM),
TK, Borsig, Cort, and Mapegaz.
The Company should choose seals for selected valves based on the hydrocarbon’s
composition. (The Company should provide this information to the valve manufac-
turer(s).)
Careful consideration should be given to selection of valve/actuator materials.
A quality assurance inspection should be required by the Company: 1) during valve
assembly to check the ball plating for holidays, 2) for actuator operation (stroking
the valve)/testing, and 3) after assembly for an onshore (at factory) valve hydrotest
(and air test) per API 6D. These tests should be witnessed/reviewed by a Company
representative/inspector.
Acceptance testing of valve and actuator should include application of the
maximum operating pressure in both directions in separate tests. The valve should
be shown to be closed or opened fully from a previously open or closed position
with 90 percent of the normal operating hydraulic fluid pressure applied to the
valve.
Start-up, during the installation phase, can be a significant problem area. The line
and valve should be kept clean and free of construction materials, such as welding
rods, scale, etc. Also, normally a cleaning pig is run after pipeline construction,
prior to start-up. This type of debris can damage the ball coating and elastomeric
seat seals.
The Company should require a corrosion inhibitor when the pipeline is to be filled
with sea water for more than six (6) months. (The valve seat and stem seals must be
compatible for the service conditions, including the corrosion inhibitors.)
Ball Valve Testing. Testing of ball valves should include breakaway torque for a
valve with full pressure on both sides of the valve. There have been instances where
the ball cavity blew down when the downstream section of the line (gas) was blown
down. The line was repressured from the downstream end to avoid sudden pressure
surge or cutting of the seats when the surface valve was reopened. The seats of the
valve clamped the ball so severely the actuator (pneumatic) had to have extra oper-
ating pressure applied to move the ball. When it moved the reaction was so swift
and powerful, the valve bonnet was cracked. The stem seals held so no catastrophe
occurred, but the line had to be shut down to replace the bonnet. Use of speed
retarders probably would not have helped. A hydraulic operator would have been
much more appropriate.
Subsea Shutdown Valve (SDV) Testing. Subsea SDV testing should include an
annual test with the valve fully closed with leakage noted and corrected, and a bi-
annual test for partial closure.
Testing of the valve can be achieved from the surface providing there is a means to
detect when the valve is cycling. (Provide for partial closure of the valve with a test
stop. Use limit switches and a “Test Position” to allow testing without shut-in of the
platform.)
Pressure Venting. Pressure venting should not be necessary for subsea valves
during production operations. However, the valve should be fitted with vent valves
or plugs to allow safe maintenance.
control system above sea level, and the hydraulic supply line size, and aging. There
are two considerations: 1) Water depth plus the elevation of the control system to
account for the hydrostatic head of the control fluid and 2) the hydrostatic head
affecting the operator due to sea water in a case where the control line develops a
leak. The Specific Gravity of common hydraulic control fluids ranges from 1.011 to
1.055.
The actuator should be suitable for use with water or oil-based hydraulic fluid.
Facilities should be provided for flushing the actuator, through a hose connected by
a diver or ROV. The actuator design must provide travel adjustment to give accurate
alignment of the valve ball for clear, free passage of pigs. (Valves with a stop built
in at the time of manufacture are preferred to stops on the actuator.)
The actuator should be designed for removal from and refitting to the valve subsea
with the pipeline at pressure. Unique orientation of the actuator attachment to the
valve is required. The actuator should be provided with a clear visual and tactile
indicator showing the valve position to a diver or ROV. The indicator should be in
line with the pipeline when the valve is open.
The hook-ups (hydraulic control cable, attachment, fittings) for the actuator should
be designed to be substantial to resist damage from the marine environment.
Compatibility of the materials used should be considered.
vicinity of manned facilities (also see Section 958). Check/ball valves have been
used as part of the shutdown systems in the North Sea at several locations. The loca-
tion of the check valve with respect to the platform is an important consideration in
this case. The same check valve manufacturer (Tom Wheatley of Houston, TX) has
been specified on each occasion since it is one of the few check valve designs that
allows the passage of spheres or scrapers in either direction. Check/ball valves have
also been used in the Gulf of Mexico. Company experience has been primarily with
Wheatley Gaso Inc of Tulsa, OK, a different valve company than Tom Wheatley.
The Company has also used Wheatley check valves.
standard ring joint flange, but with significant installation and functional advan-
tages. The MAF uses a replaceable metal seal for high integrity and long-term
sealing.
The MAF may reduce the time needed for subsea pipeline and riser connections.
Subsea assembly and make-up are accomplished by divers with the same tools used
to assemble and tighten a standard flange. Forced alignment of the pipeline may not
be necessary because an MAF allows up to 12 degrees of misalignment in any direc-
tion. Some manufacturers require a “pull-in” capability of only one-fourth the pipe
diameter to mate the ball and housing. The Company has used these manufacturers:
Hunting Oil Field Services—Big Inch Division, Cameron, HydroTech and Gripper.
from 6 to 36 inches. The finished connection has a smooth inside surface that does
not impede production or pigging operations. The Company has used this device on
pipelines in the Gulf of Mexico.
Cameron
The Cameron in-line connection system includes two collet connectors with inte-
gral or separate actuators and positioners, four pipeline swivels, and two rigid pipe
spools. A mating Cameron hub with a tie-in base is pre-attached to each pipe end to
be joined. (The Camforge tool may be lowered to the sea floor and used to cold
forge the ends of the pipeline to the collet connector mating hubs.) Temporary end
caps are required for each pipe end to retain air in the pipelines during laying and
positioning. These may be attached by means of Cameron clamps. The Company
has used the Cameron system on pipelines in the Gulf of Mexico.
The system may be operated from a work vessel equipped with a crane or other
equipment to lift the spool assembly. Guide cables are attached to each tie-in base.
The spool is made to the correct length with swivels and collet connectors welded
in place. The spool assembly is attached to a spreader bar and lowered on the guide
wires to the sea floor.
Once the assembly is on the bottom and the connectors are landed on the two tie-in
bases, a diver operates controls to position each connector and actuate the collet
fingers to grip the mating hub and effect the seal. The seal made by each connector
is then tested to confirm integrity of the connection. Then the actuators and support
equipment are retrieved for re-use.
Up to four swivels may be used to provide the required axial movement of the
connectors and to accommodate misalignment. (Cameron’s length compensating
joint can shorten the overall required spool piece length significantly. This joint can
be used to replace the midpoint swivels and to facilitate handling.)
HydroTech
HydroTech manufactures several products for pipeline connections. The main prod-
ucts include the HydroBall/HydroCouple System, the misaligning flange (MAF),
and the HydroBall swivel and bias-cut flange.
The Mark IV HC units include gripping and sealing mechanisms, along with
temperature compensation, and have not experienced leakage. The Mark IV unit is
hydraulically set with separate tension and compression slips. The seals are sepa-
rately actuated metal-contained elastomers.
The Mark V unit is a more compact tool with interfacing tension and compression
slips and metal-contained seals. The slips and seals are set simultaneously by tight-
ening a ring of bolts. The device structurally attaches to and seals off bare ended
pipe. It also provides telescopic adjustment of one pipe diameter or 12 inches,
whichever is greater. The telescopic adjustment allows for error in diver measure-
ment when preparing the spool piece and will also provide the necessary adjust-
ment to accommodate ball swallow.
The Pressure Balanced Safety Joint by HydroTech Systems is a pipeline fitting
designed to separate at predetermined externally applied loads, independent of pipe-
line pressure. It functions when a dragging anchor, mud slide or other external force
is applied to the pipeline.
Employing the Pressure Balanced Safety Joint with a check valve eliminates loss of
pipeline content. In the event of an accident, this will assure minimal environmental
damage.
to the anchor flange bracket. This assembly is then attached to the lateral pipeline
using a swivel ring flange, with provision for misalignment using a spool piece and
an MAF.
Design Considerations
Concrete Weight Coating Thickness. Offshore pipelines are weight coated for
two reasons. The primary reason is to give the pipeline negative buoyancy for on-
bottom stability. A secondary reason for weight coating is to protect the underlying
corrosion coating from mechanical damage. The weight coating concrete density
and thickness are determined by the on-bottom stability design, see Section 935.
Concrete Slippage and Surface Sliding. Pipelay analysis will determine the axial
tension required during pipe laying to avoid line buckling on the lay barge; axial
tension is applied to the pipeline by the tensioner as a shear force on the concrete
coating surface.
The weak link in the shear transfer from the tensioner to the pipe is typically either
the tensioner link slipping on the concrete surface or the concrete slipping at the
concrete/corrosion coating interface. Surface sliding is minimized by increasing the
grip pressure or by increasing the pipe/tensioner link contact area. A spacer
installed over the bare pipe joints prior to their entering the tensioner provides
added contact area and resistance to slippage from the next joint.
The likelihood of slippage of the concrete at the concrete/corrosion coating inter-
face is largely dependent on the type of corrosion coating. Experience has shown
that coal tar enamel and asphaltic wrap coatings typically do not have a problem
with concrete slippage. However, fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) coatings do not
develop as high a shear strength with the concrete weight coating and are suscep-
tible to slippage.
Concrete Weight Coating Slippage Calculations. Using concrete/corrosion
coating shear data [9] and the contact area of the contractor’s proposed tensioner,
the maximum “Safe Tension” can be estimated. An example calculation is given in
Figure 900-24.
Avoiding Concrete Slippage. Research and experience have shown that concrete
slippage problems on FBE coated pipe can be avoided in several ways [10,25]. In
order of decreasing effectiveness, these include:
• Two Part Epoxy: A two part epoxy mix is applied just a half rotation before
the compression of the concrete. The epoxy wicks into the moist concrete and
adheres to the surface of the FBE and upon curing provides a mechanical lock
between the two.
• Rough Band: On the bow end (i.e., the last part in the tensioner) of each pipe
joint, prior to weight coating, a 40-inch-wide circumferential band of 15-mil-
thick liquid epoxy is applied to the FBE coating and small flint chips are
embedded in the liquid epoxy while it is curing. Meticulous care must be used
when handling and transferring the pipe to the welding line on the lay barge or
both ends should be coated with the rough band to assure that the banded end
is properly oriented relative to the tensioners.
• Ring: On both ends of each pipe joint, a 1-1/2-inch high and 3-inch wide ring
of cementitious epoxy is applied prior to weight coating.
• Barrier Coating: Along the entire length of the joint, an 80-mil polymer
cement intermediate (or barrier) coating is applied prior to weight coating. This
intermediate coating is temperature cured and is usually applied in the coating
mil by the coating applicator immediately following the FBE coating while the
pipe is still warm.
• Raised FBE Spiral: During FBE application, a 20-mil high and 0.2-inch wide
spiral of FBE is superimposed on the pipe joint.
Tests have shown that the rough band and epoxy cement ring methods are the most
economic and effective methods of avoiding concrete slippage. Barrier coating (an
option when the concrete weight coating is applied by the impact method) and
epoxy spirals decrease the chance of slippage, but do not always prevent it.
Avoiding Concrete Slippage on Plastic. The best method to avoid concrete slip-
page on multi-layer plastic pipeline coatings systems like Himont, Elf Atochem,
DuVal, and Du Pont Canada is to apply a suitable plastic powder with a sintering
weir onto the pipe surface to create a rough (sandy) surface condition. It is impor-
tant that the plastic powder “bites” into the extrusion layer to anchor it, but still
leaving a rough, textured finish. This must be done immediately after the applica-
tion of the extruded outer plastic jacket and before the cooling step in the pipe
coating mill."
Other Damage. The concrete weight coating is susceptible to damage other than
slippage at the corrosion coating/concrete interface. The tensioner grips can slide
on or crush the concrete surface. Assuming the concrete is adequately reinforced,
these grip pressure problems can be minimized by optimizing the grip pressure; the
grip pressure should be high enough to prevent slippage, but low enough to avoid
localized crushing of the concrete surface.
The concrete can also crack; either circumferential or longitudinal cracks can occur.
Longitudinal cracks result from inadequate reinforcement or from excessive grip
pressures. Recent tests have shown that longitudinal cracking of the concrete may
occur when the out-of-roundness reaches 1.375 percent, due to excessive grip pres-
sure and compression.
Some circumferential cracking will always occur when the pipeline is put into
tension as it passes over the stinger and into the sag bend. Cracking is only detri-
mental if it results in significant spalling (i.e., loss of weight) of the concrete.
In some cases circumferential cracking can be significant. The reinforcement and
axial tension in the pipeline will influence the severity of circumferential cracking.
If the concrete coating is not adequately reinforced, circumferential cracks can
permit significant spalling of the concrete to occur.
Circumferential cracking of the concrete is more of a problem with coal tar enamel
(CTE) and asphaltic wrapped coatings. These coatings are not as prone to concrete
slippage, hence higher axial tensions can be applied to the pipeline, making cracks
more likely.
Detrimental circumferential cracking is typically not a serious problem for FBE
coated pipelines, because the concrete will slip before it cracks. If the concrete is
successfully inhibited from slipping, circumferential cracking might be a problem
on FBE coated pipe.
Concrete Application
There are two primary ways of applying concrete weight coating: the compression
wrap method and the impact method. The compression coat wrap method is
preferred, but the impact method is acceptable.
Compression Wrap Method. The compression coat method is a relatively new
proprietary process. It has been commercially available since 1975. The
commercial name is “Compression Coat.”
Capabilities of the Compression Wrap Method. The compression wrap method
has been used on pipe sizes NPS 3 to NPS 54. The concrete thickness applied has
varied from less than 1 inch to 7.5 inches and the density from 140 to 190 lb/ft 3.
For pipe sizes NPS 4 to NPS 24, typically a density of 140 pcf is preferred. For pipe
sizes greater than NPS 24 or thickness greater than 2.75 inches, 190 pcf density
should be considered. The pipe joint length (usually 40 feet) can vary from 26 to 80
feet.
Description. Refer to Figure 900-25. Concrete is fed from a mixer through a
hopper and onto a polyethylene outer wrap which is supported by a delivery belt.
The concrete coating is put into compression by loading this belt and compressing
the concrete between the outer wrap and the pipe. Hence the derivation of the trade
name “Compression Coat.” The concrete is wrapped onto the rotating pipe in a
continuous spiral about 6.5-inches wide beneath the polyethylene outer wrap. The
edges of the spiral are formed to ensure that the seam is adequately joined. The
concrete thickness is accurately controlled by an adjustable compaction roller on
the underside of the (pipe) end of the material delivery belt.
At the same time, through another preset adjustable guide on the applicator, the
specified reinforcing wire is fed through at the same rate as the polyethylene outer
wrap. The distance between the reinforcement and corrosion coating (as well as the
polyethylene film) is controlled by guides built into the rear of the feed applicator.
Following application, the weight coating ends are cut back, the pipe is weighed,
and stacked for curing. For the joints which require anodes or buckle arrestors, the
green concrete and reinforcement are cut back prior to curing; the anodes and
buckle arrestors are attached after the concrete has sufficiently hardened to handle
in the yard. In the case of pre-installed “welded-in” buckle arrestors, the concrete
may be applied over the entire pipe length as normally done.
Because the concrete is in compression by the outer polyethylene wrap, freshly
coated small diamter pipe can be immediately stacked. Typically, pipe diameters up
to NPS 24 with up to 3.75 inches of concrete can be stacked immediately.
Reinforcement Compression Coating. There are two ways to reinforce compres-
sion wrapped concrete. Compression coat’s standard mesh is Bekaert (Belgium)
Armapipe, a spot welded netting made of galvanized low-carbon steel. The mesh
compreises 8 line wires which are deeply crimped in the jiddle between cross wires.
The second way is a generic wire mesh. Some specifications call for wire reinforce-
ment which is a wire mesh with dimensions, 1-1/2 inch x 17 gauge for NPS 10 and
above and 1-inch mesh by 18 gauge for smaller pipe. Both provide adequate cross
sectional area of steel mesh under normal conditions to keep the concrete in place.
The compression coat method does not typically have longitudinal reinforcement.
However, in addition to the wire mesh, a continuous spiral of 8-mm rebar has been
successfully introduced into the concrete coating during application.
The reinforcement should be isolated from the pipe, so that it is not electrically
bonded to the pipe cathodic protection system.
For concrete thickness greater than 2.75 inches, two layers of wire mesh are used.
Impact Method
This method is the original method of applying concrete weight coating to corro-
sion coated pipe.
Description. The corrosion coated (and intermediate coated if FBE or 22-mil dry
film thickness if FBE) pipe is supported on its ends, rotated, and passed in front of
the throwing unit. The throwing unit applies the concrete by using a belt/brush unit
or a belt/belt unit which is counter rotated at high speed. The concrete is impinged
on the rotating pipe until the required thickness is obtained.
Surface scraping to remove irregularities and a spray-applied curing compound
complete the process. Pipe weight coated by the impact method should not be
stacked until the concrete has sufficiently cured.
Pipeline Installation
Weight Coating of the Joints. Weight coating of the joints provides protection of
the field joints. The joints need not be weight coated if the stinger arrangement will
not damage the joint coating during pipe laying and the joint does not require
weight coating for protection during service. (However, the on-bottom-stability
analysis, see Section 935, should account for any missing joint material.) The
contractor should determine if the absence of field joint material will cause unac-
ceptable high stresses locally on the pipe during laying.
The girth welds of FBE pipe joints can be coated with FBE on the offshore lay
barge. Field applicators of FBE include: Commercial Resins Company (CRC),
Commercial Coating Services Incorporated (CCSI), and Pipeline Induction Heat
(PIH).
The girth welds of multi-layer polypropylene coating pipe joints can be coated with
a two layer polypropylene pipe coating on the offshore lay barge. Field applicators
of the two layer polypropylene girth weld coating system include: Commercial
Coating Services Incorporated (CCSI), and Pipeline Induction Heat (PIH).
Grout Filled Steel Sleeves. Grout filled steel sleeves, similar to monel, provide a
seal which protects the riser from impact and corrosion.
955 Insulation
Submarine pipeline insulation is rarely required. Heat tracing may sometimes be
added to an insulated pipeline. The following information is from a Joint Industry
Project (JIP) [11]. (The reader is cautioned to get CRTC’s Materials and Equipment
Engineering Group and CPTC’s Offshore Systems Division involved early in any
insulated subsea pipeline project.) Concrete coating and/or burial provides limited
insulation when required.
Budgetary cost data are also provided as a basis for evaluating and selecting insu-
lated pipe designs, materials, and installation methods. These data indicate that the
total installed cost for an insulated deepwater pipeline is about double that of the
line without insulation.
Results are available upon request from CRTC’s Materials and Equipment Engi-
neering Unit; see Reference [18].)
Relevant insulated pipe/tubular design concepts that have potential for subsea appli-
cations are also reviewed in Reference [11]. These concepts include insulated well
casings or tubulars used for downhole or steam injection applications. The appli-
cable experience noted for the insulated casings/tubulars are the welded annular
seal designs and the prestressing technology developed specifically for high-temper-
ature applications. Finally, the review includes insulated and heat traced flexible
pipe.
distance of 3 miles from the Hondo “B” platform to Exxon’s existing Hondo “A”
platform in a 840-foot water depth on OCS Lease P-0188. A unique feature of this
project is that insulated subsea pipelines have never before been installed in this
depth of water.
Pearl River Mouth Basin of the South China Sea, Huizhou 26-1, Operated by ACT.
Huizhou 26-1 is located in the Pearl River Mouth Basin of the South China Sea at a
water depth of 360 feet. Insulated pipe joints were fabricated utilizing the Snampro-
getti Double Pipe Insulated System.This system consists of concentric 12.75-inch
O.D. and 16-inch O.D. pipes. The pipes are connected using a proprietary tapered
Special Joint Connector at each end and then filled with 3.1 to 3.7 pcf polyurethane
foam. The 12-inch pipe is welded at each joint. PVC was considered but would not
retain its long term insulating characteristics if exposed to high operating tempera-
tures and hydrostatic pressure. Installation was by the laybarge method.
North Sea, Alba Field Development Project. A 1.6 mile bundle carrying a 4.5-
inch O.D. fuel line and an insulated, 12.75-inch O.D. oil export line was installed in
the Alba field, located in the North Sea in a water depth of about 450 feet. Alba
crude does not have a high pour point. Insulation was specified to minimize the
heating requirements on the Floating Storage Unit, FSU. Maintaining temperature
also controls viscosity and results in better hydraulics. Pipeline installation was by
Controlled Depth Tow Method. Both lines are protected by a 27-inch O.D. carrier
pipe.
High Density and Low Density Polyurethane are being considered for the insulation
material. Simulated service tests will be done to verify product applicability. These
include material degradation tests at the 140°F operating temperature and water
absorption tests at the hydrostatic pressure of 660 psia. Bundle installation will be
by the near surface tow method. For more information on the above examples and
other insulation projects, please contact CPTC’s OS Division or CRTC’s Materials
and Equipment Engineering Groups.
Application
Flexible pipe is generally used to achieve flexibility with high pressure capability,
in both static and dynamic applications. Typical applications are listed below and
are shown in Figures 900-27 and 900-28.
• Flowlines from a subsea completed well to a fixed platform
• Flexible pipeline to platform connections in mudslide areas
• Flexible spool pieces between a steel pipeline and a subsea facility
• Dynamic risers connecting pipelines to floating production facilities or single
point moorings
Types
Nonbonded Construction. The structure of nonbonded flexible pipe, such as
manufactured by Coflexip or Wellstream, is shown in Figure 900-29. The pipe is
made up of several individual separate layers having no adhesion between them.
Alternating layers may be stainless steel, carbon steel or extruded thermoplastic.
Each layer has a primary purpose such as collapse resistance, fluid containment,
internal pressure resistance or axial tension. Flexible pipe is engineered for a
specific application; depending upon size and paressure rating, all layers shown in
the figures may not be required.
In dynamic applications, adjacent steel layers may rub against one another causing
wear, galling and eventual failure, if the pipe is not designed properly. Coflexip has
supplied that is being successfully used for dynamic applications in the North Sea,
Brazil and Australia. Wellstream has furnished pipe for a few dynamic applications
Typical size vs. pressure ratings are given below for pipe actuallly supplied by
Coflexip and Wellstream. In most cases, pipe with lesser pressure ratings has also
been supplied.
Nonbonded flexible pipe can be manufactured in very long lengths. Limiting
factors for length are the capacity of installation reels and weight of the pipe.
Manufacturers of nonbonded flexible pipe, other than Coflexip and Wellstream, do
not have an established track record and are not recommended at this time.
Bonded Construction. The second type of flexible pipe uses a bonded construction
(see Figure 900-30). One company, PAG-O-FLEX, Germany, is marketing this type
of pipe. The bonded type of construction is generally built up on a mandrel with
helically wound steel wires and a polymer material. After assembly, the pipe is
vulcanized to create a bonded assembly. Some pipes use an inner steel carcass that
is not bonded to the adjacent layer. A potential advantage of bonded construction is
that there is no wear, abrasion or galling of adjacent metal layers during bending.
However, fatigue of wires and delamination between the polymer and the wires is a
design consideration for dynamic applications.
End Terminations
End terminations are usually built-in during pipe manufacture, but they can also be
installed in the field. The most common type of end termination for flexible pipe is
shown in Figure 900-31. Epoxy is injected into the termination to anchor and seal
the pipe layers. Terminations of this type are done by hand and are very time
consuming. Any common end connection such as API line pipe threads, bolted
flanges, clamp hubs, proprietary connectors, and butt weld joints can be incorpo-
rated into the termination.
Temperature Limits
In general, nonbonded flexible pipe uses thermoplastics (usually a nylon
compound) that limit long term operating temperature to less than 200°F. Coflexip
has published the following guidelines for use of their standard pipe liner material,
Rilsan [55].
Installation
Flexible pipe is typically laid from a portable reel or reels that are installed on the
back of a workboat. Typically the vessel of choice has been a specially equipped,
dynamically positioned, North Sea pipe carrier, see Figures 900-32 and 900-33.
Pipe is spooled onto the installation reel(s) onboard the installation vessel. Pipe is
paid out over a sheave or steel chute in a catenary shape (similar to a J-lay opera-
tion). Pipe is tensioned by the portable reel. Figure 900-32, or by shape (similar to a
J-lay operation). Pipe is tensioned by the portable reel. Figure 900-32, or by
tensioners, Figure 900-33. Alternatively, flexible pipe can be laid from vessels that
carry pipe in large carrousels and install pipe in a manner similar to that employed
for long submarine cables.
Coflexip operates two dynamically positioned installation vessels and a third which
will be in service in late 1994.
Northern Installer - North Sea pipe carrier that can accommodate up to ten
220 ton reels of pipe or two 1,500 ton carousels.
Flexservice 1 - Ship that can carry up to 3,500 tons of pipe in two carrou-
sels. This vessel has been operating in Brazil laying flex-
ible pipe for Petrobras for several years.
Sunrise - A new build scheduled for delivery in the second half of
1994. This ship will be operating initially for Petrobras in
Brazil. It will have the capability of carrying 6,500 tons
of flexible pipe. Sunrise will be able to lay three lines
simultaneously.
for the Control of Corrosion on Offshore Steel Pipelines” (also see the Corrosion
Prevention Manual, Section 1200). Cathodic protection may be provided by a
galvanic anode system, an impressed current system, or both, capable of delivering
sufficient current to protect the pipeline. (In recent years, the Company has used
anodes rather than impressed current systems for offshore pipelines.) The following
items should be considered in the design of cathodic protection systems:
1. Galvanic anode systems should employ only alloys which have been success-
fully tested for offshore applications, typically zinc or aluminum.
2. Galvanic anode systems should be designed for the life of the protected pipe-
line, typically 20 to 30 years.
3. Cathodic protection system components should be located and installed to
minimize the possibility of damage.
4. Design consideration should be given to minimizing electrical interference
currents from neighboring pipeline or structures. (Severe CP problems have
resulted in the Gulf of Mexico, Pacific OCS, and the North Sea where pipe-
lines have caused major deficiencies in platform CP systems where the plat-
form relied on an impressed current system for part or all of its CP.)
5. Design considerations should include allowance for water depth and provision
for the effect of electrical current variation with time.
6. Insulating joints should be installed in the pipeline system where electrical
insulation of portions of the system is necessary for proper cathodic protection.
If practical, these devices should be installed above water.
Det Norske Veritas, DnV RP B401 is an important document for cathodic protec-
tion, CP design in the North Sea. However, the Company is not an advocate of
codes and standards which may lead to high cost pipelines such as this code for
anode design, which is overly conservative and if applied, costs the Company a lot
of money for no apparent benefit.
Materials
Overseas, the Company uses aluminum bracelet anodes manufactured of an
aluminum-zinc-indium alloy. The alloy is typically Galvalum III, manufactured
under license from Dow Chemical Company or Sealloy-150 made by Kaiser Chem-
ical. All steel used in the anode bracelet construction is ASTM A-36 plate. In the
Cabinda field, zinc alloy bracelets were previously used for the larger lines. In the
marsh/swamp where brackish water is found, zinc anodes are preferred for pipe-
lines and are used in Louisiana and Nigeria, for example.
In the Gulf of Mexico, the company uses zinc alloy bracelets, such as manufactured
by American Corrosion Services. The zinc alloy should not include mercury.
Figures 900-34, 900-35, and 900-36 provide selection tables for zinc and aluminum
anodes. When the surface temperature of the pipeline exceeds 120° to 140°F,
aluminum bracelets are used. Typically, a system design life of 20 or 30 years is
specified.
Fig. 900-34 Weight and Spacing of Zinc Alloy Bracelets for the Gulf Of Mexico
20-Yr. System 30-Yr. System
Pipe Nom. Size, in. Pipe OD, in. (Weight, lb. @ Spacing, ft.) (Weight, lb. @ Spacing, ft.)
2 1/2 2-7/8 24 lb. @ 530 24 lb. @ 350
3 3-1/2 36 lb. @ 650 36 lb. @ 435
4 4-1/2 36 lb. @ 505 36 lb. @ 335
4 4-1/2 48 lb. @ 675 48 lb. @ 450
6 6-5/8 60 lb. @ 575 60 lb. @ 380
6 6-5/8 72 lb. @ 690 72 lb. @ 460
6 6-5/8 84 lb. @ 805 84 lb. @ 535
8 8-5/8 72 lb. @ 530 72 lb. @ 350
8 8-5/8 96 lb. @ 705 96 lb. @ 470
8 8-5/8 108 lb. @ 795 108 lb. @ 530
10 10-3/4 84 lb. @ 495 84 lb. @ 330
10 10-3/4 120 lb. @ 710 120 lb. @ 470
10 10-3/4 132 lb. @ 780 132 lb. @ 520
12 12-3/4 108 lb. @ 535 156 lb. @ 355
12 12-3/4 144 lb. @ 715 144 lb. @ 475
12 12-3/4 108 lb. @ 775 156 lb. @ 515
14 14 120 lb. @ 545 120 lb. @ 360
14 14 168 lb. @ 760 168 lb. @ 505
Notes: 1. Weights are net alloy—Based on available size bracelets.
2. Ambient temperature.
3. Zinc bracelets—Based on current density of 6 mA/ft 2 and zinc consumption rate of 25 lb./amp.yr. and 2% holidays.
4. When surface temperature of the pipeline exceeds 140°F, aluminum bracelets must be used. Above 170°F temperature, the
polarity of zinc alloy reverses, so it is cathodic instead of anodic relative to steel pipe. (See Figure 900-36 for mildly hot and
Figure 900-37 for very hot pipeline.)
5. Bracelet anodes for weight coated pipelines must be individually calculated due to wide range of coating thicknesses.
6. Variations in soil resistivity due to varying moisture and/or salinity necessitate specific calculations for the individual circum-
stances.
Bracelet anode sizes for weight coated pipelines must be individually calculated
due to the wide range of coating thicknesses. These are usually “Special Order”
unless the manufacturer happens to have the necessary size mold available. (See
Figure 900-37 for “readily available” zinc anodes from one manufacturer.) Indi-
vidual circumstances require specific calculations and must include consideration
of:
• Variations in soil resistivity due to varying moisture and/or salinity
• Water salinity
• Pipe surface temperature
• Oxygen content of the water
Fig. 900-35 Weight and Spacing of Aluminum (Deltalum, Galvalum 3, Seallow IV) Alloy Bracelets for Intermediate
Temperatures
20-Yr. System 30-Yr. System
Pipe Nom. Size, in. Pipe OD, in. (Weight, lb. @ Spacing, ft.) (Weight, lb. @ Spacing, ft.)
2-1/2 2-7/8 13 lb. @ 430 13 lb. @ 285
3 3-1/2 17 lb. @ 460 17 lb. @ 305
4 4-1/2 25 lb. @ 530 25 lb. @ 350
6 6-5/8 36 lb. @ 515 36 lb. @ 345
8 8-5/8 44 lb. @ 485 44 lb. @ 325
10 10-3/4 57 lb. @ 505 57 lb. @ 335
12 12-3/4 101 lb. @ 755 101 lb. @ 500
Notes: 1. Mildly hot pipeline—Pipe temperature125°F; saline mud temperature 100°F.
2. Current density—10.3 mA/ft2. Consumption rate of alloy—9.7 lb./amp. yr. and 2% holidays.
Fig. 900-36 Weight and Spacing of Aluminum (Deltalum, Galvalum #3, Seallow IV) Alloy Bracelets for High
Temperatures
20-Yr. System 30-Yr. System
Pipe Nom. Size, in. Pipe OD, in. (Weight, lb. @ Spacing, ft.) (Weight, lb. @ Spacing, ft.)
2-1/2 2-7/8 13 lb. @ 115 13 lb. @ 75
3 3-1/2 17 lb. @ 120 17 lb. @ 80
4 4-1/2 25 lb. @ 140 25 lb. @ 90
6 6-5/8 36 lb. @ 135 36 lb. @ 90
8 8-5/8 44 lb. @ 130 44 lb. @ 85
10 10-3/4 57 lb. @ 135 57 lb. @ 90
12 12-3/4 101 lb. @ 200 101 lb. @ 130
Notes: 1. Very hot pipeline—Pipe temperature 212°F; saline mud temperature 180°F.
2. Current density—16.6 mA/ft2. Consumption rate of alloy—21.9 lb./amp. yr. and 2% holidays.
Fabrication
Anode bracelets are molded in either cylindrical or segmented shapes. Bracelets are
sized to fit the outside diameter of the pipe plus the thickness of the coating. For
pipe not requiring concrete coating, the end of the anode is typically tapered at a
1:2 slope. (For example, see Figure 900-37.) For concrete coated pipe, the anode
thickness should be equal to the concrete thickness, with a tolerance of perhaps one-
quarter inch. Where possible, the selected manufacturer should supply stocked or
readily available anode bracelets. Anode weight is defined as the minimum accept-
able weight of the bracelet excluding the internal and external supporting structure.
Anode Design/Installation
Anode bracelets may be provided by the contractor or the Company. Anodes are
installed by the contractor at spacings specified by the Company. Typically, the
Company uses a constant 1,000 foot spacing for aluminum anodes. For Zinc anodes
used in the Gulf of Mexico, the spacing is typically varied as shown in
Figure 900-34.
In addition, if the spacing exceeds the maximum allowable to keep the voltage (IR)
drop to an acceptably low level, then the spacing must be reduced (for example, see
Figure 900-38, which allows for a 0.06 volt drop, typical of a Gulf of Mexico
design). (Consideration should be given to the anode size. If an anode is too big, it
can “hang up” on the stinger rollers and be severely damaged. A smaller spacing
with smaller anodes may be required in this case.) Normally, the first anode on a
Company pipeline, excluding those which may be specified for attachment to plat-
form risers, is placed no closer than 100 feet nor farther than 250 feet away from
the riser. Anodes are not normally installed on risers in less than 300-foot water
depths.
For non-concrete coated pipe, anodes are typically installed at the weld pipe joints.
Because anodes may be damaged during installation, it is prudent to order extra.
Also extra anodes may be installed on the pipeline near the riser. The Company’s
typical anode attachment to the pipeline for concrete weight coated pipe is shown in
Figure 900-39.
Holidays
In general, a minimum of 2 percent for flaws or holidays in an FBE corrosion
coating (5 percent for coal tar) should be used for the design calculations.
Anode Attachment
The anode halves have mating surfaces, formed by their support steel structures,
which are welded together to assemble the anode around the pipe. The surfaces to
be welded must be cleaned to bare metal before welding. The anode halves are
placed on the pipe and aligned to give a snug fit. Then they are welded together.
Molded cylindrical anode bracelets may be connected by circumferentially welding
“T” shaped plates in four evenly-spaced places for each bracelet. The final anode
assembly should be in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
To electrically bond the anode to the pipe in one design, copper wires are lead from
the anode to the pipe. The corrosion coating is removed to bare metal in a small
area, and the wires are bonded to the pipe using a Cadweld. Cadwelding uses an
aluminum-thermite charge to weld the wire to the pipe without producing tempera-
tures high enough to cause metal embrittlement. The correct Cadweld kit size is
important, however.
Typical anode specifications by the Company include the choice of welded-on, see
Figure 900-40, or cadwelded anodes, see Figure 900-39. For pipelines without
Fig. 900-39 Typical Anode Bracelet, Molded Cylindrical Type, Installed on Pipe
concrete weight coating, the welded-on type is preferable since the cadwelded leads
could possibly be damaged while going over the stinger rollers.
After the anode has been installed, the corrosion coating and concrete weight
coating are repaired. All aspects of the installation process are made available for
inspection by the Company during installation of the anodes.
Insulating Flanges
Insulating flanges are used to break electrical current flow by nonmetallic, noncon-
ductor gaskets, sleeves and washers. Flange insulation kits are available from
Central Plastics Company, F. H. Maloney Company, and others. They may be
installed on lines near or at the platform cellar deck level.
Use of insulating flanges results in a system that uses jacket anodes and pipeline
anodes for protection of each.
Insulating joints are used for the following reasons:
1. When the platform jacket and pipeline(s) have different corrosion protection
(CP) types, typically the pipeline uses sacrificial anodes. (If the jacket uses
impressed current CP (uncommon), then, without electrical isolation, the
impressed current system can drive anodic corrosion of the riser due to the
differential voltages between the riser and the jacket.)
2. If the pipeline were bonded to an unprotected (no CP system) structure
(uncommon), the structure would drain the pipeline system.
3. When a pipeline coming to or leaving a Company platform is not owned by the
Company.
Insulating joints are not needed if the pipeline and jacket are both protected with
sacrificial anodes of the same potential (voltage). In this case there is no differential
voltage and no drain or anodic corrosion of either the structure or pipeline. This
must be explicitly designed for in order to match the potentials.
Insulating flanges are easily broken during installation. This is a delicate operation,
and care should be taken to prevent damage. In addition, the pipe/riser clamps must
provide for electrical isolation of the riser from the platform. Neoprene rubber on
the clamps may be used for this purpose.
Another instance when insulating flanges should be used is at tie-ins to “foreign”
pipelines - i.e., pipelines owned or operated by companies other than the Company.
Thus the Company pipeline is isolated from any cathodic protection deficiencies in
the foreign pipeline.
Maintenance/Repair
A well-protected platform structure can protect a short pipeline. In some cases
where insulating flanges have been used, and the pipeline’s anode system has failed
after a long period of time, the insulating flange can be removed to provide corro-
sion protection to the line. This, of course, must be considered on an individual
basis. If it is not an option, then the line and/or anodes must be replaced (also see
Section 973).
Sample Calculations
The following sample calculations illustrate the design of a sacrificial zinc anode
cathodic protection system for a 8.625-inch OD, FBE coated, submerged pipeline
with a length of 5.3 miles. (Also see “Pipeline Design Using the PLDESIGN
Computer Program” in Section 934.) The pipeline is located in 225 feet of water in
the Gulf of Mexico. The design life of the system is 20 years, which satisfies DOI’s
minimum requirement (30 CFR Part 250.152). For sample calculations for an
aluminum anode cathodic protection system for offshore pipelines, see Section
1250, Volume 1, of the Corrosion Prevention Manual.
Step 1—Determine the area of the pipe per lineal foot:
AL = Area/ft = pipe OD × π / (12 in/ft)
= 8.625 in. × 3.14159/12
= 2.258 ft2/ft
Step 2—Determine the total area of the pipeline:
TA = Total area
= AL × length of pipeline
= 2.258 ft2/ft × 5.3 mi × 5,280 ft/mi
= 63,188 ft2
Step 3—Determine the area of the pipeline that is not protected by the insulating
barrier coating. In general, a minimum of 2 percent for flaws or holidays in an FBE
corrosion coating should be used.
AP = Area to protect
= TA × 0.02
= 63,188 ft2 × 0.02
= 1,264 ft2
Step 4—Determine the total current required to protect the pipeline:
I = Total current
= AP × current density
The current density is a function of the environmental parameters in which the pipe-
line is laid. These environmental parameters include the sea water temperature,
production fluid temperature, salinity, and soil resistivity. The current density
should be 6 mA/ft2 for the following conditions: production fluid temperature of
120° F or less, on the ocean floor or shallow buried, and water depths of 300 feet or
less in the Gulf of Mexico. For deepwater installations and/or conditions found in
other locations, the current density may have to be increased. For example, for
offshore California in water depths of 600 feet or less, a minimum current density
may be 10 mA/ft2.
I = 1,264 ft2 × 6 mA/ft × (1/1000) amp/mA
= 7.58 amps
Step 5—Determine the amount of zinc required for a 20- year design life. The
consumption rate of zinc is 25 lb/(amp yr).
ZW = Required weight of zinc
= I × consumption rate × design life
= 7.58 amps × 25 lb/(amp yr) × 20 yr
= 3,792 lb
Step 6—Determine the weight of the anode, the number of anodes, and the spacing
of the anodes. Typically specified Chevron U.S.A. - Eastern Region zinc alloy
bracelet weights are shown in Figure 900-34 for various pipe sizes and a 20- or 30-
year design life. (Readily available sizes from, for example, American Corrosion
Services are shown in Figure 900-37.)
AW = Anode weight = 108 lb (selected from Figure 900-34 and
Figure 900-35)
NA = Number of anodes
= ZW / AW
= 3792 lb / 108 lb
= 35.1 ( round up to 36 anodes)
AS = Anode spacing
= Pipeline length / NA
= (5.3 mi × 5280 ft/mi) / 36
= 777 ft
If the anode spacing exceeds the maximum allowable to keep the voltage drop to an
acceptable low level, the number of anodes must be increased sufficiently to bring
the anode spacing down (see, for example, Figure 900-38). Therefore, the spacing
can be lowered by selecting a lower anode weight from Figure 900-34. In this case
an allowable voltage drop of 0.06 volts would result in a maximum spacing of 890
feet (Refer to Figure 900-38). The 108-lb anode satisfies this spacing limitation.
Step 7—Determine the interval of pipe joints that will require an anode bracelet:
Interval = AS / average pipe joint length
Average pipe joint length = 40 ft
Interval = 777 ft / 40 ft
Interval = 777 ft / 40 ft
= 19.4 (round down to 19)
Therefore, anode bracelets will be placed at 19 pipe joint intervals. However, the
first and last anode should be spaced at one-half the interval.
Step 8—Determine the number of anodes required for a 19-pipe joint spacing:
Total number of joints = (5.3 mi × 5,280 ft/mi) / 40 ft
= 700 jts
Revised NA = Total number of joints/ interval
= 700 / 19 = 36.8 (round up to 37)
Step 9—Determine the revised design life due to the additional anode:
Total anode weight = 37 × 108 lb
= 3,996 lb
Design life = Total weight / I
= 3,996 lb/ (7.58 amps) (25 lb/amp/yr)
= 21 years
The revised NA results in a calculated design life of 21 years.
Step 10—Anode Installation Procedure
Zinc anode bracelet weight = 108 lb
1. First anode attached at one-half interval
2. 2 to 35 anodes attached at 19 joint intervals
3. 36th anode placed on 674th pipe joint
4. 37th anode placed on 687th pipe joint
(Note: Anodes are attached to the middle of joints.)
Discussion
Pipeline safety regulations require an emergency shutdown (ESD) system to isolate
hydrocarbon lines. Pipelines coming onto and leaving a platform should be
provided with remote shut-down valves (SDV’s) and check valves that will effec-
tively and reliably shut off hydrocarbon flow toward the platform in an emergency.
In general, this should apply to most, if not all, gas lines. In the case of oil lines, it
should be sufficient to be able to shut off flow from incoming lines via an SDV.
However, item (b)(1) also requires an FSV (check valve).
Because of corrosion and environmental forces on the FSV’s and SDV’s, they
should be located well above the splash zone, e.g., on or just below the lowest
accessible deck (see the discussion below). (In the U.K. Sector of the North Sea,
regulations now allow site specific, safety case analysis regarding fitting of seabed
ESD’s. If additional safety is not demonstrated, a valve is not mandatory. Operators
have to demonstrate that their facilities have been analyzed as safe. The safety case
is a detailed document that demonstrates this. Regulations require trade-off on
topside ESD valve location. The valve must be closest to the splash zone consistent
with damage, maintainability, and testing.)"
Of the U.S. publications available on surface pipeline safety, the most important
API document is RP 14C, “Recommended Practice for Analysis, Design, Installa-
tion and Testing of Basic Surface Safety Systems for Offshore Production Plat-
forms.”
Fig. 900-41 CUSA Experience with Check/Ball Valves for Pipelines Incoming to a Subsea Tie-in
The following information reflects Chevron USA-Production GOMBU’s experience with check/ball valves for pipe-
lines incoming to a subsea tie-in.
Design Considerations
• Prefers lock open (by diver) device for check valves (use when running acceptance test for a new pipeline or
for pipeline maintenance/repairs)
• Prefers an ANSI 900 rating (minimum), for maximum operating pressures less than or equal to 1,440 psi
• Recommends a gear operator for ball valves if pipeline diameter is greater than or equal to 8 in ches
• Prefers to install a block valve with the check valve
GOMBU Experience
• No maintenance required
• Maximum valve size is 20 inches
• Experience based on the use of 24 valve pairs
• Ball valves all manually actuated (by divers), not hydraulically actuated
Valve Manufacturers
• Check Valves
– Wheatley Pump and Valve Inc., Tulsa, OK
• Ball Valves
– WKM
– Cameron
– Grove
The technology and hardware currently exist to isolate a platform subsea, should it
be required by the Company.
rators or dehydrators. The source of gas flow was from other incoming lines that
connected downstream of the affected vessel. This is more of a production design
problem than a safety design, but it should not be ignored.
Incoming and outgoing pipelines in the Gulf of Mexico are typically provided with
valves located on the platform cellar deck well above the water and close to the
riser terminations. The incoming valve is typically a pneumatically controlled,
spring loaded, fail-safe valve. (Spring loaded valves are typically 12-inch nominal
and smaller. All other valves are typically power close.) In many cases, the platform
may have scraper traps/valves with an automatic block-off.
For incoming and outgoing pipelines, check valves are required per API RP 14C.
Leak Detection Systems and Small Diameter Inspection Tools - Phases I & II
[32, 33]
H. O. Mohr Research & Engineering, Inc (HOMRE) conducted a Phase II Study -
“Evaluation & Selection Procedures and Cost Estimates” at the request and direc-
tion of the Company, on leak detection systems and small diameter pipeline inspec-
tion tools, with emphasis on offshore pipelines that are used for transporting oil and
multi-phase (oil/gas) products [33]. The Final Report & Appendix I, Volume I is
“For Company Use Only”. This work was performed to implement the 1990 recom-
mendations of the Offshore Oil Spill Prevention Task Force.
Background. Phase I was a state-of-the-art survey for the subject systems and tools
[32]. Phase II addresses the issues of availability, applicability and costs of leak
detection systems, as well as inspection and survey tools for 6-inch and smaller
diameter offshore pipelines and flowlines.
The study objectives are: 1) To evaluate currently available leak detection systems
or those under development, relative to a set of pipeline categories representative of
those operated by the Company, and to assess their expected performance and reli-
ability and 2) To evaluate the applicability and expected inspection/survey capabili-
ties for the group of selected flowline subcategories.
The study tasks included updating the literature and other technical information,
meeting with key Company engineering and operations personnel and soliciting
information from manufacturers and suppliers of leak detection systems and inspec-
tion tools.
Discussion of Work. In summation, the project objectives were met. Leak detec-
tion system candidates that meet a series of functional requirements and desirable
features for each of five major pipeline categories were identified and assessed.
These categories include: 1) Shallow Platform to Shore (150 ft water depth and
less), 2) Deep Platform to Shallow Platform (250 to 150 ft), 3) Deep Platform to
Deep Platform (250 ft and greater), 4) Subsea Well to Deep Platform (250 ft and
greater) and 5) Floating Production to Deep Water Platform.
The installation and support requirements and limitations, as well as the associated
system and component engineering, procurement, installation, operating and main-
tenance costs for each of the applicable leak detection systems were developed.
The Table of Contents for Volume I is as follows: 1) Management Summary, 2)
Conclusions and Recommendations, 3) Introduction, 4) Field Meetings and Input,
5) Pipeline and Flowline Categories, 6) Leak Detection Systems, 7) Small Diameter
Inspection Tools and APPENDIX I - Project Data.
APPENDIX II-Leak Detection Systems is three volumes: II.A, II.B-1 and II.B-2,
which include regulatory, technical and supplier information.
APPENDIX III-Small Diameter Inspection Tools is two volumes: III.A and
III.B, which also include technical and supplier information.
Saipem Castoro Sei, and ETPM 1601, a derrick/lay barge (see Figure 900-43). The
production rates for these lay vessels are higher than for conventional second gener-
ation lay barges because they are typically equipped for double joint pipe (80 feet
long) make-up procedures.
It should be noted that second generation lay barges can also be used for this water
depth range in mild environments, but may require stinger, tensioner, and mooring
system modifications. For example, the McDermott LB 29 and later the LB 27 were
both used to install 12-inch diameter pipelines to Shell’s Cognac platform, located
in the Gulf of Mexico in a water depth of 1,025 feet.
1,200- to 1,800-Foot Water Depth. This water depth range is beyond the reach of
conventional second generation lay barges. Third generation lay vessels can be used
for pipeline diameters less than 30 inches. Major limitations for existing third gener-
ation lay vessels are summarized below.
Figure 900-44 shows maximum achievable departure angles and tensioning capaci-
ties for the pipeline on third generation lay vessels. These capacities are achieved
by installing two or three tensioning units in series. A typical tensioner is shown in
Figure 900-45. Angles are for the pipeline at the top of the stinger.
Fig. 900-44 Maximum Tip Angles and Tensioner Capacities for Third Generation S-Curve Lay Vessels
Max Tip Angle Total Tension
Pipelay Vessel Stinger Type From Horizontal No. of Tensioners Capacity
McDermott LB-200 Fixed Ramp 30° 3 450
Saipem Castoro Sei Fixed Ramp 45° — —
Brown & Root M-420 Hinged 35° 3 240
Allseas Lorelay Fixed Ramp 40° 2 200
ETPM 1601 — — 3 450
The station keeping systems for third generation lay vessels limit the total hori-
zontal force available to balance the horizontal pipe tension, environmental loads,
and vessel move-up loads. The largest conventional mooring systems are limited to
200 to 300 kips horizontal force and have a practical limit of 1000- to 1500-foot
water depth. More advanced third generation lay vessels such as the Castoro Sei
and Allseas Lorelay, a ship, use dynamic positioning (DP) to supplement or replace
conventional mooring lines in deep water.
1,800- to 2,400-Foot Water Depth. Third generation lay vessels can still be used
to install up to 20-inch diameter pipelines in this water depth range. An example of
this is the 20-inch diameter Sicilian Channel Crossing installed in a 2,000-foot
water depth by the Saipem Castoro Sei.
2,400- to 3,000-Foot Water Depth. The following pipelay methods are applicable
for this water depth range:
Pipeline Diameter (In.) Pipelay Method
6 - 12 Third generation lay vessel with modifications
16 - 28 Drilling vessel modified for J-Lay installations
30 - 36 Newly built, dedicated J-Lay vessel
The dedicated J-Lay vessel might have an advanced pipe make-up system, such as
flash butt or automatic welding and multiple joint pipe that would increase the
production rate for single station pipe make-up.
Low Cost Flowline Installation Method: J-Lay Inclined Mast (JLIM) Concept
- Report (Chevron/Starmark Offshore) [57]
The primary goal is to provide less costly means of laying small diameter flowlines
(to individual wells), using the inclined mast J-lay technique that is currently avail-
able with conventional pipelay barges. The JLIM equipment may be outfitted to a
Deepwater Tow Methods Design Guide for the Installation of Offshore Pipe-
lines [35]
Tow methods for the installation of offshore pipelines involve welding long strings
of pipe on shore in 1 to 10 mile lengths and then towing them with tugs to the
desired installation point. This Guide focuses on water depths beyond 1,000 ft.
Limiting parameters for single, as well as bundled pipeline configurations are evalu-
ated for various tow methods of pipeline installation. This evaluation shows that
viable methods for construction of offshore pipelines in deepwater include the mid-
depth and bottom tow methods.
The potential benefit of this technology is for flowlines and pipelines in swamp,
marsh or very shallow water locations to produce lower pipeline costs through
improved design, project definition and specifications.
Sacrificial anodes for cathodic protection can also be added at predetermined inter-
vals at the dope station (see Appendix C). (If the pipe is weight coated, anodes
should normally be preinstalled.)
Pipeline Initiation
The initiation method, also known as the “lay-away method,” uses a “deadman”
anchor at a predetermined point on the sea floor. A cable is run from this anchor to
the pipelay vessel and connected to a pull-head on the first pipe joint. This cable
provides the back tension required to control the pipe sagbend stresses until suffi-
cient pipe is on the sea floor [3].
the pulling head. Divers connect the pulling cable, an additional sling and a shackle
to the bowstring as shown in Figure 900-47. Tension is applied to control the pipe
stresses as the barge moves away from the platform, and the pipe progressively
sinks until it touches the sea floor. Because this method requires the use of divers,
too-deep water may prevent its use in some locations. It has been used frequently in
offshore Cabinda.
Pipeline Termination
Termination of a pipeline from a laying vessel is accomplished by welding the pull
head to the last pipe joint. A cable from the vessel’s abandonment/recovery winch
is connected to the pull head, and the vessel moves forward, using the winch to
maintain required tension. At a platform the pipeline may be tied off with a cable.
Pipeline Repositioning
The pipeline termination method described in the previous paragraph usually will
not provide sufficient accuracy for locating the end of a pipeline in certain cases.
This is because the pipeline must be laid to bottom by the barge moving out from
under it. (Platforms restrict the barge movement.) Depending on the tie-in method
and materials used, tighter tolerances may be required. The most common way to
reposition a pipeline is to attach several cables, evenly spaced over a length, and lift
the pipe off of the sea floor using the barge “davits.” By mooring the lay vessel on
its anchors, the end of the pipe may be repositioned. Davit lifts should be carefully
planned and executed to avoid over-stressing or buckling the pipeline.
Contractor Reporting
The pipelay contractor should prepare a chronological schedule of work prior to the
start of offshore construction showing estimated completion times of key activities.
The schedule should include the pipeline, each riser, and other operations and
marine vessels individually. This schedule should be updated as necessary during
construction, to reflect actual and forecasted events.
The contractor should also prepare daily field reports. They should include a daily
forecast of all work to be performed over the subsequent 24 hours as well as known
and projected vessel location and movements. A pipe tally report should be
submitted upon completion of the pipeline, and for jobs outside the U.S., the report
should be in both metric and English units, meters or feet. Diving reports should be
submitted upon completion of each dive. Accident reports should be submitted
within 24 hours for any person receiving treatment from the contractor’s medical
personnel for an injury.
Contractor Safety
Prior to arrival on-site, all marine vessels and pipelaying equipment should be
inspected for safety. The contractor should prepare a plan to correct any violations.
In general, work will be allowed on a 24-hour-a-day basis, except for hook-up work
on platforms where lighting will be restrictive. Movement of anchors or moorings
in the vicinity of existing facilities, such as platforms or pipelines, is generally not
permitted at night. Lifting of equipment onto decks should not be permitted at night.
The contractor should give a minimum of 24 hours’ notice to the Company Repre-
sentative prior to moving barges at night. The contractor’s first approach to the site
should be done during the daylight hours.
Safety is of prime importance to the Company and the contractor. The contractor’s
Installation Manual should include a brief description of the contractor’s criteria for
safe operations, including crane operations. Also, communications between the
surface and the diver(s) is an important safety consideration. All contractor cranes
should be operated by qualified, authorized, experienced crane operators thor-
oughly familiar with the contractor’s safe operating procedures.
The contractor should describe, in the Installation Manual, the safety procedures to
be used during NDT, including shielding for both pipeline and riser construction.
Welding Procedures
The contractor should submit welding procedures for the Company’s approval. The
procedure should cover welder qualification and onshore/offshore weld acceptance
and repair; once approved, the procedures should be included in the Installation
Manual. Welding should be performed in accordance with Company approved
procedures, API 1104 and Company specifications.
Pipeline Pre-survey
Prior to pipeline construction, the contractor should survey the sea floor along the
pipeline route and report any significant debris to the Company Representative, and
mark the pipeline route and any existing lines and/or debris with buoys. The proce-
dure to be used for positioning should be included in the Installation Manual.
The post-installation survey should also be described in the Installation Manual.
The manual should also discuss how unsupported spans are located and measured.
Pipeline Pigging
With all riser connections completed on each end of the pipeline, a scraper pig is
pumped through the pipeline to remove most of the loose mill scale and weld slag
that may have accumulated in the line during construction. The scraper pig run is
followed by a gage pig run. The gage pig may be outfitted with aluminum sizing
plates with a minimum diameter of 93 percent of the pipeline’s smallest inside
diameter. The gage pig will detect any significant buckling that may have occurred
during construction. Sea water that has been treated with a corrosion inhibitor or
biocide is normally used to push the gage pig through the line. This treated water
should remain in the pipeline until the line is placed into service.
Hydrostatic Testing
A hydrostatic test is the final operation to be performed in construction of the pipe-
line. Depending upon which governmental agency has jurisdiction over the pipe-
line, the test requirements will vary. The DOI requires that the pipeline be tested to
1.25 times the designed working pressure for an 8-hour minimum, as prescribed in
30 CFR 250, while the DOT requires that the test pressure be held for 4 hours, as
prescribed in 49 CFR 195.302b. (An additional 4 hours is required for locations
where the pipeline cannot be visually inspected for leaks, i.e., divers and/or ROV
used.) The Company requires a test pressure of the lesser of either 1) 150 percent of
the maximum allowable working pressure of the pipeline or lowest rated valve or
fitting in the section under test, or 2) the pressure which would result in a maximum
combined stress of 90 percent of the SMYS of the pipe. The test period shall not be
less than 8 hours. Pressure and temperature monitoring is required. All variations in
pressure require explanation on the recording chart. All U.S. regulating agencies
require that the hydrostatic test records be maintained on file for the life of the pipe-
line.
One may want to consider using a third party consultant to witness the testing. The
pipeline profile should be considered to avoid overpressuring. (Typical specifica-
tions are available for testing. See Section 700 for a discussion of hydrotesting.)
Procedures for testing should include estimates for the pressures and volumes of
liquids to be used.
Pipeline Burial
Following a successful hydrostatic test, the pipeline may require burial, depending
upon conditions of the sea bottom and water depth in which the lines were laid. (If
the job is lump sum, one probably will not want to test until after burial.) In the
Gulf of Mexico, pipelines are generally buried when water depths are up to 200
feet. The specifications detailing burial requirements for DOT submarine oil pipe-
lines are contained in 49 CFR 195. Burial methods are described in Section 968.
Fig. 900-48 Pipe Joining Techniques and Offshore Experience of Various Vendors/Installers
Technique Offshore Experience Vendors (1)
Shielded Metal Arc Heavy experience, univer- 1-5, 8-14, 16 17
Welding sally accepted
Semi-Automatic and Auto- Moderate experience 4, 5, 10, 11, 12, 13
matic [28] —Gas Metal
Arc Welding
Flash Butt Minimal experience 2, 9
Friction Welding Minimal experience, deep- 16
water application
Cold Forging Specialty method, no 1, 3
laying experience, risers,
flange connections, repair,
etc.
Mechanical Interference Minimal experience 17
Threaded Connections Minimal experience 6, 7, 11, 14
(1) See Figure 900-49 for Vendor Cross Reference.
Cold Forging creates a bond between the pipe segments by inserting the end of one
segment into another and deforming the inner segment, so as to create a metal-to-
metal seal. The feature of this method is a single station for connecting, repair,
testing, and coating (also see Sections 952 and 971).
Mechanical Interference joints use a bell or groove end preparation installed on
each end of a joint, and joints are joined together by a hydraulic press-fit unit in the
field.
Threaded Connections are applicable where reliable sealing and structural integ-
rity are required in a hostile environment. This is a cost effective approach, if
several joints are connected and then the multijoint strings are joined with threaded
connectors. The technology available for well casing can also be applied to pipe-
lines. (Refer to Drilling Technology Center Technical Memo 87-06, October 1987,
“Guidelines for Selection of Threaded Connectors for Casing and Tubing.”)
7. A Splashtron plug on the riser pipe is used to seal with the J-tube at the J-tube
Bell Mouth.
8. Fill the annulus with corrosion prevention chemicals.
For pipe diameters from 16 to 22 inches, a diver-assisted tie-in to a preinstalled
riser with a flanged spool piece is typically used.
1. Install a flange and cap on the pipe end and lay the pipe on the bottom.
2. Deploy divers to obtain measurements between the flanges with a template.
3. Raise the template to the surface and fabricate the spool piece on the lay barge.
4. Lower the spool piece to the bottom and make-up the flanges with divers.
Hyperbaric welding is a feasible alternative method for making tie-ins at the base of
a riser and is preferred by some OPCO’s. This tie-in method has the advantage of
providing an all welded pipeline-to-riser tie-in and can be used for very large diam-
eter risers.
Specifications for a J-tube Riser pipe installation in a maximum water depth of 390
ft are contained in COPI/CABGOC’s Cabinda Areas B&C Pipeline Installation and
Testing Specification 20.02-CBC [39].
600- to 900-Foot Water Depth. Saturation diving is feasible in this water depth
range, but is generally not preferred for J-tube riser installation because of the
increased cost. An ROV is therefore used for tie-in procedures instead of divers.
For pipe diameters up to 16 inches, the preinstalled J-tube method is applicable.
Procedures involved are similar to those used for water depths between 300 and 600
feet except in this case, where the ROV is used for the hook-up of the wireline to a
messenger wire.
For pipe diameters from 16 to 36 inches, a diverless tie-in is recommended. The
pipeline is tied-in to a preinstalled riser by means of a spool piece equipped with
mechanical connectors, landing bases, and swivel joints. (Swivel joints may be
eliminated if the system has flexibility.) This method includes the following proce-
dural steps:
1. Install a landing base with a mating connector on the end of the pipeline and
lay the pipe on bottom. (Similar provision is required on the riser end.)
2. Measure the distance between the two end connectors with the aid of an ROV.
3. Return the measuring apparatus to the surface.
4. Fabricate a spool assembly on the barge.
5. Lower the spool piece into position.
6. Activate the final connection with the aid of an ROV.
Retrofitted Risers
Retrofitted risers can be a major expense in deepwater where saturation diving is
required. Riser clamps have also been installed using ROV’s or a diver in a one
atmosphere diving suit. Project Specifications for a retrofitted riser installation in a
water depth of 685 ft are contained in CUSA’s Garden Banks 191/236A Pipeline
Installation and Testing Specification. A copy is available from CPTC’s OS Group
in San Ramon, CA. A retrofitted riser method has also been developed by CUK for
the Alba project in the North Sea.
Concrete Coatings
Concrete coated pipe should be checked for damage before and during installation.
Divers can be used, at four hour intervals, to observe any coating damage after
going over the stinger.
Pipe Tally. As the barge moves along the right-of-way, its position is correlated
with the amount of pipe laid. The pipe tally is usually done on a shift (12-hour)
basis, and a record is made of the joint number, mill joint number (this ties a joint
back to the mill certificate, if used), length, weight coating thickness, and special
features such as anodes or tap valves. Weld repairs are also noted. The pipe welded
per shift and total to-date are recorded. These data are ideally suited for a PC
spreadsheet. (The contractor prepares them for Company approval.)
Tension. Pipe tension is a key variable in controlling pipe laying stresses (see
Section 936). To ensure that the tension stays in the proper range to avoid excessive
stress in the pipeline during laying, the actual tension is compared with the
Contractor’s calculated tension requirement. Laying stresses are thus limited to a
maximum of 80% of the minimum pipe yield strength. Calculations are made prior
to construction, and plans are prepared for the tension required along the route.
During construction a stripchart records the hydraulic pressure applied, from which
is calculated the applied tension. The strip chart recorder also has a digital readout.
A tensioner gage with an analog dial is also used. The tension gaging devices
should be observed each time the barge moves up, usually about 10- to 15-minute
intervals, and tension should not exceed 20 percent of nominal tension (see
Section 936). The stripchart recorder should be calibrated before use and inspected
each day or two to ensure it is still correctly calibrated.
Welder Identification. In-line welders can be tracked using records of who was
working at each station during each shift. Therefore, there is usually no need to
mark each weld with the welder’s unique identification. Identifiers should be
assigned so they can be employed if necessary. The contractor’s welder qualifica-
tion/test procedure should be approved by the Company.
Weld Inspection. The quality of welds made during the installation process is
ensured by nondestructive testing on location. (Refer to Section 632.) Radiography
is the most widely-used method of testing, because a permanent record is gener-
ated. Ultrasonic testing is also useful. Safety precautions are necessary for barge
personnel during pipeline inspection. Adequate shielding must be provided.
For radiographic inspection, use of an internal unit is much quicker and permits
single-wall exposure/single-wall viewing. Magnets placed on either side of the
weld serve to target the crawler and properly position it. A cable attached to the
crawler runs back to the lineup station and is “dogged-off.” This cable lies at the
bottom of the pipe. Special cable materials may be used so that the cable will not
affect the radiograph. (If a weld repair is made to the lower part of the pipe, then
the cable should be removed from this area; otherwise, the cable could become
welded to the pipe.)
In accordance with 49 CFR 195.234, 100 percent of the welds on offshore U.S.
DOT pipelines must be tested. All test records, including radiography film, must be
kept on file for 3 years after the pipeline is placed in service. (Refer to Section 631
- Regulations and Codes, concerning pipeline welding.)
Stinger Configuration. Laying stresses are calculated with an assumed
barge/stinger configuration (see Section 936). Several times per shift, usually every
4 hours, the pipe/stinger configuration is checked by using a pneumo (pressure
gage, see Section 968) to record the depth below water at known points. Diver or
ROV observation of pipe lift-off and pipe-to-stinger roller interaction/location is
also used. These results are compared to those anticipated, and adjustments are
made in the pipe tension, stinger configuration, or barge orientation as necessary.
Buckle Detectors. A device with a gaging plate tied back to the pipe on the barge
by cable can be placed beyond the sag bend to detect buckles. The device stays in
the same position relative to the barge as the pipe is laid. If the pipe should buckle,
cable tension would increase as the barge is moved forward, and the buckle detector
senses this increase. The buckle detector system can result in lost time if the cable
should part or if the gage hangs up. Because of this, contractors and the Company
prefer not to use them for pipe diameters less than 20 inches. If divers or an ROV
are monitoring barge position, tension, and the suspended pipe configuration, infor-
mation will likely be available to suggest inspecting for a buckle. ROV’s should be
considered for large pipe diameters, including 24 inch OD.
Lay Barge Positioning. Onboard surveyors are employed to track the barge posi-
tion and its relationship to the right-of way. They should also locate anchor place-
ments. A radio or satellite positioning system is normally used on the barge and
anchor handling boat. The use of an ROV or side scan sonar to confirm the precon-
struction calculations is discussed in the following paragraph. Inspectors should
check with the surveyors regularly to confirm that the system was properly set up,
that the position correlates well with the amount of pipe laid, and that the position
is correct in relation to the right-of-way centerline.
Environmental Criteria
The Contractor should monitor and record the wind speed and direction, and the
wave height, direction and period at least every six hours. The seastate for abandon-
ment of pipelay, if required during construction should be recorded, with the date
and time.
Touchdown. Calculations before and during construction can predict the touch-
down point (see Section 936). Using an ROV with a positioning system tied back to
the surface or using a side scan sonar or a trailing work boat will permit verification
of this. ROV’s with a 1500-foot umbilical are available to allow deployment from a
barge. This technique should be considered if a complete understanding of the lay
configuration is necessary.
Vertical Curvature. Construction specifications limit the allowable vertical curva-
ture. In most instances, the sea floor is flat and/or the curvature is large, allowing
the use of pneumo readings (depth measurement, see Section 968) to verify compli-
ance. Where curves are relatively small, pneumos may not be accurate enough. A
more accurate method, however, is not readily available. A scheme using lasers,
change in pipe angle, etc., can be developed but will take preplanning.
Pipe Burial. Specifications normally call for a burial depth from natural sea floor
to the top-of-the-pipe. (Also see Section 968.) Pneumos give a reasonable indica-
tion of the situation, and divers or ROV’s can spot the probe for readings. Due to
the movement of seabed material during burial, referencing the natural sea floor
requires an offset measurement. Quick backfill requires inspection while jetting. If
the pipe remains exposed, it can be inspected at a more convenient time. When
plows or trenchers are used for pipe burial, only minimum inspection may be
required if the trenching tool operation can be confirmed.
Testing
Gaging and hydrotesting for offshore pipelines are similar to those employed for
onshore pipelines, except in the area of leak detection. Additional testing is used to
verify the position, configuration, and cathodic protection for offshore pipelines.
Leak Detection. Dyes are used in the inhibited seawater hydrotest fluid to identify
a leak. The dyes are very luminous in extremely small concentrations. Divers,
ROV’s, or submersibles may be used to check the line in the area of a surface indi-
cation, or they may track the line completely.
Pipeline Position. In shallow water, divers are normally used to confirm pipe posi-
tion for critical operations. Side scan sonar or an ROV deployed from a surface
vessel could be used to fly the pipeline. Fixes can be taken periodically to locate the
line. Data can be reduced in the field to compare predicted versus actual lay posi-
tions.
Configuration. A subsea TV video of the pipe leaving the last roller on the stinger
can be used to evaluate coating damage. The pipeline can be viewed from the top
and both sides by using diver(s) or an ROV. A video tape can be made to determine
the weight/joint coating condition, seabed construction or scour, spans, etc. Visi-
bility can be a problem in high energy areas. Diver inspection using “feel” can be
used in these circumstances if the line is on the sea floor.
Cathodic Protection. After the pipeline is installed, an ROV equipped with a probe
can be used to measure the potential difference and current flow of the pipeline
anodes. This system confirms that the anodes are functioning properly and gives an
indication of the corrosion coating condition.
Depending on the shoreline profile, soil conditions, and accessibility, shore cross-
ings are classified into the following types.
Difficult Crossings
Difficult shore crossings are characterized by one or more of the following condi-
tions:
• Essentially level but relatively wide shore zone such as tidal flats in areas with
excessive tidal range
• Rock or coral-like reefs
• Severe and/or numerous changes in terrain elevation (cliffs, dunes, etc.)
• High littoral currents, creating vertical hydrodynamic forces when large diam-
eter pipelines are exposed over great lengths
In areas with rock or coral-like formations, blasting will be necessary to make the
trench for the pipeline.
Directional Drilling. In areas with bluffs, it might be prudent to install the shore
crossing by drilling a directional pilot hole and then enlarging the hole by a
reaming operation. (See Appendix B.)
Protection of Pipelines at Difficult Crossings. With every type of shore crossing
used, the pipeline should be provided with adequate protection against floatation.
Usually this protection is provided by concrete weight coating or concrete saddles.
The onshore portion of the shore crossing is liable to be flooded by sea level set-up
due to storm surges. Concrete saddles are normally used in this area to provide the
necessary stabilizing force. The thickness of concrete coating and the size and
spacing of concrete saddles are functions of pipe diameter and oceanographic condi-
tions.
In areas of high scour action, such as the surf zone, rock cover is an effective means
of scour protection [24]. Where wave forces are not large, a pipeline may be
covered with a simple rubble mound for scour protection.
Jetting
Conventional Jet Barge and Sled. Jetting is a widely used pipeline trenching
method. The system consists of a jetting sled that fits over the pipe and dislodges
soil from around the pipe by high pressure water jets. The jet nozzles must be
capable of handling the type of soil encountered. The spoils are removed and depos-
ited on the sides of the trench via eduction pipes, using airlift or water eduction as
the driving mechanism. The surface support vessel is a barge with a mooring
system, pumps, air compressor and an A-frame with winches for handling the sled.
Figure 900-50 illustrates a typical high-pressure jet barge. (When a simultaneous
lay-bury technique is used, the pipe is full of air but the submerged weight prevents
the pipe from floating. This applies to smaller-diameter pipe.)
If the pipeline is already laid, it should be filled with water prior to jetting. This is
because the jetting operation causes part of the soil to form a liquid more dense
than an empty pipe. The peak daily production rate is about 1 mile per day for each
pass required. High-pressure jetted trenches tend to be wide at the mudline, and in
granular soils, side slopes of up to 1:20 are expected. Consequently, these trenches
offer limited protection to a pipeline.
Divers observing jet sled operations should do so from a safe distance.
Land and Marine Trenching Machine (TM). A significant variation on the
jetting concept is embodied in the TM series of trenching machines, developed and
operated by Land and Marine Engineering Ltd., England. Figure 900-51 shows the
arrangement of the TM jet sled. The TM devices use low pressure high volume
nozzles to fluidize the soil, which is then removed via sand pumps. This permits
cutting a narrower trench with less disturbance of the surrounding soil. These
machines are most effective in fine granular materials, but function poorly in stiff
clay and well cemented materials.
Pumps are located on the machines rather than up on the barge and are powered
through an electrical umbilical so that hydraulic power losses are eliminated. Thus,
power requirements, barge size, and fuel expenditures are less than for conventional
jet sleds.
The trenching rate of these machines is about the same as other machines. One
disadvantage is that the smallest diameter pipe they can handle is NPS 24.
Mechanical Cutters
Heerema’s “Eager Beaver”. The Eager Beaver trenching system is illustrated in
Figure 900-52. This machine uses three chain-type cutters to form the trench. The
first two cutters make a slope of 60 degrees to either side of the vertical and from
the wedge outline of the trench. The third removes the material of the remaining
portion of the cross section. Crawler treads support and propel the machine, which
does not touch the pipeline at any time. Surface support is provided from a dynami-
cally positioned (DP) supply vessel. Based on contractor estimates, the rate of
trenching is between 0.9 and 2.4 miles/day.
Kvaerner Trenching System. The Kvaerner Trenching System consists of a
rotating cutterhead at the end of an arm. A schematic of this device is provided in
Figure 900-53. The machine is ballasted to near-neutral buoyancy, and is self-
righting during operation. The drive mechanism consists of traction motors attached
to rollers that are clamped to the pipe. A dynamically positioned mother-ship is
required for surface support. Although this equipment has been field tested, no
commercial pipeline trenching work has been undertaken.
Other Mechanical Trenchers. During the past several years Saipem, Brown and
Root, Subsea Oil Services, Undersea Systems, Tecnomare, and others have been
developing different versions of mechanical trenchers. Some of these will probably
be commercially available in the future.
Plowing
Underwater plows make a clean-cut trench in the sea bottom, with little or no reduc-
tion of strength of the adjoining soils. These plows slope the sides of the trench
more steeply than conventional jetting does. Figure 900-54 depicts the three
different plows that have been used to trench pipelines.
Plowing is done either before, during or after pipeline installation (called
preplowing, coplowing, and postplowing).
Preplowing. This method is most suitable for bottom towed or bottom pulled pipe-
lines. Precise navigational aids are required to place the pipeline in the excavated
trench, which gets more difficult as water depth increases.
Coplowing. The plow is placed immediately ahead of the pipeline being installed.
This procedure is suitable for both the bottom tow/pull methods as well as the lay
barge method of pipeline installation.
Coplowing -Inda Pipeline, Nigeria. Coplowing was the method employed on the
Inda pipeline installed near the Bonny River in Nigeria. The soil in the area is a mix
of sand and silt deposited by the Bonny River, and the seabed slope from the shore
to deepwater is very gradual. Bougyues Offshore used this method to successfully
pull and bury the 8 inch Inda pipeline a distance of 1,500 ft from the beach before
the pulling tension became too great for the pipe and the pulling winch. (The
remainder of the shore approach was pulled without trenching and a tie-in was
made. The un-plowed section proved to be self-burying.)
Very good soils data along the route is required to adequately assess the risk of
using a plow for burial. In the case of the Inda pipeline, the soil stresses proved to
be greater than anticipated and therefore the installation was a limited success;
however this is a viable option for installing and burying pipelines in shallow beach
approaches when soil data indicates that pipe stress will not be a problem.
Postplowing. A vessel (or vessels) pulls the plow along the pipeline after installa-
tion. Rollers mounted on the plow keep the plow safely away from the pipeline and
guide the plow along the line. The rollers are equipped with load cells to indicate
loads on the pipe caused by vessel excursions.
Dredging
A pipeline can be installed in a trench that has been pre-excavated by a dredge. The
dredged trench must be reasonably wide at the base to allow the pipeline to be
installed without necessitating unusual specifications or position control of the
installation vessel. The degree of pipeline stability against hydrodynamic forces in
such a wide trench is very low and backfill of the trench may be necessary.
Dredging is not typically used for general pipeline protection, because this type of
equipment does not produce a smooth trench bottom unless special control require-
ments are adapted. Alternatively, the trench can be leveled after dredging by drag-
ging.
Fluidization
Fluidization involves forcing a large volume of water into the soil surrounding the
pipe, thus reducing the soil density and allowing the pipe to settle in the soil. The
main advantage of this method is that, during fluidization, the pipe is immediately
covered with soil and full protection is achieved. The main disadvantage is that it is
effective only in sandy soils, and considerable variations in soil type may be
encountered along a pipe route.
Self Burial
If the seafloor soil is very soft, sometimes the pipeline undergoes self burial. The
self burial of pipelines depends on several factors. The following equation can be
used to predict pipeline sinkage [13], [14]:
Spanning
A potential area for pipeline damage is the pipeline span. Spans may occur when a
line is installed over an uneven seabed or where the bed below a section of the pipe
is eroded by local scour.
When a line is exposed and spans above the seabed, the water particle flow paths
around and under the pipe change radically from the partially buried case. The inter-
action between any consequent line vibration and these flow patterns are poorly
understood but critical to the assessment of pipeline spans.
The bending stresses induced in the pipe wall or concrete coating may either result
in fatigue failure of the pipe wall or loss of weight coating leading to pipeline insta-
bility, see Section 968 for calculation references.
The decision on intervention needed to correct spans under previously installed
lines will depend on a balanced consideration between potential damage and cost of
correction. Spans on new lines are corrected by the Contractor, prior to Company
acceptance of the completed line per the pipeline installation specifications.
This report is useful for conceptual and preliminary design of pipelines for on-
bottom stability in cases where weight coating may not be the best method.
The currents produced at the mouth of the Zaire river offshore Zaire are very high.
This results in special requirements for on-bottom stability, as follows.
Offshore pipeline crossings are typically made in one of two ways. In some shallow
water OCS areas, government regulations require that all pipelines be buried.
Figure 900-55 shows a typical Chevron Pipe Line Company crossing in the Gulf of
Mexico, where pipelines are buried in water depths to 200 feet. The existing pipe-
line is lowered by jetting. The lowered line gradually slopes up from this point to
the original depth, over a length that prevents over-stressing the line. The minimum
crossing angle should be 45 degrees to minimize the costs/area. However, in some
cases this may not be possible.
Crossings should be avoided near platforms, if possible.
Figure 900-56 illustrates a crossing in greater than 200 feet of water for the Gulf of
Mexico or for shallow water in the Gulf of Cabinda, where the existing pipeline is
resting on the sea floor. (The minimum cover of bags over the top pipe should be 1
foot, with a minimum width of 1.5 x pipe O.D. or 4 feet, whichever is larger.)
The installation procedure for a pipeline crossing is as follows:
1. Locate and mark the existing line (requires a survey crew, magnetometers,
divers, buoys, etc.)
2. Lay the new line across the existing line.
3. If required, lower the existing pipeline by hand jetting (requires a diving
spread).
4. Place sand/cement bags or other type of separators over the existing pipeline at
the point of crossing. (The cement-to-sand mixture is typically 1 to 3 parts by
weight, with the slope, typically 1 to 3.)
5. If the existing pipeline is to stay at the sea floor, then additional supports for
the new line are provided as shown in Figure 900-56.
6. Trench and/or hand jet the new line, if it is to be buried.
Alternative Methods
The design shown in Figure 900-56 can cause problems in high current areas: the
bags may provide uneven support, a three-point loading; scouring may occur; and
lateral stability of the upper pipeline may not be ensured. These problems may be
alleviated as follows: 1) Jet down the lower pipe to a depth of 18 inches plus its
diameter, 2) Install the upper pipe on the sea floor and 3) Make the bottom of the
trench 10 feet wide at the top of the lower pipe.
Regarding type and arrangement of bags, consider two options as follows:
Option 1:
Use grout-filled or sand/cement bags as in Figure 900-55 to achieve separation
and lateral stability. Fill the trench, level with the mudline, with bags. Above
the mudline use a pyramid shape, with a slope of 1 to 1. The minimum cover
of bags over the top pipe would be 1 foot, with a minimum width of 1.5 x pipe
O.D. or 4 feet, whichever is larger.
Fig. 900-55 Typical Underwater Pipeline Crossing to 200 Feet Water Depth
Option 2:
If it is more cost effective to do so, use an Alpha (single) bag design in place of
the grout-filled bags in the proposed Option 1 design.
970 Operations
900 Offshore
900-168
Chevron Corporation
Pipeline Manual
Pipeline Manual 900 Offshore
welding repair technique is commonly used in areas such as the Gulf of Mexico,
where pipeline diameters are relatively small, water depths are moderate, and
weather conditions are typically favorable.
Hyperbaric welding is more commonly used in the North Sea, where the large pipe-
line diameters, greater water depths, and often poor weather environment may limit
the safety of lifting the pipe ends to the surface to make a repair.
Mechanical connectors available for new construction (see Section 952) are also
used for pipeline repair.
Surface Welding
Surface-welding equipment is usually located on a pipelay vessel. This method
involves lifting the pipe ends to the surface by use of the barge davits, then hand
fitting and welding a spool piece to bridge the gap between the pipe ends,
inspecting the welds, and lowering the pipe to the bottom. This method, used for a
midpoint, shallow or moderate water depth “major” repair, involves the following
steps:
1. Survey and inspect damage to the pipeline.
2. Plan the repair procedure. (This item can be critical for large-diameter pipe-
lines and for water depths greater than 300 feet, where the lifting procedure
must be carefully planned to limit the stresses in the pipe to a safe level during
lifting.)
3. Mobilize barge(s) to the site and moor over the damaged section.
4. Inspect for damage, and if the pipe is buried, uncover a long section, perhaps
500 feet on either side of the damage using divers/hand-held jets. (The exact
length is a function of pipe size, water depth, bend radius, etc.)
5. Flush the oil out of the line with water, usually two times the volume of the
line.
6. Cut out the damaged section of pipe; dewater the line, if necessary, and retrieve
the damaged pipe.
7. Attach lifting cables to each section of the pipe on bottom.
8. Lift both pipe ends to the surface by pulling on the davit cables according to a
pre-planned lifting schedule. (Care should be taken to prevent buckling of the
pipe by providing a limit on the minimum pipe bend radius. Also, the lifting
schedule should be based on engineering calculations. See Section 940.)
9. Cut and clean the pipe ends.
10. Fabricate a spool piece to fit between the two pipe ends. Weld the spool piece
to the pipe ends, x-ray and coat the field joints.
11. Lower the pipe to the bottom while moving the barge laterally on its mooring
lines until the pipe is on bottom.
Hyperbaric Welding
In the hyperbaric-welding method, the damaged pipe section is cut out by divers
and retrieved. A spool piece of the required length is fabricated on the surface
vessel. The spool piece is lowered to the sea floor and two pup joints are used to
connect the spool piece to each end of the line. Welding is done inside a welding
habitat under the pressure at depth in a dry environment. This method is used in
deeper water where surface welding is impractical or when the pipe ends are
restrained by a riser, tap valve, or pipeline crossing. Typically, an alignment frame,
a welding habitat, and a transfer bell are used to accomplish the pipeline repair by
hyperbaric welding. The surface-support vessel may be a work barge or a vessel
especially equipped for this work. Further detail is provided in Reference [3]. The
high pressure dry environment affects the weld quality, and a prequalification test,
under actual conditions (i.e., pipe type, welding rod, pressure, etc.), should be done
prior to using this method offshore.
This method has been applied most widely in the North Sea and is suitable for large-
diameter pipe. Water depth capability is limited by diver depth limitations, and the
method has been demonstrated at water depths to 1,000 feet. It is expensive.
Mechanical Connectors
Mechanical connectors (see Section 952) are also used to join the pipe ends during
a repair operation. Several competing mechanical connectors are promoted for
subsea-pipeline repairs. Among them are the Flexiforge manufactured by Big Inch,
Gripper, HydroTech, and Camforge by Cameron. A rigid spool piece is used along
with two mechanical connectors to bridge the gap between the two pipe ends.
In general, of the “major” repair methods, mechanical connector repairs are the
least costly and most rapidly completed especially in deep water (greater than 300
feet), when compared to surface welding or hyperbaric welding. “Minor” repairs
use full encirclement sleeves (clamps); see the discussion below. These are the least
expensive.
The mechanical connectors are systems that include a means of attachment to the
pipeline ends, provisions for axial length adjustment and swivels to accommodate
angular misalignment (see Section 952). The primary equipment needed to make a
repair using mechanical connectors includes a 200- to 250-foot-long surface vessel
with mooring capabilities, diving support, surface pipe-welding facilities, a lifting
crane, and bottom manipulating equipment.
The procedure is similar if the pipeline is damaged near a riser at a platform. If the
riser has been damaged, then a connector half may be preinstalled at the foot of the
replacement riser section, prior to setting the riser.
Procedures available for subsea pipeline repair differ somewhat by manufacturer as
illustrated by the following.
Big-Inch Procedure
A typical repair procedure using the Big-Inch Flexiforge connector is:
1. Cut and clean the pipe ends.
2. Lower the end flange connectors, and use the Flexiforge tool to forge them to
the pipe ends.
3. Make and lower a spool piece consisting of one slip joint and two ball joints.
4. Align the flanges on the end connectors and spool piece. Have the divers insert
the bolts and tighten. (A boltless flange can be used where the two flanges are
compressed and connected using hydraulic power.)
Cameron Procedure
For a discussion of Cameron’s pipeline repair procedure, see Section 952.
Gripper Procedure
The Gripper procedure is:
1. Cut and clean the pipe ends.
2. Lower and stab each grip and seal connector coupling with the connector balls
over each end.
3. Make a spool piece with the ball connector cups.
4. Lower the spool piece, and stab the connector balls into the spool cups. Make
up and test the ball connection.
5. Actuate and test the couplings.
HydroTech Procedure
The HydroTech procedure is:
1. Cut and clean the pipe ends.
2. Lower the HydroCouple connectors using a manipulating frame.
Company Experience
In terms of the Company’s experience, the most commonly used method for repair
has been the application of full encirclement sleeves (clamps). Also, in the past,
flanges, such as lapped joint flanges, were used to repair former Gulf Oil Company
pipelines. Some pipelines were repaired using misalignment flanges. In shallow
water, line repairs were typically made by conventional welding procedures using
surface methods.
Experience includes the general contractor’s experience/reliability and prior oper-
ator/engineer experience with a specific repair method. Most mudline repairs in the
Gulf of Mexico have been done using surface welding and mechanical-connection
methods. In the case of pipe and riser repair, most experience has been by the
surface-welding method for small- diameter pipe or shallow-water depth. In rela-
tively deep water (350 feet or greater) and for large-diameter pipe, riser repairs have
been made using the mechanical-connection method.
In the North Sea, the surface method has been used to repair a 24-inch pipeline
located in a 450-foot depth, which was damaged due to a vessel dragging an anchor.
each end of the existing pipe. An inert gas was used for improvement of safety for
the divers. The replacement pipe, a length of 160 ft was near surface-towed about
25 miles and lowered using cables. Then a spool piece was fabricated on the diving
boat and lowered into position for attachment using bolted flanges.
iamson, 8) IPI Services, 9) Enduro Pipeline Services, 10) Sonsub, 11) Foster-Miller
and 12) Hydrotech.
Volume III-B contains Vendor Data from: 1) International Composites, 2) Nowsco,
3) McKenna & Sullivan, 4) Oceaneering, 5) Rockwater, 6) Cooper (Cameron), 7)
Big Inch Marine Systems, 8) Flexitallic Services, 9) Team, 10) IPSCO, 11) Daspit
and 12) PLIDCO.
This report is useful for offshore platform riser inspection and repair projects.
further engineering effort the method could be extended beyond and below this
range of parameters. The report consists of an engineering manual and two volumes
of equipment data [42].
This study is the concluding phase of a joint industry program (JIP) to develop
repair methodologies for deepwater pipelines. Principal conclusions from the study
are: (1) The surface layover method has been sufficiently developed to permit
repairs in all depths accessible to J-lay, without the need for offshore test confirma-
tion. (2) By investing $650,000 (1991 dollars) for long lead components, mobiliza-
tion time can be shortened from 16 to 3 weeks. This assumes that some components
that are also needed for J-pipelaying would be available. (3) Approximately five
weeks would be required to repair the line, not including mobilization. Total repair
costs could reach $6 MM for Gulf of Mexico lines. (4) For deepwater pipelines, the
probability of repair is about 10 percent for 25 miles of pipeline length per 25 years
of life.
prototype clamp. This work was done with the aid of non-linear finite element anal-
ysis of a typical rubber seal using the ABAQUS program.
The finite element analysis (FEA) teaches that independent circumferential and
longitudinal seals are desirable so that ovalites and dents can be more easily accom-
modated by circumferential seals.
Deep pits may be a problem which should be evaluated with a field simulation.
The suggested guidelines for acceptability of clamp repair are as follows:
1. The pipeline must not be dented to such a degree that pigs can no longer pass.
2. The pipeline must not have structural damage to the extent that a split clamp
will no longer fit around the pipeline.
3. The ovality of the pipeline where the split clamp is to seal against must be
within the limits set by the clamp manufacturer which are generally based on
API pipe tolerances.
4. Most small weld defects away from flanges, valves, etc. are usually clamp
repairable.
Directives from the Regional Supervisor’s letter to lessees dated April 18, 1991 indi-
cate that pipeline routes shall be inspected at least monthly for indication of pipe-
line leakage. These inspections can be made by using a helicopter, marine vessel or
other approved means.
Discussion
The Company’s operation/maintenance activities that relate to pipeline inspection
in the Gulf of Mexico are typically performed monthly, bi-monthly or in some
cases annually. For example, the routes (see item (a) above for DOI pipelines) are
flown monthly using either fixed-wing aircraft or helicopters to visually check for
leaks. Inspections are conducted bi-monthly or monthly for old pipeline systems
that use rectifiers (see item (b) above). There is also an annual check of the pipe-to-
electrolyte potential for the corrosion protection system. (The more recent lines use
anodes).
In addition, Chevron USA GOMBU has monthly pipeline inspections for: (1)
valves, including functioning of the actuators and a visual inspection for corrosion;
(2) operating pressure; and (3) risers, including a visual inspection for the splash
zone. In some areas of the Gulf of Mexico, riser inspection includes ultrasonic
and/or radiographic methods.
In addition, some pipelines are pigged regularly and others have chemical injection
to prevent or minimize corrosion problems; for example, lines having a high CO2 or
H2S content in the gas [29].
Unique operations, such as periodic inspections using side scan sonar or visual
means using divers or remotely operated vehicles, are not normally required for
operations/maintenance. However, for repairs these are used (see Section 971). Peri-
odic inspection of subsea valves is not required.
The Company has recently conducted a study on “Leak Detection Systems and
Small Diameter Inspection Tools - Phases I & II”, also see Section 958 Safety
Requirements and Component Selection [32, 33].
973 Abandonment
This section discusses pipeline abandonment as required by U.S. offshore regula-
tions or as recommended practice by API. It is important to know that with the
DOT jurisdictional pipeline shutdown, inactive, idle, etc (not abandon the pipeline),
the Company is still required to maintain the line according to DOT regulations.
The Company must continue the corrosion program, ROW inspections, valve
inspections, etc.
Federal Regulations
In U.S. waters abandonment and out-of-service requirements for Department of the
Interior (DOI) pipelines are given by 30 CFR Part 250.156 (April 1988) as follows:
(a)
1. A pipeline may be abandoned in place if, in the opinion of the Regional Super-
visor, it does not constitute a hazard to navigation, commercial fishing opera-
tions, or unduly interfere with other uses in the OCS. Pipelines to be
abandoned in place shall be flushed, filled with seawater, cut, and plugged with
the ends buried at least three feet.
2. Pipelines abandoned by removal shall be pigged, unless the Regional Super-
visor determines that such procedure is not practical, and flushed with water
prior to removal.
(b)
1. Pipelines taken out-of-service shall be blind flanged or isolated with a closed
block valve at each end.
2. Pipelines taken out-of-service for a period of more than 1 year shall be flushed
and filled with inhibited seawater.
3. Pipelines taken out-of-service shall be returned to service within 5 years or be
abandoned in accordance with the requirements of paragraphs (a)(1) or (2) of
this section.
Similar requirements are contained in 49 CFR 192.727 for DOT gas pipelines.
API Recommendations
Section 7.6.4 of API RP 17A addresses abandonment for pipelines used in a subsea
production system. Abandonment of subsea pipelines is accomplished by either
abandonment in-place or complete removal. (This is similar to the 30 CFR 250
requirements given above). Each line abandoned in-place should be flushed of
hydrocarbons and filled with seawater or other inert material. The ends of the line
should be disconnected and sealed from all hydrocarbon sources and should not
extend above the mudline in a snagging position.
Discussion
Pipelines do not normally constitute a hazard to navigation or commercial fishing
operations, nor do they unduly interfere with other uses in the OCS. Therefore,
these lines normally meet the criteria in (a)(1) above and can be left on or below the
mudline, with the ends buried. In unusual cases, however, pipelines to be aban-
doned may have to be removed from the sea floor. For example, fishing gear-trawl
boards may snag on a suspended pipeline span that has been exposed due to a
strong current or on a line crossing a shipping fairway, in relatively shallow water,
where large ships may anchor.
Procedure
The Company does not have a standard procedure for submarine pipeline abandon-
ment. (Very few Company lines have been abandoned to date.) Some pipelines may
be abandoned when the platform is abandoned. If the platform is to be removed,
then the crane barge may be able to undertake pipeline abandonment work using
surface methods. (However, this may require installation of additional davits and
winches on the barge.) The pipe/riser can be raised to the surface and the end cut
off and a cap (or blind flange, see below) installed. Care should be taken and
tension provided such that the pipe does not have a “wet” buckle.
Rather than cap the end of the line, it is normally preferable to attach a blind flange
with a “bleeder” valve. This permits the pipe to be flushed again, if necessary, and
provides for future use of the pipeline should the need arise. When fitting a blind
flange/bleed valve assembly, the valve should be at least a 2-inch nominal size. The
“Orange Peel” method of capping a pipe (i.e., cutting the end of the pipe into trian-
gles, bending the ends inside to the center to form a cap by welding) is not
preferred, because it is not considered to be a reliable method of sealing a pipe.
Furthermore, it requires extensive work to bring the pipeline back into service
should the need arise.
Alternatively, divers can cut the end of a pipeline, after it has been flushed, and
insert a plug or install a flange. This method can be done without a lay barge or
crane barge but requires a diving spread for the specified water depth.
In the remote event that the pipe must be entirely removed from the sea floor, then
abandonment can proceed in the reverse of installation using for example, the
reverse lay method.
For guidance on removing only sections of a line, see the pipeline repair methods
described in Section 971 (also see Section 952).
Planning for possible production from Shell’s ultra-deepwater Atlantic wells, which
were drilled during 1983 and 1984, included studies of how to install, connect, and
repair flowline bundles/pipelines to these wells in water depths to 7,500 feet [15].
The reel method, using the reel ship Apache and the J-Lay method, using a
converted dynamically positioned (DP) drillship, were identified as the most prom-
ising methods of installing pipelines/flowlines in these great depths.
Similar studies conducted by Gulf for OCS 59, in water depths to 6,000 feet,
reached similar conclusions (see Figure 900-57 and Reference [16]). For
Montanazo, Spain, in a water depth of 2,500 feet, the Company considered the use
of threaded-connection pipe laid from a drillship in a “J” configuration [17].
The objective of this study is to evaluate flowline system options and recommend
systems suitable for deepwater, extended reach subsea developments. Major tech-
nical criteria are addressed for a range of study parameters.
Two reservoir types are considered: 1) water drive, i.e. typical of Marathon’s Ewing
Bank 873, “Hercules” field and 2) gas cap drive, i.e. like Conoco’s Jolliet field.
Multiphase flowlines are the selected, preferred option over single phase oil/gas
flowlines. The study shows that pumping would be required in the later stages of
development for the “Hercules” type reservoir.
Fig. 900-58 Reel Vessel Apache Outfitted as Proposed for Ultra Deepwater Pipelaying
Per Stena Offshore, the actual design and layout of the proposed system onboard
the Apache would entail a comprehensive study, with emphasis on the specific
project requirements. The modifications described as Option 1 [15] are more in line
with the current onboard equipment configuration. Associated procedures for
laying would also be more like those currently used in water depths to 1,000 feet.
Fourth quarter 1987 costs for the Option 1 modifications to the Apache are shown
in Figure 900-59. (See also Reference [13])
Sensitivity To Water Depth. The primary limit for laying pipelines using the
Apache Reel Ship is the tension capability. The proposed modifications shown in
Figure 900-58 permit a maximum tension of 550 kips.
The estimated fourth quarter 1987 costs for laying lines at 6,000, 7,000, and 8,500
feet in a Gulf of Mexico location [13] are summarized in Figure 900-60.
A 16-inch × 1.00-inch wall thickness line could not be laid at an 8,500 foot depth
using the Apache as proposed in Figure 900-60. (We have not contacted Stena
Offshore to determine whether additional modifications could be done to permit
this.) This line could be laid using the converted Sedco 472 DP drillship [13]. See
Figure 900-61 and discussion below.
Fig. 900-59 Apache Modification Costs for Laying the Example Lines
Item Cost ($MM)
New Purchase Take-off for Reel 1.0
Stern Support Frame for Vertical Laying 2.5
New Abandonment/Recovery Winch 1.5
New Base Yard 1.5
Subtotal $6.5MM
Mob/Demob - N. Sea to the GOM 2.0
Total $8.5MM
Fig. 900-60 Fourth Quarter 1987 Line Laying Costs — Reel Vessel Apache
Water Dept, ft 6,000 7,000 8,500
O.D., in 12.75 16.0 12.75 16.0 12.75 16.0
Wall Thickness, in. 0.688 0.875 0.75 1.00 0.812 1.0
Length, mi 107 107 103 103 109 N/A
Number of Lines 2 1 2 1 2 N/A
Cost ($MM) 115.2 85.5 117.9 90.4 130.5 N/A
required, 10) cost for the mob/demob and the equipment/welding/vessel spread
during installation, and 11) report documentation, see Volumes I & II.
This technology has the potential to reduce offshore pipeline costs in deepwater."
990 References
1. Final Phase Pipeline Design Summary for Point Arguello Oil & Gas Systems.
Brown & Root, Inc., Chevron Pipe Line Co., Volumes I, II and III November
1985. (OFT Call No’s: PIPE-11,400; 11,500; and 11,600).
2. SEAPIPE-PC Program User’s Manual, Applied Offshore Technology,
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Books, Tulsa, Oklahoma. 1981.
4. Submarine Pipeline Cost Estimating Guide. CRTC/INTEC, July 1990.
5. Study of Deepwater Pipeline Riser Installations by J-Tube Pull Method (Phase
II Technical Report & User’s Manual). Applied Offshore Technology, (OFT
Call No: PIPE-4700). May 1979.
6. Deepwater Pipelay Study, Phase II - Volume I. Shell Oil Company. (OFT Call
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No: PIPE-4900). October 1981.
8. Information on Subsea Pipeline Valves. J. P. Kenny & Partners Ltd., CPUK,
(OFT Call No: PIPE-10300). September 1987.
9. Titus, P. E. Effect of Tensioner Stresses on Coating and Jacketing Integrity.
Shell Oil Company. (Deep Water Pipeline Study, Section 35-2). 1977.
10. Archer, G. L., et.al. The Behavior of Concrete Over Thin Film Epoxy Coatings.
British Gas Corp., (Offshore Technology Conference, paper no. 4453). 1983.
11. Design and Installation of Insulated Submarine Pipelines - Joint Industry Study
- Intec No. H-053.1 (Vol. 1 and 2). Intec Engineering Inc., CRTC, (OFT Call
No: PIPE-9600). June 1986.
12. Insulated Pipeline Study - Santa Ynez Unit Development Project - Option A -
Hondo “B.” Pescado, Exxon, Brown & Root, Inc. January 1985.
13. Deepwater Gulf of Mexico Production System Study. (Prepared for Chevron
USA - Eastern Region) OFT Division, CRTC, CUSA. December 1987.
14. Ali, M.A. Self Burial of Offshore Pipelines in Fine Grained Cohesive Sedi-
ment. Ph.D. Dissertation, Texas A&M University. May 1977.
15. Deepwater Pipeline, Flowline and Riser Installation - Concepts for Very Deep
Water. Shell Development Company, Houston, Texas (OFT Library Abstract
No: 864454, Call No: 86-1106). Circa 1984.
16. Production System Concepts and Economic Summary - Mid-Atlantic - OCS
Sale 59. Gulf (OFT Library, Abstract No: 863507, Call No: QA002). January
1981.
17. Montanazo Flowline Project - Static Analysis of J-Lay, Aquatic. (Chevron
Abstract No: 861146, Call No: 1 Flow-1400). July 1983.
18. Fortnum, R.T. “Hot Subsea Pipeline Coatings Disbonding Tests,” November
24, 1986, CRTC, Materials Division, File 6.55.30.
19. Pipeline Design—PC Program User’s Manual, Version 1.0. APTECH/Chevron,
May 1989.
20. J-Tube Pull Installation Field Measurement Program, Garden Banks Block
236, Gulf of Mexico, Prepared for Columbia Gas System Service Corp., by
Applied Offshore Technology, July 12, 1989, 38 pp.
21. Experimental Investigation of Pipeline Stability in Very Soft Clay, by O.I.
Ghazzaly and S.J. Lim, OTC 2277, May 1975.
22. Safety and the Design of Submarine Pipelines, by Rolf Hestenes, J.P. Kenny.
23. OFFPIPE User’s Guide, Version 1.3, by Robert C. Malahy, Jr., February 1,
1989.
24. Alternate Stability Methods for Marine Pipelines, CRTC/Brown & Root
U.S.A., October, 1990.
25. Takula 24-inch Export Pipeline, Corrosion Coatings Recommendation,
Petromar, May 19, 1988, OFT Library, Abstract No. 880196 (OTIS), Call No:
PIPE-14200.
26. Submarine Pipeline On-Bottom Stability, Volume 1: Analysis and Design
Guidelines and Volume 2: Level 1, 2 & 3 – Software and Manuals, American
Gas Association (AGA), Arlington, VA, 11/01/88.
27. Pipeline Anchor Study: Prepared for Zaire Gulf Oil Company, Smith, H.D. and
Doyle, J.J., 9/1/89, OFT Library, Call No: PIPE-17900.
28. Development of Vertical Pipe (2G) Girth Welding System for Tendons, Risers,
and “J-Lay” Construction: Phase 1, Final Report, Microalloying, Inc, Houston,
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29. Pipeline Pigging: A State-of-the-Art Study — Main Report, H.O. Mohr &
Associates, Houston, TX, 8/1/89, OFT Library, Call No: PIPE-19300.
30. Wax/Hydrate Mitigation for Deepwater Flowlines, Intec Engineering, Inc,
December 1, 1991, OFT Library, Call No: FLOW 1500."
31. Performance Survey of Flexible Pipe in Static & Dynamic Service, H. O. Mohr
& Associates, 6/1/91, OFT Library, Call No: FLOW 1400, San Ramon, CA.
32. Offshore Pipeline Survey on Leak Detection Systems & Small Diameter
Inspection Tools: Final Report & Appendix 1, H. O. Mohr & Associates,
12/1/90, OFT Library, Call No: PIPE 22700.
33. Offshore Pipeline Project - Leak Detection Systems & Small Diameter Inspec-
tion Tools, Phase II Study - Evaluation & Selection Procedures and Cost Esti-
mates, Final Report and Appendix I, Prepared for Chevron, by H. O. Mohr
Research & Engineering, February, 1992, OFT Library.
34. Tow Methods for Installation of Offshore Pipelines, Intec Engineering, Inc.,
September 1, 1987, OFT Library, Call No: PIPE 23900, San Ramon, CA.
35. Tow Methods Design Guide for the Installation of Offshore Pipelines, R. J.
Brown & Associates for the American Gas Association (AGA), January 1,
1989, OFT Library, Call No: PIPE 23600, San Ramon , CA.
36. J-Tube Pipeline Riser Design Manual - J-Tube Pull Analysis - Program
APJTUB-PC, Applied Offshore Technology, November 1, 1991, OFT Library,
Call No: PIPE 25400, San Ramon, CA.
37. Platform Riser Inspection and Repair Methods; Volume 1: Study, Volume 2:
Literature Search, Volume 3A: Vendor Data and Volume 3B: Vendor Data;
Brown & Root, December 1, 1991, OFT Library, Call No: PIPE 26400, San
Ramon, CA.
38. Risers and Tie-Ins Conceptual Design Study, Green Canyon Block 205, Phase
2C- Final Report; Appendices A, B, C and E; Appendix D, Volume 1 & 2; R. J.
Brown & Associates, February 1, 1992, OFT Library, Call No: GC 820, San
Ramon, CA.
39. COPI/CABGOC, Cabinda Areas B&C Project Specification Section 6.0 Pipe-
line Design and Construction Requirements, June 10, 1991 and Pipeline Speci-
fications, CBC: Line Pipe 20.01; Pipeline Installation and Testing 20.02,
February 15, 1991; Aluminum Alloy Anodes for Pipelines 20.03, Fusion
Bonded Epoxy for External Pipeline Coating 20.04-COM-4042-A, Concrete
Coating of Line Pipe 20.05-PPL- 4807 and Induction Bending 20.07-PPL-
4737.
40. State-of-the-Art Study of Subsea Hot Tapping Systems, H. O. Mohr Research
& Engineering, Inc, “Draft”, June 1992.
41. Green Canyon Block 205 Deepwater Pipeline Study, Intec Engineering, Inc,
May 1, 1990, OFT Library, Call No: GC 410, San Ramon, CA.
42. Deepwater Pipeline Repair Methods - A JIP to Develop a Recommended
Repair Method for Application in 1,000 to 4,000 WD, Summary Report and
Volumes 1 & 2, Shell Development Company, January 1, 1990, OFT Library,
Call No: PIPE 19100, San Ramon, CA."
43. Deepwater Pipeline Repair Methods - Phase 2, Summary Report, Shell Devel-
opment Co., January 1, 1991, OFT Library, Call No: PIPE 25950, San Ramon,
CA.
44. Investigation of March 19, 1989 Fire on South Pass Block 60 Platform B
(Lease OCS-G 1608), Dept.of the Interior, MMS, April 1, 1990, OFT Library,
Call No: PIPE 22000, San Ramon, CA.
45. MMS Investigation of Amoco Pipeline Company High Island Pipeline System
Leak (Galveston Block A-2) in the Gulf of Mexico, Offshore Texas, Dept. of
the Interior, MMS, June 1, 1990, OFT Library, Call No: PIPE 22,100, San
Ramon, CA.
46. Development of Pipeline Stability Design Guidelines for Liquefaction and
Scour - American Gas Association (AGA) Report.
47. Guidelines for Subsea Pipeline Repair and Tie-In Systems - Volumes 1 & 2 -
American Gas Association (AGA) - J P Kenny & Partners Ltd., March 1, 1987.
48. Subsea Isolation and Surface ESD Systems Study, J P Kenny, 1992.
49. Precision Gas Pipeline Location - A Technology Study, (PR-215-9130),
Prepared for the Offshore and Onshore Design Applications Supervisory
Committee of the Pipeline Research Committee at the American Gas Associa-
tion, SRI International, SRI Project 3062, Final Report, January 1994, AGA,
Catalog No: L51702.
50. The Technology of Submersible Remotely Operated Vehicles
(PRC/AGA/Busby Associates, Inc), February 1991.
51. Submarine Pipeline On-bottom Stability (PR-178-9333), Volumes I and II,
(computer program diskette), PRC/AGA/Brown & Root, September 1993,
AGA Catalog No: L51698A.
52. Pipe Lift Analysis - PC Program (SEALIFT-PC), Chevron/Applied Offshore
Technology, November 1993.
53. Pipe Span Analyses - PC Program (SEASPAN-PC), Chevron/Applied Offshore
Technology, July 6, 1994.
54. Underwater Branch Connection Study, Final Report (PR-205-017) Prepared for
Offshore Supervisory Committee of the Pipeline Research Committee at the
American Gas Association, June 1992, Job No. 2567.01, R.J. Brown and Asso-
ciates of America, Inc., Houston, TX, AGA Catalog No: L51670.
55. Deepstar II Project, Introduction to Flexible Pipe (Report DSII CTR 422-1),
Coflexip, 1994.
56. Submarine Pipeline Installation Using Coiled steel Tubing, Intec Engineering,
April 1994.
57. Low Cost Flowline Installation Method: J-Lay Inclined Mast (JLIM) Concept -
Report, Chevron/Starmark Offshore, April 5, 1994.
58. Marsh/Swamp Pipeline Construction Manual, Chevron/Brown & Root Energy
Services, December 1993.
59. State-of-the-Art Study of Subsea Hot Tapping Systems: Final Report, CPTC/H.
O. Mohr & Associates, November 1992, OFT Library, PIPE 28300.
60. Subsea Repair of Gas Pipelines Without Water Flooding, Prepared for the
Offshore Supervisory Committee of the Pipeline Research Committee at the
American Gas Association, J. P. Kenny, Job No: 050028.01, August 1993,
AGA Catalog No: L51687.
61. Diver Assisted Repair Manual, H. O. Mohr, June 1993, PR-209-9122 (three
volumes in two binders), AGA Catalog No: L51679.
62. Determination of Clamp Repairable Leaks (PR-201-9114), Prepared for the
Offshore and Onshore Design Applications Supervisory Committee of the Pipe-
line Research Committee at the American Gas Association, Stress Engineering
Services, Inc, January, 1993, AGA, Catalog No: L51701.
63. Deepwater Pipeline Maintenance and Repair Manual, Minerals Management
Service, MMS/R. J. Brown & Associates, June 1992.
64. DEEPSTAR I Project - Technical Report - Transportation Options Study,
Texaco/Intech Engineering, Inc, December 22, 1992.
65. DEEPSTAR I Project - Technical Report - Pipeline Design and Installation,
Texaco/Intec Engineering, Inc, December 22, 1992.
66. DEEPSTAR II PROJECT - Deepwater Gulf of Mexico - Platform and Pipeline
Infrastructure Capacity Mapping Project, Texaco, December 29, 1993.
67. DEEPSTAR II Project - Evaluation of Deepwater J-Pipelay, Texaco/Shell
Development Company, Masrch, 1994.
I. Introduction
The Department of Transportation (DOT) has the responsibility for promulgating
and enforcing safety regulations for the transportation of gases and hazardous
liquids by pipeline.
The DOT regulatory responsibilities include all offshore pipelines both on State
lands beneath navigable waters as that area is defined in the Submerged Lands Act
(43 U.S.C. 1301 et seq.) and on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) as that area is
defined in the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCS Act) (43 U.S.C. 1331 et
seq.). The DOT administers the following laws as they relate to pipelines: (1) the
Natural Gas Pipeline Safety Act of 1968, as amended (49 U.S.C. 1671 et seq.); (2)
the Transportation of Explosives Act (18 U.S.C. 831-835); (3) section 28 of the
Mineral Leasing Act, as amended (30 U.S.C. 185); (4) the Hazardous Materials
Transportation Act (49 U.S.C. 1801 et seq.); and (5) the Deepwater Port Act of
1974 (33 U.S.C. 1501 et seq.).
The Department of the Interior (DOI) has certain responsibilities under the OCS
Act including issuing of rights-of-way and rights-of-use and easements for the
construction of pipelines on the OCS and enforcing regulations necessary for the
prevention of waste and conservation of natural resources of the OCS.
In recognition of each of the parties’ respective regulatory responsibilities, the DOT
and DOI agree that a memorandum of understanding is needed to avoid duplication
of regulatory efforts regarding offshore pipelines and to maximize the exchange of
relevant information.
II. Responsibilities of the Parties
For the foregoing reasons, the DOT and the DOI agree to the following division of
offshore pipelines regulatory responsibilities:
DOT Responsibilities
1. The DOT will establish and enforce design, construction, operation, and mainte-
nance regulations for those pipelines extending to the shore from the outlet flange
at—
(i) each facility where hydrocarbons are produced, or
(ii) each facility where produced hydrocarbons are first separated, dehydrated, or
otherwise processed, whichever facility is farther downstream, including subse-
quent on-line transmission equipment but not including any subsequent production
equipment. The diagram attached as an addendum illustrates the pipeline facilities
regulated by DOT that are described in this paragraph.
2. The DOT will send copies of all contemplated Notices of Proposed Rule Making
(NPRMs) concerning off- shore pipelines to the DOI, before they are published in
the Federal Register, for review by the DOI. However, publication of NPRMs by
the DOT is not contingent upon the receipt of comments from the DOI.
DOI Responsibilities
1. The DOI will establish and enforce design, construction, operation, and mainte-
nance regulations for offshore pipelines extending upstream from the outlet flange
described in paragraph 1 of the “DOT Responsibilities” set forth in this Memo-
randum of Understanding into each production well on the OCS.
2. The DOI will send copies of all contemplated NPRMs and OCS Orders
concerning offshore pipelines to the DOT before they are published in the Federal
Register for review by the DOT. However, publication of NPRMs and OCS Orders
in the Federal Register is not contingent upon the receipt of comments from the
DOT.
3. The DOI, in issuing rights-of-way, rights-of-use, and easements on the OCS for
offshore pipelines which are subject to DOT’s offshore pipeline regulations, will
condition those rights and easements on the pipelines being designed, constructed,
operated, and maintained in compliance with the applicable DOT regulations.
4. The DOI which receives, reviews, and as appropriate, approves operators’ plans
for development of the OCS, including plans for construction of pipelines on the
OCS, will provide copies of those plans to the DOT.
5. The DOI which receives and processes applications and prepares environmental
assessments for rights-of-way, rights-of-use, and easements for pipelines to be
constructed on the OCS, will provide copies of those applica-tions and assessments
to the DOT.
6. The DOI which performs pipeline management studies as necessary in newly
developing areas on the OCS where pipeline systems do not exist or are poorly
developed, will provide copies of those studies to the DOT.
Joint Responsibilities
1. The DOT and DOI will coordinate all of their respective research and develop-
ment projects concerning off-shore pipelines.
2. The DOI will perform inspection and enforcement activities necessary to
enforce its regulations and OCS Orders relating to pipelines on the OCS. With
respect to other offshore pipelines originating on the OCS and sub-ject to DOT
regulations, the DOT and DOI will coordinate and perform inspection activities. In
the latter case, the DOT will perform enforcement activities and the DOI will
provide the DOT with reports of DOI inspections for such further enforcement
actions as may be appropriate.
3. At least once each calendar year, DOT and DOI will jointly review all existing
standards, regulations, orders, and operating practices concerning pipelines on the
OCS.
FOR THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF THE
OF TRANSPORTATION: INTERIOR:
Abstract
This section discusses low pressure buried fiberglass pipe for oilfield flow lines,
gathering systems, etc. It is intended to provide the reader with the fundamentals
required for design and installation. This section does not cover selection of high
pressure fiberglass linepipe or installation of above ground fiberglass piping,
although the remaining information does apply.
Contents Page
1061 Hydrotesting
1062 Excavation and Backfilling
1070 Summary Guidelines 1000-21
1071 Selection
1072 Purchasing
1073 Design
1074 Handling
1075 Installation
1080 References 1000-23
1010 Introduction
This section discusses low pressure buried fiberglass pipe for oilfield flowlines,
gathering systems, etc. A low pressure line is defined as one with components
covered by API Specification 15LR, Specification for Low Pressure Fiberglass Line
Pipe, (last issued Sept. 1990) which covers pipe, fittings, and connections up to
1,000 psi cyclic and up to 16 inches in diameter. This range encompasses the
majority of oilfield applications for low pressure fiberglass pipe.
These guidelines also apply to the installation of high pressure fiberglass line pipe,
pressures above 1,000 psi. Selection of high pressure fiberglass line pipe was
omitted because no manufacturer has submitted test data qualifying their products
under API 15HR, Specification for High Pressure Fiberglass Line Pipe, (last issued
Sept. 1988). Use extra care when comparing high pressure fiberglass products.
Fiberglass pipe pressure ratings from different vendors cannot be considered equal
unless they are built to the API specifications.
As of July 1992 a CSQIP (Chevron’s Supplier Quality Improvement Process)
Commodity Action Team had completed its review of the major U.S. manufacturers
of fiberglass line pipe and had negotiated an alliance with Smith Fiberglass. The
five year renewable contract covers both low and high pressure pipe. Two preferred
distributors for Smith products were also selected, Red Man and Jimsco.
Purchasing pipe under the alliance contract will ensure not only a competitive price,
but a lower total cost of ownership.
1011 Background
Chevron’s domestic use of fiberglass line pipe in the oil patch is close to one
million linear feet annually. Ninety-five percent of the pipe is in the 2 to 4 inch
diameter range. Most of the applications are water handling, although a significant
amount is dedicated to well flowlines.
Fiberglass pipe is chemically resistant to all common oilfield production environ-
ments, including produced hydrocarbons, brine, and associated CO2, and H2S. This
makes fiberglass an economically competitive pipe material, since it does not
require additional corrosion mitigation measures. The product should provide a
long trouble free service life as long as excessive temperature or strain is not
imposed on the line. Other advantages of fiberglass include a high strength to
weight ratio and light weight.
The disadvantages of fiberglass include brittleness, temperature limitations, flamma-
bility, UV degradation, and susceptibility to damage from external forces.
Chevron experience with fiberglass pipe tends to be extreme, either the installation
has been a complete success and the system provides years of trouble free service
or there were problems at installation and the system immediately failed. Fortu-
nately, our successes with the product far outweigh the failures.
Most of the problems associated with fiberglass pipe can be traced to improper
design and installation or quality assurance factors. Some examples include:
1026 Connections
There are two categories of end connections used with low pressure, small diameter
fiberglass pipe, adhesive bonded and mechanical joints. See Figure 1000-2 for a list
of available connections.
Connections that have been tested to API 15LR, unless otherwise specified. Not all
connections are available for every size and product line.
Adhesive bonded joints include tapered bell and spigot (the most common),
threaded tapered bell and spigot, and bell and socket (i.e. no taper). These end
connections are prone to problems caused by not following proper procedures.
Examples include:
1. dirt on the bonding surfaces
2. not enough adhesive
Fig. 1000-1 API 15LR Rated Pipe from Smith Fiberglass Products (SFP) (Cyclic Pressure
Rating at Maximum Temperature)
Red Thread II — Aromatic Amine Cured Epoxy Pipe
Temperature 2" 3" 4" 6" 8" 10" 12" 14" 16"
150oF 300 300 300 300
200oF 300 300 300 300 150 150 150 150 150
Blue Streak — Vinyl Ester Pipe
(Catalog Series 300-6", 400-4", 500-2.5" & 3", and 600-2". 300 psi cyclic rating available)
Temperature 2" 2.5" 3" 4" 6" 8" 10"
150oF 277 247 231 167 112 115 115
Blue Streak — Anhydride Cured Epoxy Pipe
(Catalog Series 310-6", 410-4", 510-2.5" & 3", and 610-2". 300 psi cyclic rating available)
Temperature 2" 2.5" 3" 4" 6" 8" 10"
150oF 256 229 214 155 104 107 106
Threaded Blue Streak (TBS) —Anhydride Cured Epoxy Pipe (Catalog Series 1010)
Temperature 2" 2.5" 3" 4" 6"
150oF 330 330 330 330 330
Threaded Blue Streak (TBS) —Anhydride Cured Epoxy Pipe (Catalog Series 1310)
Temperature 2" 2.5" 3" 4" 6"
150oF 412 412 412 412 412
Threaded Blue Streak (TBS) —Anhydride Cured Epoxy Pipe (Catalog Series 1510)
Temperature 2" 2.5" 3" 4" 6"
150oF 500 500 500 500 500
Threaded Blue Streak (TBS) —Anhydride Cured Epoxy Pipe (Catalog Series 2010)
Temperature 2" 2.5" 3" 4" 6"
150oF 660 660 660 660 660
Note Pressures listed are psig-cyclic. To obtain steady state pressure ratings multiply by 1.5
not be used on pipe that has been in service with thread dope or Teflon tape, but is
highly recommended for new installations.
Unlike steel, fiberglass does not yield when it is over stressed. It cracks. Fiberglass
cannot deform to redistribute stress concentrations. So while it may develop less
thermal expansion stress than steel for a given temperature change, fiberglass is less
tolerant of that stress.
In addition to causing purely mechanical damage, high stresses and strains can lead
to chemical attack of the fiberglass, because it opens the interface between the resin
and the glass and exposes it to the chemical environment.
For both of these reasons, it is important to design the piping system in order to
minimize stress concentrations. This includes preventing water hammer, utilizing
thrust blocks, providing proper support, and anchoring as discussed below. For pipe
purchased under the alliance agreement Smith Fiberglass Products will assist in
pipe selection and system design considerations if required.
The constants in Figure 1000-4 were calculated using the Talbot formula as follows:
12
a = ---------------------------------------
-
W 1 d 0.5
----- ---- + ------
g K Ee
(Eq. 1000-2)
= Wave Velocity (ft/sec)
P = Pressure surge deviation above normal (psig)
∆V = Change in Flow Velocity (ft/sec)
W = Density of Fluid (water = 62.4 lb/ft3)
S.G. = Specific Gravity of Fluid (water = 1.0)
K = Bulk Modulus of Compressibility of Liquid (water = 300,000
psi)
E = Modulus of Elasticity in Tension for Pipe Wall (about 3,000,000
psi)
Thrust blocks should be installed and cured for 48 hours prior to pressure
testing.
Thrust blocks must have adequate bearing surface area against undisturbed soil
to resist the thrust caused by hydrostatic pressure and thermal expansion. The
resultant thrust (force) vector should pass perpendicularly through the center of
the bearing surface. The center of the thrust block should coincide with the
horizontal centerline of the pipe. The minimum bearing surface area is calcu-
lated using the formula:
R
A t = ------
Sp
(Eq. 1000-3)
where:
At = Minimum bearing surface area of thrust block in square feet
R = Reaction force in pounds
Sp = Allowable soil pressure bearing capacity in pounds per square
foot.
Guidance is available from the manufacturers for calculating the reaction force due
to hydrostatic pressure and thermal expansion, and for estimating the allowable
bearing pressures for various types of soil.
Unfortunately, complete design of thrust blocks for any given installation is
complex. It depends on the run length, fitting type, system pressure, system temper-
ature differentials (i.e., between pipe laying temperature and pipe operating temper-
ature), soil properties (modulus, density, friction), pipe properties and dimensions,
and pipe stresses. Differential movement between the thrust block and the pipe can
cause shear or bending failures in the pipe. This is especially true under freeze/thaw
conditions or any other situation where significant ground movement occurs. A
number of fiberglass pipe failures have been associated with thrust blocks. Thrust
block design is not an exact science. Failures at thrust blocks have occurred even
when they were designed by a design engineering firm specializing in fiberglass
designs.
Because of the complexity of proper thrust block design, it is not possible to give
simple guidelines that can be universally applied. Each situation needs careful eval-
uation in collaboration with the manufacturer and/or design contractor. In areas
with firm, compacted soil, no major ground freezing, little or no ground movement,
and where operating pressure swings are moderate, thrust block design should be
fairly routine. Areas with soft, shifting soil, severe freeze/thaw conditions, or where
operating pressure swings will be significant, are more difficult to handle and will
require more detailed engineering.
However, there are a couple of techniques which can be used to mitigate the pipe
damage caused by differential movement between the pipe and the thrust block.
The first is to wrap a 1/2 inch thick, six inch wide band of soft neoprene rubber (40-
70 durometer hardness) around the pipe prior to placement of any concrete. The
band should be placed so that it is flush with or slightly protruding from the point
where the pipe enters and exits the thrust block. A band should be placed at each
point of pipe entry into and exit from the thrust block.
The second technique, which can be considered for use in more difficult situations
(e.g., severe freeze/thaw conditions) is to use metal elbows, tees, etc., and short
sections of metal pipe, at the thrust block. A proper metallurgy or coating should be
selected to resist corrosion. Metal can absorb the shear and bending stresses better
than fiberglass. Flanged connections would be used to connect the metal pipe to the
fiberglass pipe. (Because fiberglass fittings are expensive, using a high alloy fittings
might be a cost competitive alternative.) Thrust blocks should be poured after
hydrotesting the pipe, to allow for visual inspection of all fitting joints during the
test. They should be shaped with the design bearing area against virgin earth of the
trench wall. Smaller blocks using a dry concrete mix may be shaped by hand, but
larger blocks (2 square feet or greater bearing area) will require forms. The
concrete should be worked thoroughly around the fitting for maximum surface
contact. The entire area between the fitting and the freshly cut trench should be
filled with concrete and free of voids.
5. Leave the end protectors in place until preparing to make up the connection.
6. When laying out the pipe, the pin-end should point in the intended direction of
flow.
7. Immediately upon arrival at its destination the pipe should be inspected to
ensure no damage occurred in shipment. Reject or discard damaged pipe.
Fiberglass pipe should be stored off the ground on four supports equally spaced
along the length of the pipe and aligned perpendicular to the pipe. Supports should
be a minimum of 4 inches wide. Each row of pipe should be separated by additional
supports aligned vertically. This also applies to storage immediately prior to
assembly and burial. However, when pipe must be stored directly on the ground
prior to assembly, use a smooth, flat area free of rocks and other debris. Do not roll
the pipe along the ground.
Store fiberglass pipe out of direct sunlight to avoid UV damage when long
term (6 week) periods are expected, cover if necessary. The bonding surfaces or
threaded connections are most susceptible to UV damage.
3. Prior to bonding, visually inspect all spigots and bells (or sockets) for damage.
4. Bell and spigot surfaces must be clean and dry. Clean all dirt, moisture, and
other foreign matter from both surfaces. (Moisture is likely to be present
during early morning hours.)
5. Spigot or bell bonding surfaces that are chalked from ultra violet exposure
should be sanded first to remove the UV damaged material.
6. A second person should be mixing the adhesive while the pipe is being
cleaned. Adhesive must be thoroughly mixed. Mix all of the adhesive with all
of the curing agent (hardener) in the kit. Never split a kit, because it is difficult
to correctly proportion resin and hardener. Preferred mixing temperature is
70°F to 80°F. (Curing times are highly dependent on temperature.) Adhesives
typically cure in less than 6 hours at 70°F. Use a wooden spatula for mixing.
Be sure the adhesive shelf life has not been exceeded. Use only pipe manufac-
turer’s approved adhesives, which should match the pipe resin. Note: For major
projects with experienced crews, resin can be purchased by the drum and hard-
ener by the gallon.
7. Threads can be molded onto the pipe in the field at transitions, etc. The manu-
facturer’s representative should be the only one allowed to do this, however.
8. Do not touch bonding surfaces after cleaning, and do not allow dirt to fall onto
bonding surfaces after cleaning.
9. Immediately after cleaning, apply a smooth, thin coat of adhesive to both the
bell and spigot bonding surfaces. Use a clean paint brush for application.
10. Do not apply adhesive if it has turned warm in the can. This indicates the resin
is about to set.
11. Remove all paint brush bristles from applied adhesive with a sharp, clean tool.
12. Mark the spigot, or find factory-installed marks, to indicate appropriate inser-
tion depth.
13. Push and twist the spigot into the bell to the appropriate insertion depth.
Hammering with a rubber mallet on a wooden block placed across the bell on
the opposite end of the pipe, or a come-along, may be used for joining larger
pipe sizes. A good insertion has good alignment and should produce a small,
even bead of adhesive both internally at the end of the spigot and externally at
the bell end.
14. Allow joints to cure fully before moving or testing. Do not disturb unset joints
when bonding the next joint. Electrical heat collars or chemically activated
“Heat packs” can be used to accelerate cure times. This speeds up installation,
but they must be used with care and in strict accordance with the manufac-
turer’s instructions.
Mechanical joints are simple to install and are relatively foolproof. Mechanical
joints come in a variety of proprietary manufacturer’s designs. Select one that has
been tested and approved per API Spec 15LR. (See Figure 1000-1.)
1061 Hydrotesting
Hydrotest pressure should be based on the lowest rated component or section in the
system, (e.g., a flange rating, side branch rating, etc.) which will also determines
the design pressure rating of the system. Hydrotest pressure should be 125% of
system design pressure rating (i.e., 125% of the lowest rated element in the system).
Excessive pressure during hydrotest may damage the fiberglass pipe and compo-
nents. The damage may not show up immediately but result in reduced service life.
Do not hydrotest adhesive connections before the adhesive has set. Hydrotest the
system in segments as small as practical and as soon as practical, so that leaks can
be easily located and problems identified early and corrected.
Before hydrotesting, backfill the trench to six inches above the pipe to anchor the
pipe and keep it from moving when the pressure is applied. Leave the connections
uncovered to detect leaks. (On 1000 psi pipe, cover the body between connections
to the surface with a single pile of dirt.) See the following section on backfilling.
Pressure test with water, not air or gas. (Pressure testing with air or gas is
extremely dangerous.) The water should enter the line at a low point, with a means
provided for bleeding the air at the highest point. All air must be removed from the
line before pressuring, because entrapped air will be compressed and will give erro-
neous results. On straight runs of pipe, a soft pig can be used ahead of the water to
displace the air while filling the line. The pressure will not remain constant over
time if variations in ambient temperature occur. Caution: over pressurization can
occur on hot days as the cooler water temperature rises.
Once the system is filled with water and purged of air, it should be slowly brought
up to test pressure being careful to avoid over-pressurization. Use slow closing
valves and properly controlled booster pumps to prevent water hammer or over-
pressurization.
When the desired hydrotest pressure has been reached and maintained, it should be
held for a minimum of three hours.
Prevent a vacuum from forming inside the pipe. High vacuums created inadvert-
ently in sloped runs of fiberglass pipe can cause the pipe to collapse, especially
when combined with overburden pressure or external pressure at river crossings.
Deflected pipe is even more prone to vacuum collapse. A vacuum can be easily
created by closing a valve at the top end of a sloped section of fiberglass pipe, so
caution should be exercised.
Use a ditching machine for the excavation rather than a backhoe, if possible.
Use a sand pad on the bottom of the ditch when digging with a backhoe, then rake
level.
Eight inch diameter and larger pipe may require that bell holes be dug at the connec-
tions to facilitate installation . Smaller diameters can be made up on the right-of-
way and then lowered into the ditch.
Avoid sharp bends or changes in elevation, and don’t make horizontal or
vertical bends sharper than recommended by the manufacturer. Use fittings,
i.e., elbows, where sharper bends are needed, and excavate the ditch accordingly.
Keep water out of the trench, to allow for dry compaction of the bedding. In
high water table areas, a de-watering system will be needed. After rain or water
ingress, the trench will need to be pumped dry.
The bottom of the trench must be prepared to provide smooth, uniform, continuous
support of the pipe. Unevenness, high spots, rocks, or other sharp or abrasive mate-
rial in the bottom of the trench will cause uneven bearing or point contact on the
pipe and lead to damage from wear or shear of the pipe.
Six inches of bedding should be placed beneath the pipe. A minimum six inch of
bedding beneath the pipe is especially critical in rocky or shale areas. The bottom
bedding should be tamped, with the resultant bedding six inch thick after tamping.
Bedding material should be clean dirt, free from large objects or sharp rocks.
Alternatives include sand, pea gravel with a maximum particle size of 3/4 inch, or
crushed rock with a maximum particle size of 5/8 inch. Pea gravel or crushed rock
in the 1/8 inch to 3/4 inch size is an ideal bedding and backfill material because it
compacts to 90% density without compaction equipment, thus saving labor and
equipment cost. There should be no sharp rocks, heavy boulders, large clods of dirt,
organic matter, or frozen lumps in the bedding or backfill. Generally, organic or
high plasticity soils are not suitable. For guidance on use of materials other than
sand, pea gravel or crushed rock, consult the pipe manufacturer.
Do not leave any voids beneath the pipe or in the haunch area. As illustrated in
Figure 1000-6, ensure the pipe is firmly supported by bedding material around the
bottom half of the pipe (haunch area).
Add bedding/backfill material in six inch layers, and then compact it to the required
density (80-95%). Do not use water flooding for compaction.
Backfill to six inch above the pipe before hydrotesting, to hold the pipe in place
during the hydrotest, but leave the fittings and joints exposed to check for leaks.
Complete the backfilling as soon as possible after successful hydrotesting, to
prevent damage to exposed pipe, floating from unexpected flooding, or shifting due
to cave-ins.
Add an additional 12 inches of cover over the pipe (or whatever it takes to fill the
trench) in six inch layers. Any material can be used for the fill, because the bedding
protects the pipe. Mound fill over ditch in lieu of compacting. The typical configura-
tion of a buried pipe is summarized in Figure 1000-7.
Fig. 1000-6 Proper Bedding Support in Launch Area Around Bottom Half of Pipe
Fiberglass pipe should be run through a conduit at road crossings. Pipe guides
should be installed along the length of the conduit to limit buckling from thermal
expansion. Guides made of thermoplastic material are readily available. They
should be installed around the outside of the pipe and fit the annulus between the
pipe and the conduit. Guide spacing should be equal to the pipe manufacturer’s
recommended support spacing when that size and grade of pipe is used above
ground.
Properly compacted bedding is essential at each end of the conduit to provide the
necessary support for the pipe, in order to prevent shear and wear damage. When
making road bores, the depressions (bell holes) necessary at each end of the bore
should be filled and compacted before backfilling to prevent the fiberglass pipe
from sagging into these areas on backfilling.
Multiple runs of fiberglass pipe laid through a single road bore or conduit can cause
leakage problems from the pipes rubbing against each other due to thermal expan-
sion and contraction. Multiple lines should be separated from each other using
centralizing devices.
Use metallic backed tracer tape or communication cable to facilitate location
of buried fiberglass lines. The tracer tape or cable should be run in the ditch on top
of the buried fiberglass line to allow location with a metal detector. Provide at least
six inch of separation between the marker tape and the top of the pipe. The separa-
tion will allow the maker tape to be spotted before contacting the fiberglass.
Use visual marker posts at every turn. Ideally, marker posts should be within line
of sight of one another. The marker posts should provide a warning that a fiberglass
line is present and identify its contents. This is especially important if the line
contains any H2S. For lines handling H2S, other warning or protective devices
should also be considered, such as warning signs or full length encasement (in steel
or concrete) of the fiberglass pipe. Factors such as H2S content and proximity to
personnel will influence the measures needed.
1071 Selection
• Use epoxy resin fiberglass pipe. (Vinyl ester is also OK, but possibly more
expensive.)
• Aromatic amine cured epoxy has the highest temperature limit, about 200°F.
Anhydride cured epoxy is adequate to 150°F.
• A resin-rich liner is not needed.
• Low pressure fiberglass pipe should be purchased to API spec 15LR.
• Mechanical end connections are more expensive, but allow for faster installa-
tion and improve reliability with less experienced crews.
• Select pipe from Figure 1000-1 and connections and fittings from
Figure 1000-2.
1072 Purchasing
Use API 15LR as the purchase specification for all low pressure fiberglass pipe
and fittings.
1073 Design
• Consider water hammer when selecting fiberglass pipe pressure rating.
• Use thrust blocks at changes in direction to minimize pipe movement and
bending stresses, where required. Not recommended in all cases.
• Minimize the number of fittings to reduce cost.
1074 Handling
• When transporting or storing, woven cloth, straps, or padded chains should be
used for tie-downs. Do not over tighten tie-downs.
• When transporting, the pipe should be fully supported along its entire length.
Don’t use pole trailers or trailers which are too short (causing the pipe to over-
hang).
• When loading or unloading, each length or bundle should be handled individu-
ally. Don’t drop or roll the pipe off the truck.
• Use wide slings or straps for lifting (e.g., Woven cloth or nylon). Don’t use
chains or cable for lifting. Don’t use hooks inside the pipe to lift bundles or
joints.
• Leave the end protectors in place until preparing to make up the connection.
• The pin-end should point in the intended direction of flow.
• Store pipe on a rack with ample supports.
• Store pipe out of direct sunlight for long exposures to avoid UV damage.
1075 Installation
• Follow the manufacturer’s instructions and guidelines.
• Have a manufacturer representative on-site during installation.
• Do not use damaged pipe.
• Use an experienced crew.
• Separate multiple lines by at least six inches.
• Hydrotest with water, not air or gas.
• Minimum depth of the trench should be the pipe diameter plus two feet.
• Avoid sharp bends.
• Do not leave voids during backfilling.
• Use a conductor pipe at road crossings.
• Always use a tracer tape to facilitate future location.
• Use visual marker posts at every turn.
1080 References
Specification for Low Pressure Fiberglass Pipe, API Specification 15LR, Sixth
Edition, September 1, 1990
American Water Works Association Standard for Fiberglass Pressure Pipe,
ANSI/AWWA C950-89
Oilfield FRP Technology, Chevron Materials Engineering report, File 70.50, J. R.
Slining and E. H. Niccolls, January 31, 1989
Fibercast Piping Design Manual, Fibercast, Sand Springs, Oklahoma, May 1989
Recommended Practice for Care and Use Reinforced Thermosetting Resin Line
Pipe (RTRP), API Recommended Practice 15L4, Second Edition, March 1976
Note When API RP 15TL4 1st Edition June 1991 is approved, it will combine and
supersede both API 15A4 and 15L4.
Fiberglass Pipe Handbook, The Composites Institute of the Society of the Plastics
Industry (SPI), Inc., New York, NY, 1989
Smith Fiberglass Engineering and Design Guide, Smith Fiberglass Products Inc.,
Little Rock, Arkansas, February 1, 1992
Smith Fiberglass General Installation Instructions for Threaded Fiberglass Piping
Systems, Smith Fiberglass Products Inc., Little Rock, Arkansas, April 1, 1991
Corrosion-Resistant Plastic Composites in Chemical Plant Design, John H.
Mallinson, Published by Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1988
Fiberglass Line Pipe Requires Special Care, C. L. Oney, in Petroleum Engineer
International, November 1987, p.34
Chevron Corporation Piping Manual, Section 400, Non-metallic Piping
FRP Line Pipe for Oil and Gas Production, A. S. Chiu and R. J. Franco, Paper No.
232 presented at NACE Corrosion 89, New Orleans, LA, April 1989
The Effect or 25 Years of Oil Field Flow Line Service on Epoxy Fiberglass Pipe, K.
J. Oswald, Paper No. 167 presented at NACE Corrosion 88, St. Louis, MO, March
1988
Design and Performance Properties of Oilfield Fiberglass Tubulars, G. G. Huntoon
and J. D. Alkire, SPE Paper No. 19728, 64th Annual SPE Conference, San
Antonio, TX, October 1989
A New Look at the Use of Glass-Fiber Reinforced Plastic Piping, C. Robbe, in
Materials Performance, June 1990, p.29
What Will Protect Plastic Piping from Water Hammer Damage? Power Magazine,
January 1989.p.71
Minutes from the CSQIP Fiberglass Line Pipe CAT Meetings, June 1991 - January
1992.
Abstract
This specification is included here as an example only. It was used by Chevron
U.S.A. Inc. Eastern Division Construction Engineering to install an 8-inch pipeline
by directional drilling beneath the Mississippi River.
This example may provide you with the basis for producing a specification for a
similar project. Beware: it is not necessarily complete or applicable to any other
project without modification. Modifications that should be considered are:
• Verification of the governing codes
• Verification of the governing jurisdictions (DOT, state, county, Corps of Engi-
neers)
• Restatement of the project particulars to precisely fit the individual case
• Changes to clauses that may have been limited due to the permit or regulatory
conditions imposed on the original specification
Note The titles of some standards have been corrected.
Contents Page
B. Location of Work
This work will be performed in the vicinity of Mile 8.7 below the head of passes in
Southwest Pass of the Mississippi River. The site is approximately seventeen miles
south of Venice, Louisiana and is accessible by boat or helicopter only. The site is
in Plaquemines Parish with state and local taxes applying to all work.
An area aerial view is included in the bid proposal. The topography is typical of
south Louisiana marshland locations.
We propose to have the Contractor set-up the drilling rig on the west bank of the
river near Chevron’s W-2 Tank Battery.
We further propose to have the Contractor fabricate the pipeline on the east bank of
the river with the pipeline stretched out on pipe rollers and mats in the march area
northeast on the pipeline exit point.
C. Work To Be Done By Contractor
Except as is specifically provided herein to be furnished or performed by Company,
Contractor shall perform all work required for installation of the pipeline.
Performance of the work includes furnishing all labor, equipment, supervision,
surveying, quartering facilities, catering facilities, material (except coated pipe),
transportation (except crewboat), and supplies to start, prosecute, and complete the
installation of the herein described pipeline.
Contractor shall furnish as-built of the 8-inch pipeline crossing prior to final
payment.
Installation of the pipeline shall include but not be limited to materials handling;
qualifying welding procedures and welders; preparing pipe for welding; welding
and repairing defective welds; radiography; furnishing materials for and installing
field joiners and repairing defective joints on pipeline; laying the pipeline on rollers
and mats; designing, fabricating, and installing the pipeline pulling head; drilling
the pilot hole; furnishing all surveying back the pipeline; conducting a scraper test
on the pipeline after installation; and performing a hydrostatic test once the pipeline
is in place under the river.
Contractor shall furnish all field joint coating material to consist of shrink sleeves.
The Contractor shall further provide the following services related to site prepara-
tion:
1. Purchase spoil material and build drilling fluid containment pits on the east
and west banks of the River (permitted size of the pits are 60' by 60' with an
elevation of approximately 4' above the surrounding ground elevation).
2. Contractor’s drilling rig shall be barge mounted.
3. Set up the drilling rig at the site.
4. Quartering facilities shall be provided by the Contractor with the facilities to be
barge mounted and set up near the W-2 Tank Battery in the access canal.
Contractor shall furnish quarters and mess for two (2) Company representa-
tives. The facilities shall be equipped with operable sewage treatment equip-
ment.
Installation and Schedule Sequence
Contractor shall furnish Company a detailed installation schedule and sequence of
installation before commencing work on this project. Contractor shall furnish
Company with a written daily report stating footage of pipe installed and miscella-
neous installations completed.
Upon completion of the project, the Contractor shall level the pit walls.
D. Work To Be Performed By Company
1. A 47' crewboat for daily access to the facility will be provided by the
Company. This crew-boat will return to Venice daily to pick up any required
supplies. The crewboat will remain in the field during shift changes to trans-
port personnel from the quartering facility to the east bank work location; an
estimated thirty minute trip one way.
2. Materials
Pipe and Shop Coating
Company will furnish all line pipe with shop-applied Scotchkote 206 coating,
loaded on Contractor’s barges or trucks at Bayou Pipe Coating’s yard in New
Iberia. It will be the responsibility of the Con- tractor upon receipt of materials
furnished by Company, to tally all joints of pipe to the nearest one- hundredth
of a foot. Particular care shall be taken by Contractor in distinguishing the
tallied pipe as to size, grade, wall thickness, and type and thickness of coating
if applicable. Contractor shall forward pipe tallies to Company’s engineer.
a. Joint Length: All pipe furnished will be in double random lengths.
b. Pipe Damaged in Loading: Contractor shall refuse to accept any pipe or
pipe coating damaged prior to or in loading on Contractor’s barge or truck.
Any pipe or coating damaged after receipt of pipe by Contractor shall be
repaired or replaced by Contractor at his expense.
3. Company will perform tie-ins to the completed pipeline.
4. Company shall furnish permits and right of ways for pipeline installations.
5. Company shall provide a welding inspector of the project duration.
6. Contractor shall return all excess pipe to Bayou Pipe Coating in New Iberia
after the completion of the project.
Part II. General Conditions
1. Contractor shall provide a competent pipeline construction superintendent to
directly supervise all phases of project at all time work is being performed.
2. Contractor shall complete work on this project by the end of March, 1988.
Once having commenced work on this project Contractor shall prosecute same
to completion with all due effort and diligence in a good and workmanlike
manner.
3. Contractor shall assume all lost time due to inclement weather, high seas
and/or strong currents.
4. Company reserves the right to make minor changes in construction details
without invalidating this agreement as long as the general scope of the project
is maintained. If such changes or additions involve additional cost to
Contractor payment shall be made in accordance with Sections IV and VII of
this specification.
5. Intent of Drawings and Specifications
All work that may be called for in the written material and not shown on the
drawings, or shown on the draw-ings and not called for in the written material
shall be performed and furnished by the contractor as if described in both
ways; and should any work or material be required which is not detailed in the
written agreement or drawings, either directly or indirectly but which is never-
theless necessary for the proper carrying out of the intent thereof, the
Contractor is to understand the same to be implied and required, and shall
perform all such work and furnish any such material as fully as if they were
particularly delineated or described.
6. If the Contractor’s proposal is accepted, the Contractor will be required to
execute Company’s standard contract, affixed hereto as Exhibit “F”.
Part III. Regulations and Codes
1. It is the responsibility of Contractor to be in conformance with all applicable
laws, ordinances, codes, regulations and orders of all governmental agencies
whether federal, state or local during the life of this project.
2. In the event Contractor is in noncompliance with a known law, ordinance,
code, order or regulation Company will require property or leases until such
time as Contractor is in conformance. In such case, Contractor is responsible
for all costs incurred including but not limited to demobilization and remobili-
zation of personnel and equipment.
3. All industry accepted codes and federal regulations pertaining to pipeline instal-
lations that are referenced in this specification are hereby incorporated as if
they were a part of the specification. Listed below are codes and regulations
which may apply to this project. The latest edition that is published is the one
that governs.
a. API STD 1104 Standard for Welding Pipeline and Related Facilities
b. ANSI/ASME B31.4 Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping Systems
c. ANSI/ASME B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems
d. 49 CFR 192 Transportation of Natural and Other Gas by Pipeline
e. 49 CFR 195 Transportation of Liquids by Pipeline
f. OCS Order 9 Oil and Gas Pipelines (Note: This order has been replaced
by 30 CFR 250.)
Part IV. Payment
1. Upon completion of the work described in Section I and acceptance of finished
product by Company’s Project Engineer, including delivery of any required
documentation, Company will pay Contractor the amount therefore.
2. Partial payment (not to exceed actual percentage of work performed) will be
authorized by Company for jobs extending beyond one month, provided exten-
sions are not caused by procrastination, idleness, etc. on part of Contractor. A
maximum of 85% payment will be allowed until absolute completion. Invoices
for partial payments and payments for extra work and/or materials will be
made at a minimum of monthly intervals.
Part V. Insurance
1. For all operations performed by Contractor hereunder, Contractor shall carry
insurance such that the coverages and limits shall be acceptable to Company.
2. All such insurance shall be obtained by Contractor from insurance companies
which are acceptable to Company, and Contractor shall furnish to Company
written evidence satisfactory to Company showing that such insurance is in
effect and will not be cancelled for any cause whatsoever without 30 days
written notice to Company.
3. All such insurance shall be properly endorsed to afford full protection for all
operations and services offshore to be performed hereunder by Contractor.
Additional information concerning insurance requirements may be obtained by
contacting Ms. J.T. Kyle at 925 Gravier Street, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112
(telephone: 504-592-6262).
Part VI. Safety
The intent of these safety regulations is to outline procedures and should supple-
ment, not replace, the Contractor’s safety program. The Company reserves the right
of dismissal of Contractor’s personnel or termination of contract if a good safety
program is not followed, or for deviation from the following:
1. All personnel shall wear OSHA approved safety hats and shoes.
2. Smoking will be permitted in designated areas only.
3. Possession or use of alcoholic beverages or illegal drugs is prohibited.
4. Proper eye protection shall be worn when performing work which involves a
recognized hazard to the eyes.
5. Coast Guard approved work vest or life jacket, furnished by Contractor to his
personnel shall be worn during all over-water transfers and when working near
or over water where there are no handrails.
Abstract
This specification is included here as an example only. It is based on a specifica-
tion used by CUSA-Eastern Region to install subsea pipelines in the Gulf of
Mexico. It is the “general specification” portion of a project specification and does
not contain any detailed project information. A similar “General Specification” is
used by COPI for pipelines outside the U.S.A.
This example may provide you with the basis for producing a specification for a
similar project.
☞ Warning Beware: it is not necessarily complete or applicable to any other project
without modification. Modifications that should be considered are:
• Verification of the governing codes
• Verification of the governing jurisdictions (DOI, DOT, state, county)
• Restatement of the project particulars to precisely fit the individual case
• Changes to clauses that may have been limited due to the permit or regulatory
conditions imposed on the original specification
Contents Page
C1.0 General
3. Inspection services, including but not limited to, visual inspection and diving
inspection supported from Company furnished vessels.
4. All applicable permits to install the pipelines.
All work that may be called for in the written material and not shown on the draw-
ings, or shown on the drawings and not called for in the written material shall be
performed and furnished by the Contractor as if described in both ways and should
any work or material be required which is not detailed in the written material or
drawings, either directly or indirectly, but which is nevertheless necessary for the
proper carrying out of the intent thereof, the Contractor is to understand the same to
be implied and required, and shall perform all such work and furnish any such mate-
rial as fully as if they were particularly delineated or described.
C1.6 Permits
1. Company will furnish all permits that are applicable to the work to be
performed.
2. Contractor shall familiarize himself with the terms and conditions of all
Company furnished permits, and Contractor shall perform the work in strict
compliance with said terms and conditions.
C1.7 Precedence
In the event of a conflict between any of the following items, they shall take prece-
dence in the order listed:
1. Construction Service Order Agreement (sample attached as Exhibit “C”).
2. The text of this Specification.
3. Construction drawings incorporated into this Specification.
4. Piping standards incorporated into this Specification, if any.
5. Standard Specifications incorporated into this Specification.
6. Reference drawings and specifications, engineering instructions, and plant
instructions incorporated into this Specification.
7. American Society for Testing Materials Specifications or other similar publica-
tions referred to in this Specification but not attached hereto, if any.
3. The latest edition of all industry accepted codes and federal regulations
pertaining to pipeline installations that are referenced in this specification are
hereby incorporated as if they were a part of the specification. Listed below are
codes and regulations which may apply to this project.
a. API RP 1104 Standard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities
b. AWS D1.1 Structural Welding Code
c. ANSI/ASME B31.4 Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping Systems
d. ANSI/ASME B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems
e. ANSI/ASME B31.3 Petroleum Piping
f. 49 CFR 192 Transportation of Natural and Other Gas by Pipeline
g. 49 CFR 195 Transportation of Liquids by Pipeline
h. OCS Order 9 Oil and Gas Pipelines (Note: This order has been replaced by 30
CFR 250)
C1.9 Payment
1. Upon completion of the work described herein and acceptance of finished
product by Company’s Project Engineer, including delivery of any required
documentation, Company will pay Contractor the amount due therefore.
2. Partial payment (not to exceed actual percentage of work performed) will be
authorized by Company for jobs extending beyond one month, provided exten-
sions are not caused by procrastination, idleness, etc. on part of Contractor. A
maximum of 85% payment will be allowed until absolute completion. Invoices
for partial payments and payments for extra work and/or materials will be
made at a minimum of monthly intervals.
C1.10 Insurance
1. For all operations performed by Contractor hereunder, Contractor shall carry
insurance such that the coverages and limits shall be acceptable to Company.
2. All such insurance shall be obtained by Contractor from insurance companies
which are acceptable to Company, and Contractor shall furnish to Company
written evidence satisfactory to Company showing that such insurance is in
effect and will not be cancelled for any cause whatsoever without 30 days
written advance notice to Company.
3. All such insurance shall be properly endorsed to afford full protection for all
operations and services offshore to be performed hereunder by Contractor.
Additional information concerning insurance requirements may be obtained by
contacting Ms. Julie Kyle at 935 Gravier Street, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112
(telephone: 504-521-6262).
C1.11 Safety
The intent of these safety regulations is to outline procedures and should supple-
ment, not replace, the Contractor’s safety program. The Company reserves the right
of dismissal of Contractor’s personnel or termination of contract if a good safety
program is not followed, or for deviation from the following:
1. All personnel shall wear OSHA approved safety hats and shoes.
2. Smoking will be permitted in designated areas only.
3. Possession or use of alcoholic beverages or illegal drugs is prohibited.
4. Proper eye protection shall be worn when performing work which involves a
recognized hazard to the eyes.
5. Coast Guard approved work vest or life jacket, furnished by Contractor to his
personnel shall be worn during all over-water transfers and when working near
or over water where there are no handrails.
6. Horseplay, wrestling or practical jokes are prohibited.
7. Crane shall be operated only by capable and qualified personnel.
8. All power tools shall be grounded and in good condition.
9. Before welding work is authorized and started on any structure or well jacket,
there shall be thorough communication between Company representative and
Contractor’s personnel. The nature of work to be done and all possible hazards
shall be discussed in detail so all concerned will be aware of what is going on.
The same care shall be taken each day so that any situation change can be eval-
uated.
10. All persons shall become familiar with the functions and locations of all the
structure’s emergency shut-ins and fire stations.
11. No cutting, welding, or sandblasting shall be performed on structures or well
jackets unless authorized in writing by Company Area Production Supervisor.
This authorization will be secured by the Company Supervisor in charge.
12. Never use flame to detect a gas leak. Use soapy water.
13. There shall be a Company-furnished fire watch established on the structure
before the work is started. The fire watchman’s only duty will be that of fire
watch. The fire watch orders will be to know how to operate the fire extin-
guisher properly and have an extinguisher on the site near the work to be done.
14. All welding machines utilized on any structure or well jacket shall be equipped
with spark arresting muffler.
15. Contractor agrees that it will notify all employees and related subcontract
personnel, in writing, of Company’s policy prohibiting illegal drugs, intoxi-
cating beverages, pyrotechnics, firearms, dangerous weapons, and other contra-
band on premises and/or work locations controlled by Company.
16. In the event that any damage, loss of property, or injury to any person is caused
by or arises out of the failure of Contractor to notify its employees, and related
subcontract personnel of Company’s policies, Contractor shall be liable and
bear all costs, including attorneys’ fees, for all damages, loss of property or
injury to any person.
C1.13 Subcontractors
This agreement shall not be assigned, sublet or transferred in whole or in part by
Contractor, except with prior written consent of Company. If any subcontractors are
utilized, Contractor shall be fully responsible to Company for the work performed
as though Contractor had performed said work himself.
C2.0 Materials
C2.1 General
1. Contractor shall furnish any and all material not specifically stated as
Company-furnished in this Specification and attached drawings.
2. All materials furnished by Contractor shall be new, unused, undamaged and of
domestic manufacture.
3. Fittings, flanges, studs, bolts, nuts and pipe shall conform to the following spec-
ifications unless otherwise stated herein:
Materials Specifications
Welded fittings and flanges ASTM A-234 Grade WPB
Studs and Bolts ASTM A-193 Grade B7, Cadmium Plated
Nuts ASTM A-194 Grade 2H, Cadmium Plated
Pipe API 5L Grade B Seamless or ASTM A106
Grade B Seamless
Ring Gaskets Mild Steel, Cadmium Plated
4. Contractor shall furnish to Company documented proof of compliance with an
acceptable specification for all items to be permanently installed in this project.
This must include but is not limited to mill certificates for manufactured steel
items.
5. Substitution of equivalent materials, parts or equipment must be approved by
Company. Should Contractor substitute and Company approve materials, parts
or equipment of greater size, strength or working pressure than is required,
payment shall be made as if the specified item was used.
6. Company may substitute materials, parts and/or equipment at its discretion to
expedite construction.
7. It shall be Contractor’s responsibility to inspect all Company furnished mate-
rial and to sign delivery tickets attesting to the undamaged condition and
proper quantity of same. Contractor shall refuse to accept any Company
furnished material damaged prior to receipt by Contractor. Any material or
equipment furnished by Company found damaged after receipt of contractor
shall be repaired or replaced by Contractor at his expense. Copies of all
delivery tickets shall be given by Company.
8. Contractor shall be responsible for delivering all Contractor-fabricated or -
furnished material and all Company-furnished material or equipment delivered
to him to the jobsite.
9. Upon receipt, Contractor will be responsible for any loss of, or damage to,
Company-furnished material.
C2.3 Risers
Contractor will furnish risers. Risers will be API 5L, Grade B line pipe with 1/2-
inch Splashtron coating. Company will load riser on Contractor’s barges at
Company’s Venice Shore Base.
C2.6 Anodes
Contractor shall furnish all anodes for lines to be installed. See Figure C-1 for
anode spacing. Anodes shall be zinc alloy bracelets.
3. All surface preparation and coatings shall be inspected and accepted by the
Company’s Project Engineer.
C3.0 Installation
C3.1 General
1. Contractor shall furnish tugs, crewboats, laybarges, spud barges, and pull
barges capable of operation in depth available at the proposed location of work.
Tugs and crewboats shall be equipped with radar. Tugs, crewboats and lay
barges shall be equipped with operational two-way radios. Crewboats shall
stand by during all hours Contractor is working in the area.
2. It is called to the attention of the Contractor that pipelines and electric cables
may be present along the pipeline routes and at existing structures. Care must
be taken when moving equipment and excavating so that there shall be no
damage to the above mentioned facilities.
3. Open end of sections of pipeline, when unattended, shall be effectively closed
or plugged.
4. At start of work, Contractor shall have a procedure, with necessary material
and equipment to put it into effect, for handling the lines during storm condi-
tions when normal laying operations cannot be done. Procedure shall provide
means for sealing and securing the pipelines, and relocating the pipeline when
work again commences.
5. Contractor shall be prepared to work a minimum of 12 hours per day, 7 days
per week from the time this project commences until all of the work described
in this specification is termed complete.
C4.0 Welding
C4.1 General
The purpose and intent of these specifications is to obtain 100% welds as to
ductility, tensile strength, good workmanship, fusion, and penetration for the entire
circumference of the welds. Contractor shall conform to API Standard 1104, latest
edition, “Standard for Field Welding of Pipelines”, except as modified herein.
Contractor shall have copies of this specification on the job at all times for refer-
ence.
showing voltage and amperage will not be permitted. The following details
apply to the electric process:
a. The welding procedure shall be as follows:
Root E 60 10 1/8" electrodes
Hot Pass E 60 10 1/8" electrodes
Fill and Cap E 70 10 3/32" electrodes
4. Pipe condition and inspection prior to welding any joint of pipe will include,
but is not limited to:
a. Each length of pipe shall be thoroughly examined inside to make sure that
there is no evidence of internal damage and that it is free from dirt,
animals or other obstructions, that might clog the line or contaminate the
commodities to be transported. Any evidence of internal damage shall be
made as authorized. If obstructed in any way, the pipe shall be swabbed
out before being incorporated in the line. The complete absence of foreign
matter from the completed line will be a condition precedent to the accep-
tance of the pipeline. If directed by Company, all joints will be swabbed
before welded into the line.
b. The ends of the pipe will be thoroughly cleaned of rust, scale, dirt, grease,
protective coating or other foreign matter which might affect the quality of
the welds. Beveling shall be done by using any oxygen cutting, mechani-
cally operated beveling band. Cleaning shall be done with mechanical
power tools.
5. After completion of each weld the uncoated section of pipe and weld at each
joint will be thoroughly cleaned of slag, mill scale, dirt, grease, or other
foreign matter by mechanical means to assure proper bond of thermal fit
sleeves.
C4.4 Inspection
1. Company shall supply such inspectors as are necessary to observe work done
by Contractor, and insure that all requirements of this Specification are being
met. Inspector will function as the liaison between Contractor and Company
for reporting progress and quality of work. Inspectors shall have the authority
to enforce the terms of this Specification.
2. Company will engage the services of an independent radiographer and pay the
costs except as provided by Section C4.3 above.
C5.1 General
Contractor shall follow procedures for handling of thin film epoxy coated pipe,
application of field joints, repair of defective coating, and testing of coating in
accordance with the following sections of this specification and with the manufac-
turer’s specifications and recommendations.
C5.6 Responsibility
Contractor shall be solely responsible for both pipe and coating and any damage
incurred by either from the time he received the pipe until all of the work described
in this Specification is termed complete.
C6.0 Testing
C6.1 General
Following completion of the pipeline installation, Contractor shall test the
completed pipelines hydrostatically, and shall run a gauging scraper through the
lines. Contractor shall use water for testing that it is free from dirt, silt, or foreign
matter. Contractor shall furnish pumps, piping, settling tanks, 8-mesh or finer
strainer, and equipment for properly testing the pipelines.
No pressure testing will be performed unless a Company representative is on site to
witness same. Company shall be notified a minimum of 24 hours prior to test.
6.3.4 Records
A record of this test shall be compiled which includes the recording gauge charts,
dead weight tester data, data compiled in 6.2.1 as outlined previously, ant the
reasons for any failure during a test. Each recording chart must contain:
1. Company name, name of person responsible for making test, name of company
making test
2. Date and time of test
3. Minimum test pressure
4. Test medium
5. Description of the facility tested.
6. Explanation of any pressure discontinuities that appear on chart.
6.2.5 Dewatering
On completion of satisfactory hydrostatic test, Contractor shall remove all tempo-
rary testing facilities. Contractor shall purge the tested lines of all water.
Contents Page
Part I. Chevron Pipeline Company, New Orleans Division, Standard No. 4.2, Pipe-
line Operating Procedures
Scope
1. This standard established procedures and responsibilities in the event that an
emergency or an abnormal situation develops and will apply whether the
system is controlled remotely by SCADA or locally.
Abnormal Conditions
2. It is the responsibility of the appropriate Senior Operator, Operations Super-
visor and/or operations personnel to respond to, investigate and take steps to
correct any abnormal problem.
a. Unintended closure of a valve.
b. Unintended shutdown.
c. Increase or decrease in pressure flow rate outside normal operating limits.
d. Loss of communications.
e. Operation of any safety device.
f. Any other malfunction of a component, deviation from normal operation
or operational error which could cause a hazard to persons or property.
Communications
6. Without communication the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) systems cannot operate. Loss of communication shall be reported to
Chevron Communication within fifteen minutes. Any station that has lost
communication and needs assistance from local personnel to monitor meter
readings, tank gauges, etc., shall call the District Operations Super-
visor/Terminal Supervisor who will furnish the personnel.
Other Malfunctions
7.
a. Field operating personnel (gaugers, etc.) are to immediately notify the
pipeline station operatorsregarding any abnormal or emergency conditions
which they observe.
b. Any malfunction that is a deviation from normal operation or operational
error that could cause a hazard to persons or property shall be reported to
the District Operations Supervisor/Terminal Supervisor immediately.
c. Any abnormal operation that activated the SCADA leak detection shall be
investigated immediately to determine the cause. If no cause can be deter-
mined, the line will be shutdown until the cause can be found and repaired.
d. A locking device allows the Senior Operator or Operations Supervisor to
make the decision to restart.
Obvious Emergencies
8. Emergencies requiring immediate line shutdown:
a. A serious leak on the line.
b. Overflowing receiving tank.
c. High level alarm on any tank.
d. Fire, explosion, massive spill, or other occurrence endangering operating
facilities.
e. Disabling injury of responsible operating employee on the job.
f. Accidental damage to critical Company facility.
g. Unscheduled shipment into or from the station.
h. Unexplained decrease or increase in operating pressure, flow, or tank level.
i. Any other situation that arises which presents an immediate serious hazard.
Emergency Procedure
9. Refer to the Emergency Shutdown Procedure found in each system Standard
for expediting shutdown of individual lines or sections.
Emergency Reports
13. In any emergency situation - leak, oil spill, fire, or injury, it is extremely impor-
tant for the person receiving the first contact to get the precise physical loca-
tion and description.
To this end, a standard procedure is very helpful in receiving and recording
information which might be otherwise omitted or unreported. The following
should be noted:
a. Name, company, and phone number of the person reporting so that he may
contacted later for more specific information.
b. Location of Emergency - in addition to the general area, get a Loran or
known landmarks.
c. Type of leak - large, small, running, crude, natural gas, etc. Any informa-
tion will help identify the type of leak.
d. Amount of Oil Out - or area engulfed.
e. Immediate Danger of the situation - establish what public/private facilities
are affected and endangered or about to be.
f. Other pertinent information which might be helpful to persons investi-
gating the emergency or to the repair/cleanup crews in determining equip-
ment needed.
Air-patrol
14. Another valuable tool for use in emergency situations by operating personnel is
the Air Patrol. In any situation deemed appropriate by the Terminal Supervisor,
Operations Supervisor, or District Supervisor/ Superintendent, the air patrol
plane can cover large areas of pipeline quickly. This information could save
valuable time during investigation of possible leaks or locating actual leaks.
Part II. Chevron USA Inc., Eastern Region, Operations and Maintenance Plan
Guidelines for DOT Regulated Gas Pipelines
The following table of contents is included to show the scope of the entire docu-
ment. Only Section I, General, is excerpted in the following pages.
Contents Page
I. GENERAL
A. Introduction
B. Documents Incorporated by Reference
General Section
A. Introduction
1. Purposes and Applicability
These guidelines are provided for Chevron’s Eastern Divisions to follow in
preparing and updating Operation and Maintenance Plans for all Department of
Transportation (DOT) regulated gas pipelines as required by 49 CFR,
Subchapter D: Pipeline Safety. The guidelines describe inspection, operation,
maintenance, recordkeeping and reporting requirements necessary for compli-
ance. Each Operation and Maintenance Plan should include the essentials
listed herein as well as in 49 CFR 192.605. Individual plans must be tailored to
specific pipeline systems and therefore, may include additional information or
instruction other than that described in these guidelines or in 49 CFR
Subchapter D. With this in mind, the plans should be prepared and updated
with an understanding of the intent of 49 CFR i.e., to safely operate and main-
tain pipeline systems.
2. Responsibility
Each Division Manager is responsible for preparing and updating an Operation
and Maintenance Plan for DOT regulated gas pipelines operated and main-
tained by the respective Division. In addition, Division Manager should ensure
that:
a. Copies of the plan and any updates are available to personnel operating
and maintaining DOT regulated pipelines.
b. The pipe in implemented to include establishing report and recordkeeping
requirements.
c. The plan is reviewed and updated at least annually.
3. Overview of Regulatory Requirements
a. 49 CFR 192 Applicability
49 CFR Part 192 applies to gathering of gas by pipeline in or affecting
interstate commerce, including within the limits of the outer continental
shelf, but does not apply to:
1. Offshore gathering of gas upstream from the outlet flange of each
facility on the continental shelf where hydrocarbons are produced of
where produced hydrocarbons are first separated, dehydrated, or other-
wise processed, whichever facility is farther downstream; and
2. Onshore gathering of gas outside the following areas:
a. An area within the limits of any incorporated or unincorporated
city, town, or village.
b. Any designated residential or commercial area such as a subdivi-
sion, business or shopping center, or community development.
4. Welding, Burning, And Hot Tapping Safe Practices and Procedures Plan
Prescribes safe practices and procedures that must be followed while
performing any type of “hot work” on an offshore facility in the OCT.
5. Hurricane Action Plan
Contains a methodical set of procedures to follow to shut-in facilities and evac-
uate personnel from offshore during impending hurricanes.
6. Oil Spill Contingency Plan
a. Prescribes procedures to be followed when an oil spill occurs. Lists appli-
cable regulations; alert, reporting, action, containment, and clean-up proce-
dures; co-op agreements for sharing equipment and materials; and
Company owned equipment, etc. Each Division Manager shall have a
specific emergency plan prepared in the event a spill occurs from a DOT
regulated line. As a minimum, the plan should include:
1. Responsibility and procedure for notifying the company personnel
who are concerned and will be involved.
2. Responsibility and procedure for notifying any appropriate Federal of
state of local government agencies.
3. Organization or repair and pollution control group and delegation of
responsibilities. Group might include Project Manager, communica-
tion and supply personnel, repair personnel and pollution control
personnel.
4. Daily reporting and information required by Project Manager.
5. Government reporting.
6. The communication equipment needed and location where it is avail-
able.
7. Lists of applicable drawings and maps and locations where they are
available.
8. Specify base of operation and dock for work on various pipeline
segments.
9. List approved contractors for various types of work.
10. List materials in stock and its location that may be needed for the
work.
11. Draft scenario of response procedures for a typical emergency, such
as a pipeline rupture.
b. These procedures can either be incorporated in an Oil Spill Contingency
Plan or be incorporated in the Emergency Plan for Gas Pipelines (see para-
graph 7, below)
Abstract
This appendix contains portions of the Inspection Manual for the 1987-1989
Mesquite Pipeline Project in Texas. It was prepared by Chevron Pipe Line
Company. It is included here as a guide to the duties of field inspectors, the makeup
of a field organization, and the preparation of a manual for your project.
For most projects several inspection functions described in the Inspection Proce-
dures would be handled by one inspector or field engineer, so that the Company
field team would have considerably fewer members than the separate Procedures
seem to suggest.
The Mesquite Project involved construction of new pipelines, and repair and
replacement of existing products pipelines. Total length was approximately 200
miles of NPS 8,10,12 pipeline.
Contents Page
4. Back hoe excavation for casing bores, valve boxes, or bell holes.
5. Backfilling in soft material.
Company Inspectors shall pay close attention to all of the above opera-
tions. Any time dangerous conditions are present, the Company Inspector
on the spot is responsible to see that the Contractor conducts his opera-
tions with complete safety to the existing line. In cases where the
Contractor is negligent, any Company Inspector near the work has
authority to shut down the operations until the hazard is rectified per SF-
87084 Section 18.01.
c. Blasting adjacent to the existing line shall be supervised very carefully by
Company Inspectors. Short period delay blasting caps should be used to
stagger detonations in any one string and minimize peak shock transmitted
to existing line. The determination of a safe charge should include
consideration of type of formation (granite, shale, lava, etc.) depth of drill
hole, and proximity to existing line.
d. At places where the new line will cross an existing line in changing posi-
tion, from one side of the right-of-way to the other side, the existing line
must be uncovered by hand to the point of crossing before ditching equip-
ment approaches and machine ditching must be stopped not closer than 3
feet from each side of No. 1 line, measured at right angles.
e. The Company Inspector shall review with the Contractor’s Foreman each
day the location of block valves, access roads, and communications facili-
ties for the location of the work during that day’s work.
6. The Construction Engineer shall prepare a periodic safety bulletin to be distrib-
uted to all Company personnel. This publication should be brief and distributed
frequently (at least monthly). It should include resumes of any accidents during
the period, safety slogans and particular cautions, and safety suggestions by
Company personnel, a statistical score of safety record to date, etc. Wide use
should be made of safety posters.
7. The Construction representative shall prepare a list of names, addresses and
telephone numbers of the physicians, hospitals, and ambulances to be called in
the event of an injury. A copy of this list and adequate first-aid material, and
fire extinguishers shall be maintained in all construction vehicles and field
offices. See Section 3.0 Attached.
8. All engineers, supervisory personnel or inspectors who are in charge of activi-
ties around existing facilities which are in oil or gas service shall become
familiar with established operating standards for such facilities and shall insure
that operations are conducted in accordance with these established standards.
9. Extremely hazardous conditions may exist along the right-of-way, such as dry
grass or hydrocarbon spills. Engineers, inspectors, and other supervisory
personnel should develop special measures to reduce such hazards, to control
sources of ignition, and to ensure that the Contractor provides adequate fire-
fighting equipment near the job. See Fire Fighting Procedure.
10. Special emphasis must be placed on the safety program during excavation, tie-
in welding to existing pipeline(s), hydrostatic test, scraper runs and dewatering
because of the greater activity and variety of work required at the time. The
Construction Representative shall insure that personnel assignments are sched-
uled so as to avoid long hours and over work. He shall arrange for experienced
operating personnel to instruct construction personnel and assist in operating
pumps, valves, scrapers, etc. He shall also insure that all Company personnel
are informed of the hazards due to the contents or pressure of the lines and
equipment and that they are instructed as to the necessary precautions to be
taken.
11. The Company is very interested in promoting safe practices by the contractor’s
forces as required by SF-98084. However, because of the necessity of
maintaining the proper contractual relationships, Company personnel should
give no direct instructions to Contractor’s employees, even though such men
may be working unsafely at the time. Engineers and Inspectors shall promptly
discuss unsafe practices with the Contractor’s supervisory personnel and make
suggestions for correction. If such suggestions are not complied with they
should be brought to the attention of the Company representative.
12. The Construction Engineer is responsible for preparing and submitting acci-
dent reports to State and Company, such as GO-42 “Supervisor’s Report of
Industrial Injury”, and Motor Vehicle accident reports. Contractor shall report
to Company, injuries that occurred on the job site as required by SF-87084-
14.00.
13. All facilities of the Company shall follow procedures which will be imple-
mented in the event of a bomb threat. See Bomb and Extortion Threats Proce-
dure.
14. For Additional Safety and conditions please refer to the attached Exhibit I
“Independent Contractor Safety Practices”. All Inspectors will be expected to
observe and follow these guidelines during the course of the project.
15. No illegal or unauthorized drugs, intoxicating beverages, firearms or weapons,
or persons under the influence of drugs, stimulants or alcohol are allowed on
Company’s premise or work locations.
16. From time to time and without prior announcement, searches by authorized
Construction Representatives may be made of anyone entering on or leaving
the premises of the Company including Company employees and employees of
Contractors doing business with the Company. Persons refusing to submit to
searches will be denied access to Company premises.
require an approach somewhat different from most other fires. The only control
methods suitable for this type of fire consist of removing the fuel supply (fire-
breaks) and quenching with water. Full advantage should be taken of the
services of any Federal or State Forestry officials or of County fire-fighting
organizations in this type of fire since they are usually specialists who can give
valuable assistance.
2. Wind has a marked influence on the direction and speed of spread of natural
cover fires. Spread will be most rapid with the wind, with less tendency to
spread sideways. Fires travel uphill considerably faster than downhill. There-
fore, fire fighters should never be permitted to approach a natural cover fire
from the front as it is progressing up a hill. Escape may be too difficult.
3. Attack
The safest method of attack is to approach from the windward, controlling the
fire along the sides working toward the head or front of the fire. In some cases
the speed of the fire may be so great that the head cannot be overtaken, so that
a head on approach must be made. This will usually involve some type of fire-
break as discussed below. Advantage should be taken of any natural or ready
made firebreaks, such as streams and roads. The top of a ridge is usually a
good place to make an attempted stop. Under any of these conditions, plans
should be made in advance to evacuate people and equipment should their posi-
tion become hazardous.
4. Type of Fuel
Fires involving brush do not ordinarily lend themselves to control by the direct
method of extinguishment of the burning material. They must almost always be
controlled by surrounding the fire with firebreaks and letting the controlled fire
burn out. Small grass fires can usually be approached closely enough to
actually extinguish the perimeter fire with water, beaters, shovels, wet sacks,
etc. Larger grass fires must be handled with firebreaks.
5. Equipment Available
The attack will, to some extent, have to be adapted to the equipment available.
Grass and brush, being ordinary combustibles, can be controlled with water, if
it is available in sufficient quantity along with means to get it to the burning
area. Special nozzles to conserve water are available from equipment suppliers.
In the absence of sufficient water, which is usually the case, axes, shovels,
picks, hoes, etc. are usually the most effective. Motorized earth moving equip-
ment, if available, can usually be used to good advantage if the terrain permits.
6. Firebreaks
Where adequate water supply and equipment are lacking to the extent that
direct extinguishment is impractical, construction of firebreaks is generally the
only effective method of control. They involve removing all combustible mate-
rial from a trip across the path of the fire. This can be done by cutting out any
brush and discarding it away from the fire and then digging up the ground, and
turning dirt over toward the fire. Bulldozers can be particularly helpful in
specifications and procedures should the work be stopped. The Lead Inspector
or Construction Representative should be notified after exercising this option.
C. Requirements of a Pipeline Inspector
1. General Requirements
Pipeline Inspectors will:
a. Observe the work of individual craftsmen to ensure that they are qualified
for the work that they are performing. Inform the Construction Representa-
tive of any individuals whose work is not acceptable.
b. Ensure that the Contractor(s) and Subcontractor(s) fulfill each requirement
in complete accordance with the specifications.
c. Inspect the Contractor’s construction operations to ensure that materials
and equipment used and performance of work are in accordance with spec-
ifications, applicable codes, and accepted company and trade practices.
Ensure that the final product is acceptable in regard to workmanship and
suitability for intended use.
2. Essential Requirements
a. The Pipeline Inspector’s function is to represent Chevron Pipe Line
Company, in overseeing the quality of the pipeline construction. It is his
responsibility to judge the quality of construction in relation to the written
specifications, drawings and instructions. Although he must strive for the
highest quality, he must not delay completion and delivery of the pipeline
without proper cause.
All of the following are essentials which require thorough study and
careful application. They cannot be treated lightly by the Inspector who wishes
to do his job conscientiously.
b. Physical Condition
The pipeline Inspector’s physical condition must be sufficiently good to
permit him to fulfill his duties. Proper inspection requires examination
before, during, and after construction. He must be able to climb in and out
of trenches, around and under the pipe.
c. Vision
Good vision is vital to a Pipeline Inspector, who must look closely at the
welds, radiographic film, drawings, and other construction activity as
necessary. Corrective aids such as glasses shall be used, if prescribed,
during the inspection process.
d. Knowledge of Specifications
Since the Inspector must be familiar with specifications that apply to the
pipeline construction, he must read and thoroughly understand these speci-
fications. When decisions must be made, his knowledge of the standards
F. Work Relations
1. The Inspector shall understand that he must not interfere with the Contractor’s
methods of performing work. Such interference could release the Contractor
from his responsibility under the Contract. Action by the Inspector is limited to
the rejection or acceptance of the work as it is completed. Should the
Contractor’s methods become obviously unsafe, inadequate, or fail to comply
with established construction practices, the Inspector will point out to the
Contractor’s Representative the results which may be expected with the
continued use of such unsatisfactory practices. If the Contractor persists in
unsatisfactory practices, the matter will be promptly brought to the attention of
Construction Representative or Lead Inspector for further action.
2. The Inspector shall always do business with the Contractor’s supervisor on the
job, and shall not issue any work directions to the Contractor’s workmen. At no
time shall an Inspector take action which could be interpreted as providing
supervision or as giving direction to the Contractor workmen.
3. The Inspector shall cooperate at all times with the Contractor to expedite
progress. Inspectors shall look ahead and be alert in order to catch error and
questionable practices in time to avoid future rejection or slowdown of work,
to observe the Contractor’s methods of operating equipment from a safety
standpoint, and to assist in correction of unsafe practices.
The Inspector shall maintain friendly relations with the Contractor at all times,
and shall cooperate with the Contractor in every way, short of compromising
the construction schedule or quality of the work required by the plans, specifi-
cations, and contract.
G. Providing Assistance To Contractor
1. Explaining the procedure for obtaining and receiving permanent pipeline mate-
rials furnished by the owner.
2. Advising as to standards of safety practices by Company.
3. Interpreting plans and specifications.
H. Favoritism And Discrimination
Actions of the Inspector shall never indicate favoritism toward nor discrimina-
tion against the Contractor or his workman.
I. Disagreements
Any dispute or disagreement between the Contractor and the Inspector shall be
reported immediately to the Construction Representative or Lead Inspector for
such action as may be required, and shall be documented on the Daily Inspec-
tion Report.
J. Unusual Events
4. Ensure that the Contractor has arranged for appropriate records of the test, of
dead weight readings, and failure reports.
5. Scrapers (pigs) and spheres inserted in the line should be number, recorded and
identified, and logged in and out of the pipeline.
6. Where the pipe coating is broken to install a temperature probe for
hydrotesting, ensure that the coating is completely repaired.
7. Check to see that flanges are left uncovered during the hydrotest. Valves
should be serviced prior to the test. If lock-o-rings are present in the test
section, the blind should be removed while the line is under pressure to assure
that the plug is properly installed.
8. Where temporary drain lines are installed, precautions will be taken to see that
these lines are anchored and properly designed to withstand pressures and
velocities anticipated, and removed after hydrotest.
9. Temporary manifolds to be used for air or gas service are not to be placed in
service without prior approval by the Construction Representative.
10. Caution should always be exercised when air or gas is pressurized in piping.
With air/gas in lines serious injuries may occur when servicing valves,
cracking flanges, or operating new piping unless caution is exercised.
E. Documentation and Daily Reports
1. Record the number of welds found defective per welder. Notify Contractor
foreman if a welder has a high rejection rate.
2. Maintain a record of each Radiographer’s (or radiographer X-Rayed), number
of acceptable radiographs, number of reshots, and number of miscalls.
3. Insure that radiographers maintain neat, detailed and accurate “shooter” sheets.
Sign shooter sheets off daily to “certify” that data is accurate and complete and
that technicians have worked the hours shown. Forward to Lead Inspector.
4. Maintain detailed records of Radiographic Contractors performance. Payment
for services will be based on shooter sheets and the film counts from those
sheets. Remember — the Contractor will not be paid for reshots or in inaccu-
rate or incomplete records. Your records will be used in this accounting for
payment.
B. Responsibilities
1. To make any field decisions requiring interpretation of Specifications after
clearing same with the Lead Inspector. Any change or deviation to a specifica-
tion or the contract requires prior approval by Company Construction Represen-
tative.
2. To determine and report quantity of completed work daily.
3. To ensure that Contractor’s personnel and equipment comply with safety
precautions and all restrictions and conditions listed on the line list.
4. Contact Landowners immediately prior to clearing operations and notify of
impending activity.
5. Assist Contractor in the location of exclusion fencing, temporary gates, etc. All
existing fences must be replaced. Construction of all temporary fences will be
4-strand, 12-1/2 gauge barbed wire fence with treated wooded posts. Posts
shall be set 2’6" below natural grade and shall extend 5’0" above finished
grade. The fence shall follow the land contours so that the lowest wire is a
maximum of 16" above grade. In addition, all fences shall be constructed to
meet the requirements of the “Standard Specification for Construction of High-
ways, Streets and Bridges, 1982" from the Texas State Dept. of Highways and
Public Transportation.
6. Assist/supplement Clearing Inspector in plant protection (See Clearing
Inspector Section 4.0).
7. Photograph private roads used for access to the right-of-way. Labels with loca-
tion, direction and R.O.W station.
8. Coordinate with and monitor survey crew activities.
9. Submit daily report to Lead Inspector.
3. Witness the identification and locating of all foreign, pipeline and utility cross-
ings. Look for markers showing existing utilities and mark up field prints.
Ensure (48) hours notification to Texas Excavation Safety Service (800-344-
8377), and all owners individually, when substructures are to be exposed
during excavation or crossed by a new line. See also, Utilities section of the
Mesquite Pipeline Telephone List.
4. Verify that restrictions and/or special requests made by landowners as noted on
the line list are followed.
5. Assist Contractor in location, staking and excavation of pipelines and pipeline
crossings within right-of-way. Be present at all times when excavation is being
done near the active Chevron pipeline.
6. Witness the excavation of all live pipelines. Expose nearest active pipeline
every 500 ft., flagging 5 feet from the active pipeline to establish the non-
encroachment boundary. Place stakes and flags on this boundary every 200 ft.
A Company Inspector must be present at all work exposing active pipelines.
7. Expose top half of pipe at all horizontal PI’s greater than 3 degrees, all foreign
pipeline crossings and at a maximum spacing of 1/4 mile. Expose by hand
unless pipeline is greater than 2 ft. deep. Company Agent or Inspector must be
present during exposure.
8. Work in conjunction with survey crew(s). To ensure all foreign pipeline cross-
ings are correctly located and numbered.
9. Submit daily reports to the Lead Inspector.
3. Ensure that the contractor has documented the undisturbed right-of-way condi-
tions and photographed same as required by SF-87086.
D. Plant Protection
1. Create a color code system if needed and flag the following:
a. Trees and shrubs which require preservation and protective snow fencing.
b. Trees to be cut down. All oak trees and trees larger than 2" in diameter
shall not be disturbed without prior written approval from Company.
c. Plants to be transplanted, if any.
d. Vegetation to be avoided.
e. If required, ensure that all plants marked for transplanting are carefully
potted in appropriately sized plastic containers, using soil from the same
area.
f. Check to make sure that transplanted vegetation is tended and watered on
a regular basis until the time arrives to replant.
E. Clearing Operations
1. Ditch centerline stakes, right-of-way boundary stakes, and all survey monu-
ments are to be preserved. In the event that Contractor’s activities damage or
destroy any survey stakes, the Construction Representative is to be advised.
Permanent monuments or bench marks shall be replaced by a Registered Land
Surveyor acting under Company’s instructions per SF-87086.
2. During clearing operations, check to see that the right-of-way width cleared is
as specified per SF-87086.
3. Ensure that all necessary grading is carried out at road, stream, and river cross-
ings and that grading remains on right-of-way.
4. Line pipe shall not be used for temporary flumes, culverts, etc.
5. Assure that access to the right-of-way is limited to intersections, roads and
access roads or per SF-87086.
6. Ensure that the right-of-way is completely cleared of grass and small brush,
mix these with topsoil and place to the edge of right-of-way.
7. Trees, brush, stumps or other material shall not be pushed from the construc-
tion right-of-way.
8. Contractor shall dispose of merchantable timer per attachment B, Landowner
Line List.
9. Non-merchantable material shall be properly disposed of offsite. Contractor
may chip unmerchantable timber, brush, stumps, etc. and stockpile along right-
of-way for use in restoration. Check to make sure all stumps are grubbed from
ditchline.
10. Ensure the removal of any and all man made junk and debris off site.
11. Herbicides are not to be used along pipeline corridor.
12. Off site disposable of trash must be done only at Company approved disposal
sites.
13. Monitor and maintain dust control, containment of sidecast materials and
proper excavation of paved roads if permitted.
F. Reports And Documentation
1. Note any off right-of-way damage or land used by Contractor, and report to
Lead Inspector.
2. Prepare notification to affected landowner 96 hours prior to the start of each
stage of construction (staking, clearing) and give to Lead Inspector.
a. Description of vehicles intending to use roads and proposed times of entry
and departure.
b. Description of construction schedule across property when activity will
occur within 1000 feet of any residence.
c. Description of road closures on property.
d. Description of any probable hazard or other unsafe condition.
e. Description of schedule or interruption of telephone, electrical power,
water or other utility service.
f. Description of schedule for cutting any fences or similar barriers.
3. Report right-of-way, grading and clearing progress on your Daily Report. Turn
forms in daily to the Lead Inspector.
5. Report and document any shipping damage to pipe or coatings. Mark clearly
all damage for repairs or rejection.
6. Ensure that Company’s safety requirements are complied with.
C. Stringing
1. Assure that Contractor’s stringing crews have the proper machinery and equip-
ment to complete the work in full accordance with the contract documents.
2. Confirm the condition, number and identification of the pipe when received by
the Contractor at the construction right-of-way. Note any damage and report
the damage per joint number and diameter as required.
3. Pipe must not be allowed to be dropped or strike objects. Lifting hooks must be
rubber coated or designed to ensure no bevel, pipe or coating damage occurs.
Proper slings or belts shall be used to prevent damage to coating.
4. Assure proper laydown and cushioning of pipe on the right-of-way.
5. Assure that Contractor strings the pipe in such a manner as to leave gaps across
the right-of-way to allow passage of farm equipment and livestock.
6. Check to ensure that the Contractor has staked out where changes in wall thick-
ness and coating are to take place.
7. Check to see that the correct wall thickness of pipe is being used at the correct
location. Note on a copy of the alignment sheet, by stationing where changes in
wall thickness actually occur.
8. Documentation of each joint or partial joint should note pipe number, diameter,
wall thickness and pre-sent location. Insist that the Contractor or As Built
Surveyor transfers all identification to any cut off pieces of pipe.
9. Particular notice must be taken to assure that short pieces and “pups” are
correctly identified using a color coded paint stripe and moved ahead and
uniformly distributed in the line construction.
D. Cold Bending Inspection
1. Witness and audit the bending operation to insure the following are correct:
a. Longitudinal seams are bent only on or near their neutral axis.
b. Longitudinal seams are rotated 30 degrees offset from each other and are
placed along the top of the pipeline.
c. No wrinkles or miter bends are permitted.
d. Maximum out of roundness is less than 4% of the original diameter.
e. Maximum allowable bend (degrees) per SF 87-86 is not exceeded.
f. Pipe diameter is not reduced by more than 2-1/2% of the nominal diameter.
g. Cutting and welding torches are not used without prior Company approval.
h. No field bends (only shop bends) allowed within 200 ft. of a mainline
valve.
i. All cold bends have been checked (before welding) with a sizing plate.
Verify sizing plates are of the Company approved OD with no excessive
wear or distortion. Witness sizing of cold bends whenever possible, but no
less than 25% of the total cold bends.
j. Submit written daily report to Lead Inspector.
7. Trenches should be dewatered and kept reasonably dry. Insist on a firm trench
floor.
8. Ensure that the bottom of the ditch is free of debris or any foreign material,
welding rods, boards, etc., which damage protective coatings.
9. Open ditches within 20 feet of paved roads may required flagmen and/or signs
to alert and control traffic.
10. Ensure (48) hour notification to Texas Excavation Safety Service (800) 344-
8377 when any substructures are to be exposed during excavation. Also see
Utilities section of the Mesquite Pipeline Project Telephone Book.
11. When underground structures not shown on alignment sheets are located,
ensure Contractor marks the position of the structure by staking. Mark location
and nature of object on alignment sheet.
12. Be present during the uncovering of known underground structures and ensure
advance notification of owners of foreign structures of work being performed
adjacent to their structure.
13. If damage should occur to underground structures notify the Lead Inspector
and document in daily report. Take photographs, if possible. Ensure that the
Contractor submits a written report detailing damage and repairs made. The
owner of the damaged structure will be contacted by Company’s Land Agent
and repairs will be made by Contractor to the owner’s satisfaction.
14. Ensure proper precautions are taken where blasting is necessary. Any loose
rock scattered over the right-of-way or adjacent lands is to be cleared by
Contractor to the satisfaction of the landowners.
15. Ensure that hand excavation is done at all pipeline crossings and in locations
where the use of trenching equipment may result in unnecessary damage or
injury to property per SF 87086.
16. Ensure that minimum clearance of 12" be maintained between any pipeline
crossing.
17. Ensure shoring and bracing of excavation are safely constructed. Follow
Chevron Safety in Design guidelines for shoring and proper angles of repose
for unshored ditches. Also see Safety in Designs Manual.
18. Submit daily report to Lead Inspector.
B. Responsibilities
1. To make any field decisions requiring interpretation of specifications after
clearing same with the Lead Inspector. Any change or deviation to a specifica-
tion or the contract requires prior approval by Company Construction Represen-
tative.
2. To determine quantities of completed work.
3. To perform the duties of Welding Inspector on all welding on carrier pipe
installed in cased crossings.
4. To perform the duties of Welding Inspector on all welding on pipe installed in
slick bores.
5. Ensure that longitudinal seams are rotated 30 degree offset from each other
along top of pipeline when pipe is installed in casing or slick bore.
6. To carefully review and become knowledgeable on the duties and responsibili-
ties of the Welding Inspector.
7. To carefully review and become knowledgeable on the duties and responsibili-
ties of the Coating Inspector, pertaining to installation of shrink sleeves and
repair to damaged coating.
8. Ensure that all crossings are executed in accordance to specifications and draw-
ings.
9. On cased crossings check to see that there are no long spans between the end
of the casing and where the pipe rests in the bottom of the trench. If there is a
long span, then earth filled sacks should be placed under the span section at
intervals for proper support of pipe.
10. Ensure that proper depth is maintained in accordance to permits and construc-
tion drawings.
11. Submit daily report to Lead Inspector.
b. Cold bends have been made in the proper manner, without damage to the
pipe.
c. Pipe bevels are properly cleaned, free of moisture, grease or other foreign
matter and without dents or gouges.
d. Each joint of pipe has been properly swabbed before it is placed in the line.
e. All internal pipe identification has been transferred to the outside by the
As Built Surveyor.
3. Ensure that the Contractor provides an adequate number of skids, of the right
type and properly placed to keep the pipe secure.
4. Verify proper alignment of joints, placement of longitudinal seams and line up
clamp fit. Longitudinal seams are rotated 30 degrees offset from each other and
are placed along the top of the pipeline.
5. Assure that all dirt, sand, rocks and other debris is removed prior to lineup.
6. Verify welder qualification(s).
7. Verify that all welding is in strict accordance with qualified and approved
procedures.
8. Verify proper application of welding procedures and that good welding prac-
tice is followed. Ensure the following:
a. Fit up is as detailed in the procedure. Root gap and hi/low are within
acceptable tolerances.
b. Preheat/postheat is maintained (if required).
c. Welding passes (stringer, hot, etc.) are performed as specified.
d. Bevels/welds are power tool cleaned before successive passes.
e. Starts and stops, porosity or high points in the bead are ground.
f. Maximum/minimum interpass times are observed.
g. Stringer beads are not left overnight without hot pass.
h. Hot pass is left clean and ready for successive passes.
i. Check welding machines periodically to verify current/voltage settings.
Assure that machines, grounds, and leads are maintained properly.
j. Proper storage and handling of consumables.
k. It is the primary responsibility of the Welding Inspector to visually inspect
all welds and have all surface defects repaired prior to X-Raying.
9. Verify/authorize repair of defects. Do not authorize repair of cracks (repair of
cracks shall not be permitted).
10. Verify proper identification of each welder’s work.
11. Monitor weather conditions and halt welding, if weather will adversely affect
the quality of the weld, until conditions are satisfactory or the Contractor has
taken adequate measures to protect the work.
12. Ensure removal of all welding rod stubs, grinder discs, etc. from the trench and
right-of-way.
13. Confirm that Contractor uses night caps and covers pipe ends at the end of shift
or when work is suspended.
14. To ensure that all short sections of piping (6 ft and longer) are correctly identi-
fied and are carried forward to be incorporated into the pipeline. Verify that the
Contractor maintains accurate records of the identity of each joint or partial
joint (pipe number, diameter, pipe grade, specification grade and location).
Verify transfer when mill markings are damaged or cut off. Lengths shorter
than 6 feet are to be used for weld cut outs (pups).
C. Daily Reports And Documentation
1. Keep notes on welder performance and report to the Lead Inspector if any
welder consistently performs poor work.
2. Be prepared to interpret radiographic film or witness other NDE tests, as
required, in absence of Utility Inspector .
D. Reference Manual
1. Familiarize himself with the GUIDE TO WELD INSPECTION, attached.
B. Responsibilities
1. Ensure backfilling meets contract specifications.
2. Ensure that backfill material placed within six inches of the pipeline contains
no hard objects such as rocks, boards, or welding rods that could injure the
coating.
3. Ensure that soil separation, where required, is adhered to and that top soil is
not used for other purposes.
4. Ensure that the crown of the ditch is adequate and is placed directly over the
ditch and will not leave a furrow over the pipeline after settlement.
5. Ensure that compaction of soil, where required, is carried out as set forth by
the specifications.
6. Check after rains that drainage at ditches, terraces, roads, bridges, and high-
ways is occurring as designed and that sedimentation downstream has not
occurred.
7. See that revegetation is in accordance with the specifications.
8. Ensure that Contractor has restored the right-of-way to a satisfactory condition,
replaced gates, removed temporary fences and has observed the conditions of
the line list.
9. Ensure that where blasting has been performed, any loose rock scattered on the
right-of-way or adjacent lands is cleaned up.
10. Ensure that open fires are not lit unless written permits have been obtained.
11. Check that the pipe hauling or stringing subcontractor has restored lands
disturbed by his operation.
12. Vent pipe, aerial markers (linesigning) and test lead posts are to be firmly
placed and painted.
13. Check that right-of-way and surrounding ground is cleared and all waste mate-
rials, debris and rock disposed of. All materials under Contractor’s custody,
including pipe along the right-of-way shall be delivered to points designated by
the Company. All equipment, tools and appliances used by the Contractor in
the performance of the work shall be removed. Ensure the repair or replace-
ment of public or private roads and railroads.
14. Submit daily written report to the Lead Inspector.
Contents Page
F1.0 Introduction
Depth of burial diagrams, commonly called depth of cover curves, enable pipeline
field engineers to quickly determine the required burial depth for a pipeline subject
to thermal movement. Because soil restrains pipeline movement and soil restraint
increases with depth, the final burial depth is critical to ensure pipeline movement
is controlled. If adequate soil restraint is not provided, the pipeline can move
upwards, laterally, or downward depending on the system configuration at that
point. Pipeline movement may result in decreased soil resistance, increased pipeline
stress, and less-than-ideal operating conditions should the pipeline break ground.
Analysis of buried pipelines experiencing applied displacements requires complex
computer modeling and analysis techniques. We often use simplistic modeling tech-
niques that assume a static soil state without considering secondary load effects.
Unfortunately, this approach may be unconservative and result in underestimating
soil and pipeline stresses. Development of depth of cover curves requires knowl-
edge of the pipeline’s sensitivity to various design parameters (anchorage length,
soil friction, etc.) and thus should include sensitive parameters and incorporate pipe-
line-soil interaction to ensure accurate prediction of pipeline stresses, stability, and
deflections.
Recent Company projects having buried lines with significant applied displace-
ments have been successfully analyzed by specialized consulting firms. The design
of oil and gas pipelines on the Point Arguello project was analyzed by SSD Engi-
neering Consultants of Berkeley, CA. Soil information was developed from soil
boring data by the soil consultant using finite element modeling techniques to
generate soil force-displacement curves.
The Company does not currently possess a software package that uses finite
element methods either for analysis of buried pipelines subject to applied displace-
ments or for generation of soil force-displacement curves. An approximation of
pipeline-soil interaction may be obtained from PIPESAG, a program held by the
Engineering Technology Department-Civil and Structural Division. This program
has not been used extensively.
A list of references on current research and analysis techniques, as well as contact
information for the previously mentioned consultant, is provided at the end of this
appendix.
F4.1 Overbends
The amount of soil resistance mobilized at overbends is dependent on the longitu-
dinal and upward movement of the pipeline. The longitudinal soil resistance, F,
may be calculated per Equations 400-17 and 400-18 in Section 400 of this manual.
The upward soil resistance may be inferred from test data on the uplift capacity of
buried anchor plates (Rowe and Davis). See Figure F-4 for breakout wedge shapes.
Total resistance may be estimated using the following equation:
Fu = W s + d ( cF c + γ′DF′ q )
where:
Fu = ultimate soil reaction, FL-1
Ws = effective weight of soil wedge per unit length, FL-1
d = pipe diameter, L
c = cohesion, FL-2
γ = effective unit weight of the soil, FL-3
D = depth to the top of the pipe
F c and F′ q = breakout factors (dimensionless)
Figures F-5 and F-6 show Fc and Fq as functions of the depth of burial and the
angle of internal friction, Ø.
(a) This is a lower bound, especially good for remodeled soils. Use this.
(b) This is good for sandy soils, however it may overpredict soil resistance. Use (a).
(c) This is good for clayey soils, however (a) is more conservative. Use (a).
Fig. F-5 Relationship Between Breakout Factor, F c , and Depth of Burial Pipe Diameter Ratio, D/d
Fig. F-6 Relationship Between Breakout Factor, Fq, and Depth of Burial Pipe Diameter Ratio, D/d
F4.2 Sidebends
The amount of lateral soil resistance mobilized at sidebends is dependent on the
longitudinal and lateral movement of the pipeline. The longitudinal soil resistance,
F, may be calculated per Equations 400-17 and 400-18 in Section 400 of this
manual. The lateral soil resistance may be approximated by studies on the behavior
of buried pipe (Trautmann and O’Rourke). Soil-pipeline interaction is similar to
that of vertical anchor plates, footings, or walls moving horizontally and thus mobi-
lizing a passive earth pressure. This bend condition may be critical in weak soils.
For granular soil (sand):
d = pipe diameter, L
Values of the coefficient Rs are given in Figure F-7.
F4.3 Sagbends
This is the least critical bend condition, and is not likely to govern over uplift (over-
bend) concerns. The amount of soil resistance mobilized at sag bends is dependent
on the longitudinal and downward movement of the pipeline. The longitudinal soil
resistance, F, may be calculated per Equations 400-17, and 400-18 in Section 400
of this manual. The downward soil resistance may be approximated by the Terzaghi
and Peck (1968) method for shallow continuous footings. The ultimate downward
resisting force, FD, may be calculated by:
For granular soil (sand):
Pu = (cNc + γ H) d
where:
Pu = ultimate soil reaction, FL-1
c = undrained shear strength of the soil below the pipe, L
Variation of the value of Nc with depth of embedment is shown in Figure F-11. The
breadth, B, is equal to the pipe diameter, d.
F5.0 References
1. Dames and Moore. Geotechnical Investigation, Onshore Pipelines-Point
Conception to Gaviota, Point Arguello Gas and Oil Systems. Santa Barbara,
CA: Job No. 113-726-03, 1984.
2. Peng L. C. Stress Analysis Methods for Underground Pipe Lines. Pipe Line
Industry, 1978.
3. Rowe, R. K. and E. H. Davis. "The Behavior of Anchor Plates in Sand."
Geotechnique, V.32, No. 1, 1982, pp. 25-41.
4. SSD Engineering Consultants. "Pipeline Stress Analysis-Point Arguello Oil
and Gas Systems," 1984.
5. Trautmann, C. H., T. D. O’Rourke, F. H. Kulhawy. "Uplift Force-Displacement
Response of Buried Pipe." Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, V.111, No. 9,
1985, pp. 1061-1076.
6. Trautmann, C. H., T. D. O’Rourke. "Lateral Force-Displacement Response of
Buried Pipe." Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, V.111, No. 9, 1984, pp.
1077-1092.
Engineering Consultants
1. SSD Inc., 1930 Shattuck Ave., Berkeley, CA 94704 (415) 849-3458.
In-House Consultation
1. Engineering Technology Department-Civil and Structural Division.
2. Engineering Technology Department-Engineering Analysis and Material Divi-
sion.
Abstract
Lists of subsea pipeline valve users and applications. This information shows valve
types, sizes, makes and actuator sizes typically available, which have been used
subsea. This information may be used in planning, designing, and selecting compo-
nents for offshore pipelines.
Contents Page
Figure G-1 List of Users for Cameron Subsea Ball Valves G-2
Figure G-2 Subsea Ball Valve Installations in the North Sea — Provided G-4
by J. P. Kenny & Partners Ltd./CPUK
Figure G-3 Partial User List of Shafer Subsea Actuators G-5
Figure G-4 Neles Offshore Subsurface Valves G-7
20"×18"-900 12½ × 12
18"×16"-900 11 × 10
30"×28"-900 14½ × 14
Cameron
12"×10"-900 6½ × 8
36" - 600 20 × 16
Fig. G-2 Subsea Ball Valve Installations in the North Sea — Provided by J. P. Kenny & Partners Ltd./CPUK
Valve Size Subsea Location (North
Manufacturer and Class Sea) Product
Borsig 8" - 16" CL900 Shell Western Leg Gas
36" - CL900 Mobil Statfjord Crude
Cameron 36" CL900 Shell Flags System Gas
2" - 30" CL900 Mobil Statfjord GT & T Gas
System (approx. 10 valves)
Contents Page
H1.0 Introduction
These guidelines cover design and specification development for weight-coating on
submerged pipelines installed at waterway crossings, swamps, and offshore. Further
guidelines for weight-coating are in Section 447 for waterway crossings and
Sections 935 and 953 for offshore pipelines.
When the combined weight of the pipe, corrosion protective coating, and operating
fluid does not provide sufficient stability for the submerged pipeline during installa-
tion and service life, weight must be added by:
• Continuous weight-coating of the pipe with a uniform cement-based coating
• Individual precast weights attached to or placed over the line at intervals
An economic comparison of alternative combinations of pipe wall thickness and
weight-coating thickness, possibly with alternative protective coatings, may be
necessary. Heavier wall pipe offers greater mechanical strength, possible use of a
lower grade steel, and some insurance against pitting failures. The additional
weight of steel will reduce the need for weight-coating; however, concrete is gener-
ally a cheaper way to provide weighting.
For liquid-filled lines the feasibility of constructing the line using water-filled pipe
should be considered. For example, in 1962 a 100-mile, 20-inch crude oil pipeline
was installed in shallow waters from Empire Terminal, Louisiana, to Pascagoula
Refinery, Mississippi. The line was Somastic-coated—without weight-coating—
and filled with water to submerge it as it was laid from a lay-barge. Of course, the
contents of this line can never be displaced with air or gas.
Ws + ρw Ap – ( Wp + WF )
W c = ----------------------------------------------------------------
ρw
1 ----------
faρc
Ws + fa ρcAp – ( Wp + WF )
1/2
D c = 13.5 -----------------------------------------------------------------
-
fa ρ c – ρw
1/2
Wc
or = 13.5 ---------- + A p
fa ρ c
t c = 0.5 × ( D c – D p )
(Eq. H-1)
where:
Wc = Weight of weight-coating, lb/ft
Ws = Submerged weight of the pipe, lb/ft
Wp = Weight of pipe without weight-coating,
lb/ft
WF = Weight of fluid contents inside the pipe, lb/ft
= 0 for empty pipe
WT = Total weight of weight-coated pipe, lb/ft
= Wp + W c + W F
Dp = Outside diameter of protective-coated pipe without weight-
coating, in.
Ap = Cross-sectional area of protective-coated pipe without weight-
coating, ft2
= 0.00545 Dp2
Dc = Outside diameter of weight-coated pipe, in.
tc = Thickness of weight-coating, in.
ρc = Density of weight-coating, lb/ft3
fa = Factor for absorption of water in the weight-coating concrete (see
following discussion)
ρw = Density of water or cohesionless material,
lb/ft3
If weight-coating thickness has already been set, or the weight-coating has been
applied to the pipe, the following equation gives the resultant submerged weight per
lineal foot:
Wc
W s = W T – ρ w ---------- + A p
fa ρc
(Eq. H-2)
Two important factors in establishing required weight-coating and specifying
acceptable tolerances for applied weight-coating are:
• Absorption of water in the weight-coating concrete
• Variations in concrete thickness and density during application of the weight-
coating (discussed under specification tolerances, Section H7.0 below)
Depending on how the weight-coating concrete is applied and controlled during
application, the concrete will absorb water in varying amounts when submerged.
The weight of absorbed water can be expected to be 3% to 8% of the weight of the
concrete coating, and should be included as a design consideration. Use of a water
absorption factor of 1.0 is conservative, since absorbed water adds to the stability of
the installed pipe. In calculating on-bottom stability of offshore pipeline, a water
absorption factor of 1.05 is typically used for 140 lb/ft3 concrete. For 190 lb/ft3
concrete, a 1.03 factor is suggested. Water absorption is an important consideration
when the construction method is sensitive to the weight of the pipeline in the water.
A reasonably reliable method of determining the water absorption factor is to weigh
several joints of pipe in air and again after submerging in water for a sufficient time
to allow water absorption—usually at least 48 hours. Concrete samples may give an
approximation, but are not likely to be representative because of their small size.
meet specifications) but also to the Company, because of the delay to remove and
re-do the concrete coating and the possible damage to the pipe or the corrosion
protective coating and attendant delays.
There is usually agreement that the concrete quality must conform to the specifica-
tions, and, normally, reputable weight-coating applicators have established proce-
dures that produce a good product. However, for both commercial application
methods—impingement and compression coat—the thickness of concrete and the
density of the concrete will vary slightly during application, and will affect the
submerged weight of the individual pipe joints. Close control of thickness is diffi-
cult, and a fraction of an inch may have a significant effect on the submerged
weight. Also, the weights of the protective-coated pipe joints before weight-coating
vary. This influences the total weight of the weight-coated joint, and is not within
the control of the weight-coating applicator. Weight and dimensional tolerances
must be clearly defined in the specification, and understood and agreed to by
Company and the weight-coating applicator before award of the purchase order
contract. Specifications must be realistic to get an achievable product.
Weight tolerances defined in weight-coating specifications are often the basis for
information included in pipeline construction specifications, and when the
Company furnishes the weight-coated pipe to the construction contractor, the
contractor has valid claim for recourse if the weight-coated pipe does not conform
to weight data stated in the construction contract. In one instance, an effluent line
was to be pulled empty on the bottom in a shallow bay. A submerged weight of 10
pounds per lineal foot was specified, and a 10% tolerance on the specified
submerged weight was specified in the weight-coating purchase order and again
stated in the construction contract. This represented a hypothetical control of
weight-coating to within 1 pound per lineal foot on 3.4-inch-thick concrete coating,
which weighed 425 pounds per lineal foot on a 36-inch pipe. This was in no way
achievable.
The description section of the specification should include:
• Size and total length of pipe, type and thickness of corrosion protective coating
on the pipe, average pipe joint length, and minimum and maximum joint
lengths
• Thickness and density of weight-coating to be applied, application method, and
length of hold-back of weight-coating from the end of the pipe (to allow for
application of protective coating at the girth welds)
• Shipping and storage information and instructions
The section on tolerances should recognize the tolerances desired to comply with
design and construction requirements, practical limitations on control of thickness
dimensions and density inherent in the particular application method, and the adjust-
ments available during application to achieve the specified tolerances. In devel-
oping this section of the specifications, input is needed from the weight-coating
applicator either in discussion before soliciting quotations or as specifically
requested information with the quotations. This information from the applicator
should include not only values for proposed tolerances, but also how and when
measurements of weight, outside diameter, and concrete density are taken, and the
ability to make adjustments during application to keep the product within toler-
ances.
Setting a minimum on the weight of each weight-coated joint is practical if the
construction method is not sensitive to the weight of the pipe in water, since the
coating applicator can reasonably produce weight-coated pipe that meets or exceeds
the specified minimum. However, when the construction method is critically depen-
dent on the weight of the pipe in water, the setting of maximum and minimum
weights must be carefully considered, and water absorption taken into account.
This is typical for surface pull/push and bottom pull methods.
Because of the difficulty in closely controlling the weight-coating on each joint of
pipe, practice is to specify tolerances for weight and thickness for averages of a
number of joints, often ten, recognizing that when welded and laid, a considerable
length of line will act together in the water and on the bottom. Thus, the specifica-
tion for weight-coating should include weight and thickness tolerances for indi-
vidual joints and closer tolerances for averages of any 10 consecutive joints.
The section on quality of material components and the weight-coating concrete
should pertain to the particular application method, and usually can utilize standard
specifications with current updating as available from specialists in the Materials
Division of the Chevron Research and Technology Company.
Jcalc = L Wp + (L − 2h − a) Wc
(Eq. H-3)
where Wc is based on specified concrete density and thickness to give a specified
weight per lineal foot, and L, h, and a are as indicated above. The value for Wp can
either be calculated for the pipe steel plus the protective coating, or based on actual
weights P and lengths L. This calculated weight can then be compared with the
measured weight J.
The approximate submerged weight W′s of the joint without accounting for water
absorption can be calculated as follows:
J – ( 2h + a )W p
W′ s = ------------------------------------- – 0.00545 ρ w D c2
L – ( 2h + a )
(Eq. H-4)
and the approximate concrete density as follows:
J – L ⋅ Wp 1
ρ c = ----------------------------- × -----------------------------------------
-
L – ( 2h + a ) 0.00545 D 2 – A
c p
(Eq. H-5)
Scales for weighing the weight-coated joints should be calibrated and certified
before start of weight-coating and, for large orders, should be checked periodically.
Calculations to be made will depend upon the tolerances set for a particular design
and construction method. Data from calculations can be used to adjust concrete
thickness and/or density during the day if the applicator is set up to respond
promptly.
Accurate records of the measured data and calculations should be made available to
the construction contractor and Company field engineers.
Abstract
This appendix discusses the calculation of bending stress in buried pressurized pipe-
lines due to external loads. It is based on API (American Petroleum Institute)
Recommended Practice 1102 (November 1981) and includes the most recent design
criteria and technology and the extensive knowledge and experiences from past
projects.
Contents Page
I1.0 Introduction
This appendix can be used to calculate bending stress in buried-pressurized pipe-
lines due to external loads. Specifically, this appendix should be used to determine
added stresses in existing buried pipelines due to loadings from vehicles and
construction cranes. The calculated stress must then be combined with the tensile
hoop stress due to internal pressure and compared to applicable stress values.
The procedure used in this appendix is based on API Recommended Practice 1102
for Liquid Petroleum Pipelines Crossing Railroads and Highways. In 1968, API RP
1102 incorporated data on uncased-carrier pipes and on casing design, and the
performance of uncased-carrier pipes under dead and live loads as well as internal
pressures. Extensive computer analysis was performed using M. G. Spangler’s Iowa
Formula to determine the stress in uncased-carrier pipes and the wall thickness of
casing pipes in instances where casing pipes are required.
Note that external loads on flexible pipes can cause failure only by buckling and not
by overstress. Buckling occurs when the vertical diameter has undergone an 18% -
22% deflection. Failure by buckling does not result in rupture of the pipe wall,
although the metal may be stressed far beyond its elastic limit.
API RP 1102 has based its design criteria on a maximum vertical deflection of 3%
of the vertical diameter. Measurement of actual installed casings and carrier pipes
using API RP 1102 design criteria demonstrate that the Iowa Formula is very
conservative, and, in most instances the measured long-term vertical deflection has
been 0.65% or less of the vertical diameter.
The performance of carrier pipes in uncased crossings and casings installed since
1934 (which have been operated in accordance with API Codes 26 and 1102, and
API RP 1102) has been excellent. There is no known occurrence in the petroleum
industry of a structural failure due to imposed earth and live loads on a carrier pipe
or casing under a railroad or highway. Pipeline company reports to the U.S. Depart-
ment of Transportation in compliance with CFR 49 Part 195 corroborate this record.
I2.0 Nomenclature
S = stress due to external loads in psi
p = internal pressure in psi
r = outside radius in inches
t = wall thickness in inches
E = modules of elasticity of steel (30 x 106 psi)
Kb = bending moment parameter (no unit, see Section I4.0)
Kz = deflection parameter (no unit, see Section I4.0)
W = total vertical load (including dead load, live load, and impact) in
pounds per inch of length of pipe (discussed in more detail in a
following section)
Fig. I-1 Deflections of steel pipe under various conditions of external load and internal pressures. (a) No external
load, no internal pressure; (b) external load only, no internal pressure; (c) external load plus internal pres-
sure.
• When internal pressure is introduced into the pipe, the pipe will partially return
to its original shape.
• The excess internal vertical pressure against the upper half of the pipe opposes
the vertical load, combines with the resilience in the pipe, and resists the
external load.
Therefore, pipe equilibrium will be maintained (stabilized as an ellipse) if the sum
of the vertical excess pressure and pipe resilience is equal to the external load. The
bending stresses in the pipe wall are less than the stresses due to the external load
alone, and these bending stresses are assumed to be algebraically additive to the
tensile hoop stress from internal pressure.
The tensile stress at the bottom of the pipe due to the external loads (bending
stresses) is
6K b W Ert
S = -----------------------------------
-
Et 3 + 24K z pr 3
Remember that this stress (S) should be combined with the tensile hoop stress due
to internal pressure and compared to applicable allowable stress values.
For applicable allowable stress values, see ANSI/ASME Code B31.4 Section
402.3.1 for oil lines and ANSI/ASME Code B1.8, Table 841.15A for gas transmis-
sion lines. (See Section 447 of the Pipeline Manual for a more detailed discussion.)
The next section discusses in detail the methodology for calculating bending stress
in buried pipelines. For specific examples, skip to Section I7.0.
On the other hand, a pipe installed in a bored hole that is not much larger in diam-
eter than the pipe will develop a much wider bedding, probably as much as 120
degrees. Figure I-3 lists values for Kz (deflection parameter) and Kb (bending
moment parameter) for a load distribution which is uniform over the top half of the
pipe and a bottom reaction distributed over various bottom widths. That is, Kz and
Kb depend on α.
Fig. I-3 Deflection and bending moment parameters for circular pipe with load uniformly distributed over top 180
deg and bottom reaction distributed over various widths.
Parameters
Width of Uniform
Reaction deg Deflection Kz Moment Kb Description
0 0.110 0.294 Pipe placed on a flat surface without any
attempt to shape the bedding to fit the contour
of the pipe.
30 0.108 0.235 Pipe laid in an open ditch in which the bottom
has not been shaped to fit the contour of the
pipe.
60 0.103 0.189 Bedding is preshaped to fit the pipe over a
width of 60°.
90 0.096 0.157 Bedding is preshaped to fit the pipe over a
width of 90°.
120 0.089 0.138 Pipe installed in a bored hole that is not much
greater in diameter than the pipe.
Fig. I-4 Cross Section of Pipe and Soil (Courtesy of the Journal of the Pipeline Division,
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, October 1968)
WT = 0.33IcCTP
where:
WT = the average load on the pipe due to truck wheel load in pounds
per foot of length of pipe
Ic = the impact factor
CT = the load coefficient
P = the truck wheel load in pounds
Fig. I-5 Values of Cd for Different Soil Classes (Courtesy of the Journal of the Pipeline Division, Proceedings of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, October 1968)
Impact factor. The impact factor, Ic, is equal to unity when the vehicle wheel load is
static. For moving loads, Ic depends upon the speed of the vehicle, its vibratory
action, and, most importantly, the roughness of the roadway surface. It is indepen-
dent of the depth of cover over a pipe. Suggested values of the impact factor for
trucks operating on roadways paved with flexible-type surface or unpaved road-
ways range from 1.5 to 2.0. Use an impact factor of 1.3 for trucks operating on
rigid types of pavement.
Load coefficient. The load coefficient, CT, represents the fractional part of the wheel
load, P, that is transmitted through the soil overburden to a pipe and is based upon
the Boussinesq equation. CT is dependent upon the length and width of the section
of pipe under consideration, its depth below the roadway surface, and the position
Fig. I-6 Values of Cd for the Soil Class of Ordinary Maximum for Clay Backfill (Courtesy of the Journal of the Pipe-
line Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, October 1968)
H H
------ ------
Bd Cd Bd Cd
0.2 0.20 3.2 2.18
0.4 0.38 3.4 2.26
0.6 0.56 3.6 2.34
0.8 0.72 4.0 2.49
1.0 0.88 4.5 2.65
1.2 1.03 5.0 2.80
1.4 1.18 5.5 2.93
1.6 1.30 6.0 3.04
1.8 1.43 7.0 3.22
2.0 1.56 8.0 3.36
2.2 1.68 9.0 3.47
2.4 1.78 10.0 3.56
2.6 1.89 12.0 3.68
2.8 1.99 15.0 3.77
3.0 2.08 ∞ 3.86
of the point of application of the wheel load with respect to the area in plan of the
pipe section. The area on which the load is calculated is a horizontal plane through
the top of the pipe.
Coefficients given in Figures I-7 and I-8 are for loads on a rectangular area, one
corner of which lies directly below the applied wheel load as illustrated in
Figure I-9. They are functions of the ratios m = X/H and n = Y/H, in which X is one-
half of the pipe diameter and Y is one-half of the dimension of the effective loaded
area of the pipe along the length of the pipe, and H is the height of fill in feet above
the top of the pipe.
Y is the actual length of a segmental section of pipe three feet or less in length. For
continuous pipes or those constructed of segmental sections more than three feet in
length, Y is defined as the length of pipe over which the average live load produces
the same effect on stress or deflection as does the actual load, which is of varying
intensity along the pipe. For continuous pipelines, three feet is suggested for use in
the design of longer pipe sections.
The equation for WT and Figures I-7 and I-8 may be applied to a wide variety of
situations with reference to the lateral position of the truck wheel load relative to
the projected area of the pipe. The most usual situation is that in which the point of
application of load is directly above the center of the pipe. As the coefficients in
Figures I-7 and I-8 are applicable only when the point load is directly above one
corner of a rectangular load-receiving area, it is necessary to divide the pipe area
into four quadrants with their common corner directly beneath the load and then
calculate the load on one quadrant (see shaded area in Figure I-9) and multiply by
four to obtain the total load. A sample problem in Section I7.0 will illustrate this
information. Literature is also available that develops design procedures for situa-
tions in which the load is not directly above the center of the pipe (see Reference 3).
Fig. I-7 Influence Coefficients for Rectangular Areas (1 of 2) (Figure I-7, both 1 and 2 are taken from Soil Engi-
neering, 3rd Edition by Merlin G. Spangler and Richard L.Handy. Copyright 1951, 1960 by Harper & Row,
Publishers, Inc. Copyright 1973 by Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. Reprinted by permission of HarperCol-
lins Publishers, Inc.)
Fig. I-7 Influence Coefficients for Rectangular Areas (2 of 2) (Figure I-7, both 1 and 2 are taken from Soil Engi-
neering, 3rd Edition by Merlin G. Spangler and Richard L.Handy. Copyright 1951, 1960 by Harper & Row,
Publishers, Inc. Copyright 1973 by Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. Reprinted by permission of HarperCol-
lins Publishers, Inc.)
Fig. I-8 Influence Coefficients for Rectangular Areas (This figure is taken from Soil Engineering, 3rd Edition by
Merlin G. Spangler and Richard L. Handy. Copyright 1951, 1960 by Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. Copy-
right 1973 by Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. Reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.)
Fig. I-9 Concentrated Truck Wheel Load Transmitted to Underground Pipe (Courtesy of
Journal of the AWWA, August 1964)
Fig. I-10 Crane Track Load Transmitted to Underground Pipe (Courtesy of Journal of the
AWWA, August 1964)
The unit load on a pipe at a point directly beneath a corner of a uniformly loaded
rectangular area is
σz = CG
G is the unit applied load applied at the base of the crane track in
pounds per square foot;
C is the influence coefficient, a function of the ratios m = X/H and
n = Y/H, values for which are given in Figures I-7 and I-8;
in which σz is the unit load on the pipe at a point directly beneath a corner of the
loaded area, in pounds per square foot;
X is one-half the length of loaded area in feet;
Y is one-half the width of loaded area in feet; and
H is the height of fill from the top of the pipe to the base of the
crane track.
The calculation here is the same as for truck wheel load. To use the σz equation,
divide the loaded surface area into four quadrants with their common corner
directly above the center of the pipe below. The value of the unit load on the pipe is
determined for one quadrant, then multiplied by four to obtain the total unit load.
To obtain the load-per-unit length, this unit load is multiplied by the outside diam-
eter of the pipe. A sample problem is shown in 7.0 to illustrate this information.
Also, there is literature available that develops procedures for cases where the load
is not directly above the center of the pipe (see Reference 3).
I7.0 Examples
The following two examples illustrate the procedure for determining bending
stresses from external loads. Remember, each problem is unique.
of fill above the top of the pipe is three feet. Also, the width of uniform reaction (α)
is 30°.
We will solve the following equation:
6K b WErt
S = ------------------------------------
-
Et 3 + 24Kzpr 3
Therefore, (from Figure I-3)
Kb = 0.235
Kz = 0.108
E = 30 x 106 psi (carbon steel pipe)
r = 14 inches (outside radius of pipe)
t = 0.375 inches (wall thickness)
p = 225 psi (internal pressure in psi)
W = total vertical load
Wearth = CdwBw2
w = 120 pounds per cubic foot (ordinary soil)
Bd = 34 inches (in this example, the trench is 6 inches wider than the
outside diameter of the pipe)
Cd with H = 36 inches (note that in API 1102, Recommended Prac-
tice for Liquid Petroleum Pipelines Crossing Railroads and High-
ways, it states that pipes under highway surface shall be installed
with a minimum cover of 4 feet) and
H 36
with ------ = ------ = 1.06
Bd 34
2
Wearth = ( 0.93 ) 120 -----3- -------------
lb 34 in
ft 12 in
---- ft
-
Wearth = CdwBw2
Wearth = 896 lb/foot of length of pipe
Next, we need to determine the vertical load due to the H 20-44 truck
loading. The point load for a H 20-44 track is 16,000 lbs.
Use the equation,
WT = 0.33 IcCTP
3
In this example, X = 1.17 ft. (width), Y = --- = 1.5 feet (length), and H = 3
2
feet.
X 1.17 Y 1.5
Therefore, m = ---- = ---------- = 0.39and n = ---- = ------- = 0.50 .
H 3 H 3
Using Figure I-7 or I-8,
CT = 0.071
WT = 0.33 IC CT P
lbs
WT = 675 ---------------------------------------------------
foot of length of pipe
lbs
W = 300 -------
in
6K b W Ert
S = -----------------------------------
-
Et 3 + 24K z pr 3
lb 2
66, 622 × 10 6 -------
in
S = ------------------------------------------
-
3.18 × 10 lb – in 6
This example will take you through the procedure to determine the bending stress
due to external loads. We will solve the following equation.
6K b W Ert
S = -----------------------------------
-
Et 3 + 24K z pr 3
2
lb 40 in
= ( 1.03 ) 120 -----3- -------------
ft 12 in
---- ft
-
lb
= 1370 --------------------------
ft of length
Next, we need to determine the vertical load due to the crane and the lifted
load. Use the equation,
σz = CG
165, 000 lb
= ----------------------------------
38
------------ ( 20 ft )
in
12
G = 2,605 psf
To determine C,
38
Y = ------ = 19 inches
2
in
20 ft × 12 -----
ft
X = ----------------------------- = 120 inches
2
H = 48 inches
Therefore,
X 120
m = ---- = --------- = 2.5
H 48
Y 19
n = ---- = ------ = 0.40
H 48
Our pipe is 34 inches in diameter. Therefore, the load per foot of length,
lb 34 in
σz = 1200 -----2- ------------
ft 12 in
---- ft
-
σz = 3,400 lb/ft
Now
6K b WErt
S = -----------------------------------
-
Et 3 + 24K z pr 3
S=16,960 psi
Therefore, the stress due to the external loads of the earth and the crane is 18,400
psi. Remember, that this stress (S) should be combined with the tensile hoop stress
due to the internal pressure and compared to the applicable allowable stress values
(see Sections 442 and 443 of the Pipeline Manual for calculation of the hoop stress
and allowable stress values.)
I8.0 References
1. API Recommended Practice 1102, Liquid Petroleum Pipelines Crossing Rail-
roads and Highways, Fifth Edition, November 1981.
2. Merlin G. Spangler, F. ASCE, “Structural Design of Pipeline Casing Pipes,”
Journal of the Pipeline Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, October 1968, pages 137-154.
The references listed here relate to the design and construction of pipelines. Some
are referenced by the Company Specifications or by the Industry Standards
included in this manual. Some are textbooks or similar materials which provide
additional information. This is not a complete list. Further references are often
found in the individual Industry Standards. The dates shown are the latest known at
the time of publication. The latest edition of any Industry Standard should be used
for new designs and modifications.
B16.20. Ring Joint Gaskets and Grooves for Steel Pipe Flanges.
B16.21. Nonmetallic Flat Gaskets for Pipe Flanges.
B16.28. Wrought Steel Buttwelding Short Radius Elbows and Returns.
B16.34. Steel Valves - Flanged and Buttwelding End.
B31.1. Power Piping.
B31.2. Fuel Gas Piping.
B31.3. Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping.
B31.4. Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping Systems.
B31.5. Refrigeration Piping.
B31.8. Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems.
B36.10. Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM, 1916 Race St., Philadel-
phia, PA 19103
A 53. Specification for Welded and Seamless Steel Pipe.
A 105. Specification for Forgings, Carbon Steel, for Piping Components.
A 106. Specification for Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe for High-Tempera-
ture Service.
A 120. Specification for Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot-dipped, Zinc-Coated
(Galvanized) Welded and Seamless for Ordinary Uses.
A 181. Forged or Rolled Steel Pipe Flanges, Forged Fittings, and Valves
and Parts for General Services.
A 182. Specification for Forged or Rolled Alloy-Steel Pipe Flanged,
forged Fittings, and Valves and Parts for High-Temperature Service.
A 193. Specification for Alloy-Steel and Stainless Steel Bolting Materials
for High-Temperature Service.
A 194. Specification for Carbon and Alloy Steel Nuts for Bolts for High
Pressure High Temperature Service.
A 216. Specification for Carbon-Steel castings Suitable for fusion Welding
for High-Temperature Service.
A 234. Specification for Piping Fittings of Wrought Carbon Steel and
Alloy Steel for Moderate and Elevated Temperature.
A 285. Pressure Vessel Plate, Carbon Steel Low and Intermediate Tensile
Strengths.
A 312. Specification for Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel
Pipe.
A 350. Specification for Forgings, Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel, Requiring
Notch Toughness Testing for Piping Components.
A 351. Specification for Austenitic Steel Castings for High-Temperature
Service.
A 370-77. Mechanical Testing of Steel Products.
A 395. Specification for Ferritic Ductile Iron Pressure-Retaining Castings
for Use at Elevated Temperatures.
A 403. Specification for Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steel Piping
Fittings.
A 751-82. Chemical Analysis of Steel Products.
B 62. Specification for Wrought austenitic Stainless Steel Piping Fittings.
E 18-84. Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell Superficial Hardness of Metallic
Materials.
E 23-82. Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials.
E 29-67. (Reapproved 1980), Indicating Which Places of Figures Are to be
Considered Significant in Specified Limiting Values.
E 92-82 Vickers Hardness of Metallic Materials.
E 142-83. Controlling Quality of Radiographic Testing.
Books
Theory of Elasticity, Timoshenko and Goodier, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 1970.
Piping Stress Calculations Simplified, S. W. Spielvogel, 5th Edition, 1961.
Designing of Piping for Flexibility with Flex-Analysis Charts, 5th Edition, Power
Piping Company, 1970.
Piping System Analysis and Design Seminar, AAA Technology and Specialties Co.,
Inc., 1981.
Piping Handbook, Salion Crocker, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967.
Design of Piping Systems, The M. W. Kellogg Company, John Wiley and Sons.
Piping Systems Drafting and Design, Louis Gary Larait, Prentice Hall, Inc., 1981.