2

General areas

Mastered Material Check

In Chapter 1, we saw examples of the computation of areas of geometric
1. What are the formulas for finding
shapes. For triangles, rectangles, regular n-gons, and circles, no advanced the area of a triangle, rectangle and
methods were required. However, when moving beyond such elementary circle?
steps, our formulas and methods quickly fail. The problem of determining y
the area of an arbitrary shape in the plane, e.g. Figure 2.1, formed part of the
original motivation for the development of calculus. Indeed, computing the
area of a region in a plane forms one of the most long-standing problems of
integral calculus.
f (x)

2.1 Areas in the plane A

Section 2.1 Learning goals x

a b
1. Explain how arbitrary areas in the plane can be approximated when Figure 2.1: We consider the problem of
dissected into simpler, geometric shapes. determining areas of regions such bounded
by the x-axis, the lines x = a and x = b and
2. Illustrate how to approximate the area of a region bounded by a function, the graph of some function, y = f (x).
the x-axis and two lines, x = a and x = b using rectangles.

We begin by considering an arbitrary region of the plane that has some

special properties: the region is formed by straight lines on three sides, and
by a smooth curve on one of its edges, as shown in Figure 2.1. Here we set up y

the calculation to determine the area of that region.

We use a cartesian coordinate system to describe the region: we require
that it falls between the x-axis, the lines x = a and x = b, and the graph of a
function y = f (x). We first restrict attention to the case that f (x) ≥ 0 for all f (x)
points in the interval a ≤ x ≤ b as we concentrate on “true areas”. Later, we
A
generalize our results and lift this restriction.
We approximate the area of the region shown in Figure 2.1 by dissecting
it into smaller and smaller regions (rectangular strips) whose areas are easy x
a b
to determine, as depicted in Figure 2.2. We refer to this type of procedure as
a Riemann sum, named for the German mathematician who first rigorously Figure 2.2: Approximating the area of a
defined the integral of a function on an interval - to be defined and explored region bounded by the x-axis, the lines x = a
and x = b and the graph of some function y =
f (x) with rectangles.
40 I N T E G R A L C A L C U L U S W I T H A P P L I C AT I O N S F O R L I F E S C I E N C E S

in Section 2.3. In Figure 2.3, we illustrate the basic idea using a region
bounded by the function y = f (x) = x2 on 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.

1 1 Figure 2.3: The function y = x2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

y = f (x) = x2 y = f (x) = x2 is shown, with rectangles that approximate
0.8 0.8
N = 10 rectangles N = 20 rectangles the area under its curve. As we increase
the number of rectangular strips, the
0.6 0.6 total area of the strips becomes a better
and better approximation of the desired
0.4 0.4 “true” area. Shown are the intermediate
steps N = 10, N = 20, N = 40 and the true
0.2 0.2 area for N → ∞ .

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

1 1
y = f (x) = x2 y = f (x) = x2
0.8 0.8
N = 40 rectangles N →∞
0.6 0.6
True area of
0.4 0.4
region

0.2 0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Mastered Material Check

Note that the approximation is fairly coarse when the number of rectangles 2. Do you think the approximations in
is small - that is the area of the rectangles is very different from the area of the first three panels of Figure 2.3
represent an over- or under-
the region of interest. However, if the number of rectangles is increased, (as
estimation of the true area?
shown in subsequent panels of this same figure), we obtain a better and better
approximation of the true area. In the limit as N, the number of rectangles,
approaches infinity, the area of the desired region is obtained. This idea forms
the core of this chapter. The reader may note a similarity with the idea we
already encountered in obtaining the area of a circle, though in that context
we used a dissection of the circle into approximating triangles.
With this idea in mind, in Section 2.2, we compute the area of the region
shown in Figure 2.3 in two ways:

1. Using a simple spreadsheet to do the computations for us. This is meant to

illustrate the “numerical approach”.
2. Setting up the Riemann sum corresponding to the function shown in
Figure 2.3. This is the analytic approach.

Carefully setting up the calculation of areas of the approximating rectangles

is important. Appearing in this calculation is the formula for the sums of
square integers developed in the previous chapter and the limit N → ∞ as a
final step in order to arrive at the smooth region shown in the final panel of
Figure 2.3 .
 GENERAL AREAS 41

2.2 Computing the area under a curve by rectangular strips

Section 2.2 Learning goals

1. Compute the area of a region between a function and the x-axis and x = a
and x = b using a spreadsheet, with a varying number of rectangular stripes.

2. Analytically, using Riemann sums, compute the area under a function.

Numerical integration using a spreadsheet

We can use spreadsheets to produce figures like those given in Figure 2.3.
Spreadsheets can also be used to calculate the approximations of the areas.
To do this, we fix N; in the first three panels of Figure 2.3, N = 10, 20,
and 40 respectively. When approximating the area under a function f (x)
between a ≤ x ≤ b with N rectangles, we determine the base width of each
rectangle (the ‘step size’) as Mastered Material Check
3. Determine step size Δx for each of
b−a
Δx = . the first three panels in Figure 2.3.
N 4. Verify Table 2.1 using your own
spreadsheet. Do you get the
We then set up a calculation which adds up the areas of rectangles,∑Nk=1 f (xk )Δx. sum 0.3850?
In our example, ∑Nk=1 xk2 Δx and the individual terms of this sum when N =
10 are given in Table 2.1; summing them up gives 0.3850 units squared. xk f (xk ) = xk2 xk2 · Δx
0.1 0.01 0.001
For N = 20 rectangles the area is 0.3588 units squared and for N = 40 it 0.2 0.04 0.004
is 0.3459 units squared. If we increase N greatly, e.g. set N = 1000 rectangles, 0.3 0.09 0.009
we begin to approximate the limit of N → ∞ and the are obtained is 0.3338 0.4 0.16 0.016
0.5 0.25 0.025
units squared (correct to 4 decimal places). 0.6 0.36 0.036
This illustrates that areas can be computed “numerically” . The advantage 0.7 0.49 0.049
0.8 0.64 0.064
of this approach is that it requires only elementary “programming” - i.e. the 0.9 0.081 0.081
assembly of a simple algorithm, i.e. a set of instructions. Once assembled, 1.0 1.000 0.100
we can use essentially the same algorithm to explore various functions,
Table 2.1: Spreadsheet which calculates the
intervals, number of rectangles. areas of N = 10 rectangles, which summed
In our second approach, we set up the problem analytically. We find that up approximate the area of f (x) = x2
over 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
results are similar. However, we gain deeper insight by understanding what
happens in the limit as the number of strips N gets very large.

Second approach: Analytic computation using Riemann sums

Mastered Material Check
We now consider the steps involved in analytically computing the area of the 5. Describe (in words) what a Riemann
region bounded by the function sum is.

y = f ( x ) = x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.

By this we mean that we use “pen-and-paper” calculations, rather than

computational aids to determine that area.
42 I N T E G R A L C A L C U L U S W I T H A P P L I C AT I O N S F O R L I F E S C I E N C E S

We set up the rectangles for the Riemann sum, determine the heights and
areas of these rectangles, sum their total area, and then determine how this
value behaves as the rectangles get more numerous (and thinner). Examples
of these rectangles are shown in Figure 2.3, we depict detailed labeling in
Figures 2.4.

Figure 2.4: The region under the graph

y y of y = f (x) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 is approximated
by a set of N rectangles. A rectangle
(shaded) has base width Δx and height f (x).
y = f (x) = x2 Since 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, and the all rectangles
y = f (x)
have the same base width, it follows
that Δx = 1/N. In the panel on the right, the
f (xN )
coordinates of base corners and two typical
f (x) heights of the rectangles have been labeled.
Here x0 = 0, xN = 1 and xk = kΔx.
f (xk )
x x
0 Δx 1 x0 x1 · · · xk−1 xk · · · xN

Mastered Material Check

The interval of interest in this problem is 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. We subdivide this 6. Do the rectangles in Figure 2.4 over-
interval into N equal subintervals. Then each has width 1/N - we refer to this or under- estimate the true area?
width as Δx, as shown in Figure 2.4, as it forms a difference of successive x 7. What changes if we consider the
function y = f (x) = x2 on the
coordinates. The coordinates of the endpoints of these subintervals are interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2?
labeled x0 , x1 , . . . , xk , . . . , xN , where the value x0 = 0 and xN = 1 are the 8. Repeat the calculations of
endpoints of the original interval. Since the points are equally spaced, starting Section 2.2 using y = f (x) = x2 and
at x0 = 0, the coordinate xk is just k steps of size 1/N along the x-axis, the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2

i.e. xk = k(1/N ) = k/N. In the right panel of Figure 2.4, some of these
coordinates have been labeled. For clarity, we show only the first few points,
together with a representative pair xk−1 and xk inside the region.
Let us look carefully at one of the rectangles. Suppose we look at the kth
rectangle, which is shaded in Figures 2.4. The height of this rectangle is
determined by the value of the function, since one corner of the rectangle
is “glued” to the curve. The choice shown in Figure 2.4 is to affix the right
corner of each rectangle on the curve. This implies that the height of the
k-th rectangle is obtained from substituting xk into the function, i.e. height =
f (xk ). The base of every rectangle is the same, i.e. base = Δx = 1/N. This
means that the area of the k-th rectangle, shown shaded, is
ak = height × base = f (xk )Δx.
We now use three facts:
1 k
f (xk ) = xk2 , Δx = , xk = .
N N
Then the area of the k’th rectangle is
 2  
k 1
ak = height × base = f (xk )Δx = .
N N
     
f (xk ) Δx
 GENERAL AREAS 43

A list of rectangles, and their properties are shown in Table 2.2. This may
help the reader to see the pattern that emerges in the summation.

Note: in general this table is not needed. It is presented for this example only
to help visualize how heights of rectangles behave.

Table 2.2: The label, position, height, and

area ak of each rectangular strip is shown
rectangle (k) right x-coord (xk ) height f (xk ) area ak above. Each rectangle has the same base
1 (1/N ) (1/N )2 (1/N )2 Δx width, Δx = 1/N. We approximate the area
2 (2/N ) (2/N )2 (2/N )2 Δx under the curve y = f (x) = x2 by the sum
of the values in the last column, i.e. the total
3 (3/N ) (3/N )2 (3/N )2 Δx area of the rectangles.
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
k (k/N ) (k/N )2 (k/N )2 Δx
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
N (N/N ) = 1 (N/N )2 = 1 (1)Δx

The total area of all rectangular strips (a sum of the values in the right
column of Table 2.2) is

N N  2   N
k 1
AN strips = ∑ ak = ∑ f (xk )Δx = ∑ . (2.1)
k =1 k =1 k =1 N N

The expressions shown in Eqn. (2.1) is an example of a Riemann sum. A

recurring theme underlying integral calculus is the relationship between
Riemann sums and definite integrals, introduced in Section 2.3. We now
rewrite this sum in a more convenient form so that summation formulae
developed in Chapter 1 can be used. Notice that only the quantity k changes
from term to term. All other quantities are common factors, so

  N
1
AN strips =
N3 ∑ k2 .
k =1

Eqn. (1.2) for the sum of square integers can be applied to the summation, Mastered Material Check
resulting in 9. Give (or recall) the formulas for
determining the sum of the first N
  integers and cubes.
1 N (N + 1)(2N + 1) (N + 1)(2N + 1)
AN strips = = . (2.2)
N3 6 6N 2

In the box below, we use Eqn. (2.2) to compute that approximate area for
values of N shown in the first three panels of Fig 2.3. Note that these are
comparable to the values we obtained “numerically” above.
44 I N T E G R A L C A L C U L U S W I T H A P P L I C AT I O N S F O R L I F E S C I E N C E S

If N = 10 strips (Figure 2.3a), the width of each strip is Δx = 1/10 = 0.1 unit.
According to Eqn. 2.2, the area of the 10 strips (shown in red) is

(10 + 1)(2 · 10 + 1)
A10 strips = = 0.3850.
6 · 102
If N = 20 strips (Figure 2.3b), Δx = 1/20 = 0.05, and

(20 + 1)(2 · 20 + 1)
A20 strips = = 0.35875.
6 · 202
If N = 40 strips (Figure 2.3c), Δx = 1/40 = 0.025 and

(40 + 1)(2 · 40 + 1)
A40 strips = = 0.3459375.
6 · 402

Definition 2.1 The true area under the graph of the function y = f (x) over
the given interval (if f (x) ≥ 0 for all points in the interval) is

A = lim AN strips .
N→∞

This means that the true area is obtained by letting the number of rectangular
strips, N, get very large (while the width of each one, Δx = 1/N gets very
small).
Recall that the heights of the rectangular strips were calculated as the val-
ues of the function in the upper right corners where the graph of the function
‘touches’ the rectangle. This is the so-called right endpoint rule. Similarly,
the rectangles can be built so that the graph of the function ‘touches’ the
rectangles in the left upper corner (left endpoint rule) or goes through the
middle of their top (midpoint rule).
In this section, our goal has been to compute the area bounded by the
function y = f (x) = x2 on 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. When the area is approximated using
rectangular strips, the corresponding Riemann sum appears to approximate
the area of this region:
 2  
N
k 1 (N + 1)(2N + 1)
AN strips = ∑ N N
=
6N 2
.
k =1

Thus the true area is found by taking the limit as N gets large in this equation,
i.e.,
 
1 (N + 1)(2N + 1) 1 (N + 1)(2N + 1)
A = lim = lim .
N→∞ N 2 6 6 N→∞ N2

To evaluate this limit, note that when N gets very large, we can use the
approximations, (N + 1) ≈ N and (2N + 1) ≈ 2N so that (simplifying and
cancelling common factors), Mastered Material Check
10. Why, when N gets very large can we
(N + 1)(2N + 1) (N ) (2N ) use the approximations (N + 1) ≈ N
lim = lim = 2.
N→∞ N2 N→∞ N N and (2N + 1) ≈ 2N?
 GENERAL AREAS 45

The result is:

1 1
A = (2) = ≈ 0.333. (2.3)
6 3
Thus, the true area of the region (Figure 2.3d) is 1/3 units2 .

Comments

Many students who have had calculus in high school, ask “why do we bother
with such tedious calculations, when we could just use integration?” Indeed,
our development of Riemann sums foreshadows and anticipates the idea
of a definite integral, and in short order, some powerful techniques help to
shortcut such technical calculations. However, there are two reasons why we
linger on Riemann sums:

1. First, in order to understand integration adequately, we must understand

the underlying “technology” and concepts; this proves vital in understand-
ing how to use the methods, and when things can go wrong. It also helps
to understand what integrals represent in applications that occur later on.
2. Second, even though we shortly have better tools for analytical calcula-
tions, the ideas of setting up area approximations using rectangular strips
is very similar to the way that the spreadsheet computations are designed.

Indeed, Riemann sums can be applied to more complicated situations. We

next consider a practical problem with similar calculations.
Other courses
Example 2.1 (The area of a leaf) Leaves act as solar energy collectors for Plant anatomy is further studied in
BISC 337: Plant Biology.
plants - their surface areas are important. As depicted in Figure 2.5- after
rescaling so that the length of its profile is contained in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
- the top edge of a rhododendron leaf is reasonably approximated with the Mastered Material Check
parabola 11. (a) Suppose the rhododendron leaf
has length 10 cm. How would
y = f (x) = x(1 − x). you rescale so that its profile is
contained in the
Using this model, approximate the area of the entire leaf. interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1?
(b) Suppose the rhododendron leaf
has length 5 cm. How would
Solution. Notice first that y = f (x) = x(1 − x) satisfies key properties: you rescale so that its profile is
contained in the
1. at x = 0 and x = 1, the curve intersects the x-axis, and interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1?
2. when 0 < x < 1, the function is positive and its corresponding curve is (c) Suppose the rhododendron leaf
has length 7.25 cm. How would
above the x-axis.
you rescale so that its profile is
contained in the
We then deduce that the area of the leaf is twice the area between y = f (x) = interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1?
x(1 − x) and the x-axis. We begin by determining this area. 12. In a rhododendron leaf of
As before, we set up the computation with approximating rectangular length 5 cm, what is its width 2 cm
from its tip?
strips. Subdividing the interval of interest into N rectangular strips as de-
picted in Figure 2.5 we get:
46 I N T E G R A L C A L C U L U S W I T H A P P L I C AT I O N S F O R L I F E S C I E N C E S

Figure 2.5: In this figure we show how

y the area of a leaf can be approximated by
rectangular strips.
y=f(x)=x(1−x)

x
0
1

y
k’th
rectangle yk =f(x k )
(enlarged)
x
x 0=0 xk
x1 x2 xN=1 Δx

length of interval: xN − x0 = 1 − 0 = 1
Mastered Material Check
number of segments: N
1 13. In Figure 2.5, what is N? Δx?
width of rectangular strips: Δx =
N
1 k
the kth x value: xk = k =
N N
height of the kth rectangular strip: f (xk ) = xk (1 − xk )
The representative kth rectangle is shown shaded in Figure 2.5; its area is
   
1 k k
ak = base × height = Δx · f (xk ) = · (1 − ) .
N N N
     
Δx f ( xk )

The total area of these rectangular strips is:

N N    N 
1 k k
AN strips = ∑ ak = ∑ Δx · f (xk ) = ∑ · (1 − ) .
k =1 k =1 k =1 N N N
Simplifying the result (so we can use summation formulae) leads to:
  N     N   N
1 k k 1 1
AN strips = ∑
N k =1 N
(1 − ) =
N 2 ∑
N k =1
k−
N 3 k∑
k2 .
=1

Using the summation formulae Eqns. (1.1) and (1.2) from Chapter 1 results
in:
     
1 N (N + 1) 1 (2N + 1)N (N + 1)
AN strips = − .
N2 2 N3 6
Simplifying, and regrouping terms, we get
   
1 (N + 1) 1 (2N + 1)(N + 1)
AN strips = − .
2 N 6 N2
 GENERAL AREAS 47

This is the area for a finite number, N, of rectangular strips. As before, the
true area is obtained as the limit as N goes to infinity, i.e. A = lim AN strips .
N→∞
We obtain:

   
1 (N + 1) 1 (2N + 1)(N + 1) 1 1 1
A = lim − lim 2
= − ·2 = .
N→∞ 2 N N→∞ 6 N 2 6 6

Doubling this for the area of the entire leaf, we get 1

3 units2 . 
In the previous examples, we considered areas under curves described
by simple quadratic functions. Each led to calculations in which sums of
integers or square integers appeared. We next give an example in which a
geometric sum is be used. Recall that we derived Eqn. (1.4) in Chapter 1, for
a finite geometric sum:
N
1 − r N +1
∑ r k
=
1−r
.
k =0

Mastered Material Check

Example 2.2 (Area under an exponential curve) Find the area under the 14. Verify that the linear approximation
graph of the function y = f (x) = e2x over the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2. Use the fact of y = ez at z = 0 is ez ≈ 1 + z.
that the exponential function has the following linear approximation at z = 0:

ez ≈ 1 + z.

Solution. As before, we subdivide the interval into N pieces, each of

width 2/N. Proceeding systematically as before, we write
length of interval: xN − x0 = 2 − 0 = 2
number of segments: N
2
width of rectangular strips: Δx =
N
2 2k
the kth x value: xk = k =
N N
height of kth rectangular strip: f (xk ) = e2xk = e2(2k/N ) = e4k/N
We observe that the length of the interval (here 2) has affected the calcula-
tion. As before, the area of the kth rectangle is
 
2
ak = base × height = Δx × f (xk ) = e4k/N ,
N

and the total area of all the rectangles is

  N   N   N
2 2 2
N k∑ N k∑ ∑ r −r ,
AN strips = e 4k/N
= r =
k k 0
=1 =1 N k =0

where r = e4/N . This is a finite geometric series. Because the series starts
with k = 1 and not with k = 0, the sum is
 

2 1 − r N +1
AN strips = −1 .
N 1−r
48 I N T E G R A L C A L C U L U S W I T H A P P L I C AT I O N S F O R L I F E S C I E N C E S

After some simplification and using r = e4/N , we find that

 
2 1 − e4 1 − e4
AN strips = e4/N = 2 .
N 1 − e4/N N (e−4/N − 1)
We need to determine what happens when N gets very large. We can use the
linear approximation Mastered Material Check
e−4/N ≈ 1 − 4/N 15. Why is the linear
approximation e−4/N ≈ 1 − 4/N
to evaluate the limit of the term in the denominator, and we find that appropriate when N is large?

1 − e4 1 − e4 e4 − 1 16. Finish the calculation for

A = lim 2 = lim 2 = 2 ≈ 26.799. Example 2.3, finding the area under
N→∞ N (e−4/N − 1) N→∞ N (1 − 4/N − 1) 4 the curve y = f (x) = x2 on the
interval 2 ≤ x ≤ 5.
Thus, the area under the exponential curve y = e2x on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
is 26.799 units2 . 
We should develop dexterity in working with areas over different intervals
- not just those between 0 and something. Systematically setting up these
calculations - as also highlighted in the next example - can be very helpful.

Example 2.3 (More general interval) Set up the calculation for determin-
ing the area under the curve y = f (x) = x2 on the interval 2 ≤ x ≤ 5.

Solution. We use N rectangles again on this computation. Proceeding system-

atically:
length of interval: xN − x0 = 5 − 2 = 3
number of segments: N
3
width of rectangular strips: Δx =
N
3 3k
the kth x value: xk = 2 + k = 2 +
N N
height of kth rectangular strip: f (xk ) = (xk )2 = (2 + 3k
N)
2

The area of the kth rectangle is then

 
3k 2 3
ak = f (xk )Δx = 2 + ,
N N
and this is to be summed over k. Calculating the true area requires an alge-
braic simplification, summation formulae, and limit. .

2.3 Area as a definite integral

Section 2.3 Learning goals

1. Define a definite integral.

2. Sketch a region as given in a definite integral.

3. Write known area results in definite integral notation.

We now introduce a central concept of this course: the definite integral.

 GENERAL AREAS 49

Definition 2.2 (Definite integral) For a function y = f (x) ≥ 0 that is

continuous on an interval [a, b] (also written a ≤ x ≤ b), we define the definite y
integral,
 b
I= f (x) dx (2.4)
a
to be the area A of the region under the graph of the function y = f (x) between f (x)
the endpoints a and b. See Figure 2.6.
A
Note: a function is continuous if there are no “breaks” in its graph.
Remark the following: x
a b
1. The definite integral is a number.
Figure 2.6: The shaded area A corresponds
2. The value of the definite integral depends on the function, and the two end to the definite integral I of the function f (x)
over the interval a ≤ x ≤ b.
points of the interval.

3. We have described a procedure for calculating the value of the definite

integral, namely by dissecting the region into rectangular strips, summing
up the total area of the strips, and taking a limit as N, the number of strips,
gets large.

4. In general, a function f (x) may take on both, positive and negative values
on an interval [a, b]. More consideration is required when finding areas
then (see Chapter 3).

Note: the calculation may be non-trivial, and might involve sums that
we have not discussed in our simple examples so far, but in principle the
procedure is well-defined.

We have already calculated the areas of regions bounded by some rela-

tively simple functions.
y
1. y = x2 on 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,
2. y = x(1 − x) on 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, and
3. y = e2x on 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.

To practice notation, we write the corresponding definite integral in each case.

Further, there are many
examples in which we need no elaborate calculations - previous work or
geometric arguments suffice. Such examples, in definite integral notation, are x
collected here. 0 1

Example 2.4 In Section 2.2 we computed the area under the function y = Figure 2.7: Area under y = f (x) = x2
f (x) = x2 on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and found its area to be 1/3 (see on 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.

Eqn. (2.3) and Figure 2.7). Rewrite using definite integral notation.

Solution.  1
1
x2 dx = .
0 3

50 I N T E G R A L C A L C U L U S W I T H A P P L I C AT I O N S F O R L I F E S C I E N C E S

Example 2.5 In Example 2.1 we considered the area of a leaf by approxi-

mating one of its sides with the function y = f (x) = x(1 − x) on the inter-
val 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. We determined this area to be 1/6. Rewrite using integral
notation.

Solution.  1
1
x(1 − x) dx = .
0 6
 Mastered Material Check
17. For each of Examples 2.4 - 2.9,
Example 2.6 Rewrite the result of Example 2.2 using integral notation. sketch the region depicted if not
already provided. In all cases, label
Solution. In Example 2.2 we found that the area of the region under the with the computed areas/integrals.
graph of y = f (x) = e2x over the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 was approximately 26.799.
Thus we write:  2
e2x dx ≈ 26.799. y
0


Example 2.7 Using geometry, calculate the area under the function y =
f (x) = x over the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and write your solution in definite integral
notation.

Solution. As seen in Figure 2.8, the region under the function y = f (x) = x
over the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 is triangular, with base and height 1. The area of x
this triangle is thus A = (1/2)(base× height) = 0.5. Hence, 0 1
 1
x dx = 0.5. Figure 2.8: Area under y = f (x) = x
0 on 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
y


Example 2.8 Determine the area under the constant function y = 1 over the
interval 2 ≤ x ≤ 4. Write your solution in integral notation.

Solution. As seen in Figure 2.9, a constant function of the form y = 1

over an interval 2 ≤ x ≤ 4 produces a rectangular region in the plane, with
base (4 − 2) = 2 and height 1. Thus
 4 x
1 dx = 2. 2 4
2
 Figure 2.9: Area under y = 1 on the
interval 2 ≤ x ≤ 4.
Example 2.9 Describe the area under the function y = f (x) = 1 − 2x on the y
interval [0, 2] using integral notation.

Solution. The function y = f (x) = 1 − x/2 forms a triangular region with

base 2 and height 1, as seen in Figure 2.10 thus
 2
x
1− dx = 1.
0 2

x
0 2

Figure 2.10: Area under y = f (x) = 1 − x/2

on [0, 2].
 GENERAL AREAS 51

2.4 Area as a function

Section 2.4 Learning goals

1. Explain how the area of a function can be represented using a definite

integral.

2. Justify the use of the term “dummy variable” in a definite integral.

In Chapter 3, we elaborate on the definite integral and arrive at some very

important connections between differential and integral calculus. Before
y
doing so, we extend the idea of the definite integral, and thereby define a new
function, A(x).
We can investigate how the area under the graph of a function changes as
one of the endpoints of the interval moves. We can think of this as a function
that gradually changes (i.e. the area accumulates) as we sweep across the y = f (x)
interval [a, b) from left to right in Figure 2.11. The function A(x) represents A(x)
the area of the shaded region.
Extending our definition of the definite integral, we might be tempted to
a x b x
use the notation  x
A(x) = f (x) dx.
a Figure 2.11: We define a new function A(x)
However, there is a problem with this notation: the symbol x is used in to be the area associated with the graph
of some function y = f (x) from the fixed
multiple ways, both as the argument of the function and as the variable
endpoint a up to the endpoint x, where
endpoint of the interval. To avoid possible confusion, we prefer the notation a ≤ x ≤ b.
 x
A(x) = f (s) ds.
a
(or some symbol other than s used as a placeholder instead of x.) Mastered Material Check
An analogue to this situation is the sum 18. Rewrite the formula for A(x) using a
different placeholder symbol.
N
∑ k2
k =1

where N denotes the “end” of the sum, and k keeps track of where we are
in the process of summation. The symbol s, sometimes called a “dummy
variable” is analogous to the summation symbol k.
In the upcoming Chapter 3, we investigate properties of this new “area
function” A(x) defined above. This leads us to the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus, and provides new and powerful tools to replace the summations
that we had to perform in much of Chapter 2. Indeed, we are about to dis-
cover the amazing connection between a function, the area A(x) under its
curve, and the derivative of A(x).

Summary

1. We can calculate the area of a region in the plane that is bounded by the x-
axis, two lines of the form x = a and x = b, and the graph of a positive
52 I N T E G R A L C A L C U L U S W I T H A P P L I C AT I O N S F O R L I F E S C I E N C E S

function y = f (x).
2. We introduced the terminology “definite integral” (Section 2.3) and the
notation (2.4) to represent that area.
3. One of our main efforts focused on how to actually compute that area by
the following set of steps:
(a) Subdivide the interval [a, b] into smaller intervals (width Δx).
(b) Construct rectangles whose heights approximate the height of the
function above the given interval.
(c) Add up the areas of these approximating rectangles. (Here we often
used summation formulae from Chapter 1.) The resulting expression,
such as Eqn. (2.1), for example, was denoted a Riemann sum.
(d) Find out what happens to this total area in the limit when the width Δx
goes to zero (or, in other words, when the number of rectangles N goes
to infinity).
4. We showed both the analytic approach, using Riemann sums and summa-
tion formulae to find areas, as well as numerical approximations using
a spreadsheet tool to arrive at similar results. We then used a variety of
examples to illustrate the concepts and arrive at computed areas.
5. As a final important point, we noted that the area “under the graph of a
function” can itself be considered a function. This idea emerges later and
leads us to the key concept linking the geometric concept of areas with
the analytic properties of antiderivatives. We shall see this link in the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, in Chapter 3.

Quick Concept Checks

1. Write the following as definite integrals:

   
n
3j 3 5 π   kπ 
n
(a) lim ∑ +1 , (b) lim ∑ sin .
n→∞
j =1 n n n→∞
k=1 5n 8n

2. Write the following as Riemann sums:

 7   2 x 
3
(a) ex + x dx, (b) sin + x dx
3 −2 2

3. Evaluate, using a sketch, the following:

 2

3 if x ≤ −1;
f (x)dx where f (x) =
−2 x+4 if x > −1.

4. Determine the step size for each of the following intervals:

(a) −10 ≤ x ≤ 10 with 100 rectangles;

(b) −0.1 ≤ x ≤ 0 with 10 rectangles;
(c) 3 ≤ x ≤ 15 with 20 rectangles.
 GENERAL AREAS 53

10

Exercises 8

6
2.1. Areas in the plane.
4
(a) Compute the area of the staircase shown in Figure 2.12.
(b) What would be the area of that region if, instead of the ten steps 2

shown, it consisted of 100 steps, each of width 0.1 and with heights
2 4 6 8 10
0.1, 0.2, . . . 10?
(c) If there are a very large number of steps of very small width, and Figure 2.12: Figure for Exercise 2.1; area of
a staircase.
very small height increments, what would be the approximate area
of the region shaded? y

2.2. Area of bounded region. Find the area bounded by the x-axis, the y-
axis, and the graph of the function y = f (x) = 1 − x. (See Figure 2.13.)
y = f (x) = 1 − x
(a) By using your knowledge about the area of a triangular region.
(b) By setting this up as a Riemann sum, i.e., as a sum of the areas of
N rectangular strips, using the appropriate summation formula, and
letting the number of strips (N) get larger and larger to arrive at the x
result. 0 1
(c) Show that your answer in (b) is then identical to the answer in (a). Figure 2.13: Figure for Exercise 2.2; finding
the area bounded by the line f (x) = 1 − x
This exercise practices setting up and computing Riemann sum. and the x and y-axes.
2.3. Areas in the plane. Compute the areas of the two shaded regions
for the interval 0 < x < 20 in Figure 2.14 created using right and left
endpoint rules, correspondingly. The curve shown on the diagram is
y = x2 and there are twenty rectangles forming the staircase in both
cases. How do the areas of the shaded regions relate to the area A
under this curve?
2.4. Estimating area. Estimate the area under the graph of f (x) = x2 + 2
from x = −1 to x = 2 in each of the following ways, and sketch the
graph and the rectangles in each case.
Note: use of a spread sheet is encouraged, though not necessary.
(a) By using three rectangles and left endpoints.
(b) Improve your estimate in (a) by using 6 rectangles.
(c) Repeat part (a) using midpoints.
(d) Repeat part (b) using midpoints.
(e) From your sketches in parts (a), (b), (c) and (d), which appears to
be the best estimate?
2.5. Finding area. Find the area A between the graphs of the functions:
y = f (x) = 2x and y = g(x) = 1 + x2 between x = 0 and their
intersection point.
54 I N T E G R A L C A L C U L U S W I T H A P P L I C AT I O N S F O R L I F E S C I E N C E S

400 400

300 300

200 200

100 100

5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20

Figure 2.14: Figure for Exercise 2.3; Area

bounded by y = x2 and the x-axis on the
2.6. Left and right endpoints Consider the function y = f (x) = ex on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 20 using right and left
endpoint rules.
interval [0, 1]. Subdivide the interval [0, 1] into 4 equal subintervals of
width 0.25 and find an approximation to the area of this region using
four rectangular strips.
(a) Use the left endpoints of each interval to obtain the heights of the
rectangular strips.
(b) Use the right endpoints of each interval to obtain the heights of the
rectangular strips.
(c) Explain the reason why your answer in (a) is different from your
answer in (b).
2.7. Area by different methods. Find the area between the x axis and the
graph of the function y = f (x) = 2 − x between x = 0 and x = 2.
(a) By using your knowledge about the area of a triangular region.
(b) By setting up as a sum of the areas of n rectangular strips, using the
appropriate summation formula, and letting the number of strips (n)
get larger and larger to arrive at the result.
(c) Show that your answer in (b) is then identical to the answer in (a).
2.8. Area between functions. Find the area A between the graphs of the
following two functions: y = f (x) = x2 and y = g(x) = 2 − x2 (hint:
what do we mean by “between”? Where does this region begin and
where does it end?)
Note: This exercise should be set up in the form of a sum of areas
of rectangular strips. You should not use previous familiarity with
integration techniques to solve it.
 GENERAL AREAS 55

2.9. Finding a function. Determine a function f (x) and an interval on the

x-axis such that the expression shown below is equal to the area under
the graph of f (x) over the given interval:

n
3 3i
lim ∑ 1+
n→∞
i=1 n n

What do the terms that appear in this expression represent?

2.10. The interval a ≤ x ≤ b. Use Riemann sums to find an expression for
the area under the graph of

y = f (x) = x2 + 2x + 1 a≤x≤b

2.11. Area of a trapezoid.

(a) Show that the area of a trapezoid with base b and heights h1 , h2
(region shown on the left in Figure 2.15) is Atrapezoid = 12 b(h1 + h2 )
(hint: consider dividing up the trapezoid into simpler geometric
shapes).
(b) Use the result for trapezoids to calculate the region under the graph
of the function shown in Figure 2.15.

5 Figure 2.15: For Exercise 2.11; a trapezoid’s

area can be used to determine areas of more
4 complicated regions.

h1 h2 2

b 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2.12. Using a spreadsheet. Consider the function y = x3 . Using the spread-

sheet, create one plot which contains all of the following superim-
posed:
(a) A graph of this function for 0 < x < 1.
(b) A bar-graph showing 20 rectangular strips, whose top right corner
lies on the graph of the function.
(c) The function A(x) which adds up the areas of the first strip, the first
two strips, the first three strips, etc.
(d) The function g(x) = x4 /4 which is the anti-derivative of the original
function.
56 I N T E G R A L C A L C U L U S W I T H A P P L I C AT I O N S F O R L I F E S C I E N C E S

2.13. Definite integrals. Determine the values of each of the following

definite integrals. Each of these can be done using simple geometry,
and need no “integration” techniques (hint: it may be helpful to sketch
the regions and functions involved; recall that we have formulae for
areas of rectangles, triangles, and circles).
 1
(a) 2x dx
0
 1
(b) (1 − x) dx
-1
 2
(c) 4 − x2 dx
-2
2.14. Area under y = x3 . Consider the function y = f (x) = x3 . We
would like to find the area under this curve for 0 < x < 3 using the
approximation by rectangular strips. Subdivide the interval into N
regular subintervals such that x0 = 0, x1 = Δx, . . . xk = kΔx . . . xN = 3.
(a) What is the width of each interval (in terms of N)? Express xk in
terms of k and N.
(b) Consider N rectangles arranged so that the height of their top right
corner is determined by the function f (x). The first rectangle
would have height f (x1 ), etc. Express the area of the kth rectangle
in terms of k and N.
(c) Set up a sum of the areas of all these rectangles, and use the sum-
mation formula for the sum of cube integers to “add up” those areas
and arrive at a total area AN associated with those N rectangular
strips.

Note: your answer should be expressed in terms of N.

(d) Now consider what happens to AN when the number of rectangles,
N gets large. Find the value of the area A under the curve by taking
a limit as N → ∞.
2.15. Manipulating integrals. In Exercise 2.14, we found the area under
the function f (x) = x3 for the interval 0 < x < 3. Use your results from
that exercise to now determine the area A under the same function
but over the interval 2 < x < 3 (hint: rather than redoing the entire
calculation, think of how you could find this area by subtraction of two
areas that start at x = 0). y = f (x) = Hx(L − x)
2.16. Leaf shape. The function y = f (x) = Hx(L − x), shown in Fig-
ure 2.2.16 could approximately describe the shape of the (top edge) of w
a symmetric leaf of length L and width w for a particular choice of the 0 L
constant H (in terms of w and L).

(a) Find the appropriate value of H. Assume that the width is the Symmetric leaf
distance between the leaf edges at the midpoint of the leaf.
Figure 2.16: The shape of a symmetric leaf
of length L and width w is approximated by
the quadratic y = Hx(L − x) in Exercise 2.16.
 GENERAL AREAS 57

(b) Find the area between the x axis and the function y = f (x) =
Hx(L − x).
(c) Use your result from (a) to express the area of the leaf in terms of
the width and length of this leaf.
y = f (x) = x2(1 − x)
2.17. Tapered Leaf. Consider the shape of a leaf shown in Figure 2.2.17,
and given by the function y = f (x) = x2 (1 − x). This leaf is not fully
symmetric, since it is tapered at one end. By choice of the function 0 1
that describes its top edge, the length of the leaf is 1 unit.
(a) Find the width of the leaf (distance between edges at the widest Tapered leaf
place) (hint: use differential calculus to determine where the widest
point occurs). Figure 2.17: The shape of a tapered leaf is
approximated by the function y = x2 (1 − x).
(b) Find the area of this shape by dissection into rectangles.