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CHANGING AT ILI TY
D
LEARNING nceIS A B
ide
A review of the ev
Authors:
Dr Katrina Scior
University College London
Dr Shirli Werner
Paul Baerwald School of Social Work
and Social Welfare, Hebrew University
Proposed for publication by Mencap.
of Jerusalem Copyright © 2015 Scior & Werner.
Changing Attitudes To Learning Disability
2
Contents
Contents
Executive Summary 4
Introduction 5
What do we mean by attitudes? 6
Attitudes to learning disability 8
What has been done to tackle
negative attitudes? 10
Limitations of research on
attitude change 14
Conclusions and
recommendations for action 18
Recommendations 20
References 22
3
Changing Attitudes To Learning Disability
Executive Summary
Improving attitudes to people with learning health care providers), or those that have
disabilities* is a key priority for Mencap. This a potential role in countering negative
review was written to help Mencap and other attitudes and discrimination (the media,
bodies to define this area by providing an the police, employers, legislators). Most
overview of attempts to change attitudes to such interventions have been small-scale,
individuals with learning disabilities, identifying used unrepresentative samples, and have
gaps in the evidence and making suggestions not been rigorously evaluated, making it
for a way forward. Our conclusions can be difficult to draw firm conclusions.
summarised as follows: • Evidence from the learning disability field
and others suggests that contact with
• Increased community inclusion in countries
people with learning disabilities has an
such as the UK appears to have led to more
important role in changing attitudes and
positive attitudes to people with learning
reducing prejudice. At present we do not
disabilities. Nonetheless, children and
know what quality, quantity and type of
adults with learning disabilities are still
contact is most likely to change attitudes.
frequently excluded from various fields of
life, activities and opportunities, regularly • It is likely that contact needs to occur
have to face name-calling, bullying and alongside education about learning
being stared at, and are frequently the disability, the range of abilities and needs
targets of hostility. of individuals with learning disabilities, and
their capabilities to counter misconceptions
• There is very limited representative**
and challenge negative stereotypes.
general population data to draw on as
baseline of attitudes that interventions can • The effects of attitude change interventions
be measured against. on real life behavior are very under-
researched.
• Confusion as to what ‘learning disability’
constitutes, and about different terms • In this report, we present a multi-level
in use, appears widespread, as do model that may help in planning and
misconceptions about the capabilities of integrating future work that can do justice
people with learning disabilities. to address the complexity of changing
attitudes to individuals with learning
• Attempts to change attitudes and counter
disabilities.
discrimination have targeted children
and adults in the general population,
as well as specific groups more likely
to come into contact with people with
learning disabilities (care staff, teachers,
*In this report the term ‘learning disability’ is used as it is the most commonly used term in the UK to refer to what
in many other countries is referred to as ‘intellectual disability’, i.e. significant impairments in cognitive and adaptive
functioning of early outset.
** Representative data or samples are those where the characteristics of the sample (the people interviewed or surveyed)
accurately reflect those of the entire population of interest. For example, a representative sample of the UK population
would contain people with the same range of demographic characteristics as the whole UK population.
4
Introduction
Introduction
Policies, service provision and societal views of violence2. Not only are they often the easy
people with learning disabilities have changed targets of verbal and physical harassment and
substantially over the last hundred years. Up abuse, in some cases they are the victims of
to the 1970s large numbers of children and horrific hate crimes – seemingly for no reason
adults with learning disabilities were confined other than appearing different and less able
in institutions in the UK. Now almost all children to defend themselves3 4. A recent review
with learning disabilities live with their families, concluded that people with mental health
and most attend inclusive schools*. Among problems and/or learning disabilities are the
adults with learning disabilities many live in most likely section of the population to be
their own homes with varying levels of support, affected by targeted violence and hostility5.
and few remain in segregated educational, day
More needs to be done to tackle negative
care or residential provision.
attitudes to individuals with learning
Despite increased physical integration, disabilities, and to break down barriers that
individuals with learning disabilities often still prevent people with learning disabilities from
feel socially excluded and exposed to negative being accepted within society, and from
perceptions and unwelcome behaviours. accessing a wide range of opportunities and
Many are prevented from equal participation experiences taken for granted by people
in education, employment, leisure and social without disabilities. These aims are enshrined
pursuits. The fact that discrimination against in the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons
people with learning disabilities is still an with Disabilities, which promotes a rights
everyday reality is illustrated by estimates that based perspective instead of, for example, the
only 7% of adults with learning disabilities charity discourse so long applied to people with
are in any form of paid employment in the learning disabilities.
UK1. Furthermore, nine out of ten children and
adults with learning disabilities report that
they have been the target of bullying, almost
five in ten that they have experienced verbal
abuse and one in four has experienced physical
*The proportion of children educated in special schools stood at 0.75 per cent in 2007 but had risen to 0.80 per cent by
2013. This rise has been attributed to a change in the political climate away from inclusive education6.
5
Changing Attitudes To Learning Disability
6
What do we mean by attitudes?
7
Changing Attitudes To Learning Disability
8
Attitudes to learning disability
It has been suggested that a reluctance to available to them, and whether they are active
interact with people with learning disabilities participants within their local communities and
may arise from misconceptions, in particular society at large, or confined to the margins.
that people with learning disabilities have few They can also lead to low self-esteem, a sense
capabilities, as well as discomfort related to of helplessness and general fear in going about
lack of familiarity and insecurity about how one’s daily life22. A recent report notes that
to interact with someone with a learning many people with learning disabilities fear
disability18 19 20. Others hold that society is being victimised and, as a consequence, avoid
deeply hostile towards its most vulnerable certain places and adjust when and where they
members3, and that “aversive disablism” travel23.
prevails21. This refers to a process whereby
Beyond the individual him or herself, family
someone may at one level believe that people
carers of individuals with learning disabilities
with disabilities should be treated equally,
may also experience negative attitudes and
while behaving in subtly prejudiced ways
responses from the public. In addition, it has
which in fact reinforce negative stereotypes.
been suggested that within non-Western
An example would be supporting inclusion of
cultures parents at times may be subjected to
people with learning disabilities in society, but
negative attitudes and blame from within their
opposing inclusion of children with learning
own extended families and communities22.
disabilities in one’s own child’s class. Of course,
Family carers may feel blamed for younger
one motivation for aversive disablism may well
children’s disobedience, and experience
be the desire to avoid discomfort in the face of
disapproval, being stared at in public, and lack
lack of familiarity.
of acceptance when older children behave
Misconceptions, negative attitudes and inappropriately in public. Many parents report
discrimination affect the daily lives of people restricting their activities and avoiding public
with learning disabilities, the opportunities places as a result24 25.
9
Changing Attitudes To Learning Disability
*A ‘convenience’ sample consists of anyone the researchers could reach and thus is unlikely to reflect the characteristics
of the entire population of interest.
10
What has been done to tackle negative attitudes?
the quality of that contact, some attempts Few would question that placing children
have been made to use indirect contact, for with learning and other disabilities alongside
example through film-based interventions, their peers without disabilities within inclusive
to improve attitudes. Studies that examined schools is important in principle and may also
indirect contact with individuals with learning affect negative attitudes and discrimination.
disabilities have simulated contact through Comparative evidence, such as a recent
the use of photographs and films with study from Greece, suggests that children in
documentary or drama footage delivered to inclusive schools show more positive attitudes
participants in a classroom or experimental towards peers with learning disabilities than
site27 28 37 38, or via the internet26. Another children in non-inclusive schools 44. Reports of
means of indirect contact has used experiential bullying and feeling excluded within inclusive
learning by having student teachers interview environments45 46 47 indicate that this alone is
families of children with disabilities39. not enough and that more should be done
to combat negative attitudes and behavior
An important route to influencing attitudes
and actively promote social interactions.
of the public and those who may have few
One argument against such efforts, common
opportunities for interacting with people with
among teachers, is that active interventions
learning disabilities is through the media.
draw attention to the disability and enhance
Guidance for the media on portrayals of people
notions of difference48. Accordingly, children
with learning disabilities has emphasised
and young people in inclusive schools
the need to present them in realistic terms,
may receive interventions aimed at raising
not just as victims or heroes in the face of
disability awareness and reducing bullying,
adversity, to show them in roles not defined
including work targeting bullying of peers with
by their disability, and involve them directly
disabilities, such as a current large programme
in programming40 41. There are few data on
funded by the Department for Education49.
the use of such guides by media personnel
However, few efforts address negative
or the impact of this guidance when it is
attitudes to peers with learning disabilities
implemented.
more specifically or tackle reluctance to engage
Although the very low proportion of people closely with them. Of note, more interventions
with learning disabilities who are in some form have been reported in the literature that
of employment is a big concern, surprisingly aim to educate children and young people
few studies have been reported that attempt about autism or tackle negative attitudes
to change attitudes among employers or co- towards peers with autism. One such example
workers. This may reflect an institutionalised involved a six to eight-session anti-stigma
perception that people with learning disabilities programme that combined education with
really cannot work, or are not a priority in both direct and video contact with individuals
addressing employment discrimination. An with high functioning autism. The intervention
attempt in the late 1980s used repeated was shown to have a positive effect on the
information mail-outs to influence attitudes knowledge and attitudes of adolescent boys,
among managers and bosses in industry42. At but had no effect on their behavioral intentions
present, Mencap provide resources designed towards peers with autism50 51.
to encourage employers to consider persons
Looking at interventions that have targeted
with learning disabilities for work placements
school aged children but are not specific to
and paid employment 43. However, the effect
learning disabilities, a recent review of 42
of such resources on potential employers’
disability awareness interventions concluded
attitudes does not appear to have been
that multi-media and multi-component
formally tested.
11
Changing Attitudes To Learning Disability
12
What has been done to tackle negative attitudes?
learning disability service60. The training, not interact with people with disabilities relate to
surprisingly, increased knowledge of human unfamiliarity and the associated discomfort
rights. However, the training did not affect rather than to antipathy or deep-seated
attitudes towards human rights, or views hostility.
on the relevance of human rights to support
Interventions at the level of legislation, policy
staff members’ everyday work with learning
and service delivery are manifold. Prominent
disabilities.
and diverse interventions designed to challenge
Few efforts have been made to use mass discrimination and exclusion, and thus arguably
media to change attitudes towards people with attitudes in an indirect fashion, include: (1) the
learning disabilities. In contrast, large mass widespread adoption of inclusive education;
media campaigns have been employed in other (2) the Equality Act 2010, which among other
fields in recent times, such as Time to Change provisions has placed a duty on public sector
in England and See Me in Scotland designed bodies to ensure that reasonable adjustments
to combat negative attitudes towards people are made to services to ensure that all sections
with mental health problems; or End the of society, including people with disabilities, can
Awkward, designed to tackle anxiety relating access public services; and (3) the naming of
to interactions with people with physical ‘disability’ as one of the categories motivating
disabilities. Of note, End the Awkward assumes hate crime under the UK’s Criminal Justice Act
that negative attitudes and a reluctance to 2003.
13
Changing Attitudes To Learning Disability
Limitations of research
on attitude change
As indicated by the wide range of studies • failure to take repeated measures that
referred to above, numerous interventions would allow for more robust observations of
from different parts of the world have been change - instead participants receiving the
reported that loosely aim to change attitudes intervention are often asked retrospectively
towards people with (learning) disabilities, to report on any changes, a notoriously
including disability awareness and disability unreliable means of evaluating any
equality training, anti-bullying work in intervention;
education settings, and a host of mostly small • and failure to take follow-up
scale, isolated, contact-based interventions. measurements, that is after a significant
These interventions vary in target group, passage of time.
contents, methodology and intensity but
without doubt are generally well intended, and Another methodological limitation concerns
at times have shown promising results. The the poor measurement of attitudes to people
scientific meaning and social impact of such with learning disabilities61. Most measures
interventions is limited at present because few available fail to distinguish the three
have been formally evaluated. Those attitude components of attitudes (cognition, affect and
change interventions that have been evaluated behavior). A recently developed measure, the
often show conceptual and methodological Attitudes toward Intellectual Disability (ATTID)
limitations. Therefore at present, it is premature questionnaire, is a notable exception62 63. Some
to draw firm conclusions about ‘what works’ – widely used measures, such as the Community
instead it is important to note key limitations Living Attitudes Scale- Intellectual Disability
of the evidence that should be considered version (CLAS-ID)64, fail to reflect the great
in the design of future interventions. Many diversity of the learning disability population.
interventions that have been tested or For example, when asked to indicate to what
piloted, despite showing promising results, extent they endorse items such as “People with
appear to have been one-off efforts that have learning disabilities can be trusted to handle
not resulted in wider implementation. This money responsibly” many well informed
indicates that closer attention needs to be paid individuals would likely wish to respond with
to implementation (and collaboration), to avoid “well, it depends…” rather than with a definite
multiple small efforts that are short lived and answer.
of little impact in changing attitudes. Finally, another crucial methodological
Key methodological limitations of interventions limitation with existing research is that
reported to date are: most studies have failed to test the impact
of attitude change interventions on actual
• reliance on small samples, which limit behavior. Although the effects of an
the confidence with which we can draw intervention on behavior are much more
conclusions; difficult to measure than asking someone
• recruitment of students and volunteers to complete a self-report questionnaire, it is
rather than participants who are how people behave in relation to individuals
representative of the target population; with learning disabilities that has perhaps
14
Limitations of research on attitude change
the strongest effect on opportunities for any changes observed are vulnerable to
equal participation in society. Studies that unconvincing, post-hoc explanations. Detailed
did consider change in behavioural intentions consideration of attitude change theories is
or actual behavior mostly found changes beyond the scope of this document. However,
in knowledge and attitudes but there was as noted earlier, interventions should pay
often little indication that the intervention close attention to the three components
affected how someone acts or might act in of attitudes and explicitly state at which of
real life interactions with people with learning these the intervention is targeted and how
disabilities. change is projected to occur. Intergroup
contact theory65, or a version thereof that more
Concerning conceptual limitations, many
closely represents ‘mere exposure’, appears
interventions have not been based in a
to underpin many of the interventions in the
coherent fashion on theories of attitude and
learning disabilities field. However, theories
attitude change, despite these being abundant
that have informed attitude change in other
in the field of social psychology. Without
fields, such as attribution theory66 or social
clear theoretical underpinnings that guide
norms theory67, have found little attention in
intervention design, that is a statement of
the learning disabilities field to date.
how attitude change is expected to happen,
15
Changing Attitudes To Learning Disability
16
What can we learn from efforts to improve attitudes to learning disability reported to date?
experienced by people with disabilities, evoking from a recent study where a first-hand account
positive emotional responses, and portraying by a man with learning disabilities of bullying
the capabilities of people with learning and violence both in childhood and adulthood
disabilities at the same time as providing a evoked strong emotional responses in film
realistic picture of their abilities and needs viewers and showed modest improvements
and avoiding the reinforcement of negative in attitudes26. However, whether such
stereotypes, is a challenge. accounts are more powerful than those,
for example, of parents when matched on
Another conclusion that is reasonable to
emotional impact is a question for further
make concerns the value of involving people
research. Also, importantly, reliance on first
with learning disabilities in delivering attitude
person narratives will inevitably privilege the
change interventions. Evidence from the
experiences of people with mild to moderate
mental health field suggests that first person
learning disabilities. Although they constitute
narratives have greater impact than narratives
the majority of people with learning disabilities,
by family members or carers. We need to
the extent to which they can appropriately
explore whether this holds for the learning
represent people with severe and profound
disabilities field. Tentative support for the power
learning disabilities is questionable.
of first person accounts comes, for example,
17
Changing Attitudes To Learning Disability
Conclusions and
recommendations for action
As will be apparent from the overview
presented here, there is a need to do more Structural
to tackle attitudinal barriers within society
at large and among groups that are more
likely to have contact with people with Interpersonal
learning disabilities. The available evidence on
interventions designed to improve attitudes
and reduce discrimination in relation to people
Intrapersonal
with learning disabilities is not sufficiently
robust to recommend one type of intervention
over another at the present time. The positive
results reported in many studies should be
viewed with some caution as most effects
reported were small, and most studies drew
on convenience samples, mostly consisting of
students and volunteers. Furthermore, much of
the research conducted to date has significant
Figure 1. Multi-level Model by Cook and colleagues77.*
methodological and conceptual limitations
that limit the usefulness of the findings.
related and reciprocally affect one another.
In moving forward in a coherent fashion in
Interventions at the intrapersonal level focus
designing interventions and evaluating their
on the persons themselves who are affected
success, we believe a multi-level model of
by stigma, and aim to help them cope with the
countering negative attitudes, such as that
negative consequences of stigmatisation, such
proposed by Cook and colleagues75 (see
as internalised or self-stigma. Interventions at
Figure 1), can serve as a useful framework or
the interpersonal level target social interactions
roadmap. While Cook and colleagues applied
between the stigmatized (i.e. those who
this model to mental health stigma, we believe
are the target of negative attitudes and
it has a lot to offer in providing a framework
discrimination), and the stigmatisers (i.e. those
for the range of interventions that should be
who hold negative attitudes or discriminate
considered in aiming for greater acceptance
against the stigmatized). Most of the initiatives
and equality for people with learning
that have been attempted to date in the
disabilities.
learning disabilities field have been at the
The model distinguishes interventions interpersonal level. Finally, interventions at the
that target stigma at the intrapersonal, structural level aim to change social conditions
interpersonal and structural levels, and that give rise to stigma, for example, by
emphasises that efforts at different levels are tackling barriers to equal access to education,
*Reprinted from Social Science & Medicine, 103, Cook, J. E. et al., Intervening within and across levels: A multilevel
approach to stigma and public health, 101-109, 2014, with permission from Elsevier and the authors.
18
Conclusions and recommendations for action
healthcare, and housing, or by using mass With regard to general population attitudes
media to produce large scale change. These to learning disability, more research is needed
initiatives aim to reach a large audience. Some to decipher which specific components of
examples of structural level interventions are interventions are effective drivers for change,
mass media campaigns designed to raise which make best use of limited resources
awareness about learning disability or influence and which are most capable of reaching
attitudes, implementation of legislation and large audiences, while being effective. More
policy arising from the UN Convention on the research is also called for on the effects of
Rights of People with Disabilities, legislation interventions on real-life behaviours. Above
against disability hate crime, and the 2010 all, closer attention is called for in the design
Equality Act which requires public bodies to of interventions to psychological theories of
make reasonable adjustments for people with attitude and behaviour change. A 2009 review
learning disabilities. of evidence on prejudice reduction across
different fields provides some useful pointers
To provide a useful roadmap for the learning
to attitude change processes informed by
disabilities field, a multi-level model needs to
theory 77. Their conclusions note: (a) that
take careful note of the importance of parental
intergroup behaviour appears more closely
and family reactions, while also accounting
linked to social norms than personal beliefs –
for stigma experienced by parents and
accordingly, conveying social norms and using
family members as a result of having a son,
peer influence to transmit clear messages that
daughter or sibling with a learning disability,
prejudice towards group X is not normative
an area that has found only little attention
within a given social group helps to reduce
in research22 76. Furthermore, the potential
prejudice; (b) the value of perspective taking
positive as well as negative effects of parental
and empathy – accordingly, perspective taking
reactions on attitudes towards people with
exercises focused on emotions (such as filmed
learning disabilities cannot be underestimated.
first-hand accounts of bullying and abuse
Parental advocacy continues to play a very
and their impact26, or interviews with parents
important role in improving perceptions of
of children with disabilities and subsequent
learning disability, and attention to their rights.
reflective accounts56) can increase desire
Conversely, negative family reactions, such as
to interact; (c) the risks inherent in direct
shame about having a child with a disability,
instruction- being told to suppress a stereotype
can have detrimental effects on the individual
in fact increases the salience of said stereotype.
concerned and do little to challenge negative
attitudes.
19
Changing Attitudes To Learning Disability
Recommendations
Our recommendations for specific priorities for consistency is needed. Similarly, there are
intervention and research are: already e-learning training opportunities
available that include exposure to and
• In view of apparent widespread confusion
first-hand accounts of people with learning
about what a learning disability is, and
disabilities. However, at present their
misconceptions about the capabilities of
dissemination is limited and their effects
people with learning disabilities, attempts
on attitudes and real life behavior are
to educate the general public should be
often poorly understood. Importantly, the
part of efforts to counter prejudice and
effects of direct and indirect contact both
discrimination. The media clearly have
through face-to-face interactions and
a role to play in providing more positive
e-learning should be tested using robust
portrayals that refrain from depicting
methods to advance our understanding
people with learning disabilities as
of the conditions under which contact
incapable, childlike or pitiable victims. In
with individuals or groups of people with
the UK, the BBC’s aim to quadruple the
learning disabilities leads to positive
representation of people with disabilities
attitude change.
on screen by 2017 should be seen as an
opportunity to increase the volume and • Ultimately though, only through supporting
diversity of presentations of people with the rights of people with learning disabilities
learning disabilities in the media. Where to equal participation in education,
possible the impact of different types of employment, social and leisure pursuits will
media portrayals on attitudes should be the general public have more opportunities
tested with representative samples. for, and benefit from, direct contact. Thus,
fighting for the right of people with learning
• Lack of direct contact with or exposure
disabilities to have increased access to
to people with learning disabilities may
community resources must be part of
leave many feeling uncomfortable and
efforts to change attitudes.
unsure how to interact with someone with
a learning disability. To counter the risk • Efforts to educate and challenge the
that such discomfort prompts avoidance, formation of prejudice directed at
more exposure to people with learning individuals with learning disabilities should
disabilities, directly where possible, start at an early age. While there are
and indirectly where this is not feasible many disability awareness programmes
(rather than not at all), is called for. For in place that target children, they usually
the general public this is most likely to be aim to change attitudes towards peers
facilitated by the media, for children and with physical (or sensory) disabilities, and
young people through inclusive activities mostly appear to do little to affect attitudes
and inclusive education, and for those and acceptance of peers with learning
more likely to be in regular contact with disabilities. Similarly, anti-bullying work is
people with learning disabilities as part commonplace but little of this is specific
of training and continuing professional to peers with learning disabilities whose
development. We note that some training disabilities may often be hidden and poorly
programmes already provide this, but more understood.
20
Recommendations
21
Changing Attitudes To Learning Disability
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