1. What’s a wave?

A “wave” is a progressive disturbance in a medium, formed by alternating pressures and

tensions, without any permanent displacement of the medium itself in the direction in which
these stresses are propagated.

2. What’s a Radio Wave?

Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic
spectrum longer than infrared light. Radio waves have frequencies from 300 GHz to as low as 3
kHz, and corresponding wavelengths ranging from 1 millimeter (0.039 in) to 100 kilometers (62
mi).

3. How do I produce a radio wave?

To produce a radio wave all that is needed is an oscillating electrical current and an aerial.

The electrons moving backwards and forwards in the aerial produce a changing electromagnetic
field.

Electromagnetic field moves away at the speed of light.

The free electromagnetic wave is sometimes called radio frequency (RF) energy.

When the changing electromagnetic wave passes over the electrons in a receiving aerial they
are moved.

Movement of electrons produces a current identical to the one that was transmitted.

4. A-B wave travels in 5 micro secs. What’s the dist. between A & B?

= 3 x 108 x 5 = 0.40 Nm
106 x 1852x2

5. GPS - Tell me everything about it.

6. Detail out the Errors in GPS.
7. What is RAIM?

GPS (ICAO – GNSS)

- Satellite based navigation system to establish the position of a radio receiver in three
dimensions, correlate it to Earth’s reference and compute accurate time.
- 24 (three as standby) satellites, 12 hourly six orbits at height of 20,200 km.
- Orbits inclined at 55° to Earth’s axis provide a configuration minimum five in view at
any point over the earth.
- All satellites consecutively transmit on the same UHF frequency.
- Satellites are periodically replaced.
- Accurate position and time is determined by suitable signals from minimum four
satellites.
- RAIM facility for autonomous integrity monitoring needs five satellites to be in view.
Signals from satellites at low angles are masked.
- Positional Accuracy. ±30 mtrs at 95% occasions in C/A mode.
- C/A Code (course acquisition). Also referred to as SPS (standard positioning service)
is available for use by all receivers at 1575.42 MHz frequency with degraded accuracy.
- The European system is EGNOS (European geostationary navigation over lay
service).
- India’s GAGAN (GPS aided Geo Augmented Navigation)
- WAAS GPS (Wide Area Augmentation System GPS). GLONASS (Global Orbiting
Navigation Satellite System)

MASKING.

- Satellites in view, but at low angle of elevation should not be used for the fact that their signals
have to travel through greater distances in ionosphere and troposphere, suffering higher
degree of refraction. Passing through longer distances in the ionosphere they suffer higher
attenuation. Such weak signals, generally at 7.5° elevation are discarded at the receiver by
masking function.
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS): The US GPS constellation of 21 active satellites
in circular orbit plane are available for this purpose. At every point of time, at least 4 GPS satellites
should be in view from any place of world enabling precision determination of latitude, longitude,
time etc from satellite signals received by aircraft in flight or on ground.

Glonass (Russian Satellite navigation system). It uses separate frequencies for each of its 21
active satellites to transmit navigational data.

GPS
Navstar Global Positioning Service developed by the USA
The use of the frequencies will be discussed later in this chapter.

Basic Principle of Operation GPS uses a similar principle of operation to radar:

1. The satellite transmits a signal
2. The receiver measures the time the satellite signal is received
3. Knowing the time of transmission the time difference is measured and the range is
calculated

The GPS System The GPS system consist of three segments:

a) The Space Segment
b) The Control Segment
c) The User Segment

The Space Segment This is made up of a group of satellites known as a ‘constellation’, which
provides the navigation signals. To date GPS consists of:
 a) 24 satellites forming the GPS constellation. 21 Satellites are operational with 3 held in
reserve
b) Six orbital paths are used with four satellites to each path
c) The orbits are synchronous and inclined at 55° to the equator
d) Each orbital path is separated from the next (at the Equator) by 60° of space longitude.
e) A satellite is “masked” (not used) when it is less than 5° above the horizon

Frequency and Coding GPS satellites transmit on two frequencies

f) L1 1575.42 MHz
g) L1 transmits the coarse/aquisition (C/A), Precision (P) codes and system data message
h) The C/A code is repeated every millisecond on a frequency of 1.023 MHz The P code is
repeated every 7 days on 10.23 MHz The navigation and system data message on 50 Hz
i) L2 1227.60 MHz
j) Transmits the P code only
k) This frequency determines ionospheric delay

The Control Segment This provides the control and support system for GPS. It is made up of :

Master Control Station (MCS) Colorado Springs

Monitoring Stations (MS) Ascension Hawaii Kwajalein Diego Garcia

Back up MCS Onizuka

The Master station tracks, monitors and manages the satellite constellation. It also provides an
updating service for the Navigation Message
The monitor stations are precisely surveyed and consist of very accurate receivers which receive
from each GPS satellites in view:
a) Ranging data
b) Navigation message

The satellite internally computed position and clock time are checked at least once every 12 hours.

This data is transmitted to the master control station. The MCS establishes the satellite’s exact
orbit and location, the satellite ephemeris along with the actual and predicted clock parameters.
The MCS then transmits this information to each satellite the updated ephemeris and clock data
to be included in the Navigation Message.

The User Segment The GPS receiver. Each receiver decodes the space segment to determine
position.

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) RAIM is system integrity monitoring within
the GPS unit. The receiver/processor evaluates the information from the five satellites visible. The
position is determined. From the positions determined the receiver looks to see if one of the
satellites is giving an incorrect range and if so removes it from the position calculation. For RAIM
activity there must be:
a) Five satellites visible and
b) The receiver/processor must be capable of handling the extra data.
The GPS receiver/processor can be integrated into on-board navigation systems, taking inputs
from other navigational sources. This is known as receiver augmentation. If the navigation
computer detects a sudden marked deviation of the GPS position, a satellite failure can be
suspected.

User Equivalent Range Errors User Equivalent Range Error (UERE) is the result of a
number of sub elements as follows:
a) Errors in the content of the satellite navigation message.
b) Predictability of the satellites’ orbit - this may be disturbed by perturbations which result
from:
c) Asymmetry of the earth’s gravitational field
d) Lunar and/or solar gravity
e) Atmospheric drag
f) Electro-magnetic forces
g) Solar wind
h) Stability of the satellite’s clock.
The satellite clock is monitored and its general error trend is established and extrapolated to form
part of the navigation message. If the trend changes this will establish an error source:
a) Precision of the PRN tracking in the GPS receiver. The heart of this is a stable clock. If
the receiver clock drifts, the tracking sequence will be in error.
 b) Errors in the processor’s ionospheric model. If the ionosphere/troposphere create different
refractive indices from those used in the model, errors will be caused.
c) The UERE is minimised by:
d) Good satellite signal quality
e) Good receiver/processor design.

Dilution of Precision (DOP) Like all position determining systems that use lines of position, the
geometry of the intersecting lines greatly affects the potential accuracy of any resultant fix. If the
satellites in use, as viewed by the GPS receiver aerial, are close together the surfaces of position
will have a poor angle of intersection and, as a consequence, there will be a significant loss of
accuracy. This is referred to as a high dilution of precision. A high DOP would cause any UERE
to have a greater effect.

NAVSTAR GPS

The GPS constellation of satellites is broken down into six circular orbital planes.
Each orbital plane is at 55 degrees to the equator.
Each orbital plane consists of four to six satellites.
The satellites orbit the earth at a height of 20,200 km once every twelve hours.
Between five and eight satellites will always be in line of sight range of a receiver at any position
on earth at any one time.
The original GPS constellation (notional constellation) had 24 satellites.
The current constellation has 31.
The satellites are called the space segment.
Satellite ground tracks only go up to 55° North and South but because of their height, coverage
is global.
A satellite is not considered "visible" until it is more than 5° above the horizon.
This is called the mask angle.

Frequencies

The GPS satellites transmit ranging signals on two frequencies in UHF.

These are usually referred to as 'L' band.
L1 is 1575.42 MHz
L2 is 1227.6 MHz
Control of the satellite is maintained by an up-link in the 'S' band.
Two modulations are used.
The Precise (P) modulation or P (Y) code is used only for military and survey purposes and is
transmitted on both L1 and L2 frequencies.
This is called the Precise Positioning Service (PPS).
The second modulation which is less accurate and available for general use is known as Coarse
Acquisition (C/A).
It is transmitted only on L1 band.
This service is called the Standard Positioning Service (SPS).
The timing of each satellite's transmissions is controlled by four on board atomic clocks.
This in turn is monitored by atomic clocks maintained by the Master Control Station (MCS).
MCS send correction signals to the satellite when necessary.
The MCS also uploads navigation data to the satellites.
Master Control Stations are distributed around the world near the equator (collectively known as
the "control segment").

Principle of Operation

The orbiting satellites transmit accurately timed radio signals modulated on the L1 frequency.
The digital signals contain a unique satellite identifier and a timing message.
This unique navigational signal repeats every millisecond and is called the pseudo random
noise (PRN) code.
The receiving equipment uses its internal electronic clock to measure how long the message
has been in transit for and converts the time delay into a distance from the satellite (a sphere of
range).
Ranges from two satellites produce a circular position line where the spheres intersect.
This produces an ambiguous position.
Therefore ranges from three satellites are needed for a two dimensional fix.
For a three dimensional fix, either a separate altitude information or a fourth satellite is needed.
The clock in the aircraft is less accurate than its atomic counterpart, So the initial range (pseudo
range) is inaccurate.
This error is known as receiver clock bias.
The pseudo range from several satellites will not produce a precise fix.
So a correction for the receiver clock bias is needed.
The aircraft receiver changes the ranges all by the same amount at the same time until a near
pinpoint fix is achieved.
The amount the range has to be corrected by translates to a receiver clock correction.
With the correction applied this process is run again and again to get the most precise fix
possible whilst simultaneously removing receiver clock error.
This method is called an iterative process.
The correction for receiver clock bias also means that by the time a fix position is calculated the
receiver is completely synchronised to satellite time.
Satellite time is not the same as UTC. but it can be corrected.
For this system to work the receiver must be aware of the satellite positions, called their
"ephemeris".
The expected positions are stored in receiver memory as an almanac.

Resolving The Position

In addition to the PRN code the satellite also sends a data stream called the NAV message with
correction factors and information to update the receiver almanac.
This is superimposed on the L1 frequency in five sub-frames.
Each set of five sub-frames make up a frame lasting 30 seconds.
There are 25 frames in all.
To send the entire navigation message takes a total of 12.5 minutes (25 x 30).
Each sub-frame starts with a burst of telemetry identifying the satellite.
Then followed by a 'hand over word' for military users needing to connect to the P code
Then a string of data.
The first three sub-frames send data on the clock correction and the satellite position, its
ephemeris (updated intermittently by the control segment).
The last two sub-frames send chunks of information on UTC corrections, ionospheric delay,
almanac information on the orbits of all the satellites in the system and satellite health data.
The receiver uses the almanac data to work out the positions of the satellites in three axes
relative to the centre of the earth called the X, Y and Z axes.
The fix is also initially expressed relative to these axes with an additional time (T) parameter.
The X, Y, Z, T fix position is then referenced in the receiver to the WGS84 ellipsoid before finally
being presented to the user as latitude, longitude and height.
Maps that have not been corrected to the WGS84 datum may show GPS positions several
hundred metres out from where they appear on the ground.
GPS receivers also have the capability to compute velocity either by using the Doppler shift
from the satellite signals or by the change in receiver position over time.
The receiver is called the "user segment"

Time To First Fix

When the receiver is first turned on it looks for satellites where it expects to find them according
to the almanac of space segment orbital data held in memory.
If the receiver has been moved a long way since it was last used it gets confused and has to
search the sky to determine which satellites are overhead.
This can take 4 or 5 minutes.
If the almanac is Out of date it has to download new almanac information from the satellites.
Once the satellites are identified, clock bias is corrected for and the position is computed 'Time
To First Fix' can be shortened by entering a position, time and date to give the receiver a new
starting datum and shorten the search for the satellites.

Accuracy and System Errors, UERE

Fixing accuracy of plus or minus 13 metres on 95% of occasions is quoted for raw signals.
Several system errors are classified as User Equivalent Range Errors or UERE. They are:

Satellite Ephemeris Error

Ephemeris error is caused by the satellite not being where it should be.
This can be caused by gravity changes in the earth's gravitational field or the fields from the sun
and moon.
Atmospheric drag, solar winds and electromagnetic forces can also produce errors.
Control of position is so stringent that errors caused are in the region of plus or minus 0.5m

Atmospheric or Ionospheric Error

Variations in ionospheric density and atmospheric conditions are the largest individual source of
error.
Satellites that are overhead have the least errors and provide the most accurate ranges.
The delay in the transmission time caused by the ionosphere and atmosphere is proportional to
1/f^2 (where f is the frequency of the carrier wave).
Military receivers operating on two frequencies can compare the delays on their two frequencies
to compute a near total correction for ionospheric error.
A civilian receiver operating on one frequency (C/A signal) can not take advantage of this
method and relies instead on a mathematical model of the ionosphere which is downloaded
from the satellites as part of the data message and subsequently stored in its memory.
The latter method only reduces the error by about 50%, down to plus or minus 4m.

Instrument/Receiver Error

These are caused by electrical noise, computational errors or errors arising when matching the
pseudo-random signals.
Errors in range from this source are only expected to be in the region of one metre.

Multipath Signals

Signals reflected from terrain can be confused with direct signals and reduce the accurate by
0.5m or so.
The error arising from multipath signals can be reduced by aerial design and software fixes.

Clock Bias

Timing errors at the receiver will lead to fixing errors.

Receiver clock bias can be corrected out.
Errors at the satellite are less likely but more serious as these can only be corrected as the
satellites pass over the Master Control Station.

Fixing Errors, Dilution of Precision (DOP)

Dilution of Precision can be caused by:

Satellite Geometry Error

Strictly speaking this is not a GPS error at all but is based on the principle of using position lines
to obtain a fix.
The optimum geometry for four satellites is to have three separated by 120° in azimuth and
elevated a little above the horizon with a fourth directly overhead.
On the other hand, if the satellites are close together, the angle of cut between the range lines
will be shallow and the fix is liable to be less accurate.
The term used to describe this effect in GPS fixing is Geometric Dilution Of Precision (GDOP).
Position errors of up to 70m can unusually occur.
GDOP is made up of four components
• PDOP - The Position Dilution of Precision in 3D (Spherical DOP).
• HDOP - The Horizontal Dilution of Precision (Latitude & Longitude).
• VDOP - The Vertical Dilution of Precision (Height).
• TDOP - The Time Dilution of Precision (Time).
While each of these GDOP terms can be individually computed, they are not independent of
each other.
e.g. A high TDOP will cause receiver clock errors which will eventually result in increased
position errors.

Coverage Problems

There have been many reported cases of GPS coverage being less than expected because the
satellite signal has been blocked.
These "worm holes" can cover relatively large areas and last from minutes to days.
Worm holes are caused by accidental or deliberate jamming of the satellite signals.
Sometimes by transmissions on the same frequency and sometimes by harmonics from similar
frequencies such as UHF television broadcasts.

Receivers and Aerials

Single-Channel

This type uses just one channel which moves from one satellite to another to collect data for
navigational purposes.
 As the data is not simultaneous the movement of the receiver can degrade overall accuracy.

Multi-Channel Receivers

With three channels, one channel is used to calculate range whilst the others read the NAV
messages.
Compared to a single channel receiver time to first fix is reduced and the receiver can maintain
tracking at moderate speeds.

Multiplex Receivers

Multiplex receivers use a single channel which switches every 5 milliseconds between satellites
in view.
They provide a high quality fix but are susceptible to jamming, either real or accidental.

Continuous Receivers

Continuous receivers are used in specialised circumstances such as survey work or for
scientific purposes.
Operating on between four and twelve channels they give instantaneous read out of position
and speed.
Normally the four satellites that are predicted to give the best geometric solution are tracked.
This minimises GDOP.
Continuous receivers track all visible satellites simultaneously.
The disadvantage is their high cost.

Aerial Location

Receiver aerials are positioned on the top of the fuselage to give a clear view of the sky.

8. IVSI - Draw and explain everything you know about it. Incl. errors.

A Simple VSI

VSIs record the rate of change of static pressure and displays it on the instrument face as a rate
of climb and descent.
The instrument consists of a capsule fed with static pressure in a case also fed with static.
The static feed to the case is fed through a very small gap, the metering unit.
Thus if the aircraft changes its altitude the capsule reacts immediately whilst the pressure
change in the case is slower.
The differential pressure is maintained as long as the aircraft continues to climb or descend.
However once level the pressures equalise and the rate of climb or descent returns again to
zero.

The Metering Unit

The key to the whole operation is the metering unit.

It must be designed to give a change of capsule pressure which is directly related to real rates
of climb and descent.
This is irrespective of altitude and therefore air pressure and temperature.
The metering unit uses a "choke" which directs the air through both a "capillary tube" and a
"knife edge orifice".
The metering unit is self-compensating for pressure altitude and temperature.
At height, air density is less.
At lower densities (for a given rate of climb) the capillary allows the pressure difference between
the capsule and case to increase.
However the orifice balances this by reducing the pressure difference.
Similarly the orifice allows the pressure difference to increase with reducing temperature.
Whereas the capillary balances it by reducing the pressure difference with reducing
temperature.
Overall the metering unit compensates for the reducing rate of change of pressure at height, for
the same real rate of climb or descent.

Errors and Blockages

Instrument errors can be largely compensated for with an adjusting screw that zeroes the
 reading.
The design of the instrument means that there will always be a lag before a rate of descent or
climb is indicated.
An error in the absolute value of static pressure produces no error.
A change of static pressure when none is due will give a false indication of climb or descent.
The instrument is therefore susceptible to manoeuvre error, particularly during take-off and go-
around and in turbulence.
A static blockage will cause the instrument to read zero in climbs or descents.

The Instantaneous VSI (IVSI)

The IVSI counters the time lag (between entering a climb or descent and having it displayed on
the instrument) invloved in the simple VSI.
IVSI contains accelerometers mounted in the vertical axis connected to pistons.

These pistons give an instantaneous pressure increase (descent) or decrease (climb) in the
static supply before the choke as soon as a vertical acceleration is sensed by the
accelerometer.
This causes the VSI needle to move immediately upon climbing /descending, removing the
large instrument lag with an ordinary VSI.
Once the IVSI has hit the steady state in the climb/descent, it behaves just like an ordinary VSI
measuring the pressure differential across a choke in the static line.
There is a potential disadvantage with the IVSI which sense acceleration in the aircraft vertical
axis.
It will also be affected by any acceleration in the aircraft normal axis.
When applying large angles of bank and checking back to maintain level flight the IVSI will
initially show a climb.
If the turn is maintained it will stabilise to zero.
It will indicate a descent on rollout.
IVSIs should not be relied upon while initiating or ending turns at bank angles of more than
about 40° or when the load factor in the turn is changing.

Other Systems

There are three other systems for finding vertical speed:

1) IRS

2) ADC

3) Dynamic Vane VSI: Difference between static and metered static pressures induces a flow
over moveable vanes (like a small air turbine). The movement of the vanes then records vertical
speed.

9. What is a Gyro?
10. Properties of Gyros
11. What is Wander?
12. Explain Wander, its types, formulae to calc. Drift and Topple.
13. Formulae of Precession
14. Explain various types of Gyros.

Basic Properties

The name gyroscope comes from two Greek words:

Gyro = A turn
and
Skopein = To see
Thus a gyroscope is literally a "turn see-er".
A reference against which one can measure how one has turned in space.
To do this a gyroscope must maintain a space reference.
This is the property of rigidity in space, the first and most important of the two properties of
gyroscopes.
It is the axis of rotation of the gyroscope that defines its orientation.
Measurements of angular change are made against that axis.

Precession

A gyroscope will maintain its reference in space unless acted on by an external force.
If a force is applied to a gyroscope it will move.
So long as the force remains applied, it will continue to move.
However, it will not move as though the force were acting directly on the gyroscope.
It will precess, and act as if the force had been applied at a point 90° in the direction of rotation
of the gyroscope.

Moment of Intertia

The resistance to being pushed off course of a body which is moving in a straight line is
measured by its momentum i.e mass times velocity.
The rigidity of a spinning gyroscope depends on its angular momentum, which is moment of
inertia times rate of rotation.
Moment of inertia is itself determined by rotor mass and the distribution of the mass near to or
away from the centre of rotation.
Concentration of the mass nearer to the circumference of the rotor (away from the centre) gives
a higher moment of inertia.
Greater the moment of inertia, the greater the rigidity.
Faster the spin the greater the rigidity.
A more rigid system will require a greater force to precess it at any given rate.

Gimbals

Gyroscopes are usually suspended in a system of frames, called gimbals.

These allow freedom of movement, up to three planes.

A gyro must have at least one gimbal for every axis around which you need to measure
movement.
A turn indicator measures only movement round the yaw axis thus has one gimbal.
An artificial horizon measures pitch and roll and thus has two gimbals.
An inertial navigation platform measures roll, pitch and yaw and has three (sometimes four)
gimbals.
As long as the gimbals are at right angles to each other, a constant angular rotation around the
gyro in space gives a constant rate of readout at the outer gimbal.
When the gimbals are mis-aligned, this relationship no longer holds.
This primarily affects direction indicators.

Classification of Gyroscopes

To classify gyros, we speak of planes of freedom.

The gyro itself rotates in one plane, about its spin axis.
There are then two other planes that we can use to define the gyro.
Both of them at right angles to the plane of rotation and at right angles to each other.
Gyros are split into four main categories:

Space Gyros

The simplest is the free or space gyroscope that is completely free to move in all three planes in
relation to its mounting system

Tied Gyros

These retain freedom of movement in all three planes but there is now an external influence
controlling the direction of the spin axis.
The spin axis is tied to the horizontal e.g Directional Indicator.

Earth Gyro

The spin axis is tied by the earth's gravity to remain in the earth vertical.
e.g. Artificial Horizon.
It also has the freedom of movement in three planes.

Rate Gyro

This one has a freedom of movement in the plane of rotation and one more plane (at 90° to the
first).
This can be used as a rate of turn indicator.
A developed form of rate gyro is a rate-integrating gyro and both have two planes of freedom.

Degrees of Freedom

Gyroscopes can also be classified by degrees of freedom, effectively the number of axes about
which gyro displacement can be measured.
It does not count the axis of rotation of the gyro as one of these.
Thus a two plane of freedom gyro is a single degree of freedom gyro.

Alignment of Gyroscopes

Orientation of a gyro in space can be defined by specifying the alignment of the axis of rotation.
A vertical gyro has its spin axis in the earth vertical.
A horizontal gyro has its axis in the earth horizontal.
However earth horizontal is a plane and not a line so this does not give sufficient information to
fully define the axis.
To fully define we have to add the azimuth information.
e.g. A horizontal gyro with its axis aligned with true north.

Gyroscopic Wander

The rigidity of a gyro system will tend to keep the spin axis fixed in space.
Any movement away from this fixed direction is called wander.
Gyro wander can be either drift or topple.
These are earth references.
Gyro drift occurs when the spin axis turns in the earth horizontal plane.
Gyro topple occurs when the axis tilts in any earth vertical plane.

Real Wander

Whenever the gyro spin axis moves away from its initial defined orientation in space the gyro is
said to suffer from real wander.
Real wander can be deliberately induced by applying an external correcting force e.g. alignment
of tied gyros.
Real wander can be caused by imperfections in the gyroscope, unbalanced gimbals or bearing
friction.
A perfect gyro with no external forces acting on it will not suffer from real wander.

Apparent Wander

Having said that perfect gyros do not suffer from real wander there are many occasions when
they appear to.
This is because our orientation in space has changed while the gyro's orientation has not.
This is apparent wander.
A Horizontal gyro at the equator with its axis aligned to the local meridian shows no apparent
drift as it is carried round on the rotating earth.

A Horizontal gyro at the North Pole shows an apparent drift of 15° per hour as the earth rotates
under it.
The apparent drift (zero at equator and 15° per hour at poles) is a function of Latitude.

So Apparent Drift = 15 x Sin (Latitude)° per hour.

A vertical gyro at the equator appears to become a horizontal gyro then becomes a vertical gyro
again as it is carried round on the rotating earth.

It is showing apparent topple at a rate of 15° per hour.

A Vertical gyro at the North Pole shows no apparent topple as the earth rotates under it.
The apparent topple (zero at poles and 15°/hr at equator) is a function of Latitude.

So Apparent Topple = 15 x Cos (Latitude)° per hour.

A gyro which begins as a horizontal gyro aligned with the local meridian at an intermediate
Latitude shows both apparent drift and apparent topple as it is carried around on the rotating
earth.
Its apparent drift is 15 x Sin (Lat) and its apparent topple is 15 x Cos (Lat) per hour.
Transport Wander

If a gyro is aligned to north on one part of the earth and then moved to another it will be out of
alignment.
This is due to convergency between the two points.
This is a form of apparent drift and is called "Transport Wander".
Flights north or south produce no transport drift but will affect the total apparent drift (due to
latitude change).
Flights to the east increase the total apparent drift (in the Northern Hemisphere) and those to
 the west will reduce it.

15. Explain working of NDB. Show me with diagrams.

Name all the errors.
Explain night effect error.
How much range reduction takes place due to this?
Explain what’s happening inside the device at the loop antenna during night error. Within
what distance from NDB can night error be ignored?

Non Directional Beacons and Automatic Direction Finding

Non Directional Beacons (NDB) are ground-based transmitters which transmit radio energy
equally in all directions. The airborne system in the aircraft is called the Automatic Direction
Finder (ADF). The indicator in the aircraft always points towards the tuned NDB (exceptions to
this will be discussed later in this chapter).

Principles of Operation The NDB transmitter is very simple. A RF oscillator provides a carrier
wave. This carrier wave is the NDB signal that is used by the airborne equipment (ADF) to
determine the direction of the transmitting station. A low frequency oscillator provides the
identification signal of the transmitting station or “ident”. The low frequency signal modulates the
carrier wave in the modulator.

Frequency LF/MF - 190 to 1750 KHz. In Europe the frequencies are normally between 225 to
455 KHz.

Emission Characteristics
Long Range Beacons NON A1A Short Range Beacons NON A2A

NDB and ADF

The Non Directional Beacon (NDB) sends out a signal in all directions.
It uses a vertical dipole aerial.
The aeroplane needs direction finding equipment i.e. ADF (Automatic Direction Finding) to find
the bearing.
NDBs are a medium range nav aid using frequencies from 190 KHz to 1750 KHz, in Europe
usually 200 KHz to 455 KHz.
These frequencies straddle the MF and LF bands but the system could also be described as
using hectometric and kilometric wavelengths or it could be described loosely as an MF or
hectometric aid because most of the frequencies are in one band.
Surface waves are the primary method of signal propagation giving theoretical ranges of 300
NM over land and over 600 NM over the sea.

Carrier Waves, Idents and the BFO

Navigational NDBs have an unmodulated carrier wave (ICAO classification N0N).
Station identification is transmitted at roughly ten second intervals.
Older systems interrupt the carrier wave (Keying) to send an unmodulated (but also inaudible)
Morse code ident (classified as A1A).
User will have also erratic indications while the signal is interrupted in this type of beacon.
To make the unmodulated parts of the signal audible, ADF equipment incorporates a
Beat Frequency Oscillator (BF0).
More modern systems imprint the ident onto the carrier wave by 'keying' an audible, AM signal,
in time with the Morse Code ident (classified A2A).

Beat Frequency Oscillator (BF0)

To make the unmodulated parts of the AlA signal audible, ADF incorporates a BF0.
This produces a signal slightly removed from the received frequency that is then mixed with it.
The mixing of the two frequencies produces an audible beat frequency, the difference of the
two.
e.g. a BFO would generate a signal of 402 KHz to match a received signal of 400 KHz.

The mixing or heterodyning of the two produces signals at 400 KHz, 402 KHz, 802 KHz and 2
KHz .
The beat frequency of 2 KHz is the audible tone.
Selecting the BFO on makes the N0N carrier wave audible and allows the A1A type of ident to
be heard.
BFO is not needed for an A2A signal which is already modulated to an audible frequency.

Loop Aerial

ADF systems use a loop shaped aerial to find the direction of an incoming signal.
When the loop is in line with the path of the radio waves the difference in phase between the
signals received on the two sides of the loop causes a current to flow.
When the aerial is at right angles to the direction of travel both sides receive the same phase
signal and no current flows.
If the aerial is rotated until no current flows we can therefore be sure it lies at right angles to the
wave movement.
The only thing we cannot know is whether the NDB lies in front of us or behind us.
This is the ambiguity that needs to be resolved.
If we plot the value of the induced current as the aerial is rotated we find a figure of eight shape
with two clearly defined null points and two less clearly defined maxima.
The diagram is a polar diagram.
The double null is the ambiguity as identified above.
To resolve the ambiguity a sense aerial is added to the system.

Sense Aerial

It receives signals from all directions.

The Cardioid
 When the two polar diagrams are combined the reception characteristics of the two aerials can
be added and subtracted as appropriate to produce a heart shaped polar diagram, this is called
a cardioid.
The cardioid has only one null point.
Rotating the loop aerial will rotate the null so that now when no signal is received by the
combined aerial the null is pointing directly at the beacon and the aerial combination will be in
line with the incoming signals.

Range

The range of a beacon is controlled primarily by its power.

A long range NDB would have a power output of about 10KW and a range over the sea in
excess of 500 NM.
A beacon designed for a range of 150 NM over the land would only need an output of 1KW.
A coarse formula (for approximate answers) to determine range is:
Max range = 3 x Square root of Power in Watts

The formula does not include the effect of ground conductivity or frequency.

To double the range requires four times the power.

Range of a beacon is not the same as its protected range.

It is highly unusual for the protected range to be greater than 200 NM.

Types of NDB Stations

There are three categories of NDB.
Locators

Low powered beacons at 15 to 40 watts with a rated coverage of between 10 and 25 nautical
miles.
Usually co-located with the ILS outer marker.

Homing and Holding NDBs

Aid to the transition from the en-route stage to the destination airfield and have a rated coverage
slightly less than 50 nautical miles.
Their typical power output will be up to 200 watts.

En-Route and Long Range NDBs

Aids to navigation with a rated coverage in excess of 50 nautical miles

Tend to be in the LF end of the allocated frequencies to benefit from longer surface waves.
16. Explain ILS.
What are the antennas used.
Where are they located on the ground?
Where is the DME antenna placed if its ILS/DME installation.
Explain false glide slope. Why does it happen? How can u avoid it? How will u know when flying
ILS approach if u r on false glide slope.

Instrument Landing System (ILS)

The instrument landing system is the primary precision approach facility for civil aviation. A
precision approach is defined as an approach where both glideslope and track guidance are
provided. ILS signals are transmitted continuously and provide pilot interpreted approach
guidance. When flying the ILS approach, the pilot descends with approach guidance to the
decision height (DH), at which point he takes the final decision to land or go around. All
installations must conform to the standards laid down in ICAO Annex 10 and an appropriate
performance category is allocated. Any exception to these standards are published in NOTAMs.
Many ILS installations use an associated DME to provide a more accurate and continuous
ranging facility than that provided by the markers. ILS installations may also be complemented
with a low power NDB, known as a locator beacon, the function of which is to provide guidance,
during intermediate approach, into the final approach path marked by the ILS. The ideal flight
path on an ILS approach is where the localiser plane and the glide slope plane intersect. To fly
this flight path, the pilot follows the ILS cockpit indications.

Principle of Operation The ILS consists of the following components:

Localiser The localiser transmitter and aerial system provide the azimuth guidance along the
along the extended runway centerline.
Glidepath The glidepath and its aerial system provide the approach guidance in the vertical
pane.
Marker Beacons Separate beacons (up to three) along the approach path
provide the aircraft with range check points on the approach (discussed in Chapter 9)

Frequency The localiser and glidepath operate on separate frequencies:

Localiser VHF - 108 to 112 MHz using the odd first decimals and the odd first decimals
plus 50 KHz.
108.10 MHz, 108.15 MHz, 108.30 MHz, 108.35 MHz etc
Glidepath UHF - 329.15 MHz to 335 MHz at 150 KHz spacing (The frequency band
allocated is 328.6 MHz to 335.4MHz - These figures do not have to be remembered) 329.15
MHz, 329.3 MHz, 329.45 MHz etc
The Localiser and glidepath frequencies are paired. The glidepath being automatically selected
when the ILS VHF frequency (the localiser) is selected.
Marker Beacons VHF - 75 MHz
Emission Characteristics A8W
The localiser and Marker beacons also radiate an A2A identifier
Localiser The localiser transmitter aerial is located in line with the runway centre line, at a
distance of approximately 300 metres from the “up-wind” end of the runway. The aerial, which is
of frangible construction, may be 20 metres wide and 3 metres high, and consists of a number
of dipole and reflector elements. The radio signal transmitted by the localiser aerial produces a
composite field pattern consisting of two overlapping lobes. The two lobes are transmitted on a
single ILS frequency and, in order to make the receiver distinguish between them, they are
modulated differently.

The lobe on the left-hand side is modulated by a 90 Hz tone. The lobe on the right hand side as
seen by the pilot making an approach is modulated by a 150 Hz tone.
A receiver located to the left of the centre line will detect more of the 90 Hz modulation tone and
relatively less of the 150 Hz modulation. This difference is called DDM (Difference in Depth of
Modulation) and it causes the vertical indicator needle of the ILS to indicate that a correction to
the right is necessary. Conversely, a receiver right of the centre line receives more 150 Hz than
90 Hz modulation and therefore, the needle will indicate that a correction to the left is
necessary.
With the needle in the centre the difference in depth of modulation is zero.
Because the beam of the ILS localiser is very directional unwanted side lobes are produced. To
ensure that the aircraft does not pick up a false localiser signal the basic pattern shown above is
covered with a clearance pattern. This changes the localiser signal to the one shown below.
COMBINED COURSE AND CLEARANCE RADIATION PATTERNS

Localiser Coverage The ILS localiser covers:

a) ± 10° of the centreline to 25 nm range
b) ± 35° of the centreline to 17 nm range

Localizers paired with steep angle Glideslope provide coverage in the following areas. From the
centre of the Localizer to distances of:
a) ± 10° of the centreline to 18 nm range
b) ± 35° of the centreline to 10 nm range

The coverage of the localiser in elevation is determined as follows:

a) First calculate point “P”, which is the higher of a point 600 metres above the threshold
and a point 300 metres above the highest point within the approach area.
b) Connect this point to the threshold.
c) Draw a line 7° above the horizontal.
d) The resulting shaded area corresponds to the localiser vertical coverage within its
horizontal coverage.
e) The vertical coverage extends from %° above the surface up to 7°.
f) The maximum field strength is directed along the centreline out to a range of 10 nm. If
an aircraft is outside the coverage of the course and clearance patterns, false localiser
signals can be received. In some cases these signals caused by side lobes can give
reverse indications.
g) The localiser signals are protected out to a range of 25 nm and up to a height of 6250 ft.
The localiser is checked for accuracy out to a range of 10 nm.
h) The above criteria should enable the aircraft to undertake the manoeuvres that are
necessary to capture the localiser course at the outer limit of the coverage pattern and
to carry out the subsequent descent on the glide path.

Glidepath The glidepath aerial is placed 300 metres upwind from the threshold and 150 metres
from the centre line. It is placed at the optimum touch down point at which the extension of the
glide path intersects the runway. This ensures adequate wheel clearance over the threshold and
over any other object or terrain during landing approach.
Glide path transmission is in the UHF band on 40 spot frequencies from 329.15 to 335 MHz.
UHF is used to produce an accurate beam. The transmission is beamed in the vertical plane in
two lobes similar to that of the localiser. The upper lobe has a 90 Hz modulation, while the lower
lobe has a 150 Hz modulation.
The DDM (Difference in Depth of Modulation) will energise the horizontal needle of the
instrument, so as to indicate whether the aircraft is in the 90 Hz lobe or in the 150 Hz lobe. In
this way, it gives the position of the centre line of the glide path. The line, along which the two
modulations are equal in depth, defines the centre line of the glide path. It is generally 3° from
the horizontal, but it could be adjusted to between 2° and 4° to suit the particular local
conditions. A glide slope much in excess of 3° requires a high rate of descent and is not
common in public transport operations.
In the vicinity of the landing threshold, the glide path becomes curved and gradually flattens.
This is of consequence when a fully automatic landing is considered. It is one of the reasons
why a Category III landing requires the use of a radio altimeter. The siting of the glide path
aerial and the choice of the glide path angle are dependent upon many interrelated factors:
a) Acceptable rates of descent and approach speeds for aircraft using the airfields.
b) Position of obstacles and obstacle clearance limits resulting.
c) Horizontal coverage
d) Technical siting problems
e) The desirability of attaining the ILS reference datum 50 feet above the threshold on the
centre line.
f) Runway length.

Glidepath Coverage The coverage in azimuth extends 8 degrees on either side of the localiser
centre line, to a distance of 10 nm
The coverage in the vertical plane extends from 0.450 to 1.75 0 where 0 is the nominal
glidepath angle above the surface (1.35° to 5.25° for a 3° glidepath). Remember that correct
signals are guaranteed only within the approved coverage zones and false indications can be
received outside these zones.

Use of the glidepath below 0.45 0, that is below 1500 ft QFE at 10 nm range (for a 3° glidepath)
should only be attempted when the Promulgated Glide Path Intercept Procedures requires the
aircraft to fly at this level. The aircraft should never fly below 0.3 0 (0.9° for a 3° glidepath) which
is 1000 ft at 10 nm range. When the procedure is designed to join a glidepath from above the
pilot must bear in mind that a false glidepath may exist at approximately 2 0 (discussed later in
this chapter).

Airborne Equipment The ILS airborne equipment consists of

a) A frequency control box
b) A VHF localiser receiver
c) A UHF glide path receiver
d) A 75 MHz marker beacon receiver, and
e) An ILS indicator.
Three separate aerials are included in the installation - one for each receiver.
Since all the marker beacons transmit on the same frequency, there is no need for a marker
beacon control box. Markers are automatically identified by an audio coded signal, by the
related transmission audio tone and a coloured light.
Frequency Pairing Both localiser and glidepath tuning are effected from a single control
unit. This is possible because of international agreementunder ICAO standards. Every
localiser frequency has paired glidepath frequency. Since the frequencies are paired, only the
correct localiser frequency need be selected, the glide path receiver will then be automatically
tuned to the appropriate UHF channel. The VHF navigation receiver panel is used to tune the
ILS frequency.
Localiser and Glidepath Receivers Once the localiser frequency has been tuned, both the
localiser and the glide path receiver are activated, and they send the received signal to the
indicator. The two receivers are similar to each other in that they both detect the modulations on
the carrier wave. The modulations (90 Hz and 150 Hz) are compared and the Difference in
Depth of Modulation (DDM) is measured. This output, which is in the form of a DC electrical
signal, is used to drive the pointers on the display. If the aeroplane is on the centre line, the 90
Hz and the 150 Hz signals will have the same amplitude and the indicator needle will be
centred. If the aircraft is not on the centre line, one signal will be stronger than the other,
dependant upon the position of the aircraft and the resultant DC output energises the needle
displacement. To indicate whether the received signals are adequate or not, a
warning system is incorporated into the receivers. A red warning flag appears on the ILS
indicator if the signal is not reliable. There are separate flags for the localiser and for the glide
path signals.
ILS Indicator The indicator consists of a dial, similar to the VOR indicator, but with an additional
needle. Localiser signals displace the vertical needle, while glide path signals displace the
horizontal needle. The same indicator is normally used both for ILS and VOR guidance.
When the localiser receiver detects that the 150 Hz signal is stronger, then a voltage is fed to
the localiser needle that moves it to the left. This indicates that the localiser centre line is to the
left of the aircraft on approach. If the 90 Hz signal then the voltage fed to the localiser needle
moves it to the right, indicating that the pilot has to turn right to get back on centre line.
Full-scale deflection will occur when the aircraft is displaced 2.5° or more from the centre line. In
other words, when tuned to a localiser frequency, the indicator is four times more sensitive than
it is when being tuned to a VOR (full scale deflection for a VOR corresponds to 10°). Unlike the
VOR, which gives the pilot a choice of 360 radials using the omni-bearing selector (OBS), the
localiser course is a single fixed beam. Once a localiser frequency is selected, all the needle
indications will refer exclusively to the localiser centre line. Consequently, the fact that the
instrument is fitted with the OBS has absolutely no significance and rotating it will have no effect
on the ILS indications. However, you should always turn the OBS to the correct inbound course
when flying the ILS. The localiser indicator does not give any heading information. It only gives
information regarding the geographical position of the aircraft. It displays how many degrees the
aircraft is displaced from the localiser centre line.
The diagram above shows only the vertical localiser needle, a full illustration with the glidepath
needle is below. The important features of the localiser needle are:
a) Full scale deflection is 2.5°
b) Each dot represents a deviation of 0.5°
c) A warning flag will appear when the signal is unusable

The horizontal needle of the indicator indicates the position of the glide path, relative to the
aircraft. The vertical glide path scale on the usual cockpit indicator consists of 5 dots above and
below the central position.
The full instrument has the horizontal glidepath needle, important features being:
a) Full scale deflection is only 0.7°
b) Each dot represents a deviation of 0.14°
c) As with the localiser a warning flag appears if the signal is unusable
If the 90 Hz signal is the stronger one, the aircraft is above the glide path and the indicator
needle is deflected down. This indicates that the aircraft must fly down to recapture the glide
path. Conversely, if the receiver detects a stronger 150 Hz signal, the needle will be made to
move up. This is known as a fly up indication. The glide path has a total depth of 1%°, making
the glide path indicator considerably more sensitive than the localiser indicator. This means that
for a full-scale deflection of the needle the aircraft will be at least 0.7° above or below the glide
path. A “half-scale” (2% dots) fly-up indication should be considered to indicate the maximum
safe deviation below the glide path.
Deviation from the glide path is referred to in terms of dots instead of degrees, in that there are
5 dots above it and 5 dots below it on the instrument. Very accurate control is required when
flying down a glide path. A more sophisticated instrument, used to fly an ILS approach, is the
horizontal situation indicator.
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) With the HSI, the course arrow must be manually aligned
with the localiser inbound course and the deviation bar is used for localiser guidance. A scale
alongside the instrument provides the glide path position.
ILS accuracy Up to now we have looked at the ILS as an instrument that provides assistance in
approaches to landing. This means that the ILS provides guidance down to a specified height
above the threshold. If the visibility at this point is good enough for landing, then the pilot may
legally land the aircraft. It is clear that if the existing weather does not permit the pilot to see the
visual references at the prescribed minima, the aircraft cannot land. Operators were not happy
about the prospect of delaying a flight or wasting time and fuel while holding overhead an
aerodrome and waiting for the weather to clear. Therefore, an improved ILS system was
required. In order to obtain these improvements, certain limitations of the system have to be
considered. The main problems come from bends and scallops in the beams.
a) Bending of the beam is a single angular displacement from the approach path
b) Scalloping is where the guidance beam direction varies from side to side of the intended
approach path.
These bends are produced by reflections from obstacles on and around the aerodrome such as
airport structures, vehicles, aircraft flying overhead the localiser aerial, etc. The ability to

use ILS installations for fully automatic landing has necessitated that ICAO lay down stringent
requirements and that constant improvement is made to both ground and airborne equipment.
These requirements concern the quality of the transmitted signal data, the suppression of
bending of the radio beams by improvement in aerial design in order to reduce unwanted
reflections.
False Beams Even if all the ILS ground equipment is strictly monitored, there are unavoidable
factors to consider. The first of these is the false signals. This problem is particularly associated
with the glide path transmission and occurs because of the aerial’s propagation characteristics.
The number of such false glidepaths produced at any ILS site depends on several factors, such
as the design of the aerial, transmission power, obstacles and other such factors. These false
glide paths occur at multiples of the nominal glide path and thus the first occurs at
approximately 6° above the horizontal for a glide path of 3° (2^). There will never be a false
glide path below the true one. Therefore, it is the recommended practice that when carrying out
an ILS approach, to lock onto the localiser first and then intercept the glide path from below.
Outside the localiser ‘protected area’, it is possible to encounter false localiser beams. The
angle from the actual centre line to the false beams will vary with the number of aerial elements.
Six elements produce a false beam at approximately 40° and 12 elements at 50° to 60°.
Localiser Back Beam Some localisers transmit in the opposite direction of the ILS inbound
course and the signal can be received when flying behind the aerial. This signal is called the
back beam and should normally not be used.
Some transmitters, however, are designed to radiate a back beam. This beam can provide a
back course approach to the reciprocal runway. It must be noted that when using a back course
you do not have the benefit of a glide path. Usually, back beams are less accurate than front
beams. They are not checked for accuracy unless they are a part of published procedure. Do
not use a back beam unless it has a published procedure.

Note that, when flying the localiser back beam approach, you must be very careful when using
the course selector. If you are using a conventional ILS indicator, the localiser needle will give a
“fly left” indication when you are left of the centre line and vice versa. In other words, you will
experience a reverse sensing. Such reverse sensing will occur regardless of course selector
setting.
Conversely, if you are flying an HSI equipped aircraft, you will get normal indication (i.e. “fly left”
when being to the right of the centre line) if the course selector is set to inbound track on the
localiser front beam. If the course selector is set to the back beam course, you will get reverse
sensing.

ILS Performance Categories A system of facilities performance categories has been

established to define the capability of a particular ILS system. These categories state that the
ILS must be capable of providing guidance from the coverage limit and as follows, for:
Category I to a height of 60 metres above the horizontal plane containing the threshold
Category II to a height of 15 metres above the horizontal plane containing the threshold
Category III with the aid of ancillary equipment when necessary, down to and along the runway.
ILS Operational Performance Categories A similar categorisation exists for operational
purposes and it is to these limits that the pilot flies. These categories establish practical weather
minima for an approach. As a pilot you must be familiar with the following ILS operational
minima.
ILS Cat I DH down to 200 feet, RVR 550 metres
ILS Cat II DH down to 100 ft, RVR 350m
ILS Cat IIIA DH 0 to 100 ft, RVR 200m
ILS Cat IIIB DH 0 to 50 ft, RVR 50- 200m
ILS Cat IIIC No external visual reference
Where a category I approach is flown reference is to the barometric altitude, where a category II
or III approach is flown reference is to the radio altimeter.
In a category I ILS approach, also called CAT I, the pilot may manually follow the ILS indications
down to the decision height (DH), which is not less than 200 feet. At that point, if visual contact
has been established, the landing can be made. If not, a go-around has to be initiated. Note that
the ILS coverage, which is described earlier in this chapter, refers to ILS category I.
Category II and III requirements are more stringent. ILS CAT I, although still widely used, is
gradually being replaced by CAT II & CAT III facilities. On a CAT II approach, the aircraft must
be flown by the autopilot down to the DH. From there, if visual contact has been made, the pilot
can make the landing. Otherwise, a go-around must be initiated. A CAT II approach can only be
made at an airport that is category II certified. The localiser and glide path transmissions must
meet stricter standards than for a CAT I system. The transmissions must be monitored and
failure indications must be available in the control tower. In addition, two RVR (Runway Visual
Range) transmissometers must be operating on the runway, and extensive lighting
requirements must be met. Finally, a CAT II approach requires an aeroplane whose CAT II
equipment has been certified by the regulatory authority.
Additionally, special training programmes must be certified and conducted for the flight crews.
For category III approaches the same criteria as those for CAT II are followed but with
additional, more stringent, requirements. This is because the aircraft must be provided with
guidance all the way down to the runway. The CAT III approach must be performed by the
autopilot.
The improvement in the ground equipment must be matched by improved performance of the
airborne equipment. To this end, operational performance categories have been established.
They correspond to the facility performance categories.
In accordance with its airborne equipment, an aircraft is certified in one of the listed categories.
Naturally, aircraft and airport performance categories are needed to conduct any of the
approaches. Remember that, in order to perform a CAT II or CAT III approach, not only must
the airport and the aircraft be properly equipped and checked, but so also must the flight crew.
Unqualified and untrained pilots are not permitted to carry out a precision approach.

Protection Range and Monitoring National and regional frequency plans have been
established by the ICAO and are adhered to by contracting states. These plans take many
factors into account, such as the sensitivity and selectivity of receivers, the channel spacing and
the geographical proximity of transmitters. In this way, interference between facilities is reduced
to negligible proportions. Within Europe, the congested radio frequencies have resulted in FM
transmissions from aerials that are close enough to allow side band interference to spill over
into the ILS frequencies. These can cause random displacement of the localiser so be aware.
Monitoring equipment automatically and continuously checks both localiser and glide path
transmitters. Whenever a shift or change in the basic transmission is sensed the monitors will
take action. If the ILS is category II or III the transmissions must be stopped within 2 seconds. If
category I the transmissions will be stopped within 6 seconds.
The localiser and glidepath monitors operate when:
a) The mean course line shifts by:
b) Category I ± 35 feet
c) Category II ± 25 feet
d) Category III ± 10 feet
e) The glidepath angle changes by > 0.075˚
f) 3° Glidepath 0.225°
g) A reduction in power of 50% or more in any transmission
h) If a monitor operates then the standby unit will be used, before this happens:
i) All radiation will stop
j) The identification will stop
k) For a Category II or III operation the system may allow degradation to a lower category
operation.
Use of ILS
ILS Identification Because the localiser and glide path frequencies are paired, selecting a
localiser frequency automatically activates the glide path receiver so that the corresponding
glide path signal is automatically received. The ILS must be identified before use. The
identification is transmitted on the localiser frequency and is amplitude modulated by a 1020 Hz
(A2A transmission) tone. A two or three letter Morse code transmitted at a rate of
seven words per minute. The letter “I” may precede the identification. When an ILS is
undergoing maintenance or is being used for test purposes:
a) The identification will be completely removed, or
b) The coding is replaced by a continuous tone.
In both cases the ILS must not be used.
Flying the Localiser When initiating the approach, the localiser indicator shows the position of
the aircraft in relation to the centre line and that no heading information is provided. Thus the
term “follow the needle” is only valid when flying inbound within the coverage area. For an
aircraft on approach, the localiser needle indicates which way the aeroplane should move to
regain the centre line. If the localiser needle is to the right, then the aircraft should be flown to
the right. To regain the centre line, fly towards the needle. The aim is to fly a heading that will
 maintain the aircraft on the centre line. If a crosswind exists, a wind correction angle (WCA) will
be required and the aircraft heading will differ slightly from the published inbound course.
The localiser beam narrows as the runway is approached. Therefore, corrections should
become smaller and smaller.

Flying the Glidepath The horizontal glide path needle should be flown in the same way as the
localiser needle. To regain the glide path fly towards the needle. The needle is your glide path. If
the glide path needle is below centre, you are too high and a steeper descent must be initiated.
Remember that the closer the aircraft is to the threshold the more dangerous a high descent
rate. If the aircraft is not properly established on the glide path then the approach should be
stopped. Do not continue to hunt the glide, if in doubt carry out a missed approach.
With an angular depth of only 1.4° (0.7° above and below), the glide path needle is three times
more sensitive than the localiser is and 15 times more sensitive than the VOR. When following a
glide path, the rate of descent is your reference, so the vertical speed indicator becomes
important. The vertical speed should be determined before starting the descent on the glide
path. Instrument approach plates usually give the rate of descent related to the ground speed of
the aircraft during the approach. As a ‘rule of thumb’ or guide, the rate of descent (in feet per
minute) may be calculated as half the ground speed, in knots, with a zero added. This is valid
for a glide path of 3°. If your aircraft has a ground speed of 120 kts during final approach, you
would have to fly the glide path using 600 feet per minute descent rate.
As a general rule, use the pitch attitude to control the glide path and the throttle to control the
airspeed. When flying the ILS procedure the pilot has to continuously monitor all the
instruments, and follow both the ILS needles at the same time. This phase of flight requires a
great deal of accuracy and attention. Look at the indications of the needles relative to the
aircraft’s position. The same rules apply when using the horizontal situation indicator, but
naturally the localiser tracking is simplified. Normally the HSI has a scale along either side of the
instrument, on which glide path information is presented. As you have seen, a lot of instruments
are involved in an ILS approach: The localiser and glide path indicators, the directional gyro, the
airspeed indicator, the vertical speed indicator, and the altimeter. Lately, there has been a
tendency to group all these instruments into a single display.

ILS Without Glidepath If glide path information is not available, either because of
equipment failure on the ground or glide path receiver failure in the aircraft, the ILS
automatically becomes a localiser approach. In some cases, ILS installations may be purposely
commissioned without glide slope.
Since no vertical guidance is provided, localiser approaches are non-precision approaches.
They are similar to VOR approaches except for the fact that a localiser course is four times
more sensitive than a VOR course. In addition, localiser approaches normally include marker
range indicators. The minimum descent height (MDH) for a localiser approach will never be
lower than 250 feet, whereas the DH for ILS with glide path can be 200 feet (ILS category I).
The next two pages show the approaches to Coventry on Runway 23. The first plate is for a
normal ILS approach. The second plate is for the localizer only approach.

The OCA on the localiser only approach for a Category A aircraft is 635 feet. The Category A
aircraft OCA for the ILS on the previous page is 431 feet. The difference occurs because a
precision approach such as an ILS allows the aircraft to a lower DH than the localiser only non-
precision approach where a MDA is used.

21.What is gain?

Antenna gain:
The ratio usually expressed in decibels, of the power required at the point of a loss free reference
antenna (Isotropic antenna) to the power supplied to the input of the given antenna to produce, in
the given direction, the same field strength or the same power flux density at the same distance.

22. What’s duct propagation?

Duct Propagation Under certain abnormal climatic conditions transmissions on a frequency
greater than 50 MHz can be received at ranges in excess of the quasi-optical expected.

The conditions that cause this abnormal propagation are:

a) A temperature inversion
b) A rapid decrease in humidity with height
This forms a duct between the earth and a few hundred feet above the surface.
Radio waves have a wavelength that is small compared with the duct height. This allows the duct to
refract the wave back to earth. The wave is then reflected by the earth’s surface back to the
duct ceiling. A series of these refraction/reflection hops occur and thus the wave can be
received well in excess of the quasi-optical range. The same conditions can occur when there is
an inversion aloft.

These conditions are normally associated with large high pressure systems; a condition
which is a regular feature in the tropics.

Which freq band?

The part of the frequency spectrum which is of interest to the pilot is further sub-divided
below.
VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF

26. What’s yaw damper?

Yaw Damping

The stability of the aircraft in straight flight and in turns depends on the interaction between its
inherent Directional Stability and itsSideslip or Lateral Stability.
In straight flight it is normal to require good directional stability so as to hold a steady heading.
In a turn current certification rules require that the aircraft has no worse than neutral lateral
stability.
This means that the aircraft will hold its bank angle or roll out of the turn if the controls are
released.
In a bank directional stability works against lateral stability (trying to take the aircraft into
a Descending Spiral).
The final design chosen is therefore a careful balance between directional and lateral stability.
Too much directional stability is bad in turns.
Too much lateral stability leads to continuous roll and yaw in straight flight (dutch roll).
The inherent lateral and directional stability's of an aircraft are not constant throughout the full
flight envelope.
The inherent lateral and directional stability's of an aircraft are not constant throughout the full
flight envelope.
At high TAS the directional stability decreases as aerodynamic damping on the fin decreases.
At low speed, in swept wing aircraft, the lateral stability increases sharply.
Therefore a need arises for the stability to be artificially modified.
This is done by rudder control and is called yaw damping.

27. What is SSB? Why is it required?

28. What’s amplitude and freq modulation? Give some examples of where is it used?

Modulation: The process of impressing intelligence (on information to be transmitted) over

carrier frequency (RF wave) is known as modulation.
Common modulation methods:
a) Amplitude modulation: In this method, the amplitude of carrier is varied in conformation with
the amplitude of audio modulating signal, keeping the carrier frequency constant.
b) Frequency modulation: It is achieved by varying the frequency of the carrier in accordance
with the change in the amplitude of the audio, keeping the amplitude of the carrier constant.
In Amplitude Modulation double side band (upper and lower) contains duplicate information.
Lower and upper side bands are mirror images of each other. Whereas single side band (SSB)
saves over two third of power by suppression of carrier and one side band. Further SSB signal
required half the RF spectrum space taken by AM signal. In AM transmission selective fading
takes place that does not occur in SSB transmission.

Radio Frequency Modulation

The frequency of the radio wave on its own is not audible.

Information to be transmitted must be laid on top of the basic frequency (the carrier wave)
before transmission. This is modulation.
Then it is to be decoded on reception. This is demodulation.

Amplitude Modulation and Sidebands

It is to vary the amplitude of the carrier wave to transmit information.

Radio wave now (after amplitude modulation) has the carrier wave frequency and also the
intelligence frequencies both above and below the line.
Three frequencies are transmitted together (original carrier wave, carrier wave + intelligence,
carrier wave - intelligence)
The two new frequencies are called sidebands.
The intelligence is duplicated on the sidebands.
So it is possible to reduce the amount of space taken up by the transmission, the bandwidth, by
not transmitting the carrier wave and one of the sidebands.
This also reduces the power required by the transmitter.
Electrical systems that do this are said to produce single sideband (SSB) transmissions when
only the sideband is suppressed.
When the carrier wave is also removed then "Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier".
HF Volmet and two-way communications both use SSB transmissions with suppressed carrier
waves.

Frequency Modulation

In the frequency modulated (FM) signal, the frequency is varied.

An FM receiver will pick up the same interference and static with the signal as an AM receiver.
However it has the capability to clip the signal to remove any extraneous variations in
amplitude.
The variations in frequency which carry the intelligence are unaffected
Thus an FM audio signal will produce a high fidelity reproduction of the original without
interference from static.
With frequency modulation the mixture of frequencies is much more complex than AM and the
bandwidth is much wider.
FM sidebands are wider than AM.
An FM transmission will require more power and more than twice the bandwidth of an
equivalent single sideband AM signal.
Due to greater bandwidth occupied by a station, FM signals are restricted to low power.
Therefore the ranges are short.
Reason is to avoid congesting the airwaves.
For FM More complex receiving equipment is required.
Pulse Modulation

Information such as morse signals can be transmitted by interrupting (keying) the carrier wave.
This sends a series of dots and dashes.
More complex systems can send digitised information in a binary code.

Side bands: Side bands are additional frequencies which occur when ever a carriers modulated
by a frequency lower than' itself, particularly audio frequencies.
When a carrier wave is amplitude modulated, the resultant radiation consists of three
frequencies made up as follows:
Carrier frequency
Carrier frequency + audio frequency
Carrier frequency - audio frequency
All these frequencies travel together and the new frequencies are called 'side bands'

Upper and lower side bands: Suppose a carrier frequency of 500 kHz is being amplitude
modulated by audio tone of 2 kHz, the resultant side frequencies are 498 kHz and 502 kHz. The
former (498 kHz) is called lower side band and the latter (502 kHz) is called upper side band.
The complete range, from 498 to 502 kHz (4 kHz) in this case is called 'band width'; In the
process of modulation, it is the side bands and not the carrier which carry the intelligence.
Therefore, the receiver must be capable of admitting an adequate range of frequencies on
either side of the carrier when the frequency is being tuned in.

Single side band transmission: The carrier wave itself contains no Intelligence and therefore it
need not be transmitted. Further each side band taken alone contains all information present in
the modulated wave (mirror image). Then it is possible to convey the intelligence by transmitting
on a single side band and suppressing both carrier and other side band.

29. Diff betn VOR and DVOR?

Why is it called Doppler?
How is freq modulation used in DVOR?

VOR
VHF Omni-directional Radio Range operates in the VHF band. A VOR transmitter from
ground transmits two separate signals as follows:

Reference Signal: is a omni directional continuous wave transmission on the station's allocated
frequency. It carries a 9960 Hz sub-carrier which is frequency modulated at 30Hz. Being an
omni - directional radiation, its polar diagram is a circle. This means, that at a given range from
the transmitter, the same phase will be detected by an aircraft's receiver on all bearings around
it. In the receiver, the 30Hz component of this transmission is used as a reference (or datum) for
the purpose of measuring the phase difference.

Variable or directional signal: This again is transmitted on the station frequency and the
radiated pattern produces a polar diagram of rotating figure of 8. And by rotating 30 times per
second, the signal is given the character of a 30Hz amplitude modulation. This means that the
received signal will rise to a maximum and fall to zero value 30 times a second.

Derivation of phase difference: the 30Hz FM reference signal is synchronized 30 revolution/

sec rotating directional AM signal (limacon) such that
i) The two 30 Hz signals are in phase to an aircraft's VOR receiver when it is due
magnetic north of VOR beacon, and
ii) The phase difference measured at any other point will equate to aircraft's
magnetic bearing from VOR.
It is allotted freqs from 108 to 117.975 MHz specifically; VOR is allotted even first decimal freqs
from 108 to 112 MHz and all freqs at 50 KHz spacing from 112 to 117.975 MHz, odd for ILS
localizer.
In the aircraft the system comprises of OBS, CDI, Sense Indicator and Heading Needle.
Accuracy is gen + 2°.
Doppler VOR or DVOR is the latest technology in use.

What do you know about Cone of Confusion over the VOR station?

VOR radiates at an approx angle of 80 degrees to grnd, which implies that there is a cone
above the VOR station where signals are weak and conflicting.
In this region, the Sense Indicator in the aircraft flips up and down and the Deviation Indicator
flips side to side.
This causes erratic readings in the cockpit.
When this happens, it means the aircraft is passing the VOR station. This cone over the VOR
station is called Cone of Confusion.
If DME is collocated with VOR, aircraft DME equipment will read height AGL over the VOR in
NM.

TYPES:

DVOR/Doppler: Lesser site errors. Conventional airborne equipment compatible.

VOT: Ground Test VOR. Indication 180 ± 4° To (or 360 ± 4°From).

TVOR: Low powered for arrival/ departure.

BVOR: Weather broadcast.

VORTAC: Co-located VOR and TACAN.

PVOR: Precision VOR.

Why is DME collocated with Glide Path and VOR?

DME is paired with VOR to ease pilot workload and reduce chances of error.
The collocation of DME with Glide Path is to provide accurate range to touchdown.

What indication will you get in the cockpit while passing over outer marker?
Blue light indication along with 2 dashes per second tone which is audio modulated on 400 Hz.
Doppler VOR: Doppler VORs are second generation of VORs the main aim is to improve
accuracy of the signals. In the DVOR, system the reference signal is transmitted from Central
aerial and is amplitude modulated. The variable signal is transmitted from system of 50 aerials
encircling the central aerial and is frequency modulated.

TVOR Uses the even first decimal and even first decimal + 50 KHz up to 112 MHz,
108.00 MHz, 108.05 MHz, 108.20 MHz, 108.25MHz etc
ILS Uses the odd first decimal and odd first decimal + 50 KHz up to 112 MHz, 108.10 MHz,
108.15 MHz, 108.30 MHz, 108.35 MHz etc
Airways VOR The remainder of the frequency band 112 MHz to 117.95 MHz at 50 KHz spacing

Designated Operational Coverage (DOC) VOR operates in a range where the signals are line
of sight. So the line of site formula can be used to calculate the maximum range a signal can be
received. In The AIP the VORs are listed and with this are given a maximum range, altitude and
bearings where reliable signals can be obtained. As with the promulgated range for an NDB the
VOR should only be used with confidence within the DOC. VORs on the same frequency have
to be spaced apart by at least 500 nm to ensure that they do not cause mutual interference. The
DOC is applicable for both day and night operations as the VHF wave is not affected by
returning sky waves like the NDB.

Accuracy A number of sources account for the total accuracy of a VOR:

Site Error Caused by the nature of the terrain or obstacles in the vicinity of the transmitter,
course displacement errors are limited to ± 1°. This site error is monitored as stated earlier.

Propagation Error Caused by the travel of the signal over terrain or obstructions these errors
are in the region of ± 1°.

Airborne Equipment Error The tolerances of the equipment in the aircraft. Normally no more
than ± 3°.
The normal accuracy of the VOR can be said to be ± 5°.

Test VOR Certain airports have VOT transmitters installed these are VOR test transmitters and
allow a pilot to check the airborne equipment on the ground. The test can be conducted at any
position on the aerodrome:
a) Tune the VOT frequency
b) Centre the needle on the Course Deviation Indicator (to be discussed in the next
chapter)
c) The bearing indicates 180° with a TO flag
d) 000° with a FROM flag
e) If the indications are not within ± 4°, the aircraft installation should be repaired.
Doppler VOR CVORs suffer from reflections from objects in the vicinity of the site. It was found
that these errors could be reduced if the horizontal aerial dimensions were increased. This was
found to be impracticable as the CVOR uses a mechanical rotating aerial and so a new system
had to be devised.

The Doppler VOR is the second generation VOR, providing improved signal quality and
accuracy. A fundamental change is that the reference signal of the DVOR is amplitude
modulated, while the variable signal is frequency modulated. This means that the modulations
are opposite as compared to the conventional VORs so the variable signal rotates anticlockwise
so as to maintain the same phase relationship at the receiver. Because the frequency-
modulated signal is less subject to interference than the amplitude modulated signal the
received signals provide a more accurate bearing determination.

The Doppler effect is created by “electronically rotating” the variable signal. Circular placed
aerials (diameter 44 ft), rotate at a speed of 30 revolutions per second. The diameter of the
circle is 13.4 metres, making the radial velocity of the variable signal 1264 m/s. This causes a
Doppler shift, making the frequency increase as the signal is rotated towards the observer and
decrease as it rotates away with 30 full cycles of frequency variation per second. This results in
an effective FM of 30 Hz. A receiver situated at some distance in the radiation field continuously
monitors the transmitter. When certain prescribed deviations are exceeded, either the
identification is switched off, or the complete transmitter is taken off the air. This is similar to the
CVOR.
The VOR receiver does not know if it is receiving a signal from a CVOR or a DVOR and the pilot
treats both types in the same way.
Reference Signal Variable Signal
CVOR Frequency Modulated Amplitude Modulated
DVOR Amplitude Modulated Frequency Modulated

47. Tell me another SSR instrument onboard the aircraft? (ans. DME)
48. What are the errors of DME?
Which type of propagation does it use?
Range given by which formula?
Overhead the beacon what range information will DME give?

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

DME is a secondary radar providing the pilot with an accurate slant range from a ground
transmitter. Normally paired with VOR the combination provides the standard for ICAO short-
range navigation systems (know as rho-theta). More recent uses see the DME paired with ILS
and MLS to give range from touchdown during a precision approach.
a) The interrogator on board the aircraft transmitting an interrogation signal, and
b) The ground based transponder (transponder meaning a transmitter that is responding to
an interrogation)
The interrogation signal from the aircraft and the response are on different frequencies.
Frequency UHF - 960 to 1215 MHz Emission Characteristics P0N
Aircraft Equipment The airborne unit (interrogator) consists of:
a) An omni-directional blade aerial
b) A transmitter
c) A receiver
d) A time measuring device, and
e) A tracking unit

Frequency Allocation Interrogator and transponder operating frequencies are grouped into
pairs, the two frequencies being 63 MHz apart. The airborne interrogator uses frequencies from
1025 MHz to 1150 MHz for transmissions, while the ground based transponder answers on
frequencies in two groups, 962 MHz to 1024 MHz (low) and from 1051 MHz to 1213 MHz high).
Jittered PRF If two aircraft transmit to a DME at the same time. The replies are on the same
frequency. If both signals received by the aircraft are the same how can any differentiation of
the correct reply be made. Which aircraft is being replied to?

The equipment in the aircraft “jitters” the PRF before transmission. This random PRF is unique
to the aircraft. When the ground station replies it manufactures exactly the same PRF reply for
the aircraft. Any reply taken by the airborne equipment, which does not match the PRF of the
initial transmission, is rejected. The responder will now respond to the new rate and since the
interrogator PRF is randomly varied, only the responses to that interrogation will have the same
random variation of PRF. Within the airborne receiver the ‘tracking unit’ looks for responses
around the anticipated time interval that is compatible with the current range from the ground
responder. Effectively a gate is created and only responses that arrive within that gate are
considered. The receiver then determines a match between the PRF of the response and those
that were transmitted. Once this match is achieved, the time difference is measured and,
allowing for responder fixed delay, a range is derived. This is tracking mode.

Reflected Transmissions The advantage of using secondary radar is that reflected

transmissions from the ground or cloud will not be processed by the aircraft equipment, as the
frequency of reply is incorrect.

Beacon Saturation Since the ground based responder beacon is limited to a maximum PRF of
2700 pps and interrogations occur at 24 - 30 pps (27 pps average), it follows that up to 100
aircraft may be handled by one DME beacon.

VOR/DME Association

Associated beacons are beacons with the same ident.

For VORs and DMEs to be associated they must be less than 100ft (30m) apart if used as a
terminal aid.

If used for any other purpose they must be less than 2000ft (600m) apart.

Associated TACANs and VORs are called VORTACs.

When beacons are associated the three letter Morse ident is sent every seven and a half
seconds.

One comes from the DME, the next three from the VOR.
The pitch of the DME ident is often higher than the VOR ident.

If beacons fail to meet these criteria they may be given similar idents.

A DME within 6NM of an en-route VOR might have the last letter of its ident changed to Z.

e.g. the VOR ident might be LIP and the DME LIZ.

Beacons that are not associated may still be frequency paired (if considered useful).

Flight Overhead the DME When an aircraft passes directly overhead a DME station, the DME
will indicate the altitude of the aircraft in nautical miles. For instance, if the aircraft passes at an
altitude of 40 000 ft, the indication will be about 6.6 nm.
There is a cone of silence directly above the ground station. However, the arithmetic unit
in the aircraft will remember the last computed data and continue to indicate the altitude for
some time.

Accuracy The DME is extremely accurate. ICAO prescribes a maximum system error of ± 0.25
nm (370 metres) or ± 1.25% of the slant range on 95% of occasions whichever is the greater.

Range a2 + b2 = c2

20. Explain radar basic theory.

Types of radar (primary/secondary).

Basic Radar Theory

Introduction Radar is derived from the expression radio detection and ranging. It may be defined
as any system employing radio to detect the presence of objects and to determine their position
and movement.
Radar Frequencies Radar occupies the frequency bands from VHF upwards. Higher
frequencies are used because:
a) They are free from external noise
b) Narrow beams operate more efficiently with a short wavelength
c) Primary radar use pulses, high frequencies produce short pulses
d) The efficiency of reflection depends upon the size of the target in relation to wavelength.
High frequencies are reflected more efficiently

Principles A transmitter sends out, via the aerial, a brief pulse of radio energy. Every 6.2
microseconds (^s) this pulse will travel 1 nautical mile. If this pulse strikes a target, a small
proportion of the radio energy will be reflected back to the aerial. The aerial picks up this
reflected energy and passes it to the receiver. If the time of travel is known then the range can
be calculated.

Pulse Radars Pulse radars are employed as:

a) Primary radars - ATC surveillance radars, Airborne weather radars
b) Secondary radars - DME and SSR
c) Doppler
The radar transmits energy in very short bursts of high energy. Timing the pulse yields a direct
measurement of the range and requires a sensitive receiver. The transmission, travel and
reception of the pulse must be achieved before the next pulse is transmitted. This will then
ensure that we have an unambiguous target.
Primary Radar A primary radar relies on the weak reflections from a passive target. The
effectiveness of the radar depends upon the transmitter power and the receiver sensitivity.

Secondary Radar Relies on the target co-operating with the transmitter. The target transmits a
reply signal to an interrogatory signal such as in SSR and DME. The interrogation and reply are
usually on different frequencies.

Secondary radar has both advantages and disadvantages over a primary radar:

Advantages
a) Primary radars require much more power to achieve the same range
b) Target size and aspect are irrelevant because the target transmits the response
c) Responses on the secondary radar are much more reliable
d) Information can be encoded to give the transmitter and receiver information
e) Clutter on the radar screen can be eliminated

Disadvantages
a) The radar requires the co-operation of the target
b) Bearing resolution can be inferior
c) Side lobes can be a problem at short range
d) Beacon saturation can be a problem

Types of Radar

1) Pulse Radar

Pulse radar sends out a short burst of energy and then determines the range of the target from
the time it takes the pulse to return.
It has its limitations regarding its maximum and minimum ranges.
Pulse radar uses a single aerial to both transmit and receive.

2) Continuous Wave Radar

Continuous wave systems avoid some of the problems of pulse radar but as there are no pulses
and echoes as such, a different system must be used to determine range.
So the frequency is cycled up and down at the transmitter.
The frequency of the returning signal will indicate how long ago it was transmitted and therefore
give an indication of the range of the target.
Continuous wave radar has no minimum range limitation.

Pulse Recurrence Frequency (PRF) This is the rate at which pulses are transmitted by the
radar. The units used are pulses per second (pps). The maximum PRF is determined by the fact
that each pulse must be able to reach the most distant target and return before the next pulse is
transmitted. Otherwise there is a possibility of ambiguous range measurement.
Pulse Recurrence Interval (PRI) The time interval between pulses. The units are normally
microseconds. The PRI is used to determine the maximum range of the radar. The relationship
between PRI and PRF is simple.

Pulse Width (PW) The duration of the pulse. This determines the minimum range of a radar.
The pulse must travel half its distance before it hits a target and returns to the radar. Otherwise
the radar will still be transmitting the same pulse.

Secondary Radar The principles of operation of primary radar and some of the factors which
affect a radar’s performance have been illustrated. Some of the effects can be minimised by
using Secondary Radar techniques. The principle of measuring range from a time delay is still
applicable, but the target plays an active role.
The interrogating radar unit sends out a pulse (interrogation pulse). When this pulse is detected
at the target, it triggers a transmitter to respond, sending a signal back to the interrogator. This
signal will be stronger than an echo, will not be dependent on how well the target has reflected
the energy and could be coded with additional information.

31. What SSR? Diff betn mode A, C and S?

Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)

The primary radar element of the ATC Surveillance Radar System provides detection of suitable
targets with good accuracy in bearing and range measurement but with the following limitations:
Targets that are too small, built of a poor radar reflector material or have a poor aspect may not
be detected.

a) Targets cannot be identified directly

b) Radar energy suffers attenuation (losses) both on the path out to the target and on the
return path of the reflections.
To overcome these problems, a Surveillance Radar installation will often consist of both a
primary radar and a secondary radar, the latter being known as a Secondary Surveillance Radar
(SSR). The role of the SSR is to complement the primary radar element.

Principles of Operation SSR operates on secondary radar principles. An SSR “link” uses one
ground-based transmitter and receiver, called the interrogator and one airborne transmitter and
receiver, referred to as the ATC transponder, or simply ‘transponder’. The interrogator transmits
pulses. A receiver within the interrogator’s beam receives these pulses and decodes them. The
transponder then responds by transmitting a pulse train (many pulses in a stream) back to the
interrogator. The pulse train contains information according to what the interrogator requested.
All interrogations are transmitted at a frequency of 1030 MHz and all transponder responses are
transmitted at a frequency of 1090 MHz.

Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) provides ATC with information's regarding an aircraft
call sign, altitude, speed, track history, destination and type of emergency when appropriate
SSR requires an aircraft to be fitted with a transmitter/receiver called a "Transponder". The pilot
will set a FOUR figure code allocated by ATC and the transponder will transmit the information
automatically, in pulse coded form, when it is interrogated by the ground station called the
"Interrogator".
When SSR is used in conjunction with primary radar, the advantages of both the systems are
realized. The two radars are usually' co-located. The ground station transmits/interrogates on
1030 MHz and receives on 1090 MHz. The Aircraft receive on 1030 MHz and
Transmits/Transponds on 1090 MHz.
The SSR ground antenna transmits a narrow beam in the horizontal plane, while the aircraft
transmits omni-directionally, i.e., the radiation pattern is circular around the aircraft.
i) Mode A = an interrogation to identify the aircraft
ii) Mode C = an interrogation to obtain automatic height read out
iii) Mode S = 5 stands for selective addressing and is compatible with A and C modes. It is data
exchange using communication protocols.

Special codes: 7700 Emergency, 7600 Radio failure 7500 hi-jacking.

SPI Code A special “IDENT” feature is utilised in order to allow ATC to confirm an aeroplane’s
identity. The pilot activates this when instructed by ATC. When the IDENT button is pushed, an
additional pulse is transmitted 4.35 ms after the second framing pulse. At the controller’s
display, the ident pulse will cause the particular aeroplane’s echo to brighten or flash. This lasts
for approximately 15 - 30 seconds.

Fruiting Although ground based interrogators have a nominal range of approximately

200 nm, the propagation is “line of sight” and it is not unusual for aeroplanes, especially at
cruising altitudes over well developed ATC regions, to be within range of two or even more ATC
interrogators. Since all SSR units operate at the same frequency, this can result in an
aeroplane’s response to one interrogator
being detected by other ground units. Such responses will be out of synchronisation and will
cause random responses to appear. This is called Fruiting. Electronic circuits are employed (de-
fruiters) to remove this effect but they do not remove all random responses and the situation
becomes worse as traffic density increases.
Garbling Another problem is known as garbling. This occurs when targets are close to one
another e.g. in a holding pattern or progressing along an airway one above the other. If both
aircraft are in the interrogation beam at the same time and are close enough to each other, the
ground interrogator will be unable to differentiate between them and will record only one
confused return.
Although fruiting and garbling effects can be controlled at this time, future traffic growth will
place more and more stress on the system and the controllers.

Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)

It is a secondary radar system requiring active participation from the aircraft and the ground
system.

It allows the basic primary radar information which gives the aircraft position to be
supplemented with an identification code and an altitude readout.

Basic SSR operates in Modes A and C.

More modern systems use Mode S.

Mode S SSR is also used by the Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS or ACAS) that
allows aircraft to identify potential collisions without assistance from air traffic control.

Principle of Operation

In an SSR system the ground station is the interrogator and the aircraft carries the transponder.

The ground station can ask questions by sending out trios of pulses on 1030 MHz with one of
three spacings that will be recognised by the aircraft.

The ground transmission is beamed, usually with a phase array aerial, and therefore sidelobes
exist.

The aircraft will respond to the interrogation with a longer train of pulses on 1090 MHz according
to the cockpit selections.

The aircraft reply is omnidirectional.

Mode A and C

Interrogation

A reply to a sidelobe would cause confusion about the aircraft's bearing.

Pulse 2 is a standard 2 micro seconds behind pulse 1.

This is used for sidelobe suppression.

The interval between pulses 1 and 3 of the ground interrogation dictates the sort of question that
is asked or mode.
The two standard modes and their pulse spacing are as follows:

Mode A - 8 micro seconds - Civil and military identification

Mode B - 17 micro seconds - Civil identification

Mode C - 21 micro seconds - Altitude reporting

Transponder

The aircraft's response on 1090 MHz is a stream of pulses 20.3 micro seconds long framed by
two frame pulses.

Between the frame pulses there is space for 12 additional pulses, known as a 12 bit code.

The pulse train is effectively a binary code in which 2^12 or 4096 possible number combinations
can be sent.

Aircraft altitude is taken straight from digitisers on the back of the altimeter and is independent
of the subscale setting.

It is always referenced to 1013.25mb and is transmitted in the 12 bit code accurate to the
nearest 100ft.

i.e. up to +/- 50ft from the actual aircraft height.

Some ground equipment has the capability to adjust this when received to a QNH based altitude
for display on the radar screen.

An additional identification pulse can be transmitted 4.35 micro seconds after the pulse train
which causes the return on the radar screen to bloom for 25 seconds.

This extra pulse is known as ident or Special Position Identification (SPI).

Special Codes and Procedures

7700 - Emergency.

7600 - Failure of two way commurications.

7500 - Unlawful interference, hijacking or unlawful interception.

2000 - Aircraft entering an FIR from an area where no code has been assigned or oceanic
traffic.

The controller will check that the Mode C readout is within 300ft (200 with some European
states) of the assigned level.

If the readout is more than 300ft in error the controller may request that altitude reporting is de-
selected.

If this fails then you squawk Mode A with the code 0000 to indicate a system malfunction.

Advantages of SSR

SSR has a number of advantages over Primary Radar.

1) Since RF energy is only transmitted one way by the ground radar and transponder
respectively, both transmitters can be smaller and lighter than those used in Primary Radar.

2) By using a response of coded pulses it is possible to obtain more information from a target
than just range and bearing.

3) Secondary radars use different frequencies for transmission and reception therefore they are
not susceptible to reflections from very active clouds.
Mode A/C Errors

Fruiting

If aircraft are in range of two ground interrogators they may reply to both. The received replies
may be for the wrong station, this is called fruiting.

Garbling

If two aircraft are on the same bearing from the ground station and closer together than 1.7NM
they may produce overlapping replies to the ground interrogator. This is garbling.

Both fruiting and garbling are much reduced when mode S transponders are used.

Mode S

Whereas Mode A can only handle 4096 identities, Mode S has additional 16 777 214 twenty
four bit Aircraft Addresses (AAs) to remove any possibility of ambiguity.

Mode S also stores and is able to transmit on request hundreds of aircraft parameters and it has
a comms datalink capability.

Mode S uses the same frequencies as Mode A and C systems and both the interrogators and
transponders are backwards compatible.

i.e. A modern ground station can still interrogate a Mode A aircraft and a Mode S aircraft will still
give a Mode A and C response to an old-style interrogation.

Mode S Interrogators

The architecture of the interrogation element of Mode S is different from earlier systems.

The time interval between pulses 1 and 2 of both systems remains at 2 micro seconds but,
whereas the time interval between pulses 1 and 3 of the standard SSR varies and dictates the
mode of operation, Mode S transmits a third synchronising pulse 3.5 micro seconds after pulse
1.

This pulse is 1.25 micro seconds wide, changes phase half way through transmission and is
immediately followed by 56 or 112 data bits of message.

Mode S interrogators also have a unique code, called either the Interrogator Identifier code or
the Surveillance Identifier code. Together called Interrogator Codes (ICs).

The purpose is to identify interrogators which the transponder should either reply to or ignore.

Mode S interrogations can either be to all receiving stations, an all-call or to selected stations.

Mode S Transponders

The response from the Mode S transponder is an 8 micro seconds preamble followed by a 56
bit or 112 bit data transmission on 1090 MHz.

The short (56 bit) reply contains only control elements and simple data such as Mode A codes,
the pressure altitude or the Aircraft Address.

The longer (112 bit) transmission can contain between 56 and 80 bits of message data from the
aircraft avionics systems

Both interrogation and reply data transmissions have the same structure, though they will have
differing contents.

Transponders maintain avionics data in their Binary Data Store (BDS) registers.
There are 256 BDS registers.

Each register contains the 56 bit data payload of a particular long Mode S reply.

Which register is sent depends on the format of the interrogation.

There are 25 standard response formats.

Apart from normal interrogations, some ground stations can command that the transponder
include particular BDS data in its reply.

This is called Ground Initiated Comm-B or GICB.

Mode S Capability

ICAO classify Mode S transponder capability from Level 1 to Level 5.

Most European states require level 2 capability for aircraft over 5700kg MAUM or with a cruise
TAS in excess of 250KT to provide Elementary Surveillance (ELS) functionality.

Some require an Enhance Surveillance (EHS) capability.

Elementary Surveillance

This provides:

• A Mode A response.

• Pressure Altitude reporting in 25ft intervals.

• The Aircraft Address. This is preset and cannot be changed from the cockpit. It is generated by
the Authority of the state in which the aircraft is

registered and is nearly always the aircraft registration itself.

• The Flight Status (in flight or on the ground).

• A Data Link Capability Report.

• The Aircraft Identification which is the aircraft callsign (or unusually its registration) set through
the FMS.

• A GICB Capability Report, but not GCIB data.

• ACAS Resolution Advisory reporting capability.

There are three different identifiers that can be sent:

1) Mode A code, set through the flight deck.

2) Aircraft Identification (callsign), set through the flight deck.

3) Aircraft Address (a/c registration), which is hard wired in.

Enhanced Surveillance

Enhance Surveillance (EHS) equipment must meet the requirements of ELS and must also be
able to supply the following data in response to GCIB requests:

• Magnetic Heading

• Selected Altitude

• Indicated Airspeed
• Mach Number

• Vertical Rate

• Roll Angle

• Track Angle Rate

• True Track Angle

• Ground Speed

Mode S Antennae

Aircraft over 5700kg MAUM or those with a cruise TAS in excess of 250KT require two Mode S
antennae positioned along the centre line on the top and bottom of the fuselage.

The Mode S equipment must be capable of receiving and analysing signals simultaneously on
both antennae.

Once analysed the Mode S equipment must be able to choose the most suitable or, if both
signals are equally suitable, the strongest signal and select only that receiving antenna for the
remainder of the interrogation.

This ability is known as diversity channel selection or antenna diversity.

Mode S Operation

Mode S ground interrogators transmit a Mode S all-call at a steady rate similar to a conventional
SSR.

Any Mode S transponder that is not 'locked out' will reply to the interrogation transmitting its 24
bit Aircraft Address (registration) and its Aircraft Identification (call sign).

Mode A and C transponders reply with the appropriate code.

Once a Mode S transponder has been identified and its track established it can be 'locked out'
to prevent it replying to any further all-call interrogations from stations with the same Interrogator
Code.

It will then still respond to all-calls from new stations with differing Interrogator Codes but only
reply to selective interrogations from the 'active' ground stations.

The purpose of this is to reduce the reply rates and thus the possibility of interference.

Selective interrogations use the 24 bit Aicraft Address and are only released when the radar
beam is pointing to where the aircraft is expected to be in the sky.

The aircraft reply is the Mode A code, the Aircraft Identification (call sign) and the pressure
altitude.

Mode S Broadcast - Squitters

A squitter is a reply format transmission sent without being interrogated.

Mode S transponders send this 'unsolicited information' on 1090 MHz to allow other
TCAS/ACAS II equipped aircraft to track their position.

Mode S can also use squitters to send Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (ADS-B)
information such as its position and altitude to ATC and other users.

Squitters are sent randomly from both top and bottom Mode S aerials.

Example of primary (i said AWR).

Explain working and modes of AWR. What is the frequency used? Why? What are types
of beams used? Why?

Airborne Weather Radar

Its primary purpose is to detect thunderstorms and by inference severely turbulent weather so
that it can be avoided.

The radar can also be used as a navigation aid by mapping the terrain ahead of the aircraft and
obtaining fixes from prominent ground features

Frequency

Weather radar operates between 9 GHz and 10 GHz in the SHF band.

A frequency of 9 GHZ gives a wavelength of 3cm.

Pulse radar is used with a PRF of about 400 to 550 pulses a second.

This limits the theoretical maximum range to between 200NM and 300NM.

Equipment

The aerial fitted in the nose of the aircraft canscan up to 90 degrees left and right.

It can be tilted 15 degrees up and down.

Beam width is in the order of 3° to 5°.

Two sorts of beams are available:

1) A narrow conical beam - sometimes called a pencil beam.

2) A wider fan shaped beam.

The aerial on older aircraft is likely to be parabolic.

On modern aircraft slotted scanners are used.

The scanner is gyro stabilised in pitch and roll, which ensures scanner tilt is always with respect
to the earth horizontal.

Old aircraft have separate gyros for the weather radar stabilisation.

Modern aircraft use the Inertial Navs or the IRS.

25. Auto-pilot principle of operation?

30. Why is Mach meter preferred over TAS in high level navigation?
33. How is IRS different from INS?
23. INS-principle.
34. What is ring laser gyro? Draw and explain.
35. What are the errors of artificial horizon? Which type of gyro is it
36. Which type of gyro is directional gyro?
37. ASI blockage readings in climb and descent?
32. ASI errors, effect of diff blockages.
38. Altimeter blockage readings in climb and descent?
39. What’s the relation between frequency and wavelength?
40. What happens to speed of light as we go up? (Remains constant)
41. What happens to speed of sound as we go up?
Which instrument gets affected because of this?
If Mach no is ratio of TAS/LSS then why doesn’t it get affected?
42. In LSS=38.94*sq.rt (T in degree kelvin) why is T expressed in degrees kelvin?
43. Which component gets affected more due to low temp at high altitudes static
pressure or dynamic pressure?
44. Explain the working of VOR? Its limitations?
45. What is DVOR?
 How does it remove site error?
46. What is TCAS 2?
What indications does it give?
What do you tell the ATC when you receive TCAS RA?
On what instrument do you get TCAS indications?

49. Which instrument gets affected because of skywaves?

How does it affect?
50. At night coverage of NDB increases or decreases?
Till what range? (ans. decreases. we can use it till 70nm)
ADF Accuracy and Errors

ICAO requirement is an accuracy of ±6° with a signal-to-noise ratio no less than 3:1.

The ADF is subject to a number of potential errors.

Static

All forms of static can affect accuracy of the ADF.

In snow and freezing rain precipitation static reduces the accuracy and attenuation reduces the
range of bearing information.

Thunderstorms

Thunderstorms in the vicinity act as radio beacons and can cause the needle to deviate in their
direction.

In conditions like this and where heavy static is present VHF aids should be used in preference
to ADF.

Night Effect

The principal propagation method of NDBs is the ground wave

However it is possible for weak sky waves to be returned at night when the ionosphere is less
dense and attenuation is least.

These sky waves tend to strike the top of the loop aerial giving a current flow where none would
other-wise be present.

This means the null is no longer sharply defined and the ADF hunts, reducing bearing
accuracy.

Returning sky waves take a longer propagation path than ground waves so they are often out of
phase.

Night effect can be detected by listening for fading on the carrier wave (BFO on) and by the
instrument hunting.

It is most likely at dawn or dusk.

Station Interference

The long ground waves of LF and MF signals mean that occasionally signals from stations on
similar frequencies overlap.

This will not cause errors in the daytime if the stations are only used within the protected range.

At night, returning sky waves can cause rogue signals at considerable range producing the
same problems as night effect.

The problem can be detected aurally or visually as with night effect and there should also be
two station idents audible.
Some ADF equipment have a "bandpass" switch fitted to reduce the bandwidth which is
received when the switch is set to SHARP.

An aircraft receiving station interference from another beacon on a similar but not identical
frequency can reduce the interference by listening to a sharper band.

Because of the twin errors of night effect and station interference, and because other radio
sources create more noise at night, published protected ranges are not valid in the hours of
darkness.

The protected range may also be referred to as the Designated Operational Coverage (DOC).

Coastal Refraction

Speed of a surface wave is affected by the surface over which it travels (faster over water than
land).

This change of speed means the wave is refracted at low altitude as it passes over a coastline.

Refraction is always towards the coast.

An aircraft receiving a refracted wave would give a false indication of the beacon's position.

It will place the aircraft nearer to the coast than it actually is.

This effect is worse the further back from the coast the beacon is sited.

It can be avoided by:

1) Taking bearings at right angles to the coast.

2) Flying at a higher altitudes.

3) Choosing beacons closer to the coast.

Quadrantal Error

The wave front from the NDB can be distorted by the aircraft's structure as it approaches the
aerial.

This effect is compounded by an emf induced in the receiver aerial by the signal re-radiating
from metallic surfaces.

The aircraft structure bends the signal path.

The error is called "quadrantal error" because the effect is worst for signals arriving from 45°
and 135° left and right of the nose, the four "quadrants".

Quadrantal error is small and predictable.

It can be compensated during the installation of the receiver aerial and any residual errors can
be shown on a quadrantal error card kept near the instrument.

Modern receivers completely remove it.

Dip

Some Bendix-King aerials suffer from an error called dip which occurs when the receiver sense
aerial is masked by the loop aerial.

Dip gives large bearing errors, only occurs in a turn and is at its greatest when the NDB is on a
relative bearing of 45° and 135° left and right of the nose.

Mountain Effect
At low altitude multipath signals reflected from terrain can cause erroneous readings

This effect diminishes with height as hills are further from the line of sight and interfere less with
the surface wave.

What is Mcrit?
Why is Mach no used after a certain level in climb?

Mach Meter - A thorough Explanation.

ASI - Explain.
Wx Radar failure once airborne will you return ? Monsoon has been declared. :- Sir, if the Sig
Wx Chart has any weather enroute, it would call for any immediate return, Under what
conditions will you continue esp if its an QTA at the destination. Sir, if I will check the enroute wx
for the total flight time to and back. If no significant Wx, I will go through my MEL. If my MEL
says its an compulsory requirement then if the aerodrome is Isolated/Non Maintenance
Equipped then I will turn back so that the airline can fix the equipment or provide an alternate
option to the PAX.
(I could see in their reaction that this was my trump card question)

CMV - Calculated Met Visib.

Transponder
INS IRS
AWR - principle and explain
Secondary Radar
Machmeter, why is it required, explain the functioning.
Compass errors
What is an ADC and how does it work ( inputs, outputs etc)
What is EPR and explain why it is used
For RAIM you need 5 satellites or 4 satellites + baroaiding (barometric altitude information is
linked to GPS) and for FDE (Failure detection and exclusion) you need 6 satellites for 5
satellites + baroaiding.
q. How many satellites are required for RAIM?
5

What are ILS components

my answer was (a) glide slope (b) localiser (c) marker beacon and i explained the positioning,
frequency band and few other details which they asked about these 3 components and then
they asked about other components !!!! I have no idea what "other components" should have
been told
how does GPS work in general and what are the errors. + what is the purpose of GPS in your
A320.
What is installed in Airbus, IRS or INS and how does that function.
How is Doppler VOR different in the working principal and what is Doppler shift.
How does TCAS give RA.
All modes of EGPWS , hows it different from GPWS and what happens when the EGPWS data
is now updated in the aircraft.
A few simple questions on Pitostatic instruments (majorly ASI and MAch meter) like pitot
blocked and climbing etc
HF- skip distance , critical angle
Mda vs da
Tcas
GPS many ques
Acars
Outer marker
def of wavelength
calculate frequency, wavelength is 1.5 KM
draw and explain limacon
explain ILS
major draw back of ILS ( he wanted to here false glide slope interception)
can u do ILS approach without Outer marker
what should be your height at 3NM on 3deg glide slope
explain gyros
what is wonder in gyros
ASI errors
INS & IRS
ILS Categories
which category of ILS is the DH refered to
Can a wrong coordinates be fed in to the INS and will the system accept?
What is the MDA/ DA and what are the actions at these points.
What is SSB and where is it used
selcal HOW DOES IT WORK
skip distance and that happens in which band

GPWS and EGPWS, Reasons for EGPWS that it gives us the warnings and alerts for terrain
ahead also? ; EGPWS Mode 6.
pitot static instruments
explain static pressure
TAT>OAT, why?
explain density error
mach meter errors
INS setting/faliures
Radio altimeter errors
TCAS TA,RA range?
night effect
VOR errors
VOR tracking problem
VOR-DME co-location criteria
Glide Slope coverage range
what is P RNAV
speed to be maintained when in a DME arc
what happens to TAS AND MACH NO AS U CLIMB IN THE SAME CAS
WHAT IS MACH CRIT SPEED
what is ils and its components
what is RNP
diff between ins and irs
how will u align a ins
what input errors will the ins system will accept
what is rnav
Radio Aids and Navigation
Explain how FMS plots it's position?
does FMS use great circle or rhumbline tracks?
difference between INS and IRS?
If an equipment fails, what do you do if you are flying an RNP route? (ans- advise atc to
estabilish clearance)
simple problems about deviation and variation and relative bearing
range of VHF- rx and tx height given
what is optical line of sight? (not sure about exact words- basically VHF line of sight)
some question regarding the position of a bear if he travels east south west north..what's his
final position? This takes the cake
Diff b/w ILS X & ILS Y
RNP
ILS
DME
GPWS
INS, IRS, GPS
Working of a Servo Altimeter.
RNP/RNAV
ILS reference point
If the wavelength is 2 cm, what is the frequency?
Primary radar v/s secondary radar.
Working of weather radar.
How is cloud height calculated using weather radar?
Frequency band of SHF.
What is a BFO?
VEGT chart difference between ILS X and ILS Y?
Can you do ILS approach without Glideslope? Ans.-Yes
Difference between RNAV and RNP?
What is TCAS?
How does TCAS work? Difference between TCAS I and II
What is the difference between GPWS and EGPWS
Radio failure procedure in Radar, Non-Radar and during a SID
Requirements for ILS Cat IIIb
DH and RVR requirement for cat IIIb
Is middle marker mandatory for ILS approaches
Outer marker – colour of visual lighting, frequency, morse code and distance
Wind shear mode in GPWS. What is predictive wind shear
If you are navigating using triple INS and if all three fail, how will you navigate (ut the examiner
was looking for gps as an answer
What is the code for NDB in an approach plate (6…3 for vor and 1 for ils)
Questions on lighting in TVASI, Pulsating VASI
How is the height of cloud base calculated using weather radar?
Frequency of operation, working of weather radar?
In NDB chart for Runway 07 chennai, visibility minima for cat c and cat daircraft is published as
3400 and 5000 m respectively. If prevailing visibility is3400 m, can the approach be carried out
for a cat b category aircraft?
VOR interception angles while going outbound and inbound to a station
Working of GPS
Questions on WAAS and LAAS
Questions on type of FMS aboard the aircraft you fly
NAV n Radio both
Diff between GPWS n EGPWS. Kind of warning EGPWS gives, how does it work
RNP, what exactly is that, RNP 1 better or RNP 10
GRID MORA on jepp chart
CANPA-Constant angle non precision approach
VOR, DVOR(Doppler VOR), NDB, which one would you prefer to use and why
Showed Chennai approach plate-Which type of approach is that-VOR
RADIO ALT
RVSM contingencies
ALL types of projections, if you are at equator which type of chart would you
use(projection type)
Tied gyro
Here let me know what is the difference between "Degrees of freedom" and "Planes of freedom"
because according to them there is nothing like "degrees" of freedom
How many satellites are required for RAIM?
What airspaces are there in India?
What is RVSM - what are the requirements for an aircraft to enter rvsm airspace?
What is RNP
Explain RVSM. Is TCAS mandatory? If you were to fly from Bombay to London how would you
find out which airspaces mandatorily require you to have TCAS?
I can think a couple of other components namely,
-Marker Locators(NDB co-located with the fan markers)
and Airborne equipment!(remember it is also very important because of the obvious reason..)
which is more accurate dme-dme fix or gps fix?
explain carrier wave? can a carrier wave carry information?
If carrier wave is 500 hz, what are the value of the side bands?
VOR (VHF Omni-directional Range)

VOR beacons operate at shorter ranges and are free from most of the errors that afflict NDBs.

They use line of sight frequencies in the VHF band.

Frequencies are between 108 MHz and 117.975 MHz.

Between 108 MHz and 112 MHz the band is shared with ILS so VOR frequencies are only
allocated at even 100 KHz spacing

From 112 MHz to 117.975 MHz the band belongs to VOR alone and spacing is reduced to 50
KHz.

Thus 108.2 MHz and 113.35 MHz would be VOR frequencies and 108.1 MHz would not.

Q. Which of the following could be a VOR frequency?

a) 119.20 MHz
b) 111.80 MHz <-- This one
c) 108.3 MHz
d) 109.5 MHz

Within the VOR ILS shared frequency range, the allocated frequencies are as follows:

VOR = EVEN 100 kHz numerals

108.00. 108.05, 108.20. 108.25 to 111.80. 111.85

ILS = ODD 100 kHz numerals

108.10. 108.15, 108.30. 108.35 t0 111.90. 111.95

Types of VOR:

There are two types of VOR:

1) Conventional or Standard VOR.

2) Doppler VOR (modern type).

Standard VOR

The VOR ground station consists of a cylindrical cover containing a horizontal dipole which is
spinning clockwise at a rate of 30 revolutions a second.

Slots in the cylinder combined with the rotating dipole produce a limacon shaped polar diagram
which also rotates at 30 revolutions a second.

The ADF cardioid has a sharp null, but VOR limacon does not.

To a receiver listening to the signal the amplitude appears to go up and down 30 times a second
as the limacon rotates.

i.e. the received signal is amplitude modulated (AM) at 30 Hz.

The exact phase of the AM signal differs depending on the bearing of the aircraft from the VOR.

To detect this phase difference, an omni-directional reference signal (also at 30 Hz) is also sent
out by the transmitter.

In order that the two 30 Hz modulations can be distinguished the reference signal is frequency
modulated (FM).

The signals are arranged so that the reference signal and the variphase signal are in phase to
the magnetic north of the station.

Anywhere else will show a phase difference between 0° and 360°.

The receiving aircraft looks at the phase difference between the FM reference signal and the
AM variphase signal and displays it as a radial, a QDR.

No phase difference means the receiver is on the 360° radial.

A phase difference of 150° means it is on the 150° radial.

If true bearings are desired the variation at the station must be used in the conversion.

This is because the radials are referenced to magnetic north at the station, rather than at the
aircraft.

The Cone of Confusion

There is an area in the overhead of a VOR transmitter where it is not possible to obtain accurate
bearing information.

A pilot flying towards the overhead would notice the deviation indicator become more sensitive
and it would eventually move well off centre as the aircraft gets very close to the beacon.

The TO/FROM flag would reverse as the aircraft passed through the overhead and the deviation
indicator would then move back towards the centre as it becomes less sensitive.
A crew navigating with an RMI would see the needle deviate then rotate through 180° as they
pass through the overhead.

The signal strength in the overhead may also be low enough to make the OFF flag flicker.

The ICAO limits of the cone of confusion are up to 50° from the vertical

Identification

The VOR carries a three letter morse ident at seven words a minute repeating every ten
seconds.

Sonic beacons have voice identifiers as well e.g. "This is Miami Omni Range .." followed by the
morse.

Errors and Accuracy

The Designated Operational Coverage (DOC) of a VOR, the range, sector and altitude where
freedom from interference is guaranteed, is given in the AIP.

This is valid both by day and by night (unlike NDBs).

Outside the DOC, interference from other stations is possible.

ICAO require bearing accuracy of ± 5° on 95% of occasions.

Because of its higher frequency and line of sight transmission VOR is free from sky wave
interference and coastal refraction.

Any bending of the signal by the structure of the aeroplane would not affect the indicated
bearing so quadrantal error does not exist with VORs.

Scalloping and Site Error

Reflections from terrain and man made obstructions can cause errors as two signals with
different phase differences intefere.

This will cause the course deviation indicator on the VOR indicator to move rapidly from side to
side - too fast for an aircraft to follow - and it will make the needle on an RMI wobble.

The effect is known as scalloping or, when reflections come from very near the beacon, site
error.

Where scalloping is known to occur it is notified in the COM section of the AIP and on approach
plates.

The unauthorised use of Passenger Electronic Devices can create a similar effect.

Scalloping should be differentiated from 'beam bends' which are also caused by reflections from
buildings but which are more predictable slight curves within the system tolerances.

Atmospheric Ducting

Atmospheric ducting can lead to synchronous transmissions even within the DOC.

Ducting is unpredictable no allowance can be made for it.

It illustrates the need to check the station ident whenever a beacon is used.

Power and Range

The power output of the transmitter continues to affect the range.

An output of 200 watts achieves ranges of up to 200NM.

An output of 50 watts will only be good for short range transmissions.

The maximum theoretical range can be calculated using the formula:

Max theoretical range = 1.23 x square root of H1 + 1.23 x square root of H2 (H1 and H2 are
heights of transmitter and receiver).

Equipment Errors

Within the ± 5° total bearing accuracy the aircraft equipment must be accurate to ± 3°.

VOR transmitter is monitored to make sure it puts out bearings accurate to ± 1°

If the monitor detects a greater bearing error the transmitter is shut down and a standby
transmitter is brought on line.

A station will also be shut down if the signal strength drops by more than 15% or if the monitor
fails.

During the transfer period the station ident ceases or is replaced by a continuous tone.

The ident is resumed when the standby transmitter is operating within limits.

Doppler VOR

Standard VORs were usually sited well away from all obstructions to minimise site error.

For beacons to be sited on airfields Doppler VOR transmitter was developed.

It has a much larger diameter aerial that, because of its size, suffered much less from site error.

The Doppler VOR transmitter is a ring of stationary dipoles about 45ft in diameter.

A VHF signal is switched continuously around the ring of aerials so that it appears to come
towards the aircraft and then move away.

The relative movement of the origin of the signal produces a Doppler shift, a shift in frequency,
that varies with bearing.

This means the variphase signal in this system is now FM.

If the variphase signal is FM the reference signal must be AM.

This would produce reverse sensing at the aircraft receiver.

So the Doppler VOR signal rotates anti-clockwise at 30 Hz rather than clockwise.

This reverses the signal once again so the phase relationship at the receiver remains the same
and instrument displays are unaffected.

VOR Applications

VORs are used for en-route navigation, usually to define airway centrelines.

The overall required accuracy of the displayed information is ± 5°.

When European airways were first plotted out a lower accuracy of ± 7.5° was assumed.

To keep an aircraft within the confines of an airway 10NM, maximum distance between the
beacons was calculated to be 80NM. As a consequence many European VORs are about
80NM apart.

A terminal VOR is a low power beacon used as part of an airfield approach. TVORs share the
lower frequencies with ILS.

A broadcast VOR is usually a terminal aid with a voice broadcast giving out the airfield weather
(ATIS) superimposed on the carrier wave.

A test VOR (VOT) is a very low power beacon sited at airfields.

It puts out a constant phase difference of zero in all directions.

This allows aircraft to test the accuracy of their equipment on the ground.

The VOR test function is selected with a course of 000° set.

The Course Deviation Indicator should centre with FROM indicated, the RMI should indicate
180° QDM.

The beacon ident for a test VOR is a series of dots.

Marker Beacons

The final approach area of an ILS must contain a fix or facility that allows the pilot to cross
check height against range.

To satisfy this requirement older installations use up to three marker beacons.

The middle marker is just before Category I decision height (1/2 to 1/4 NM)

The inner marker is passed just before the threshold is crossed.

The outer marker equates to an aircraft height of 1200 to 1800 ft, depending on its exact
position. (4 - 6 NM)

All markers operate in VHF on 75MHz and use a fan shaped beam that points directly upwards.

The signal is modulated to provide an audible morse tone and activate an indicator light in the
cockpit.

The morse letter M cannot be used for the middle marker as it would be indistinguishable from
0, except for the pitch, when sent repeatedly.

Marker beacons are becoming less common nowadays and have been largely replaced with
DME equipment.

Distance information from an installation such as this is only good within the lateral limits of the
localiser coverage and up to 25,000 ft.

A very few markers still exist on airways. These are placed to mark significant points such as
mountain ranges.

Airways markers use the same light and tone as the Inner Marker but put out a morse ident at
six to ten words a minute.

Outer marker has a Blue light and Low Pitch (400 Hz). The audio is heard as Dashes - - -, the
letter 'O' in morse, at a rate of 2 dashes per second.

Middle marker has an Amber light and Medium Pitch (1300 Hz). The audio is heard as
continous alternating dashes and dots -•-•, the letter 'C' in morse, at a rate of 2 dashes and 6
dots per second.

Inner marker has a White light and High Pitch (3000 Hz). The audio is heard as Dots ••, the
letter 'I' in morse, at a rate of 6 dots per second.

Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)

The thrust produced by a jet engine is measured by the acceleration of a mass of air.
It is therefore determined by the mass flow through the engine and the difference between inlet
and exhaust velocities.

As the air temperatures are known at inlet and at exhaust both speed and density can be
calculated.

Therefore an accurate measurement of thrust can be made from the engine pressure ratio
(EPR).

EPR = Turbine Outlet Pressure / Compressor Inlet Pressure

A simple EPR indicator would therefore have two pressure sensors.

One upstream of the compressor inlet and the other downstream of the turbine outlet.

Some high bypass ratio engines use a series of probes throughout the engine to produce an
integrated EPR (IEPR).

Compressor inlet pressure sensors have (in the past) been blocked by ice on take-off.

In this case the EPR gauge would over read and insufficient thrust would be set for take-off.

Because of this the take-off EPR should always be crossed checked against the expected N1
reading.

N1 reading gives an alternative but less accurate assessment of thrust.

EPR gauges usually have both digital and analogue scales.

Digital scale is used when accurate power setting is required (take-off).

Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC)

The engine output is controlled by a FADEC.

There are two FADEC channels on each engine with automatic switchover.

The FADEC has its own internal engine driven power source, supplemented by aircraft power at
low N1.

Turbine engine maximum thrust ratings are limited by either engine RPM or TGT. or its
equivalent

The FADEC adjusts fuel flow to achieve the demanded EPR or N1 while keeping the engine
inside its operating limits.

A FADEC that uses EPR as its primary thrust measurement may have an N1 mode as a fall-
back.

The primary demand to the FADEC is thrust lever angle.

The FADEC will take thrust lever angle, OAT, TAT at the engine intake, altitude, Mach number
and the degree of bleed take-off for pressurisation and other services and calculate a reference
EPR.

Actual EPR is then compared to the reference.

Fuel flow is adjusted to match the actual and reference EPR.

FADEC protects the engine from overspeed, from exceeding the EGT limits and from surge.

TCAS - Traffic Alert Collision Avoidance System

It provides traffic information between aircraft using SSR transponders.

TCAS II provides manoeuvre advice in the pitching plane in the event of a conflict.
In USA the system is called TCAS.

In JAA documents it is referred to as ACAS (Airborne Collision Avoidance System).

JAR and EU OPS now require new aircraft with more than 19 passenger seats or with a MTOM
of more than 5700kg to carry and use TCAS II.

Aircraft of more than 5700kg registered outside JAA and EASA states are required to have
TCAS II fitted to operate in European RVSM airspace or in the North Atlantic Region.

Principle of Operation

The TCAS system uses a Mode S SSR to interrogate the SSR transponders of nearby aircraft
(to plot their positions and relative velocities).

It also receives spontaneous transmissions, "squitters", from Mode S equipped aircraft.

A definition of squitter is a reply format transmission without being interrogated.

These “unsolicited replies” or squitters are used to provide TCAS II equipped airframes with the
discrete address of the squittering airframe, to enable the TCAS II system to acquire and track
the airframe using mode S formats UF/DF0 and UF/DF16.

Squitter has its origins in distance-measuring equipment (DME) transmissions. The DME
ground station would broadcast unsolicited replies or squitters.

When the airborne DME interrogator was in range, the squitter would be seen and the DME
interrogator would then transmit a range interrogation and receive range replies from the DME
ground station. This served to limit unnecessary transmissions over the air and optimized DME
ground station-handling capability.

TCAS 2 systems use mode S squitters in a similar fashion; the TCAS just listens for the DF11
squitters, which contain the sending aircraft's discrete

address, thereby reducing the need to interrogate over the air. The discrete address, once
obtained, is placed on the TCAS 2 processor's roll call of addresses for ongoing tracking. Mode
S technology has two types of squitter, a short (56 bit) DF11 acquisition squitter and the
extended (112 bit) DF17 squitter.

Bearings are obtained by using direction finding receiving aerials.

Distance is determined by using the time delay between transmitted and received signals.

Altitude is read off the Mode C response.

The TCAS computes the track and closing speeds of the transponding aircraft.

If it thinks that a collision is possible, it issues a warning.

If the time to impact is small it generates a pitch manoeuvre command to avoid the collision.

The TCAS can cope with replies from modes A, C or S transponders.

When both aircraft are equipped with TCAS II and mode S the advice on how to avoid a
collision will be co-ordinated by the mode S data link between the two aircraft.

Protected Airspace

The system protects a small and variable volume of airspace around the aircraft.

This is known as the collision area (an area where a collision is possible).

The threat is determined in terms of time to enter the collision area.

TCAS envelopes vary between equipment manufacturers.

Aircraft that are assessed as being likely to enter the collision area in between 35 to 48 seconds
result in a Traffic Advisory (TA).

TA is an audio caution of "TRAFFIC TRAFFIC".

If the time to enter the collision area reduces to 15 to 35 seconds the system will generate a
Resolution Advisory (RA).

RA is an audio command to Climb or Descend for avoiding the collision.

Advisories Classification

RAs can be sub-divided into Corrective Advisories and Preventative Advisories.

Corrective Advisories advise a change in rate of climb or descent.

Preventative Advisories command "MONITOR VERTICAL SPEED" and avoid certain rates of
climb or descent.

When conflict is resolved the advice "CLEAR OF CONFLICT" will be given.

When both aircraft are equipped with TCAS II and a "threat" materialises, the mode S data link
between the two aircraft provides co-ordinated and complimentary RAs.

The first aircraft to make the interrogation sends an 'intent' message to which the receiving
aircraft reacts to in the opposite sense.

One aircraft will climb and the other descends.

Range and Limitations

The range outside terminal areas is 30nm and ±27000.

In a high density traffic area TCAS automatically reduces its interrogation rate and power (thus
reducing the maximum range).

Surveillance to at least 6nm is guaranteed.

In certain circumstances relative bearing information may be unavailable or unreliable.

Bearing information is only used for display purposes.

It is not a part of the algorithm calculating the collision area.

Therefore both RAs and TAs will still be generated for conflicting no-bearing traffic.

If the intruder replies with no Mode C altitude TCAS assumes it is at the same height.

However in this case it will only issue a TA.

TCAS recognises the limitation when aircraft performance is limited like high altitude or with
gear and flaps down.

It will therefore inhibit "CLIMB" and "INCREASE CLIMB" RAs.

All aural commands are inhibited by GPWS, Terrain and Windshear warnings.

The radio altimeter input is used to identify and discard returns within 360ft of the ground.

It will declare own aircraft on ground through air/ground logic systems and RADALT height less
than 50ft.

As the radio altitude decreases, Resolution Advisories are inhibited:

• Increase in rate of descent RAs are inhibited below 1450ft radio altitude.
• Descent RAs are inhibited below 1100ft radio altitude.

• All RA's are inhibited below 1000ft.

• All aural commands are inhibited below 500ft.

Terminology and Colour Coding

Transponding traffic not generating a TA or an RA and within 6nm and ±1200 ft is called
Proximate Traffic.

Transponding traffic not generating a TA or an RA and outside 6nm and ±1200 ft is called Other
Traffic.

Red indicates an immediate threat and is only used with an RA.

Amber represents a moderate threat and is only used with a TA.

Proximate Traffic is shown as a cyan or white (solid) lozenge (diamond).

Other traffic is shown as a cyan or white hollow lozenge.

e.g. B777 TCAS

Pilot Response to TA and RA

TAs are only for information.

The crew should liase with ATC for separation.

The bearing information displayed is so unreliable that pilots should not manoeuvre on the basis
of the TCAS display alone.

The crew response to an RA is disengage the autopilot and to follow the instructions smoothly
and promptly.

Where the required action conflicts with ATC clearance the pilot must follow the TCAS RA for
the purpose of avoiding immediate danger.

However he must inform ATC of his deviation from the clearance as soon as possible.

As soon as the advice "CLEAR OF CONFLICT" is received return to the assigned flight level.

TCAS aims to give a clearance of between 300-500ft to resolve the conflict without the
excursion imposing on adjacent flight levels.

The pilot reaction time expected by the TCAS logic is 5 seconds, with the pilot achieving the pull
up/push over in three seconds.

Pitch change requirements depend on speed.

Typical g values for a "CLIMB CLIMB" or DESCEND DESCEND" are 0.25g, aiming for a 1500
ft/min rate of climb or descent.

For an enhanced RA, "INCREASE CLIMB" or "INCREASE DESCENT" the typical g values are
0.35g, aiming for a 2500 ft/min rate of climb or descent to be achieved in 2.5 seconds.

Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)

The GPWS provides (audible signals which may be supplemented by visual signals) warning
of:

• Sink rate - Mode 1

• Ground proximity - Mode 2

• Altitude loss after take-off or go-around - Mode 3

• Incorrect landing configuration - Mode 4

• Downward glideslope deviation - Mode 5

• Automatic height calls, warnings of excessive bank angle - Mode 6

• Windshear - Mode 7

The Standard GPWS has primarily a “Look Down” logic.

Since it cannot "Look Forward", it cannot warn soon enough of the rapidly rising terrain on the
same flight paths.

Therefore an Enhanced GPWS (EGPWS) includes a Terrain Awareness Warning System

(TAWS).

TAWS is a forward looking terrain avoidance function and provides visual and aural display of
terrain forward of the aitcraft.

EU-Ops states that an operator shall not operate a turbine powered aeroplane having a
maximum take-off mass greater than 5700 kg or an approved configuration of more than nine
passenger seats unless it is equipped with a GPWS which includes a TAWS.

Mode 1

It gives warning of excessive barometric rate of descent (greater than approx 3 times the radio
height).

It gives the alert "SINK RATE, SINK RATE"

It is active below 2500 ft radio.

If the high rate of descent is maintained closer to the ground the alert becomes the warning
"WHOOP WHOOP, PULL UP".

Mode 2

It is triggered by reducing radio altitude and warns of rising ground beneath the aircraft.

The initial alert is "TERRAIN, TERRAIN".

If the situation worsens the alert is replaced by the warning "WHOOP, WHOOP. PULL UP"

It is repeated continuously until the radio altitude has stopped reducing and an increase of 300 ft
baro altitude is registered.

Mode 1 and Mode 2 together are capable of dealing with most Controlled Flight Into Terrain
(CFIT) incidents.

However, the major input for mode 2 is radio altitude.

And the radio altimeter only senses terrain in a 30° cone below the aircraft.

Therefore neither Modes 1 or 2 will prevent flying straight into a vertical cliff face.

Mode 3

It warns of barometric height loss after a take-off or go-around.

For this mode to be active the flap selector must not be in the "landing flaps position" and the
gear should be selected up.
On some aircraft throttle position is also an input.

The alert is "DON'T SINK, DON'T SINK".

There is no warning.

Mode 4

It warns of closeness to the ground without the appropriate gear and flap selections.

At High Speed

At high speed the aircraft is unlikely to be making an approach.

So the aim is to inform the pilot of ground proximity.

The audio is "TOO LOW TERRAIN".

At Low Speed

At lower speeds, if the aircraft is close to the ground and does not have either gear or flaps
selected, the aim is to alert about the unusual configuration.

The alerts are "TOO LOW, GEAR" or "TOO LOW, FLAPS" as appropriate.

Some National Authorities regard the high speed "TOO LOW, TERRAIN" as a warning (not an
alert) and requires an immediate climb manoeuvre

Mode 5

It gives warning of deviation below the glideslope.

It is armed when a valid signal is received on ILS and in a specified radio height bracket.

The alert is "GLIDESLOPE, GLIDESLOPE"

Initially at half volume, then if the situation worsens, faster and at full volume.

Mode 6

It includes height and bank angle call outs designed to increase situational awareness.

Mode 6 is not required by OPS-1.

It calls out "MINIMUMS MINIMUMS" as the radio decision height is passed.

More advanced systems automatically call out customer specified radio heights in the latter
stages of the approach.

It can even include the command "RETARD" to retard the throttles on landing.

It can include an alert of excessive bank angle, "BANK ANGLE BANK ANGLE"

The thresholds for this alert vary by type and with radio height (more sensitive near ground).

Mode 7

Tt provides windshear alerts and warnings.

It is not required by OPS-1.

GPWS detects windshear from inputs including air data, temperature, rate of climb or descent,
angle of attack, radio height, vertical & longitudinal
acceleration from the IRS etc.

Some installations have separate amber and red windshear warning lights.

When windshear is initially detected the audio alert "CAUTION WINDSHEAR" is given with an
amber light.

Severe windshear gives a red light, and a siren or horn followed by the warning "WINDSHEAR,
WINDSHEAR".

Terrain Awareness Warning System (TAWS)

TAWS of EGPWS operates by relating aircraft position, track and groundspeed derived
principally from a 3D satellite fix to a mathematical model of the terrain.

The terrain database has global coverage but more resolution near airports with hard surface
runways of 3500 ft or more in length.

The system shows terrain less than 2000 ft below aircraft altitude in a display similar to the
weather radar display.

It is shown on the EHSI in Map mode or on a dedicated colour weather radar display.

Terrain is displayed in green, amber or red according to the degree of danger.

Terrain replaces the weather displays if the TERRAIN switch is selected.

Aural warnings are "CAUTION TERRAIN" followed by "TERRAIN, TERRAIN, PULL UP".

There is no "WHOOP, WHOOP" warning.

Red "PULL UP" lights illuminate.

The system generates a terrain clearance floor around the nearest stored airfield at heights
roughly equivalent to a 3° approach.

Penetration of the floor generates a "TOO LOW, TERRAIN" warning.

The terrain floor is based on the nearest airfield and not the destination field.

If other fields are close to destination airfields then it can cause some confusion.

Warnings and Alerts

Genuine

Correctly generated in accordance with the system's technical specification.

Nuisance

Correctly generated in accordance with the set criteria.

However the situation is not unsafe e.g. TERRAIN TERRAIN on approach.

If in VMC and on an accepted procedure like an ILS then the alert is treated as spurious.

If in IMC then a a go-around should be done.

False

Generated by the system but not in accordance with its technical specification.

Radio Altimeter
Radio Altimeters are only active at low levels.

From 5000ft to the surface in older equipment and from 2500ft down in modern equipment.

The primary function of Radio Altimeters is to provide accurate Decision Height (DH) information
where precision approaches are flown to a DH of less than 200ft.

Radio altitude is also used as an input to the Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) and
TCAS.

System Operation

The basic concept is that a radio beam is directed at the ground in a 30° cone and the signal
reflected back to the aircraft.

Most radars work by timing how long the signal takes to travel to the target (in this case the
ground) and back.

However when the aeroplane is very close to the ground the time delay for the returning signal
is very small and difficult to measure.

Most radars also send and receive pulses of radar energy using a single aerial to do both jobs
(by switching its function from transmit to receive)

At very short ranges this idea also fails because the aerial cannot switch from transmit to
receive quickly to catch the returning pulse.

Radio Altimeters consequently use a continuous wave radar rather than a pulse radar.

This needs separate transmitter and receiver aerials.

These are usually located under the fuselage near the gear position.

The readings are zeroed to compensate for both aerial height and the wiring inside the aircraft
so that the altimeter reads zero when the wheels touch down in the landing attitude.

Continuous wave radio altimeters do not measure the time delay for the returning signal (like
other radars).

The transmitted frequency sweeps up and down through a range of about 200MHz centred on
4300MHz.

The difference between the frequency being transmitted and the one returning (beat frequency)
is a measurement of height.

Accuracy

+/- 2 feet in the first 500 feet or +/- 1.5% whichever is greater.

Autopilot

Autopilots are classified by the number of axes they operate in:

• Single axis: This system controls roll only.

• Two axis: This system controls roll and pitch.

• Three axis: The aircraft is controlled in roll, pitch and yaw.

A two-axis autopilot with height and heading hold is required for single pilot operations in IFR.

Autopilot Control and Stability

Autopilots use gyroscopic references to detect changes in the flight path.

An old autopilot system would have its own earth tied gyros to detect displacement and rate
gyros in three axes to detect rate of movement.

Modern autopilot systems use the rate gyros of the IRS to detect rate of movement and also
detect displacement (by integrating the signals).

Any attitude change for example in the pitch axis is sensed by a rate gyroscope.

The gyro precesses and produces an output signal proportional to the rate of change of
attitude.

A signal processor or controller computes a corrective signal.

The corrective signal is sent to the elevator servo which moves the elevator.

A feed back of elevator position is sent to the controller so that actual and required movement
can be compared.

As the original attitude is gradually restored the gyroscope output signal (error signal) is
gradually removed.

Consequently the controller in turn removes the pitch command.

This is a closed loop control system and it cannot operate without feedback, in this case from
the servos.

This control loop is called an inner loop.

An aircraft with a three axis autopilot would have at least three inner loops.

Control inputs to the system from external sources such as FMS systems, pilots, air data
systems form a series of outer loops.

The function of the outer loop is to control the function of the inner loop to stabilise.

The Performance Loop

The performance required of the aircraft e.g. a command to climb at a set rate, is entered by the
pilots into the MCP (mode control panel).

The command goes to the signal processor which is the Flight Control Computer (FCC).

FCC computes the control demands, which are sent to the flying controls.

The aircraft pitches up and starts to climb.

The performance sensing systems (air data computer in this case) detect the rate of climb.

In the signal processor the performance achieved is measured against performance

demanded.

This will be the error.

Therefore the demand to the control surfaces is modified accordingly to bring the error to zero
(for the demanded climb rate).

This is the "outer" loop.

Since this loop deals with aircraft performance demands and response it is sometimes called
the "Performance Loop".

Inside this loop many small individual inner loops provide feedback for different parts of the
system.

Thus autopilots have two functions:

1) To stabilise the aircraft flight path e.g. operation of the yaw damper and holding pitch and roll
attitude.

2) To control the aircraft flight path e.g. altitude holding, VOR and ILS tracking and speed
control.

Control Laws

The autopilot computer has to be given a set of rules, called its Control Law.

This will determine how the computer interprets a performance demand in terms of a control
response.

The most obvious is that larger control deflections will be needed to get the same aircraft rate of
response at low speed and the response or "gain" of the system is adjusted to achieve this
(system gain is higher at low speed).

Control laws also determine the fundamental response of the aircraft and set safety limits for
automatic flight.

e.g. in a fly-by-wire control system there have to be control laWS to operate the system even in
full pilot controlled manual flight.

Different types of control law can be illustrated by looking at pitch control (the most complex of
roll, pitch and yaw).

Direct Control Law

The basic mechanical connection between input and output is called the Direct Control Law.

Under this law a nose up pitch demand applied and held will initiate a nose up pitch rate.

The natural stability of the aircraft will come into effect.

This will oppose the increase in angle of attack.

The pitch rate will slow to zero.

The aircraft will hold a new nose up pitch attitude.

Pitch Rate Demand/Attitude Hold Law

The next stage up is a Pitch Rate Demand/Attitude Hold Law.

In this system a nose up pitch input applied and held will initiate a nose up pitch rate.

The computer will now continuously increase elevator deflection to maintain the pitch rate
constant.

Under zero pitch input there will be zero change.

So zero pitch input is an attitude hold condition.

This means that in a positive alpha vertical gust, the aircraft attitude will not change.

However the extra lift will balloon the aircraft above the intended flightpath.

This Law gives a similar response to the Direct Control Law.

But the disadvantage is that the aircraft flightpath e.g. ILS glidepath, is not maintained under
zero input.

Therefore continous autopilot control inputs are needed.

G Demand/Flightpath Hold Law

A further refinement is the G Demand/Flightpath Hold Law.

This relies on the idea that level flight is a constant 1g flightpath.

Increased g will make the aircraft go up.

Reduced g makes it go down.

In response to a nose up pitch input the computer initiates a demand for more g and calculates
the elevator angle necessary to achieve this.

The effect is that a pitch input calls for a flightpath change and zero pitch input is a flightpath
hold demand.

This is good for maintaining a defined flightpath e.g. glidepath.

However the negative side is the inherent lag in the response to pitch inputs from gusts.

This leads to sharp and rapid computed corrections. particularly at low speed.

C* Law

One fully developed control law is the "C*" Law (C Star Law).

It is used by the Airbus A320 series in its fly-by-wire system.

This is basically a flightpath hold law with an element of pitch rate demand introduced at low
speed to improve response on the approach.

Safety Limits

The control law will protect the aircraft from overstress or overspeed. For a transport aircraft:

• Overspeed limit is VMO or MMO

• Pitch attitude limits are +30° to -15°

• Bank angle limit is 67°

• Excessive alpha depends on configuration

• Excessive g depending on configuration

• Excessive roll or pitch rate

• Other lesser operating limits e.g. Flap and undercarriage limit speeds, bank limits in the
navigation mode (25°) and alpha in levelling out on altitude capture (6°).

Autopilot outputs ultimately act on flying control servomotors.

The control inputs will be electronic but the power for the actuators can be hydraulic or electric.

Main flying controls will probably be hydraulic but subsidiary systems like trim may be electric.

Torque limiters prevent servomotors operating flying control surfaces too rapidly or through too
great a range.

A number of electrical switches or interlocks connected in series prevent automatic flight control
from being powered up until the system is capable of controlling the aircraft.

When powered up the system maintains itself synchronised with the aircraft control input so
there is no sudden change on engagement.

Engagement is then blocked until the system is synchronised.

On some simple systems there is a roll control knob that must be in the central detent before
engagement.

On all systems the electrical supply must be working and the attitude reference unit must be
operating.

Interlocks prevent autopilot engagement if:

• The electrical supply is faulty.

• The roll control knob is not centred.

• There is a synchronisation fault.

• There is a fault in the attitude reference system.

Auto-trim

Autoflight systems adjust trim settings to keep the aircraft in trim in pitch so that there are no
sudden control forces felt on autopilot disengage.

Trim actuator speeds in autoflight are generally about half the speed used in manual flight.

The slower than usual trimming rate are inadequate (on rare occasions) to keep pace with the
demanded pitch changes.

Because of this, during an autoland in anticipation of the flare, the aircraft winds the pitch trim
aft as the FLARE mode is engaged and holds stick force against trim for a short period.

On fly-by-wire aircraft auto-trim may also be available in pitch and yaw.

Mach Trim

At high Mach numbers (M0.75 to M 1.0) shockwave formation on the upper wing surface causes
the wing centre of pressure to shift rearwards.

This leads to a large tail up/nose down pitching force known as Mach tuck.

The Flight Control Computers send mach trim signals to a separate actuator which moves the
elevator to counteract Mach tuck.

On older aircraft a Mach strut is used to lengthen the control runs in the transonic range to
produce the same effect.

Mach trim is active whether the autopilots are engaged or not.

Comparison

When more than one autopilot system is engaged the different systems will compare demands
to check for discrepancies.

A failed system will be identified and switched down.

Even within individual systems, where there are duplicated or triplicated control paths in use, a
similar system of comparison takes place.

Arming of autopilot modes fulfils a similar function.

e.g. arming the localiser (LOC) mode allows the system to look ahead to engagement. However
engagement is not possible until the aircraft is near to the localiser track.

Fail Operational and Fail Passive

For an automatic landing, there is a system of continuous cross-checking.

It is usually achieved by having three functioning and engaged autopilots or autopilot channels.

Failure of one component will result in it being voted out and shut down.

This is called a "Fail Operational" or "Fail Active" system.

The approach can then be continued on the remaining serviceable systems without loss of
capability but with a reduced level of redundancy.

If an automatic ILS is conducted with only two autopilots and there is a discrepancy between
them, it is not normally possible to tell which one has failed.

Under these circumstances both autopilots will disengage and the aircraft will be left in a
trimmed state.

This is called a "Fail Passive" system.

JARs require that fail passive is the reversionary state of a fail operational system after the first
component failure.

It is possible for a two autopilot system to be fail operational by the addition of an external
monitoring and comparison system.

The external monitoring and comparison system can identify and disconnect the failed
autopilot.

Alert Height

A component failure in a fail operational system has different implications at 1000ft than it does
at 100ft.

To control decision making an alert height is specified by the operator (often at around 200ft
radio)

A failure before alert height will require either a go-around or a reversion to a higher decision
height.

whereas a failure below alert height would allow the approach to continue in fail passive status.

Bounded Errors

Bounded errors are either fixed or oscillate about a mean.

They do not get bigger with time or distance flown.

e.g. a track error of one degree. This is a fixed error and does not increase with time.

Unbounded Errors

Unbounded errors get larger with time or distance flown.

e.g. the across track distance error that arises from the track error would, however be an
unbounded error as it is going to get bigger and bigger.

The largest source of unbounded error is the imperfection of the gyroscopes leading to real
wander.

Earth Rate Correction

In order to maintain the platform Earth horizontal and north aligned, corrections are required to
compensate for the rotation of the Earth.

Otherwise the platform will be controlled by the gyros to remain rigid in space rather than rigid
with reference to the Earth.
The gyro torque motors must therefore be continuously fed with Earth rate corrections.

These corrections are considered in terms of topple and drift.

A stable platform which was levelled at either pole and remained there would not topple as a
result of the rotation of the Earth.

Another platform which was levelled at the equator and neither moved or corrected for Earth
rotation would topple through 90° in 6 hours as a result of the Earth's rotation.

At the equator, the correction required to maintain the platform Earth horizontal is 15°/hour.

At any other latitude the correction required is 15 x cosine of latitude°/hr.

Conversely, a platform which was aligned with true north at the equator and neither moved or
corrected for Earth rate will continue to point true north as the Earth rotates, since the meridians
are parallel at the equator.

At latitudes other than the equator it will lee necessary to correct the alignment of the platform
by applying a current to the torque motor on the azimuth gyro so that the azimuth motor can
maintain north alignment.

The magnitude of this correction is 15 x sine of latitude°/hr.

Transport Wander Correction

The problem of keeping the platform level and aligned is of course complicated by the fact that
the platform is being transported across the surface of the Earth.

The mathematics for transport wander as it affects the alignment of the INS platform are the
same as the transport wander of the unslaved directional gyros.

Transporting the platform also produces a requirement to topple the platform in order to keep it
in the Earth horizontal.

e.g. if a platform is flown from the equator due north to the pole.
In order that it remains horizontal throughout, the platform must be toppled through a total of
90°.

In this case the rate of required topple is a function of the groundspeed north/south.

Suppose that the aircraft's groundspeed was 600 kts.

The journey time from the equator to the pole (5400 nm @ 600 kt) would be 9 hours.

The required topple rare would be 10°/hr.

The correction required can therefore be expressed as groundspeed north/south ÷ 60°/hr.

Similarly, any component of the groundspeed in an east/west direction would require a

correction of groundspeed east/west ÷ 60°/hr.

On anything other than a true cardinal crack, the required correction would be a composite of
both of the above.

Correction would be achieved by means of error signals fed to the torque motors attached to
both the north and east gyros which would result in activity at both the pitch and roll motors.

Coriolis Effect

Coriolis effect is a function of the earth's rate of rotation, velocity and Sin Latitude.

The effect is always felt at right angles to the direction of motion.

It produces an apparent movement to the right in the Northern hemisphere and to the left in the
Southern hemisphere.

As the INS computer knows its position, track and ground speed, a correction can be calculated
to compensate for the coriolis effect.

Centripetal Acceleration

Any body moving in a circular path is accelerating towards the centre of the circle.

An aircraft moving on the earth's surface will be moving on a circular path.

Therefore it will feel centripetal acceleration toward the centre of the earth.

This acceleration can also be calculated by the INS computer and a correction automatically
applied.
The Schuler Cycle

The key factor involved in the Schuler principle is that a stable platform which is maintained
Earth horizontal behaves like a pendulum with a length equal to the radius of the Earth.

The time taken for a pendulum to swing through one cycle is directly proportional to its length.

Where this length is the same as the Earth's radius, the time taken for one cycle of the
pendulum is 84.4 minutes.

Stable platforms possessing this property are said to be Schuler tuned.

In theory, once levelled the platform should remain stable and undisturbed.

However vibration and turbulence shocks in flight are likely to create small disturbances.

Consequently the platform is likely to be swinging continuously, hopefully by only a small

amount.

The effect of this swing is that the outputs front the accelerometers will be in error by a
maximum amount when the platform is at the extremity of its swing.

The period of the swing is 84.4 minutes regardless of the magnitude of the disturbance which
caused it.

So two important facts emerge:

• The Schuler tuned platform produces its maximum error at 21.1 and 63.3 minutes through
each 84.4 minute cycle (84.4/4 = 21.1).

• The magnitude of the maximum error depends on the size of the disturbance which caused it,
however the mean error remains at zero (assuming no inherent accelerometer error).

From the above it should be apparent that any error in the outputs of the accelerometers which
is caused by Schuler tuning is bounded (i.e. the error does not increase with time beyond its
original maximum value).

Furthermore, since the output error of any accelerometer will not increase with time, the output
of the first stage integrator associated with it (velocity) will also be bounded.

e.g. for an aircraft flying at a groundspeed of 600 kts the INS output of groundspeed might be:

600 kt at minute 0
602 kts at minute 21.1

600 kts at minute 42.2

598 kts at minute 63.3

Again 600 kt at minute 84.4

The mean output of groundspeed is correct at 600 kts.

We have discussed Schuler tuning as it applies to stable platforms which are maintained Earth
horizontal.

It might be thought that strapdown systems would be immune from Schuler errors because they
do not use a stable platform.

Appreciate, however, that Strapped down systems are designed to deliver accelerometer
outputs which are corrected (processed) to be epresentarive of those which would be achieved
were the accelerometers to be maintained Earth horizontal rather than aircraft horizontal.

Strapped down systems are therefore also considered to be Schuler tuned, and to suffer similar
bounded errors as a consequence.

Power Failure

Inertial systems are powered from the main aircraft electrical supply.

If the main supply fails they may have their own batteries which will run for 20 minutes or so.

They may also be automatically switched to the aircraft batteries via the hot battery bus bar.

If power is lost to the IRS or INS, alignment is lost and the system cannot be used again for
navigation during the flight.

With a strapdown IRS it may be possible to restore attitude and heading information.

Once power is restored the aircraft is flown straight and level.

If the FAIL flags disappear the system may be used to provide attitude information.

If heading is manually entered, the equipment can be used thereafter as a heading reference.

Navigation Computer Failure

If the navigation computer element of the IRS or INS fails it may not be able to produce latitudes
and longitudes.

It may still be able to provide attitude information to the remaining systems.

Selecting ATT disables the navigation function.

Once ATT is selected NAV cannot be re-selected.

Strapdown IRU (Inertial Reference Unit)

The logical step from the wander angle system is to not only make no effort to align the platform
with true north but also to make no effort to keep it level.

Rate integrating gyros are no longer needed to keep the platform level and aligned.

Instead three ring laser gyros (rate sensing gyros) are bolted to the structure of the aircraft to
measure rates of pitch, roll and yaw.

Three orthogonally mounted accelerometers are also fixed to the structure of the aircraft to
measure acceleration along the X, Y and Z axes.
Collectively the accelerometers and RLGs are known as the "computing trihedron".

Intertial unit has no navigation inputs itself.

It is used to feed a reference into a Flight Management System (FMS).

Therefore the inertial unit is called an Inertial Reference System (IRS) or Inertial Reference Unit
(IRU).

The advantage of this system is that it is more reliable, more accurate over a period of time and
have a faster alignment sequence.

Initial Alignment and Levelling

Levelling and alignment are accomplished with the aircraft stationary on the ground as before.

Now it is likely that all three accelerometers will sense gravitational acceleration.

However with greater computing power this can be analysed mathematically to determine which
way is down.

There is no gyro stabilised platform to level but the vertical is noted with reference to gravity.

Once the vertical is established changes of attitude in space can only be coming from earth
rotation.

This realisation allows the IRU to determine the axis of the earth's rotation and calculate true
north from the Ring Laser Gyro output.

The IRU is also capable of roughly calculating the latitude.

This calculation is not accurate enough for navigation so a manual position input is still required
as part of the alignment sequence.

Navigation

The IRU does not navigate.

It senses accelerations as before and integrates them into latitude and longitude.

Then it sends that data to the Flight Management Computer (FMC) for navigation.

It sends attitude, angular rates, velocities and accelerations to the Flight Control Computer
(FCC) and a variety of other outputs to other aircraft systems.

IRS Inputs and Outputs

The IRU provides magnetic heading and track information.

It Converts true track and heading using a variation map stored in the computer database
(variation map coverage is between 60°S and 73°N).

The IRU has an inertial height output but accuracy is too low for height control.

It therefore takes a barometric height input and provides accurate mixed barometric/inertial
height and lag-free vertical acceleration and velocity data.

The IRU requires TAS input for wind velocity calculations.

Operation

Wheh the mode selector switch is moved from OFF to ALIGN, the detection of the vertical and
alignment starts.
There is No STBY mode as there are no mechanical gyros to spin up.

The ON DC lights illuminate briefly as the IRS tests the power supply.

When alignment starts the ALIGN lights come on.

Present position can be entered on the Inertial Reference Mode Panel.

However it is usually entered through the FMS.

The IRU compares the calculated position and the position at which it was last shut down.

If these are too far out from the position the pilots entered the ALIGN light flashes indicating an
error.

Position must now be re-entered.

Once the present position is accepted and alignment is complete the ALIGN lights go out.

NAV can be selected and the aircraft can be moved.

Boeing recommend selecting NAV directly from OFF at latitudes between 70°S and 70°N.

Above 70° latitude the intermediate ALIGN selection should be used.

Alignment times vary with latitude.

5 minutes at the equator, 10 minutes at 70°N and as much as 17 minutes at latitudes between
70° and 78°.

Fast Realignment

Turn the IRUs from NAV to ALIGN.

The ALIGN lights will illuminate.

A new gate position can be entered (if required).

The IRU will align within 30 seconds.

The ALIGN lights will go out and NAV can be re-selected.

Ring Laser Gyro - Principle of Operation

A typical laser works by maintaining a light beam bouncing back and forward between two
mirrors. What we see as a laser beam is the small fraction of light that leaks out at each
reflection.

In a an RLG Laser light (of one frequency orange/pink band of the visible spectrum) is
generated by a pulse of electricity in a tube filled with very pure gas from the neon, argon,
crypton family of rare gases.

A ring laser has the mirrors arranged in a triangle (or square) forming a closed path or "ring".

This allows two essentially independent laser beams to travel around the ring, one clockwise,
the other counterclockwise.

When the two light beams meet an optical sensor compares the phase difference between
them.

If the triangular tube is stationary, the two beams will travel the same distance and will be in
phase.

If the triangular tube has rotated, the two beams will travel different distances and there will be a
phase difference.

e.g. If the whole apparatus is rotated clockwise, it will take longer for the clockwise traveling
beam to reach its starting position compared to the counterclockwise beam.

See the animation to visualize this: http://www.theairlinepilots.com/forumarchive/inst/rlg1.avi

Since light travels at the same speed in both directions, it will take longer for the clockwise
traveling beam to reach its starting position because the starting position has moved since the
beam departed.

This effect causes a phase difference between the two beams.

It is this phase difference that is measured.

This difference can be measured and converted into a digital output signal.

The computer can calculate the rate of rotation.

The output system for measuring the angular rotation depends on the generation of interference
patterns in the light output.

With a semi-transparent mirror and a prism, samples of both the clockwise (CW) and counter
clockwise (CCW) beams are extracted.

The beams are transmitted nearly parallel toward a pair of photodiodes.

When the RLG is rotated about the input axis and the frequencies of the CW and CCW beams
differ, the beams will sometimes combine in phase in the nearly parallel output, to increase the
intensity.

Sometimes they will combine out of phase to cancel each other out.

This will produce a characteristic fringe pattern of light and dark lines

The distance between the fringe lines is proportional to the frequency difference between the
CW and CCW beams, and therefore to input angular rate.

As rotation continues the whole fringe pattern moves across the output diodes.

The direction of movement and the number of bars that cross any point indicates the input angle
change.

The photodiodes determine the direction of movement and count the bars.

The RLG, while first sensing angular rate, is giving its final output as angular displacement
about its input axis.

It is acting (therefore referred to) as a rate sensing gyro or rate sensor.

Frequency Lock or Lock-in

A laser is a resonant cavity there must always be a whole number of wavelengths of light
around the closed loop.

As a result the wavelengths must stretch or shrink in response to rotation.

This causes a subtle change in the colour or each beam depending on the rotation speed.

The principle of wavelength change due to rotation is illustrated in the following animation:

http://www.theairlinepilots.com/forumarchive/inst/rlg2.avi
Here, the laser is depicted rotating back and forward.

The dots represent packets of light.

If you follow one with your eye you can see it change from red to blue depending on the rotation
of the laser.

Notice that at the instant when the laser has zero rotational speed both beams have the same
colour (black).

This illustrates a condition known as lock-in. When this condition occurs the device becomes
useless as a rotation sensor.

Therefore at very low input rates, when the frequencies of the CW and CCW beams are very
nearly the same, they shift frequency and lock together.

This makes the output zero which is unacceptable.

The cure is Piezo Electric Dither Motor a vibration device.

The whole triangular block with the laser system is mechanically rotated backwards and
forwards around the input axis.

The amplitude of the rotation is very small, but the frequency changes it produces keep the RLG
out of the lock-in range.

Since the rotation is first one way and then the other, the sum over time is zero, and the dither
does not affect the mean output in any way.

Real Wander

A change in the length of the ring can occur by:

1) Thermal expansion.

2) Bias in the discharge current on either side of the laser.

This will produce a change in the readout.

This is equivalent to real wander of a mechanical gyro.

Both of these can be compensated by:

1) Using active control of the discharge current through an error detection and feedback
system.

2) Active control of the path length by moving one of the mirrors.

In a strap-down IRS three RLGs are mounted at right angles to each other.

The whole set is then fixed to the aircraft frame.

The system then measures all rotations about the three axes, giving a very accurate readout of
aircraft attitude with reference to a space datum.

Fibre Optic Gyros

The fibre-optic gyro measures the difference in time of arrival of light pulses around clockwise
and counter-clockwise paths of extreme length.

Many kilometres of fibre optic lines are wound in a circle.

Rotation of the circle brings about an apparent path length change.

The change in arrival times of the pulse trains is a measure of the rate of rotation.
This can be manipulated to provide rate integral.

Inertial Navigation

It is a self contained system that can provide continuous information on the aircraft's position,
track, heading, groundspeed, height without any external assistance.

Installation of atleast two inertial systems is so that the information can be compared for
possible error.

Older inertial systems were not fully integrated into the aircraft and could be purchased and
fitted by an operator as an optional extra navigation system.

These are known as Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) because their main function is
navigation.

Modern systems are fully integrated with other aircraft systems so that they provide not only
navigation information but also attitude references.

These systems are called Inertial Reference Units (IRU), or Inertial Reference Systems (IRS).

Basic Principle

The starting point for an inertial reference system is acceleration.

In order to sense linear acceleration the inertial system uses Mechanical Inertial
Accelerometers.

In order to sense angular acceleration it uses Rate Integrating Gyros.

Rate Integrating Gyros are of two types:

1) Mechanical Rate Integrating Gyros in older equipment.

2) Ring Laser Gyros in modern equipment.

So if acceleration is known then speed can be calculated.

And if speed is known then distance can be calculated.

The mathematical process that reduces acceleration to speed and speed to distance is called
integration.

So first stage of integration involves getting speed from acceleration whereas the second stage
of integration involves getting the distance.

Stable Platforms and Strapdown Systems

If we know our starting position and measure acceleration in three axes, we can calculate where
we can end up.

The movement is in three axes X, Y and Z (North/South, East/West, Up/Down).

So how does the inertial system know which direction is north and which way is up.

There are three solutions to this:

1) Stable Platform System:

In this system a platform on which the accelerometers are mounted is always kept level and
aligned to north.

Acceleration is then measured relative to the platform.

2) Wander Angle System:

In this system the platform is kept level but aligning it to the north is not a requirement.

The system merely detects how far out of alignment it is.

3) Strapdown System:

In this system the ring laser gyros and accelerometers are just fixed (strapped down) to the
aircraft structure.

Not to worry about either levelling or north alignment.

The system detects how far "Out of Level" and how far "Out of Alignment" the accelerometers
are at initialisation and then monitor any changes.

Electrically Driven Artificial Horizons

Electrically driven artificial horizons use the same basic principles as the air driven instruments.

Most electric AHs rotate clockwise when viewed from above.

The gyro is still tied to the earth vertical and held in two gimbals.

The differences are:

1) They are more rigid. Electric motor can drive the rotor twice as fast, up to 22,500 rpm. High
rigidity means low precession rates, therefore less potential for gyro to move out of earth's
vertical.

2) Electric erection system can be made very fast. Advantage of a fast erection system is that
pendulosity (bottom heaviness) of the gyro can be reduced thus decreasing turning and
acceleration errors.

Electric AHs usually have complete freedom in roll, but are restricted to about ±85° in pitch.

A fast erection button is provided which supplies a higher voltage to the torque motors, and by-
passes the cut-outs, to erect the gyro at up to 180° a minute. This facility should only be used
on the ground or in straight and level flight.

Principle of Operation

The pendulous vanes of the air driven unit are replaced by mercury tilt switches mounted on the
rotor case (the inner gimbal).

Any displacement of the gyro axis from earth vertical is sensed by the tilt switches.

The switched make and break electrical circuits connected to torque motors on the gimbals.
This re-erects the system at about 5° a minute.

The pitch switch, on top of the rotor case, senses pitch errors and drives the pitch torque motor
on the roll axis.

This motor tries to roll the gyro, but precession takes over and the effect is transferred through
90° to correct pitch errors.

Roll errors are detected by a second mercury switch lying at right angles to the pitch switch.

Corrective signals are fed to a roll torque motor on the pitch axis.

Errors due to false erection during acceleration are accepted since acceleration regimes are
relatively short e.g. take-off.

However, aircraft spend a long time in turns.

To prevent the gyro erecting to a false datum in an extended turn there is a roll cut-out switch
fitted on the roll axis.

This switch disconnects the roll torque motor at bank angles in excess of 10°.

Mercury switches

Mercury switches provide power to the pitch and roll erection systems under small accelerations
but disconnect the power supply under larger accelerations or bank.
Artificial Horizon

Artificial horizons are used as primary attitude instruments.

They use earth gyros i.e. space gyros with their spin axis maintained in the earth vertical by a
gravity device, to indicate pitch and roll.

They have two gimbals and two degrees of freedom or three planes of freedom.

Simple artificial horizons have the gyroscope assembly behind the instrument face.

More modern equipment is servo driven and uses attitude information from a remote master
attitude reference, or from the IRS.

The following diagram shows the construction of a simple air driven artificial horizon (AH).

The rotor with its vertical spin axis is inside inner gimbal (rotor case).

The outer gimbal is connected to the instrument case.

Air enters through the centre of the gimbal bearings.

It drives the rotor by impinging on buckets on its outside edge and exhausts at the bottom of the
rotor case.

This gyro (common with most air driven AHs) rotates anti-clockwise when viewed from above.

Principle of Operation of an Air Driven Unit

The rotor case/inner gimbal is connected to a guide pin that moves in a slot to move the horizon
bar up and down on the instrument face.

The bank angle pointer is connected to the outer gimbal, which is free to swivel about the
aircraft fore and aft axis.

The key to pitch indication is in the position of the guide pin relative to the horizon bar arm.

Because the arm is pivoted at the forward end of the instrument, as the gyro remains level and
the case pitches with the aircraft, the horizon bar is displaced to show the aircraft symbol above
it in a climb and below it in a descent.
Gyro Erection

Air driven artificial horizons are made pendulous, with their Centre of Gravity below the
suspension point.

This is so that they settle in their gimbals in a nearly erect position when not working, to reduce
erection time on start-up.

Once the gyro is rotating, simple pendulosity does not help with erection.

Pendulosity is only there to help before start. After start it induces unwanted errors.

After start once it is rotating, the gyro has its spin axis tied to the earth vertical by a system of
pendulous vanes and air jets.

The pendulous vanes and air jets make the gyro precess back to the vertical if it is displaced.

At the bottom of the rotor case are four air exhaust vents.

Each vent (normally) half covered by a flap.

The flap itself is a pendulous vane (hinged at the top).

When the gyro is vertical air escapes from all four vents equally.
When it is displaced from the vertical, one vent will be closed (as the pendulous vane covers the
vent) and another will be opened.

Unbalanced reaction from the air vents is precessed by 90° in the direction of rotation.

This restores the spin axis to the vertical.

Acceleration Error in the Air Driven Artificial Horizon

The control system of the air driven artificial horizon depends on the pendulous vanes being
affected by the Earth's gravity.

However, the vanes will he affected by any acceleration, not just that due to gravity.

When an aircraft accelerates in a level attitude (e.g. take-off run) a false nose up, right wing
down (climbing right hand turn) indication will result.

The pitch error is due to the effect of acceleration on the lateral pendulous vanes.

The roll error is due to the inertia of the bottom-heavy rotor housing.

Deceleration will cause the opposite of the acceleration error indications i.e. a nose down, left
wing low error.

These errors assume that the rotor is rotating anticlockwise when viewed from the top, which is
the case for British air driven artificial horizons.

Most electric horizons and some American air driven horizons have clockwise rotor spin, giving
opposite errors.

These acceleration errors restrict the use of air driven horizons to aeroplanes that do not
accelerate particularly quickly e.g. small Cessnas.

The instruments typically are free in pitch through ±60° and in roll through ±110°.

Mechanical stops prevent movement outside these limits at which point the gyro will topple.

Once the gyro has toppled it will re-erect at the rate of 2° to 4° a minute.

1) Pitch Error:

During acceleration, the lateral vanes lag, swinging back towards the pilot, opening the
starboard slot and closing the port slot.

This results in a reaction which acts to port.

Due to precession the application of "Reaction force" will moved by 90° in the direction of rotor
spin (anticlockwise).

The gyro will now be precessed out of vertical with the base moving backwards towards the
pilot.

This movement is transmitted via the guide pin and horizon bar arm to bring the horizon bar
below the gull-wing giving a nose-up indication.

2) Roll Error:

Due to inertia, the weighted base of the rotor housing tries to lag during acceleration.

However, this force will be precessed, resulting in the base of the rotor housing moving to
starboard and the gyro axis precessing out of the vertical.
This rotates the whole rotor/gimbal assembly about the longitudinal axis to give a right wing
down indication.

Turning Errors in the Air Driven Artificial Horizon

Whenever an aircraft turns there must be an acceleration towards the centre of the turn
(centripetal force).

Since the pendulous vanes are now affected by a horizontal acceleration as well as acceleration
due to gravity, errors in pitch and roll indications will occur.

During the turns the centrifugal force will act on the fore and aft pendulous vanes (erection
error) and weighted base of the rotor housing (pendulosity error).

The errors are complex and change as the turn progresses, cancelling out after a 360° turn.

The magnitude of the errors varies with speed, rate of turn, and type of horizon.

For a chosen speed and rate of turn, the errors can be compensated for by tilting the top of the
rotor axis slightly forward (for erection error) and slightly to the left (for pendulosity error).

However in an uncorrected instrument the following errors (assuming a an air driven gyro
rotating anti-clockwise when viewed from above) will occur:

Turning through 90°: (Bank Angle Under-reads) and (Pitch Error – Indicates Climb)

Turning through 180°: (Bank Angle Correct) and (Pitch Error – Indicates Climb)

Turning through 270°: (Bank Angle Over-reads) and (Pitch Error – Indicates Climb)

Turning through 360°: (Bank Angle Correct) and (Pitch Angle – Correct)

Correcting Turning Error

Some instruments have the vanes adjusted to keep the gyro offset half the expected maximum
turning error (typically a 2° to 2.5° offset) from the true vertical when erect, to minimise any
turning error.

This system is called compensation tilt.

This correction system only works for one specified rate of turn (usually Rate 1) and one set
TAS (typically 250 KTs).

Small residual errors occur if speed and rate of turn are not those for which compensation has
been applied

However these errors are very much smaller than they would be, had no compensation been
made.
Direction Indicator (DI)

The rigidity of their gyroscopes give steadier heading information than a compass, which is
subject to turning and acceleration errors.

DIs use tied gyros with two degrees of freedom.

A DI rotates about a horizontal axis.

It is mounted in two gimbals to give freedom in pitch and roll up to about plus or minus 55°.

The rigidity of the gyroscope means that it will retain its orientation in space

The aircraft effectively rotates around the outer gimbal as it turns.

Indicated heading is read from the scale fixed to the outer gimbal.

The reading given on the scale is periodically synchronised with the aircraft magnetic heading
by caging the gyro (holding the axis horizontal) and manually turning the gimbal and scale until
the DI reads the correct heading, then uncaging.

An engine driven pump partially evacuates the instrument case and atmospheric air is drawn in
through the outer gimbal pivot to fine nozzles that blow on buckets on the outside of the rotor.

The rotor turns at around 10,000 to 12,000 rpm.

The air is fed through two nozzles mounted on the outer gimbal.

When the rotor is out of alignment the stream of air strikes the buckets asymmetrically and
produces a side force which precesses to re-erect the gyro.

As the aircraft banks in a turn the erection system will try to make the gyro erect to the new
position in space of the aircraft horizontal.

However this is not significant at small angles of bank at which this instrument is used.

In straight and level flight, the gyro re-erects to earth/aircraft horizontal.

DI Caging and Checks

In normal use the DI should be caged and realigned in straight and level flight every 10 to 15
minutes and the system should be caged before any violent manoeuvres.
Before flight. instrument condition should be checked and it should be checked as operating in
the correct sense during turns in the taxy out.

Direction Indicator (DI) Errors

Friction and imbalances will create real wander.

There will be apparent wander because of the earth's rotation and transport wander.

1. Earth's Rotation

Apparent drift due to the earth's rotation is:

15 x Sin (Latitude) in degrees per hour

The latitude in this case is the latitude of the actual position of the aircraft.

For latitude change (flight north or south) take the mean aircraft latitude for the period involved.

2. Latitude Nut

An adjustable correction for earth's rotation is the latitude nut.

The latitude nut induces a real wander to counter the apparent wander of earth rotation.

It is mounted on the inner gimbal in order for its weight to act on the gyro in the local vertical.

This force will be processed through 90° in the direction of rotation which will cause the gyro to
drift in the horizontal plane.

It is screwed in and out to produce the necessary imbalance and drift.

Thus it creates an out-of-balance force that produces a real wander equal to and opposite in
sign to the earth's rotation error.

Since it is set to produce the opposite error to earth's rotation, the error therefore is also:

15 x Sin (Latitude) in degrees per hour

However in this case the latitude is the figure set on the latitude nut scale.

It is not always the same as the aircraft's actual latitude, as it is set by the maintenance and
cannot be re-set in flight.

3. Transport Wander

As the gyro is moved from one point on the earth to another the gyro maintains its orientation in
space.

However the direction of true north changes.

Further you travel in an east/west sense, the greater the change.

Transport wander is the apparent loss of alignment caused by east /west travel and its value is
simply the convergency between two points.

Transport wander (in degrees) = Change of longitude x sine mean latitude

Transport wander in an easterly direction will have a different sign from transport wander in a
westerly direction.

4. Real Wander

It is due to gyro imperfections that produce a known rate of wander.

We have no way of calculating its value.

If it is to be taken into consideration then it is in degrees per hour with a positive or negative
change of gyro heading.

Total DI Error

Taking all of the above errors into account:

Total Drift = Real wander + Earth's rotation + Latitude nut + Transport wander

Signs of different errors in the Northern Hemisphere are:

Real Wander = Sign will be given.

Earth's Rotation = Negative (-)

Latitude Nut = Positive (+)

Transport Wander East = Negative (-)

Transport Wander West = Positive (+)

For Southern Hemisphere its just the opposite.

Example

A perfect DI has its latitude nut set for 60°. The aircraft starts from 50°0 003°W and flies for 3
hours ending up at 42°0 0045°E. At the end of the flight, what is the total Dl error?

1. Real Wander: Since it is a perfect DI, real wander is zero.

2. Earth Rotation Error:

15 x sin of latitude per hour

since the latitude changes from 50 to 42, we'll use the mean value of 46.

15 x Sin 46 degrees/hr

= 10.8° degrees/hr

For 3 hours it will be 10.8 x 3 = 32°

Since it is in the northern hemisphere, the error will be negative i.e. -32°

3. Latitude Nut Error:

15 x Sin (Latitude) in degrees per hour.

Do not use the mean latitude for a latitude nut correction. It only has one set value for the flight
and it might be quite different to the latitude at which you are operating.

15 x Sin 60 deg/hr

= 15 x 0.866

= 13.0 degrees/hr

For 3 hours it will be 3 x 13.0 = 39°

Since it is in the northern hemisphere, the error will be positive i.e. +39°
Also be careful for aircraft flying from one hemisphere to the other with their latitude nuts set for
the correct latitude in a particular hemisphere.

4. Transport Wander:

Transport wander (in degrees) = Change of longitude x sine mean latitude.

change of longitude from 3W to 45E = 48.

Mean latitude as determined above = 46.

= 48 x sin 46

= 48 x 0.719

= 35°

Since the direction of travel has been west to east, the sign will be negative i.e -35°

Transport wander is a value in degrees unlike earth rotation and latitude nut corrections which
are rates in degrees per hour.

Total Error:

Total Error = 0 - 32 + 39 - 35 = -28°

Note

1. Negative gyro errors make the gyro under read

e.g. For an aircraft pointing East (on the ground), the gyro is synchronised to read 090°. As the
earth rotates the aircraft will remain pointing towards East, but the gyro will begin to indicate
lower values, 085, 080 and so on. Therefore if flying on a true heading of 090° with no drift the
same thing would happen i.e. the gyro would under read.

2. A constant gyro heading will make the true heading increase

e.g. If you fly a steady gyro heading of 090° (since the gyro is underreading) the true heading
will increase.

Gimbal Error

The inner and outer gimbals are aligned at 90° to each other when the aircraft is flying straight
and level.

Under these conditions there is an exact linear relationship between the direction of the gyro
axis and the heading readout on the outer gimbal.

When the aircraft is banked in a turn the gimbals are no longer in line and as the aircraft turns
the heading indication will sometimes lead and sometimes lag the true azimuth.

The effect is small at working angles of bank.

As the wings are levelled and the gimbals line up, the error disappears.

Gimbal error is ignored in the DI.

Air Data Computers

In modern aircraft, the pitot and static lines are fed to Air Data Computers which calculate the
values of CAS, TAS, Mach number, SAT and rate of climb and descent and pass the
information electronically to the servo driven instruments.
Standby instruments retain their original basic feeds.

In order to provide the required outputs the ADC requires, inputs from a variety of sensors,
various processing modules (eg CAS, TAS, Mach, Altitude) plus the relevant display
instrumentation.

The advantage is that the data can also be fed to the Autopilot and Flight Director System,
Flight Management System, Ground Proximity Warning System, Area Navigation Aids and an
Instrument Comparison System.

On latest systems the feeds going to the pilot's instruments will go to the EFIS signal generators
to be converted for electronic display.

On some aircraft the ADC is integrated with an Inertial Reference Unit to create an Air Data
Inertial Reference Unit (ADIRU).

Speed of Sound

Speed of sound does not remain constant.

Since the local speed of sound is dependent only on temperature, it varies with temperature
(decreases with decreasing temperature).

For details see: http://www.theairlinepilots.com/forum/viewtopic.php?t=400

Local Speed of Sound = 38.94 x Square root of Temperature

Temperature is in Kelvins (K) or Absolute (A). Kelvin = °C + 273

Mach Number is the raio of TAS to Local Speed of Sound.

MN = TAS/LSS

Converting Mach to TAS:

Converting TAS to Mach:

TAS = True Air Speed

M = Mach Number

T = Temperature in Kelvin

Machmeter

It can be proven mathematically that the Mach number is a function of the dynamic pressure
divided by the static pressure.

The instrument therefore contains the elements to find:

1) Dynamic pressure (an airspeed indicator i.e a capsule fed with pitot pressure inside a case
fed with static).

2) Static pressure (an altitude capsule).

Therefore a machmeter is basically an airpseed indicator and an altimeter interacting in the

same case.
The airspeed capsule acts through a system of linkages to move a ratio arm.

The altitude capsule moves the ratio arm in another direction.

The effect this has on the ranging arm depends on how the altitude capsule moves the ratio
arm.

The ratio arm ultimately moves the pointer that indicates Mach number.

Errors

The Machmeter suffers only from instrument and pressure error.

Density error and temperature errors are self-compensated by the design of the instrument.

Because instrument and pressure errors are very small, indicated Mach number can be taken to
be true Mach number.

Blockages and Leaks

If the pitot source becomes blocked the Machmeter shows the same errors as an ASI.

The Mach number will remain unchanged until static pressure changes in a climb or descent.

In a climb the airspeed capsule will have excess static pressure trapped so will cause the
instrument to over read. Conversely in a descent it will under read.

Blocked static sources will mean that in the climb excess static pressure is trapped in the case
and the Machmeter will under read. In a descent it will over read.

If the static line fractures inside the pressure hull the static pressure will be too high and the
instrument will under read.

Likewise if the pitot line leaks the instrument will under read.

Pressure Altimeters are designed to indicate the altitude of the aircraft by detecting changes in
the static air pressure. Three types are:
1. Simple altimeters.

2. Sensitive altimeters.

3. Servo altimeters.

Simple Altimeter

Static pressure is fed to the instrument casing.

A partially evacuated capsule is connected by a system of linkages to a rotating needle on the

instrument face.

As the aircraft ascends static pressure decreases. the capsule expands and the needle on the
dial rotates.

In a descent the capsule is compressed and the needle turns the other way.

A subscale setting device is included so that the instrument can be zeroed to various datum
elevations before flight.

The rate of fall of atmospheric pressure with height is not constant, and all but the simplest
altimeters are calibrated to read correctly only under ISA conditions at all heights.

This is done by making the linkage from capsule to display non-linear.

The ASI is calibrated to ISA msl density where the altimeter is calibrated to ISA temperature,
pressure and density at all heights.

Sensitive Altimeters

The sensitive altimeter uses the same principles as the simple altimeter but increases the
sensitivity by having a stack of two or more capsules.

This increases the movement.

Some sensitive altimeters have vibrators fitted to overcome static friction (sometimes called
"stiction").

This further improves the response to small altitude changes.

A more complex gearing system allows the use of three pointers.

One for tens of thousands of feet, one for thousands and one for hundreds.

Some instruments use a drum or digital display with one pointer only.

Later instruments have a digitiser pick-off to send flight level information to the ATC transponder
(transponder feed system).

Servo-Assisted Altimeters

Servo assisted altimeters further increase the accuracy of the system by no longer relying on a
direct mechanical link between the capsules and the height pointers.

The movement is transmitted to a pivoted bar, the I bar.

Next to the I bar is an E shaped bar with coils wound around the protrusions.

An AC supply is fed to the centre of the E bar.

When the air gaps between the E and I bars are even the coils on the outer limbs produce equal
and opposite voltages.

When the I bar is disturbed one limb of the E bar produces a greater voltage than the other.

This resulting voltage difference is fed to an amplifier then to a servomotor.

Servomotor through a feedback system repositions the I bar so that the air gaps are once again
equal.

The servo motor displacement is a measure of the capsule expansion.

The servo motor is also used to drive a pointer and digital readout of aircraft height on the
instrument display.

A digitiser that takes a pickup from the worm gear shaft feeds information to the ATC
transponder.

The digitiser sends out information independent of the sub-scale setting.

Therefore the digitiser information is pressure altitude, flight level, referenced to 1013.2 mb.

Servo assisted altimeters are accurate to 1mb, ±30ft at sea level and ±100ft at 40 000ft.

Instrument Error

Instrument errors are caused by friction and play in the moving parts.

In addition, the capsule moves very little for small pressure changes which is not recorded
properly.

At high altitudes, where the pressure change is small, the simple altimeter becomes increasingly
unreliable.

Pressure errors (configuration and manoeuvre error) are also present.

The linkages fail to transmit changes in static pressure instantly to the dial so there is a time lag
in recording rapid altitude changes.

The capsule itself is not perfectly elastic so will distort differently for large increases and
decreases in altitude.

This is called hysteresis error.

Barometric Error

Any change of sea level pressure from the datum set on the altimeter subscale will give an
incorrect altitude reading.

This is barometric error which is most easily corrected by adjusting the subscale.

Question

A flight is made from aerodrome A to aerodrome B at FL 40. The regional QNH is 996 mb and
the highest obstacle en route is 2200 ft amsl. Determine the vertical clearance from the obstacle
assuming 1mb equals 29ft.

Solution:

FL 40 means the datum is 1013 mb.

Obstacle's datum is MSL 996 mb.

Datums need to be the same.

If aircraft sets 996 mb then its height will be:

1013 - 996 = 17 mb

17 x 29 = 493 ft below 4000 i.e. 3507 feet.

Clerance from obstacle is 3507-2200 = 1307 feet.

Temperature Error

At height the task of an altimeter is to maintain separation between aircraft at different indicated
heights.

In ISA conditions the indicated height will be correct.

At temperatures above ISA the true height will be greater than the indicated height.

At temperatures below ISA the true height will be less than the indicated height.

At low level calculation of height above ground will involve a calculation to find true altitude from
indicated altitude in conditions that are not ISA.

If there are both barometric and temperature errors to take into account, the convention is to
calculate the two errors separately.

Calculate barometric error first and then the temperature error.

In air temperatures that differ from ISA the altimeter error will be approximately 4ft per 1000ft of
height above the pressure datum for every degree of deviation from ISA.

It is conventional to assume that if you have one reading for ISA deviation that the same
deviation will apply at all heights.

In temperatures below ISA the altimeter will overread and the error will be dangerous.

Therefore corrections must be applied in temperatures of ISA minus 15°C or lower for:

• DH/DA or MDH/MDA and step-down fixes

• MSA and obstacle clearance

It is important to recognise that the pressure datum is the met station elevation.

QFE is the airfield pressure datum and QNH is calculated so that airfield elevation is correctly
indicated regardless of temperature.
When applying the 4ft per 1000ft rule of thumb, therefore, only apply it to the layer of air
between the ground and the aircraft.

Ground elevation will be touchdosvn elevation for precision approaches, airfield elevation for
MSA and obstacle clearance calculations.

Where no airfield or station elevation is given you must assume that the datum is mean sea
level.

Question 1

You are flying at 3000ft indicated on a QNH of 1004mb and the OAT is —6°C. What is your true
height?

Solution:

ISA at 3000 = 9°C

OAT = -6°C

ISA Deviation = -15°C

The rule of thumb says:

4ft per 1000ft of height for every degree of deviation from ISA.

i.e. 4 x 3 x 15 = 180 ft.

Since it is colder then ISA, the true height will be:

3000 - 180 = 2820 feet

Question 2

You are flying at 4000ft on an airfield QNH of 948mb and the OAT is —13°C. The airfield
elevation is 2000ft. You will cross a mountain of 3000ft elevation. What will be your clearance
over the obstacle?

Solution:

ISA deviation = -20°C.

As mentioned above, when applying the 4ft per 1000ft rule of thumb, only apply it to the layer of
air between the ground and the aircraft.

Layer of air between the ground (2000 ft) and the aircraft (4000 ft) in this case is 2000 feet.

The temperature error will be 4 x 2 x 20 = 160ft.

True height will be 4000 - 160 = 3840 ft

Mountain is 3000 feet so clearance will be:

3840 - 3000 = 840 feet.

Question 3

You are approaching an airfield. Touchdown elevation 260ft. Surface OAT —30°C. Your
published Decision Altitude is 1065ft. What is your indicated Decision Altitude?

Solution:

Touchdown elevation 260 ft is almost sea level so ISA deviation is -45°C

Layer of air between the ground (260 ft) and the aircraft (1065 ft DA in this case) is 1065 - 260 =
805 ft.

Applyin the 4ft per 1000ft rule of thumb:

4 x 0.8 x 45 = 144 ft

Indicated height will be more than true as temperature is colder than standard.

Indicated Decision Altitude is 1065 + 144 = 1209 ft

Line Blockages and Leaks

If the static line becomes blocked the pressure inside the instrument cannot change.

Therefore no change in altitude will be displayed in a climb or descend.

If the static line fractures within the pressure hull then cabin altitude will be indicated.

A capsule inside a sealed case is supplied with pitot pressure and the case itself is supplied with
static pressure.

As the aircraft speed increases the pitot pressure will increase and the expansion of the capsule
will measure the difference between pitot and static pressures.

Pitot pressure minus static pressure is dynamic pressure.

So the output from the capsule is 1/2 rho V^2

The V in the equation is TAS.

The instrument assumes that the air density is the ISA mean sea level value 1.225 Kg/m^3 and
makes allowance in the linkage to display V and not V^2.

The ASI only indicates TAS when the density is the ISA msl value.

Since there are other errors to account for, the ASI simply displays indicated airspeed (IAS).

ASI Operating Speed Markings on Light Pistons

White Arc

It indicates the flap operating range.

Lower end is the stall speed at Maximum All Up Mass in the landing configuration (Vso).

Upper end is the maximum speed for flaps extended (VFE).

Green Arc

It indicates the normal operating range.

Lower end is the stall speed at Maximum All Up Mass in the clean configuration (Vs1).

Upper end is the normal maximum operating speed (VNO).

Yellow Arc

A yellow arc extends from VNO to the never exceed speed (VNE). A red line marks VNE.

Blue Line
Marks the best single engine rate of climb speed, VYSE.

Red Line

Marks the minimum control speed in the air, VMCA.

nstrument Error

Inaccuracies in the construction, friction and play in the moving parts produces instrument
error.

The effect of changes in temperature extending and contracting the linkages is countered by
including a bi-metallic strip that distorts to correct the expansion.

Position or Pressure Error

Errors in the static pressure reading. have to be accounted for.

Two sub-categories of position error are configuration error and manoeuvre error.

Configuration error is predictable and can be compensated for.

Manoeuvre error is unpredictable.

Rectified Airspeed (RAS) and Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)

Indicated airspeed corrected manually for both instrument and position errors is called rectified
airspeed (RAS).

Air Data Computers can compensate for Instrument and Configuration errors, and modern
synthetic airspeed indicators display calibrated airspeed (CAS).

CAS is effectively the same thing as RAS.

The ASI displays IAS, the EFIS displays CAS.

In modern aircraft, critical speeds like flap or undercarriage limiting speeds are quoted as CAS,
for that is what you see on the EFIS.

True Airspeed (TAS)

To find TAS you have to apply a density error to CAS.

Dynamic Pressure = 1/2 rho V^2

SO V^2 = 2 x Dynamic Pressure / rho

This means for a given measured dynamic pressure (which can be taken to be CAS) as the
density departs from the ISA msl value V, TAS changes.

If density goes below the ISA msl value TAS will be higher than CAS and if density increases
TAS still be lower than CAS.

Low pressure and high temperature reduce air density.

So at height, and even at msl, if the temperature is above ISA, TAS will be higher than CAS.

If the temperature is lower than ISA then TAS will be lower than CAS.

TAS is used for navigation.

Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)

An additional complication affects the accuracy of the instrument at high speeds.

In these conditions air no longer behaves as it does at low speeds.

As it comes to rest it becomes more compressed.

Its density increases and dynamic pressure begins to rise above the expected value.

Normal calculations then produce an excessive CAS and TAS.

Compressibility becomes significant above M0.4 or 300 knots.

This compressibility error is compensated for on the navigation computer for TAS in excess of
300kt and always produces a negative correction.

CAS/RAS corrected for compressibility (but not for density) is called equivalent airspeed (EAS).

EAS is the same as or less than CAS/RAS and gives the true value of aerodynamic forces.

EAS is used in aerodynamic calculations.

ASI Blockages and Leaks

A Static Blockage:

This means that pressure in the instrument case will remain the same.

As long as the external static pressure stays the same the instrument will read correctly.

If constant height is maintained, the ASI reading will be right.

If the aircraft descends to a lower altitude, the pressure in the instrument case will be too low,
the difference between detected pitot and static pressure will be too high and the ASI will over
read.

If the aircraft climbs to a higher altitude, the pressure in the instrument case will be too high, the
difference between detected pitot and static pressure will be too low and the ASI will under
read.

A Pitot Blockage:

If the pitot line becomes blocked true changes in airspeed will not be shown.

If the altitude remains the same indicated airspeed will remain the same regardless of speeding
up or down.

In a descent the rising static pressure will mean the ASI reading decreases.

In a climb the decreasing static pressure will mean the ASI reading increases.

Pitot Leakages:

Pitot line contains dynamic pressure, greater than static.

Any leaks will lower the pitot pressure and cause the instrument to under read.

Static Leakages:

In a pressurised aircraft static line leaks inside the pressure hull will introduce cabin static
pressure, which, if it is different from true static, will usually be higher.

This will make the ASI under read.

Pitot-Static System

An aircraft stationary on the ground will be acted on from all directions by ambient air pressure,
called static pressure.

Static pressure is atmospheric pressure.

As it starts to move through the air, it encounters dynamic pressure which is proportional to the
aircraft's speed through the air.

Dynamic pressure is the kinetic energy of the air changed to pressure energy.

Formula for dynamic pressure is 1/2 rho V^2

where rho is the air density and V is the true velocity of the aircraft.

Any system that detected the pitot pressure acting on the front of the aircraft would record not
only the dynamic pressure but also the static pressure.

Pitot static systems detect total pressure (static and dynamic) and static pressure alone.

The difference between the two will give a measurement of dynamic pressure and hence
speed.

Pitot-Static Single Pressure Head

In simple systems the two sensing heads are often combined into a single pressure head.

The pressure head is mounted on a mast to move it far enough from the aircraft skin to locate it
outside the boundary layer.

A heater element protects the sensor from blockage due to icing.

Errors in the measurement of pitot or static pressure will bring errors in displayed speed, height,
vertical speed and Mach number.

Typical Systems (Large Aircraft)

Pitot/static heads are standardised for interchangeability and not all the ports in all the heads
are used.

Static feeds are taken from both sides of the aircraft (to balance static pressure when the
aircraft yaws).

The standby or alternate static vents are flush vents and will probably give a less accurate static
reading than the normal vents.

They are used to supply the standby instruments and on some aircraft can supply the main
systems when the normal static vents are blocked.

On some small aircraft the alternate static vents are inside the cabin.

This means that the static pressure sensed is likely to be lower than the ambient static
pressure.

This is because (on unpressurised aircraft) the cabin pressure suffers from aerodynamic suction
and is slightly louver than ambient.

Pitot Static Errors

Any errors in the detected static pressure will give false instrument indications.

The sum total of this is called position error (pressure error).

Two sub-categories of position error are a predictable configuration error and unpredictable
manoeuvre error.

Configuration Error

Static sources are sited as far as possible to be error free but there will remain some small
error.

This will change with the aircraft's speed and configuration.

These errors will have been established in flight testing, are known, and can be displayed on
calibration cards or programmed out (in modern systems).

Standby instruments are not fed through the ADC and will have uncorrected errors (even in
modern systems).

Manoeuvre Error

Rolling, pitching or yawing and random gusts will introduce transient and unpredictable static
pressure errors that cannot be programmed out.