ASSIGNMENT#04

Topic:

 Business Letters
 Parallelism
 Literary Terms

Submitted to:

Prof. Syed Ali Raza Bukhari

Submitted by:

Fatima Zahid G1F17BSZL0074

Pakeeza Naqvi G1F17BSZL0053

Uswa Shahbaz G1F17BSZL0059

Muqaddas Imtiaz G1F17BSZL0067

Section:

BSZL3B

Submission Date:

9th of Feb, 2019

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Contents:

 Format & structure of business letter:

 Essential parts
 Non-essential parts
 Format of letter
 Example
 Business Letters:
 Complaint letter
 Adjustment letter
 Sales promotion letter
 Inquiry letter
 Parallelism:
 Defintion
 Examples
 Literary Terms:
 Imagery
 Simile
 Metaphor
 Alliteration
 Personification
 Onomatopoeia
 Hyperbole
 Synecdoche
 Oxymoron
 Metonymy
 Assonance

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 Apostrophe
 Irony
 Allusion
 Allegory
 Alliteration
 Ambiguity
 Antithesis
 Archaism
 Atmosphere
 Style
 Speech-act
 Science fiction
 Stylistics
 Semiotics
 setting

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 “BUSINESS LETTERS”

STRUCTURE & FORMAT OF A BUISNESS LETTER

You write business letter, whenever you need to communicate with another company or share
important news, business letters can present your message in a classic, polished style. Unlike
internal memos, business letters are usually written from one company to another, which is why
they’re so formal and structured. However, letters are also quite versatile, as they can be used for
official requests, announcements, cover letters, and much more. Despite the formality, letters can
still have a friendly tone, especially because they include brief introductions before getting to the
main point.

Essential parts of a business letter:

No matter which form, style or format one resorts to, there are some essential mechanical
requirements of a letter. These requirements are the standard letter parts. They are:
1. Heading:

The heading which is also known as ‘head address’ or ‘letter head’ contains information relating
to the name of the organisation and its address. It is usually given at the top centre or top right
side of the paper. The information include the firm’s name, addresses, trade mark, telephone
number, telex number E-mail address, date etc.

2. Date:

Date is an essential part of a business letter since it serves the purpose of proof as to when the
letter was written. Date is mentioned to the right of the corner, leaving double space below the
last line of Heading. It should always be written in full, on 22 July 2007 or July 22, 2007.
Mentioning of Date in figures should be avoided because it may sometimes cause confusion, In

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Full-Block Form, Date to is written to the left of the center.
3. Inside Address:

The inside address contains the name and address of the organisation or the individual to whom
the letter is written. It is written below the Reference time starting from the left margin. The
inside address makes a record on the copy which helps in identification for filing purpose.
4.Salutation:

Salutation means to greet the address. The greeting in a business letter is always formal.
Different circumstances determine which salutation or greeting is most appropriate. Use "Dear"
when the recipient's name or title is known. Examples include "Dear Mr. Doe" or "Dear Sales
Director." When the name or title is unknown, use "To Whom It May Concern." Always
punctuate the salutation of a business letter with a colon instead of a comma.
5. Body of the Letter:

The body is the important and longest part of a letter and is usually divided into three
subcategories: introduction, main content and summary. The introductory paragraph states the
purpose of the letter. The main content conveys all necessary detailed information and has no set
length requirements. The last paragraph summarizes the information provided, restates the letter
intent and offers either instructions or an inquiry regarding follow-up correspondence.
6. Complimentary Close:

The complimentary close is a word or short phrase that basically means "goodbye." "Sincerely"
is the most common closing remark. Others include "cordially," "best wishes," and "best
regards." The complimentary close can vary in degrees of formality and is dependent upon the
relationship between the sender and recipient.
7. Signature:

Skip four lines after the closing and type your name. Skip another line and type your job title and
company name. If you’re submitting a hard copy, sign your name in the empty space using blue
or black ink.

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Non-essential parts of a business letter:

Some letters may ask for certain additional parts which are not the requirements of all letters.
One or more of these parts may be mentioned, as and when required. These parts are:
1. Reference Line:

Reference Line denotes the reference number of letters. Its purpose is to link a letter with
previous or the subsequent correspondence to be made on a subject.
2. Attention Line:

Attention line is placed below the attention time and above the salutations and is underlined. It
indicates the names of those for whom the letter is meant.
3. Subject Line:

Subject line tells what the correspondence is about. It is placed just below the salutation line. It
usually begins at the left margin and may also begin from the centre. It may contain apart from
the subject any specific identifications material i.e. date of previous letter, invoice number etc.
4. Identification Line:

Identification Line comprises the initials of names of the persons who are involved in drafting
and typing Of the message.
5. Enclosure Line:

Sometimes some documents like price list catalogue etc are attached with the letter. Enclosures
mention the documents which are enclosed or attached with the letter. The enclosures usually
find their place at the bottom left margin.
6. Carbon Copies:

When copies of the letter are meant to be sent to more than one person it is mentioned under
‘CC’ or carbon copy Notation. The names of the person to whom copies are to be sent should be
written adjacent to the left margin.

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Format of a business letter:

[Sender’s Name]

[Sender’s Company Name]

[Sender’s Street Address]

[Sender’s City, State/Province, & Zip/Postal Code]

[Sender’s phone number and or email address]

[Date]

[Recipient’s Name]

[Recipient’s Company Name]

[Recipient’s Street Address]

[Recipient’s City, State/Province, & Zip/Postal Code]

[Recipient’s phone number and or email address]

[Subject]

[Dear Name],

Introduction: This is where you explain the purpose of the letter, why you are writing it, what
you hope to achieve from, and any other important information you want to get out up front.

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Middle Section: This is where you elaborate and provide more detail about what you outlined in
the first paragraph. There may be several more paragraphs like this depending on how long the
letter needs to be.

Conclusion: This is the place where you wrap up and summarize things. There may be a call to
action or next steps included in this paragraph.

[Sincerely],

[Signature]

[Name of Sender]

Example:

John Bravo

ABC Education Inc.

1234 – 123 Street

New York, NY 01218

May 21, 2018

Sarah Geenie

XYZ Company Inc.

6789 – 789 Street

New York, NY 04851

Re: Updated Billing Frequency

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Dear Ms. Geenie,

I am writing to inform you of our new pricing model effective February 1, 2019. On the first of
February, we will be switching from an annual billing cycle to a quarterly billing cycle and this
letter contains important information that may impact your organization.

After conducting extensive research and receiving feedback from our customers, we have
determined that most customers strongly prefer a quarterly billing cycle rather than an annual
one. In order to best suit your needs, we have decided to offer this benefit, which will take effect
on February 1, 2019.

This letter is simply to notify you of the upcoming changes, and no immediate action is required
from you at this time. We thank you for your continued business.

Sincerely,

John Bravo

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1. Complaint letter:

Your Address
Your City, State, ZIP Code
(Your email address, if sending via email)

Date

Name of Contact Person (if available)

Title (if available)
Company Name
Consumer Complaint Division (if you have no specific contact)
Street Address
City, State, ZIP Code

Dear (Contact Person or Organization Name):

Re: (account number, if applicable)

On (date), I (bought, leased, rented, or had repaired) a (name of the product, with serial or
model number, or service performed) at (location and other important details of the
transaction).

Unfortunately, your (product or service) has not performed well (or the service was
inadequate) because (state the problem). I am disappointed because (explain the problem: for
example, the product does not work properly; the service was not performed correctly; I was
billed the wrong amount; something was not disclosed clearly or was misrepresented; etc.).

To resolve the problem, I would appreciate your (state the specific action you want: money
refunded, charge card credit, repair, exchange, etc.). Enclosed are copies (do not send
originals) of my records (include receipts, guarantees, warranties, canceled checks, contracts,
model and serial numbers, and any other documents).

I look forward to your reply and a resolution to my problem and will wait until (set a time
limit) before seeking help from a consumer protection agency or the Better Business Bureau.

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Please contact me at the above address or by phone at (home and/or office numbers with area
code).

Sincerely,

Your name

Enclosure(s)

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 2. Adjustment letter:

Letter Head (Company’s Name)

Address

Contact Numbers

__ ____ __ (Date)

_________(Addresser’sName)
________________(Addresser’sAddress)
_____________ (Addresser’s Contact Number)

Sub: Refund of Damaged Goods

Dear_____,

I have just received your letter regarding the shipment of damaged goods you received through
__________________. I regret for the inconvenience that it has caused you.

As per your claim and details regarding the matter, it has been found that your claim of _____
for the broken furniture stands legitimate. We have already dispatched the _______ through
registered mail at the address provided by you. It will reach at your doorsteps within _________.
The damage to your items was a result of ________. It was an unfortunate accident and a big
mistake that the items were not checked before delivery. We take all the responsibility of the
damage and the inconvenience caused to you.

I must remind you to keep the damaged items in the same condition in which you received them
until our representatives can inspect them. The inspection should take place within _________.
You will be informed beforehand so that you can provide us the timings which suit you the most.

I am sure that this unfortunate accident will not hamper our relationship in the time to come.

Sincerely,

Yours Truly

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__________ (Signature)

_________ (Your Name)

__________ (Your Designation)

ENCL: (optional) stands for ‘Enclosure’ which can be documents related to the complaint e.g.
photocopies of purchase order, warranty card etc.

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 3. Sales promotion letter:

From,

_______________________ (name, designation and company of the sender)

_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

Date ___________ (date of issuing letter).

To,

______________ (name, designation &

______________ Address of the recipient)
______________
______________
______________
______________

Subject: _____________. (Main purpose of writing the letter)

Dear ___________, (Sir/ Madam/ Name of the recipient)

We at_______________ (introduce your company and products). We want to

_________________ (state the purpose of the letter).

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Our products have __________________________ (state the features and benefits of your
product and also give the details of the offer provided by your company). You can try
________________ (restate your purpose).

For further information you can visit ___________________ (provide you website address or
contact info).

We are hoping for _________ (restate purpose for letter). Thank you for giving you valuable
time. Hope for a better business.

Warm regards,
____________ (name, signature and address of sender)
_____________

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4. Inquiry letter:

To,

__________ (employee’s name)

__________ (employee’s address)
__________
__________

From:

______________ (Your name)

______________ (Your address)
__________________

Date __________ (date of writing letter)

Dear Mr. /Ms_________,

We want to enquire from you whether you can send us your company catalogue which has
details of all the products you manufacture. We can check and let you know if there is any
product which will suit our requirement. We have a huge requirement and hope you will be
able to meet our demands. We are in search of latest, sturdy and durable products.

We shall place an order if we find the same with you. We also have a need for replacement of
…………….(mention product) in our office. If you can offer discount on the products you
replace, we would like to go ahead with you.
Your company has reputation in the industry and we are sure you can deliver products of
high standards. We can discuss the pricing in our next meeting.

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You can send us a representative with the necessary information so that we can discuss and
finalize the deal.
We look forward to hear from you at the earliest

Yours Sincerely,
______________ (Your name)

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Parallelism:

Parallelism is the use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same; or similar in
their construction, sound, meaning, or meter.

Parallelism examples are found in literary works as well as in ordinary conversations. This
method adds balance and rhythm to sentences, giving ideas a smoother flow and thus
persuasiveness, because of the repetition it employs.

For example, “Alice ran into the room, into the garden, and into our hearts.” We see the
repetition of a phrase that not only gives the sentence a balance, but rhythm and flow as well.
This repetition can also occur in similarly structured clauses, such as, “Whenever you need me,
wherever you need me, I will be there for you.”

Examples:

1. The opening paragraph of Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities is perhaps the best-
known example of parallelism in literature. Parallelism is shown by using "it was" to
connect opposing ideas.
"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the
age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the
season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter
of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going
direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way."

2. "Community" by John Donne contrasts ideas of "good" and "love" with "ill"and "hate"
using parallel structure.

“Good we must love, and must hate ill,

For ill is ill, and good good still;
But there are things indifferent,
Which we may neither hate, nor love,
But one, and then another prove,
As we shall find our fancy bent."

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19
 “Literary terms”

Imagery:

Imagery means to use figurative language to represent objects, actions, and ideas in such a way
that it appeals to our physical senses.

Usually it is thought that imagery makes use of particular words that create visual representation
of ideas in our minds. The word “imagery” is associated with mental pictures. Imagery, to be
realistic, turns out to be more complex than just a picture.

The following are the examples of imagery:

 It was dark and dim in the forest.

The words “dark” and “dim” are visual images.
 The children were screaming and shouting in the fields.
“Screaming” and “shouting” appeal to our sense of hearing, or auditory sense.
 The fresh and juicy orange is very cold and sweet.
“Juicy” and “sweet” when associated with oranges have an effect on our sense of taste, or
gustatory sense.

Short Examples of Imagery:

1. The old man took the handful of dust, and sifted it through his fingers.
2. The fragrance of spring flowers made her joyful.
3. The sound of bat hitting the ball was pleasing to his ear.
4. The blind man touched the tree to learn if its skin was smooth or rough.
5. When he was on the way to work, he heard the muffled cry of a woman.

SIMILE:

A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison, showing similarities between two
different things. Unlike a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of the words “like”
or “as.” Therefore, it is a direct comparison.

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We can find simile examples in our daily speech. We often hear comments like, “John is as slow
as a snail.” Snails are notorious for their slow pace, and here the slowness of John is compared to
that of a snail. The use of “as” in the example helps to draw the resemblance. Some more
examples of common similes are given below.

Examples:

 Our soldiers are as brave as lions.

 Her cheeks are red like a rose.
 He is as funny as a monkey.
 The water well was as dry as a bone.
 He is as cunning as a fox.

Simile introduces vividness into what we say. Authors and poets utilize simile to convey their
sentiments and thoughts through vivid word pictures.

METAPHOR:

Metaphor is a figure of speech that makes an implicit, implied, or hidden comparison between
two things that are unrelated, but which share some common characteristics. In other words, a
resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some common
characteristics.

Most of us think of a metaphor as a device used in songs or poems only, and that it has nothing
to do with our everyday life. In fact, all of us in our routine life speak, write, and think in
metaphors. We cannot avoid them. Metaphors are sometimes constructed through our common
language, and they are called “conventional metaphors.”

EXAMPLES:

Below are some more conventional metaphors we often hear in our daily lives:

 My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.)

 The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not difficult.)

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  It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies that clear skies are not a threat
and life is going to be without hardships)
 The skies of his future began to darken. (Darkness is a threat; therefore, this implies that
the coming times are going to be hard for him.)
 Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that her voice makes him feel happy)

Alliteration:

Alliteration is derived from Latin’s “Latira”. It means “letters of alphabet”. It is a stylistic device
in which a number of words, having the same first consonant sound, occur close together in a
series.

Consider the following examples:

 But a better butter makes a batter better.

 A big bully beats a baby boy.

Both sentences are alliterative because the same first letter of words occurs close together and
produces alliteration in the sentence. An important point to remember here is that alliteration
does not depend on letters but on sounds. So the phrase not knotty is alliterative, but cigarette
chase is not.

Examples:

In our daily life, we notice alliteration in the names of different companies. It makes the name of
a company catchy and easy to memorize. Here are several common alliteration examples.

 Dunkin’ Donuts
 Best Buy
 Coca-Cola
 Life Lock
 Park Place
 American Airlines

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  Chuckee Cheese’s
 Bed Bath & Beyond

Personification:

Personification is a figure of speech in which a thing an idea or an animal is given human

attributes. The non-human objects are portrayed in such a way that we feel they have the ability
to act like human beings. For example, when we say, “The sky weeps,” we are giving the sky the
ability to cry, which is a human quality. Thus, we can say that the sky has been personified in the
given sentence.

Examples:

1. Look at my car. She is a beauty, isn’t she?

2. The wind whispered through dry grass.
3. The flowers danced in the gentle breeze.
4. Time and tide wait for none.
5. The fire swallowed the entire forest.

We see from the above examples of personification that this literary device helps us relate
actions of inanimate objects to our own emotions.

PERSONIFICATION IN SPEECH:

1. The shadow of the moon danced on the lake.

2. The flowers were blooming, and the bees kissed them every now and then.
3. The tread of time is so ruthless that it tramples even the kings under its feet.
4. The skyscraper was so tall that it seemed to kiss the sky.
5. The tall pines in the hilly area fondled the clouds.
6. The full moon peeped through partial clouds.
7. The ship danced over the undulating waves of the ocean.
8. When he sat the test, the words and the ideas fled from his mind.

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 Onomatopoeia:

Onomatopoeia is defined as a word which imitates the natural sounds of a thing. It creates a
sound effect that mimics the thing described, making the description more expressive and
interesting.

For instance, saying, “The gushing stream flows in the forest” is a more meaningful description
than just saying, “The stream flows in the forest.” The reader is drawn to hear the sound of a
“gushing stream,” which makes the expression more effective.

In addition to the sounds they represent, many onomatopoeic words have developed meanings of
their own. For example, the word “whisper” not only represents the wispy or breathy sound of
people talking quietly, but also describes the action of people talking quietly.

Examples:

 The buzzing bee flew away.

 The sack fell into the river with a splash.
 The books fell on the table with a loud thump.
 The rustling leaves kept me awake.

The different sounds of animals are also considered as examples of onomatopoeia. You will
recognize the following sounds easily:

 Meow
 Moo
 Neigh
 Tweet
 Oink
 Baa

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 Hyperbole:

Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning “over-casting,” is a figure of speech that
involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis.

It is a device that we employ in our day-to-day speech. For instance, when you meet a friend
after a long time, you say, “It’s been ages since I last saw you.” You may not have met him for
three or four hours, or a day, but the use of the word “ages” exaggerates this statement to add
emphasis to your wait. Therefore, a hyperbole is an unreal exaggeration to emphasize the real
situation. Some other common Hyperbole examples are given below.

Examples:

 My grandmother is as old as the hills.

 Your suitcase weighs a ton!
 She is as heavy as an elephant!
 I am dying of shame.
 I am trying to solve a million issues these days.

It is important not to confuse hyperbole with simile and metaphor. It does make a comparison,
like simile and metaphor. Rather, hyperbole has a humorous effect created by an overstatement.

Synecdoche:

Synecdoche is a literary device in which a part of something represents the whole, or it may use
a whole to represent a part. Synecdoche may also use larger groups to refer to smaller groups, or
vice versa. It may also call a thing by the name of the material it is made of, or it may refer to a
thing in a container or packaging by the name of that container or packing.

EXAMPLE:

 The phrase “gray beard” refers to an old man.

 The word “sails” refers to a whole ship.

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  The word “suit” refers to a businessman.
 The word “boots” usually refers to soldiers.
 The term “coke” is a common synecdoche for all carbonated drinks.
 “Pentagon” is a synecdoche when it refers to a few decision makers.
 The word “glasses” refers to spectacles.

Oxymoron:

Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect. The
common oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with contrasting
meanings, such as “cruel kindness,” or “living death”.

EXAMPLES:

1. Open secret
2. Tragic comedy
3. Seriously funny
4. Awfully pretty
5. Foolish wisdom
6. Original copies
7. Liquid gas

The above oxymoron examples produce a comical effect. Thus, it is a lot of fun to use them in
your everyday speech.

Metonymy:

Metonymy is a figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name of something
else with which it is closely associated. We can come across examples of metonymy both from
literature and in everyday life.

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EXAMPLES:

For a better understanding, let us observe a few metonymy examples:

 “England decides to keep check on immigration.” (England refers to the government.)

 “The pen is mightier than the sword.” (Pen refers to written words, and sword to military
force.)
 “The Oval Office was busy in work.” (The Oval Office is a metonymy, as it stands for
people who work in the office.)
 “Let me give you a hand.” (Hand means help.)

Assonance:

Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in nearby words. It is used to reinforce the
meanings of words or to set the mood.

Assonance occurs when sounds, not letters, repeat. In the example above, the "oo" sound is what
matters, not the different letters used to produce that sound.Assonance does not require that
words with the same vowel sounds be directly next to each other. Assonance occurs so long as
identical vowel-sounds are relativelyclose together.Assonant vowel sounds can occur anywhere
(at the beginning or end, on stressed or unstressed syllables) within any of the words in the
group.

Examples:

 We light fire on the mountain.

 I feel depressed and restle
 Go and mow the lawn.
 Johnny went here and there and everywhe
 The engineer held the steering to steer the vehicle.

Apostrophe:
More commonly known as a punctuation mark, apostrophe can also refer to an exclamatory
figure of speech. The definition of apostrophe as a literary device is when a speaker breaks off

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from addressing one party and instead addresses a third party. This third party may be an
individual, either present or absent in the scene. It can also be an inanimate object, like a dagger,
or an abstract concept, such as death or the sun. Because there is a clear speaker and change of
addressee, apostrophe is most commonly found in plays. It does, however, sometimes occur in
poetry and prose.
The word apostrophe comes from the Greek for “turning back.” It was common in
Greek drama and works like Homer’s Odyssey. In cases such as Homer’s Odyssey, apostrophe
usually occurs when the otherwise impersonal narrator intrudes in the storyline to provide
information or commentary. This use of apostrophe where a narrator interrupts the action to
provide commentary was also popular in works of literature in the nineteenth- to mid-twentieth
centuries. Examples of apostrophe in these cases occur in works with an omniscient third-
person point of view.

Examples of Apostrophe:

Many of us are familiar with using apostrophe without realizing it. Apostrophe occurs we
address our car on a cold day, either pleading with it to start or yelling at it when it doesn’t. Or
perhaps we get an email from someone and start responding out loud, knowing that the person
won’t hear the message. In this way, though apostrophe may seem unnatural in the context of
plays and omniscient narrators addressing the audience, it is, in fact, perfectly natural in our daily
lives. Apostrophe is also found in popular songs and other media. For example:

 “Ugh, cell phone, why won’t you load my messages?”

 (While speaking on the phone with someone) “Hold, on, my kid’s going crazy—Jim, come
back here, stop running with scissors.”
 “Oh, Starbucks, how I love you! Your medium dark roast allowed me to survive that
meeting!”
 “Oh what a world it seems we live in.” –Rufus Wainwright (song)
 “O holy night! The stars are brightly shining!” (Christmas carol)
IRONY:
Definition: There are three types of irony: verbal, situational and dramatic.

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Verbal irony occurs when a speaker’s intention is the opposite of what he or she is saying. For
example, a character stepping out into a hurricane and saying, “What nice weather we’re
having!”
Situational irony occurs when the actual result of a situation is totally different from what
you’d expectthe result to be. Sitcoms often use situational irony. For example, a family spends a
lot of time and money planning an elaborate surprise birthday party for their mother to show her
how much they care. But it turns out, her birthday is next month, and none of them knew the
correct date. She ends up fuming that no one cares enough to remember her birthday.
Dramatic irony occurs when the audience knows a key piece of information that a character in a
play, movie or novel does not. This is the type of irony that makes us yell, “DON’T GO IN
THERE!!” during a scary movie. Dramatic irony is huge in Shakespeare’s tragedies, most
famously in Othello and Romeo and Juliet, both of which we’ll examine later.
Examples of Irony:

 I posted a video on YouTube about how boring and useless YouTube is.
 The name of Britain’s biggest dog was “Tiny.”
 You laugh at a person who slipped stepping on a banana peel, and the next thing you
know, you’ve slipped too.
 The butter is as soft as a slab of marble.
 “Oh great! Now you have broken my new camera.”

Allusion Definition:
Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural,
literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it
refers. It is just a passing comment and the writer expects the reader to possess enough
knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text.

For instance, you make a literary allusion the moment you say, “I do not approve of
this quixotic idea,” Quixotic means stupid and impractical derived from Cervantes’s “Don
Quixote”, a story of a foolish knight and his misadventures.

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Examples:

The use allusions are not confined to literature alone. Their occurrence is fairly common in our
daily speech. Look at some common allusion examples in everyday life:

 “Don’t act like a Romeo in front of her.” “Romeo” is a reference to Shakespeare’s

Romeo, a passionate lover of Juliet, in “Romeo and Juliet”.
 The rise in poverty will unlock the Pandora’s box of crimes.This is an allusion to one of
Greek Mythology’s origin myth, “Pandora’s box”.
 “This place is like a Garden of Eden.”This is a biblical allusion to the “garden of God” in
the Book of Genesis.
 “Hey! Guess who the new Newton of our school is?” “Newton”, means a genius student,
alludes to a famous scientist Isaac Newton.

ALLEGORY:
An allegory is a work of art, such as a story or painting, in which the characters, images, and/or
events act as symbols. The symbolism in an allegory can be interpreted to have a deeper
meaning. An author may use allegory to illustrate a moral or spiritual truth, or political or
historical situation.
Allegories can be understood to be a type of extended metaphor. An extended metaphor develops
a certain analogy to a greater extent than a simple comparison. An allegory, meanwhile, uses a
particular metaphor throughout an entire plot.

The word “allegory” comes from the ancient Greek for “to speak so as to imply something
other.” The definition of allegory makes sense coming from this term, as an allegory always has
some hidden meaning below the surface.

Examples:

There are many common stories that we tell which have allegorical meanings. These are
especially popular in stories for children, as allegories often mean to teach some lesson or help
the audience understand complex ideas and concepts. Stories such as Aesop’s Fables often have
morals, and thus are examples of allegory. We also use real events that have happened to teach

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lessons. Here are some stories that have entered into public consciousness that are also
allegories:
 The Tortoise and the Hare from Aesop’s Fables: From this story, we learn that the strong
and steady win the race.
 The story of Icarus: Icarus fashions wings for himself out of wax, but when he flies too
close to the sun his wings melt. This story is a message about the dangers of reaching
beyond out powers.
 Yertle the Turtle by Dr. Seuss: This story about a turtle who yearns for too much power is
actually an allegory about Adolf Hitler and the evils of totalitarianism.
 The Hunger Games: This trilogy of Young Adult books (and now blockbuster movies) is an
allegory for our obsession with reality television and how it numbs us to reality.
Alliteration Definition:
Alliteration is derived from Latin’s “Latira”. It means “letters of alphabet”. It is a stylistic device
in which a number of words, having the same first consonant sound, occur close together in a
series.

Consider the following examples:

 But a better butter makes a batter better.

 A big bully beats a baby boy.

Both sentences are alliterative because the same first letter of words (B) occurs close together
and produces alliteration in the sentence. An important point to remember here is that alliteration
does not depend on letters but on sounds. So the phrase not knotty is alliterative, but cigarette
chase is not.
AMBIGUITY:

Ambiguity occurs when something is open to more than one interpretation. Ambiguity is
possible in literature, ideas, statements, arts, music, and math. At times, ambiguity is reliant on
context; something can be ambiguous in one situation while unambiguous in another. For
example, consider the short phrase, “I read the book.” This sentence alone could refer to the
present or the past, as the word “read” in English is spelled the same way in the present and past

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tenses. However, if we change the sentence to “I read the book when I was 7,” that clears up the
ambiguity and places the context in the past tense.

Examples:

We experience ambiguity on a daily basis, whether in ordinary language and conversation, or

while watching politicians or comedians. Here are some simple sentences that have more than
one possible interpretation:

 The bark was painful. (Could mean a tree’s bark was rough or a dog’s bark communicated
pain or hurt the listener’s ears).
 You should bring wine or beer and dessert. (Could mean that you must bring just wine,
wine and dessert, or beer and dessert).
 Harry isn’t coming to the party. Tell Joe that we’ll see him next week. (The “him” could
refer either to Harry or to Joe).

Antithesis:

Antithesis, which literally means “opposite,” is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas
are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect.

Antithesis emphasizes the idea of contrast by parallel structures of the contrasted phrases or
clauses. The structures of phrases and clauses are similar, in order to draw the attention of the
listeners or readers.

Example:

(A Tale of Two Cities) (By Charles Dickens)

The opening lines of Charles Dickens’ novel A Tale of Two Cities provides an unforgettable
antithesis example:

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of
Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we
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had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we
were all going direct the other way.”

The contrasting ideas, set in parallel structures, markedly highlight the conflict that existed in the
time discussed in the novel.

Archaism:

Archaism is the derivative of the Greek word archaïkós, which means “beginning,” or “ancient.”
It is a figure of speech in which a used phrase or word is considered very old fashioned and
outdated. It can be a word, a phrase, a group of letters, spelling, or syntax.

Archaism is the use of writing or speech that is now rarely used; the use of older versions of
language and art. Sentences that may be considered examples of archaism will most probably
contain words like “thine” and “thou.”

Example:

(The Rime of the Ancient Mariner)

“It is an ancient Mariner,

And he stoppeth one of three.
‘By thy long grey beard and glittering eye,
Now whereforestopp’stthou me?

Atmosphere:

A literary technique, atmosphere is a type of feeling that readers get from a narrative, based on
details such as setting, background, objects, and foreshadowing. A mood can serve as a vehicle
for establishing atmosphere. In literary works, atmosphere refers to emotions or feelings an
author conveys to his readers through description of objects and settings.

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Example:

An Unspoken Hunger (By Terry Tempest Williams)

“It is an unspoken hunger we deflect with knives – one avocado between us, cut nearly in half,
twisted then separated from the large wooden pit. With the green fleshy boats in hand, we slice
vertical strips from one end to the other. Vegetable planks. We smother the avocado with salsa,
hot chiles at noon in the desert. We look at each other and smile, eating avocados with sharp
silver blades, risking the blood of our tongues repeatedly.”

Here, Williams creates a dangerous atmosphere, where she presents the hazards of knives and
avocados. In fact, when an author tries to establish atmosphere by using objects, these objects
represent unspoken reality. Besides, appearance of two characters also adds to a sexually charged
atmosphere.

Style:

The style in writing can be defined as the way a writer writes. It is the technique that an
individual author uses in his writing. It varies from author to author, and depends upon one’s
syntax, word choice, and tone. It can also be described as a “voice” that readers listen to when
they read the work of a writer.

Examples;

1. If it sounds like I’m writing, then I prefer to rewrite it.

(Conversational)
2. “I think it’s a good ide,.” said Jenny.
“You can imagine the outcomes!” retorted Emma, pushing the door open.
Reluctantly, Jenny followed.
(Narrative)
3. The sunset fills the entire sky with the lovely deep color of rubies, setting the clouds
ablaze.
(Descriptive)

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Setting:

Setting is an environment or surrounding in which an event or story takes place. It may provide
particular information about placement and timing, such as New York, America, in the year
1820. Setting could be simply descriptive, like a lonely cottage on a mountain. Social conditions,
historical time, geographical locations, weather, immediate surroundings, and timing are all
different aspects of setting.

There are three major components to setting: social environment, place, and time. Moreover,
setting could be an actual region, or a city made larger than life

Example:

In Emily Bronte’s novel Wuthering Heights, its setting plays a vital role, as it reflects the mood
of major characters and their actions, while contributing to its overall atmosphere. The novel has
three main settings:

1. The Moors
2. Wuthering Heights
3. Thrushcross Grange

The Moors symbolize wilderness and freedom, as nobody owns them, and everyone can freely
move about anytime. Wuthering Heights depicts weather around this house, which is stormy and
gloomy. The characters are cruel and extremely passionate. Thrushcross Grange, on the other
hand, is contrary to Wuthering Heights because its weather is calm, while its inhabitants are dull
and weak.

Speech act theory:

Theory of meaning that holds that the meaning of linguistic expressions can be explained in
terms of the rules governing their use in performing various speech acts (e.g., admonishing,
asserting, commanding, exclaiming, promising, questioning, requesting, warning).

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Some exponents claim that the meaning of a word is nothing but its contribution to the nature of
the speech acts that can be performed by using it.

Example:

the sentence “I am cold” constitutes a request to close the window.

Science Fiction:

Science fiction, often called “sci-fi,” is a genre of fiction literature whose content is imaginative,
but based in science. It relies heavily on scientific facts, theories, and principles as support for its
settings, characters, themes, and plot-lines, which is what makes it different from fantasy.

Example:

Read the following short passage:

As the young girl opened her window, she could see the moons Europa and Callipso rising in the
distance. A comet flashed by, followed by a trail of stardust, illuminating the dark, endless space
that surrounded the spacecraft; the only place she had ever known as home. As she gazed at
Jupiter, she dreamed of a life where she wasn’t stuck orbiting a planet, but living on one. She
envisioned stepping onto land, real land, like in the stories of Earth her father had told her
about. She tried to imagine the taste of fresh air, the feel of a cool, salty ocean, and the sound of
wind rustling through a tree’s green leaves. But these were only fantasies, not memories. She
had been born on the ship, and if they didn’t find a new inhabitable planet soon, she would
surely die there too.
The example above has several prime characteristics that are common in science fiction. First, it
is set in the future, when humans no longer live on Earth. Second, it takes place on a spacecraft
that is orbiting Jupiter. Third, it features real scientific information—Europa and Callipso are
two of Jupiter’s moons, and as Jupiter is a planet made of gas, it would not be possible for
humans to live there, explaining why the ship is currently orbiting the planet rather than landing
on it.

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Stylistics:

A branch of linguistics concerned with the study of characteristic choices in use of language,
esp.literary language, as regards sound, form, or vocabulary, made by different individuals or
social groups in different situations of use

Example:

the vernacular, or everyday language may be used among casual friends, whereas more formal
language, with respect to grammar, pronunciation or accent, and lexicon or choice of words, is
often used in a cover letter and resume and while speaking during a job interview.

Semiotics:

Semiotics is the study of signs and symbols, in particular as they communicate things spoken and
unspoken. Common examples of semiotics include traffic signs, emoji’s and emoticons used in
electronic communication, and logos and brands used by international companies to sell us
things "brand loyalty," they call it.

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