Othello

Comprehensive Storyform

The following analysis reveals a comprehensive look at the Storyform forOthello. Unlike most
of the analysis found here—which simply lists the unique individual story appreciations—this in-
depth study details the actual encoding for each structural item. This also means it has been
incorporated into the Dramatica Story Expert application itself as an easily referenced
contextual example.

 Overall Story
 Main Character
 Influence Character
 Relationship Story
 Additional Points
 Plot Progression

Story Dynamics
8 of the 12 essential questions

Change
Main Character Resolve
Othello changes from a noble and just groom who declares, “But that I love the gentle
Desdemona,” (I,ii,27) to a foul-minded, irrational husband who vows, “I’ll tear her to
pieces.” (III,iii,483) He changes from treating her gently to striking her in public, calling
her a whore, and murdering her in an unfounded jealous rage.

Start
Main Character Growth
Othello must start to realize that he can’t run his marriage using the same unbending
discipline and militaristic thinking he uses to rule his soldiers. He must start to question
Iago’s motives for accusing Desdemona of being unfaithful, and look beyond the surface
of events for their true meaning and greater implications.

Do-er
Main Character Approach
Othello is a man of action: His reputation as an effective warrior and leader earns him a
command against the Turks and a position as governor of Cyprus; he seizes his chance at
happiness with an expedient, secret marriage to Desdemona; he quickly determines
Cassio’s drunken brawling is a disgrace to his rank and strips him of it; once he’s
convinced of Desdemona and Cassio’s guilt, he orders Iago to execute Cassio and he kills
his wife himself.

Male
Main Character Mental Sex
Othello moves to solve his problems by using linear thinking. When Brabantio accuses
Othello of using witchcraft to seduce Desdemona, Othello suggests that she be
summoned to give evidence of their courtship. When he’s disturbed by the commotion
during the celebration, Othello demands the witnesses identify those responsible, weighs
the evidence, and metes out a punishment. When Iago accuses Desdemona of adultery,
Othello asks for proof. Having been presented with “evidence” Othello accepts it on face
value, without considering why Iago is defaming Desdemona, or contemplating the larger
issues surrounding the accusation.

Action
Story Driver
When Othello promotes Cassio over Iago, the ensign vows to get revenge; after Othello
secretly marries Desdemona, Brabantio determines Othello is using witchcraft on his
daughter; Desdemona defends her husband and her father decides to disown her; when
the Turks send an armada against Venetian held Cyprus, the senate decides to send
Othello to lead its defense; Cassio gets into a drunken brawl while he’s in charge of the
guard and Othello decides to demote him; Iago lies to Othello about Desdemona’s
unfaithfulness and the general decides to murder her.

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Story Limit
Othello struggles with the idea that Desdemona is unfaithful: At first he refuses to believe
it and he demands proof; he flusters Desdemona when she cannot produce a handkerchief
he has given her; he “overhears” Cassio speaking of his affair with Desdemona; he sees
the handkerchief in the hands of Cassio’s mistress. Now convinced that Desdemona has
betrayed his love, Othello’s only option is to kill her. Facing her insanely jealous
husband, Desdemona pleads innocence, when that fails, she begs for her life, then for one
more day, then just to live until the morning. Othello rejects her requests and smothers
her to death. An example of how the optionlock is illustrated by a minor objective
character is found in Roderigo. Having lost Desdemona to Othello, Roderigo at first
threatens to drown himself, then he engages Iago to promote his cause with Desdemona;
he follows her to Cyprus; helps to discredit Cassio whom he believes is Desdemona’s
lover; loses all his money when he’s duped by Iago; attempts to kill Cassio and fails—
then is killed by Iago.

Story Outcome
The characters fail to recognize and stop Iago’s malicious scheme against them. As a
result of this failure: Othello and Desdemona’s marriage is destroyed; Othello goes mad
from Iago’s insinuations and murders the naive Desdemona; Roderigo, tricked into trying
to kill Cassio, is then murdered by Iago; Emilia is murdered by Iago when she reveals his
treachery; Othello commits suicide when he learns of Desdemona’s innocence; Iago
himself is sentenced to torture and execution contrary to his plans for his future.

Story Judgment
Othello’s fall from grace is stunning. At first he’s a happy newlywed; successful as a
warrior and well respected in the community. When Brabantio accuses him of witchcraft
in front of the Venetian senate, the members disbelieve the charges because of his stellar
reputation. He faces them with calm and confidence. But Othello is corrupted and
quickly becomes an irrational, despondent madman, an abusive husband, a murderer, and
after realizing his colossal mistake, he kills himself.

Overall Story Throughline

""Downfall of the Moor""

Mind
Overall Story Throughline
Brabantio thinks of Othello as the Moorish soldier—a well-behaved barbarian—and will
never accept him as a son-in-law. Iago’s fixation on revenge rules him absolutely and
drives him to ruin. Roderigo thinks he can buy Desdemona’s love. Desdemona loves
Othello and will continue to love him no matter how he treats her. Othello thinks the
guilty must always be swiftly punished.

Subconscious
Overall Story Concern
The objective characters have a fundamental need to be loved and admired. Othello,
growing older, craves a woman’s love. Desdemona, seeking love and adventure, falls for
the experienced general. Brabantio needs the love and devotion of his flesh and blood,
and when Desdemona pledges her allegiance to Othello, he’s heartbroken and soon
dies. Roderigo, needing Desdemona’s affection, fights to win her even after she’s
married. Iago needs an overt sign of Othello’s admiration, the lieutenant post, and works
to get it after Cassio is promoted ahead of him.

Denial
Overall Story Issue
Even when Brabantio discovers his daughter has run away from home, he can’t believe
she’s married to Othello, saying that Desdemona has refused all her young Venetian
suitors and would never marry the old, Moorish soldier. Brabantio accepts Othello as an
occasional house guest, but not as a son-in-law. When called to the senate to explain her
actions, Desdemona refuses to back down from her father’s disapproval of her marriage
to Othello. As a young woman in love she’s unwilling to see that the differences between
her and Othello may lead to heartbreak. Roderigo refuses to admit he’s lost Desdemona
even after she marries Othello and they are obviously happy together. Iago can’t let go of
his jealousy and hatred of Cassio and Othello, devising scheme after scheme to destroy
them. He’s so blinded by this maliciousness he can’t see how his plan can backfire and
destroy him as well.

Closure
Overall Story Counterpoint
Brabantio, heartbroken when Desdemona places her husband above him disowns her,
ending their relationship. Othello’s driven toward closure, so much so he can’t wait a
few hours to let Desdemona defend herself. He must “put out the light,” ending his
torture immediately.

Overall Story Thematic Conflict

Denial vs.Closure
Although closure is illustrated in the story, it’s the use of denial that dominates and leads
the characters to their sad end. Once Iago sets upon a course of revenge he’s relentless,
and completely unwilling to let go of his grudge over losing the lieutenancy. He destroys
everyone around him, including himself. Once Othello’s suspicions are aroused, he can’t
let the notion of Desdemona’s unfaithfulness go. Desdemona’s so much in love with
Othello that when she sees his shocking change toward her, she can’t accept that he
doesn’t love her anymore. She keeps trying to appease him and makes mistakes that
worsen the situation.

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Overall Story Problem
The objective characters bring enormous problems upon themselves by indulging in
immediate gratification without thinking about the possible consequences. Othello is
tempted by Desdemona’s compassion and affection when she pursues him. He
disregards any ramifications their engaging in a relationship may have; Desdemona is
tempted by Othello’s romantic life story, status, and courage, and eagerly elopes with him
knowing her father will disapprove; Iago is tempted by the prestige of the rank of
lieutenant and lies to get it; Roderigo is tempted by Iago’s offer to help him win
Desdemona and pays the man, making himself a pawn to Iago; Cassio is tempted by
drink when he knows he’s in charge of the guard, gets drunk and loses his rank; Emilia,
although married, is tempted by other men.
Overall Story Solution
If the characters listened to their conscience, the tragic ending could have been
avoided. Desdemona might have gone to Brabantio, declared her love for Othello, and
faced her father’s opposition instead of first sneaking off with the Moor. Roderigo
should have gracefully acknowledged Desdemona’s marriage and gone on with his life,
but he plots with Iago to destroy her union with Othello. Cassio should have listened to
his conscience and refused that first drink since he was on guard duty, but he lets Iago
persuade him to “celebrate” with everyone else. His lapse of conscience allows him to be
used to hurt the people he loves.

Overall Story Symptom

The objective characters deal with the effects of the story’s problems which occur when
“help” is used. Cassio helps Othello court Desdemona by acting as go-between before
their marriage, and his kindness is used against him later; Brabantio hopes to save his
daughter’s reputation by rescuing her from Othello on her wedding night, yet he only
alienates Desdemona; Iago offers to help Roderigo steal Desdemona away from her
husband; Iago gives advice to Cassio after his reputation is ruined. He suggests that
Cassio ask Desdemona to influence Othello to reinstate him, causing conflict between
husband and wife; Desdemona thinks she’s helping Cassio by insisting that Othello
reconcile with him immediately, but she is only implicating herself; Emilia tries to bolster
Desdemona’s spirits by telling her about the nature of men, advice Desdemona does not
want nor need.

Overall Story Response

The objective characters attempt to approach the effects of the problem by using
“hinder.” Brabantio tries to undermine Desdemona’s marriage by refusing to house her
while Othello’s at war with the Turks; Roderigo works to thwart Othello’s marriage by
luring Desdemona away from him with money and jewels; Emilia unknowingly hurts
Desdemona’s position with Othello by stealing her handkerchief and giving it to Iago.

Overall Story Catalyst

The use of closure accelerates the story. The Turkish fleet encounters a storm off of the
coast of Cyprus and turns back, ending the threat of war. This makes Othello available to
concentrate on his marriage, and frees Iago to execute his diabolical plot against Othello
and Cassio. Brabantio’s ending his relationship with his daughter leaves her alone and
dependent upon the will of her husband, thus, she has no place to turn when Othello
changes toward her. Othello’s demand of quick closure to the situation fuels his need to
have proof of his wife’s affair. This compels Iago to use Emilia to steal Desdemona’s
handkerchief. It is planted it in Cassio’s room—Iago then arrange for Othello to believe
he is overhearing Cassio making lewd remarks about Desdemona. Iago races to remove
ties to his involvement in Othello’s downfall. He convinces Roderigo to kill Cassio; kills
Roderigo when he only wounds Cassio; tries to make Emilia shut up about the
handkerchief, then kills her when she reveals the truth.

Overall Story Inhibitor

Brabantio is prejudiced against Othello as a son-in-law, feels Desdemona is making a
mistake, and disowns her. Desdemona’s unshakable love for Othello keeps her from
realizing she’s in real danger, until it’s too late. Othello’s blind trust in Iago keeps him
from seeing his ensign’s malice. Iago will never accept that Cassio will make a better
lieutenant than he would. Emilia, having been trained to obey her husband, can’t see that
he’s up to mischief with Desdemona’s handkerchief until her mistress is murdered.
Overall Story Benchmark
The more the characters use “memory” the greater the problems become in the
story. After Othello becomes suspicious of Desdemona, whenever he recalls his tender
feelings for her the more enraged he becomes; memories of Desdemona’s love tears
Othello apart now that he believes he’s lost it. Lodovico witnesses Othello slap his wife,
remembers Othello as a kind and composed man, and begins to believe the popular
theory that all Moors are barbarians. Emilia remembers Iago asking her to steal
Desdemona’s handkerchief, recalls how she found it on the ground and gave it to
him. Her recollections cause Iago to kill her for revealing the truth.
Overall Story Throughline Synopsis
“. . . Othello, a heroic Moorish general in the service of Venice, appoints Cassio and not
Iago as his chief lieutenant. Jealous of Othello’s success and envious of Cassio, Iago
plots Othello’s downfall by falsely implicating Othello’s wife, Desdemona, and Cassio in
a love affair. Desdemona cannot produce a handkerchief once given her by Othello;
thanks to Iago’s machinations, it is later found among Cassio’s possessions. Overcome
with jealousy, Othello kills Desdemona. When he learns, too late, that his wife is
blameless, he asks to be remembered as one who “loved not wisely but too well,” and
kills himself.” (Merriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature, p. 844)

Overall Story Backstory

Othello has promoted Cassio to the rank of lieutenant over Iago, his long-time
ensign. Iago has vowed revenge on Othello for the oversight. Roderigo, Desdemona’s
rejected suitor, has been paying Iago to help him win her. The evening in which the story
begins, Othello has eloped with Desdemona, a Venetian senator’s young
daughter. Although Othello is a highly respected general in the Venetian army, he’s also
a Moor. He’s a black man in a white world who’s generally considered a strange
outsider. While his noble demeanor and sterling reputation allows him entry into
Venetian society, he’s generally ignorant of the ways of polite society. Having been a
soldier all his life, he has a military mind and is not prepared for life as a husband and
gentleman.

Main Character Throughline

 Othello — Venetian General

Physics
Main Character Throughline
Othello endeavors to prove or disprove his wife’s infidelity. He listens to Iago’s
“evidence”; questions Desdemona about her missing handkerchief; eavesdrops on Cassio;
interrogates Emilia about Desdemona’s fidelity; judges and executes Desdemona.

Obtaining
Main Character Concern
Othello wants Desdemona, and by winning her he hopes to gain the acceptance of
Venetian society at large. Terrified of losing her to a younger man, he seeks solid proof
of her betrayal from Iago. In possessing that proof, the handkerchief in Cassio’s
mistress’s hands, Othello is convinced that he has lost Desdemona’s love, and he himself
becomes lost.

Morality
Main Character Issue
At the beginning of the story, Othello is depicted as a selfless, moral man. He refuses to
run and hide when he learns that Brabantio knows of his marriage to Desdemona and has
armed men after him. He leaves his bride safe and undisturbed at the inn where they’re
staying, goes to the Senate, and faces Brabantio’s charges bravely. When Brabantio
accuses him of using witchcraft to seduce his daughter, Othello has his wife sent for. If
she says she was bewitched, he’ll accept any sentence, even execution. Although
Desdemona’s willing to sail with him to Cyprus, Othello leaves her under Iago’s
protection to bring her only when it’s safe. Othello is willing to postpone his honeymoon
to ensure her safety, even though she’ll accompany him into a war zone.

Ability
Main Character Counterpoint
Othello is so wounded by the thought of Desdemona’s betrayal that he’s blinded to
everything except his own pain. Once he decides to end his torment by killing her,
nothing Desdemona says can make him look beyond himself for the truth.
Main Character Thematic Conflict
Morality vs.Ability
In the conflict between “morality” and “self-interest,” self-interest takes hold of the once
moral man and destroys him. Othello is driven to torment Desdemona. He treats her like
a whore because he believes she’s cuckolded him with his own officer. He could stand
anything but the loss of her love, and so having convinced himself that he has lost it, he
can’t listen to Desdemona’s plea of innocence. Nor will he listen to Emilia when she
tells him that Desdemona loves him and is faithful, until it’s too late.

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Main Character Problem
Othello is tempted by the beauty, position, and compassion that Desdemona can give him
in marriage. He’s an experienced man who should know that their differences may bring
problems, but he ignores the possibility of trouble in his desire to possess
Desdemona. Their differences, namely Othello’s age and race, however, appear to linger
in his mind, causing him some uneasiness. He’s easily tempted to believe that
Desdemona is unfaithful when Iago begins his torment. That Othello is so easily led by
Iago’s innuendoes and lies, not only causes problems, but leads to the death of four
people.
Main Character Solution
If Othello had used his conscience he could have prevented the tragedy.

Main Character Symptom

Othello focuses his attention on where he thinks the problem is, Desdemona’s
unfaithfulness. Brabantio warns Othello that “She has deceived her father, and may
thee.” (I,iii,318) Othello immediately answers, “My life upon her faith!”
(I,iii,319) Indeed, her faith in him, demonstrated by their marriage, is extremely valuable
to Othello. He has built his self-worth and future upon Desdemona’s faith in him as a
man, so when she’s accused of breaking that faith, Othello is shattered.
Main Character Response
Othello thinks that using disbelief will solve his problems regarding Desdemona. He
refuses to believe anything she says in her defense. He won’t believe Emilia when she
swears Desdemona is faithful; disbelieves Desdemona’s words of innocence when he
first accuses her. He overlooks her devotion and innocence: she gave up her home and
family for him and has had no opportunity to have “a thousand times committed”
adultery with Cassio. In spite of all the evidence of Desdemona’s devotion to him,
Othello doubts her love, saying, “She is false as water.” (V,ii,161)

Main Character Unique Ability

If Othello had used the approach that made him a fair and noble man, he could have been
successful in discovering Iago’s deceit and keeping his marriage intact. Whereas Othello
rationally solicits evidence from several people the night of the brawl, he’s totally
irrational when he considers Desdemona’s alleged betrayal. He relies on only one
“witness” without considering Iago’s motives; ignores Emilia’s assurances that
Desdemona is a faithful wife; refuses to listen to Desdemona’s pleas of innocence.
Main Character Critical Flaw
Othello’s misuse of obligation makes the story a failure. Once he’s convinced that
Desdemona is unfaithful, Othello feels compelled to murder her. Othello’s misplaced
obligation to Iago, “A man. . . of honesty and trust.” (I,iii,307) leads him to his
destruction. When Iago tells Othello of Desdemona’s “affair” with Cassio, he pledges his
loyalty to Iago. “I am bound to thee for ever.” (III,iii,243) In offering this contract to
Iago instead of honoring the marital pledge to his wife, Othello makes a tragic mistake
that costs him his honor, his wife, and his own life.
Main Character Benchmark
The more Othello thinks he understands the level of Desdemona’s unfaithfulness the
greater his jealously and thirst for vengeance.
Main Character Description
Tall, dark-skinned man, part Berber, part Arab, in his early forties. Born of royal blood,
but forced to endure slavery because of his race, he’s risen to the rank of general and is
greatly respected. But his standard of perfection for those around him, and his trusting
nature leads him astray. He’s destroyed by his own man.

Main Character Throughline Synopsis

“. . . A Moorish general in the service of Venice. A romantic and heroic warrior with a
frank and honest nature, he has a weakness which makes him vulnerable to Iago’s
diabolic temptation. He becomes furiously jealous of his innocent wife and his loyal
lieutenant. His character decays, and he connives with Iago to have his lieutenant
murdered. Finally he decides to execute his wife with his own hands. After killing her,
he learns of her innocence, and he judges and executes himself.” (Cyclopedia of Literary
Characters, p. 825)

Main Character Backstory

Born of royal blood, Othello is a Moor who was sold into slavery and has lived in army
camps since he was seven. He became a professional soldier rising to the rank of
general. He has fought many battles, skillfully leading his men and earning a reputation
as a great, honorable, and level-headed warrior. Othello’s traveled the world where he’s
encountered cannibals and a race of men whose heads grow beneath their shoulders. He
had only been in Venice for nine months where he was a frequent guest in Brabantio’s
home. He often recounted his adventures to entertain his host. During that time he fell in
love with Brabantio’s young daughter, Desdemona, who became “enchanted” by his life
story. At forty, Othello has never been in love and he impulsively, perhaps for the first
time in his life, seizes an opportunity without mapping out an advanced strategy first.

Influence Character Throughline

Iago — Othello's Ensign
 Psychology
Influence Character Throughline
Iago is a master at manipulation. He dupes Roderigo into giving him money to promote
Roderigo’s suit for Desdemona; convinces Roderigo to sell his lands, get the money, and
follow her to Cyprus; uses him to discredit Cassio; persuades him to kill Cassio so that
Roderigo can finally have Desdemona. He uses his reputation for honesty to raise
suspicions in Othello’s mind about an affair between his Desdemona and Cassio; uses the
differences between Othello and Desdemona to convince Othello that she wants a
younger man of her own race; induces Othello’s temper so that he can’t think
rationally. Iago badgers Emilia into stealing Desdemona’s handkerchief so he can use it
to inflame Othello’s jealousy of Cassio.

Becoming
Influence Character Concern
Iago wants to become Othello’s lieutenant by discrediting Cassio. In doing so Iago hopes
to become greater in Othello’s eyes. Even as he uses Othello’s kind nature against him,
Iago is determined to, “Make the Moor thank me, love me, and reward me.” (II,i,336)

Responsibility
Influence Character Issue
Iago believes he should have been promoted to the lieutenancy because he served with
Othello in wars “At Rhodes, at Cyprus, and on other grounds Christian and heathen.”
(I,i,29-30) Iago’s a seasoned solider while Cassio has never led in battle. Iago, fueled by
envy and jealousy comes to the conclusion that he can thwart Othello by using his own
reputation as an honest man against his general. Indeed, Iago’s able to manipulate
everyone because they think he’s honest, responsible, and an ever-loyal ensign.

Commitment
Influence Character Counterpoint
Iago is committed to destroying Othello no matter who he has to use to achieve his
goal. He sets to work with such zeal, weaving every new piece of information into his
diabolical plot to discredit Cassio and turn Othello’s finer qualities against him.

Influence Character Thematic Conflict

Responsibility vs.Commitment
Because he believes he was best suited to receive the lieutenancy, Iago makes a
commitment to revenge himself against Othello and Cassio. Iago forges recklessly
ahead, devising his attack on Othello as he goes along. He uses Desdemona, Cassio,
Roderigo, and his own wife, Emilia, urging her to steal Desdemona’s
handkerchief. Iago’s so blinded by his commitment to evil revenge that he fails to realize
Emilia might question his need for Desdemona’s handkerchief and expose him.

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Influence Character Problem
Iago is driven by his feelings, which causes problems for others, and eventually for
himself. Iago tells Roderigo that he hates Othello because he has made Cassio his
lieutenant instead of him. Driven by jealousy, envious of Othello’s success and Cassio’s
promotion, Iago vows to destroy them both. Beyond these reasons Iago loves the feeling
of power and superiority “to plume up my will” (I,iii,411) over those who exhibit
goodness. According to A. C. Bradley, “. . . Iago is motivated by a love of excitement
and by his perception of himself as an artist. He derives great pleasure from the
successful execution of his complex and dangerous intrigues.” (Scott, p. 436)

Influence Character Solution

Iago uses logic to take revenge against Othello, and to satisfy his craving for power over
everyone around him. This satisfaction of his personal drive is short-lived, however, as
Iago will be executed for his crimes.

Influence Character Symptom

Iago creates problems for Othello and others when he focuses his efforts on pretending to
help. He “helps” Roderigo by accepting money and jewels which he promises will win
him Desdemona, but he takes the booty for himself. He “helps” Cassio regain his
lieutenancy after he’s demoted by suggesting that Cassio ask Desdemona to champion
him to Othello, but it’s a setup. Iago offers to assist Othello in proving Desdemona is
unfaithful as a show of loyalty to the Moor, but he’s lying. Later, Iago offers his support
to Othello by swearing to kill Cassio for him, but Iago dupes Roderigo into killing
Cassio.

Influence Character Response

While on the surface Iago helps others, his efforts are directed toward hindering Othello,
Cassio, and Roderigo. He hinders Cassio by getting him involved in a drunken brawl that
results in a demotion. He hinders Roderigo’s efforts to win Desdemona by stealing his
money and pocketing the jewels Roderigo gives him to present to her. He thwarts
Othello by inciting him to become jealous of Cassio and Desdemona, corrupting him, and
driving him to madness and murder.
Influence Character Unique Ability
Iago’s use of rationalization is successful in thwarting Othello. Iago justifies reporting
Desdemona’s “affair” to Othello by saying he loves Othello too much to stand quietly by
while Othello’s “free and noble nature” is abused.
Influence Character Critical Flaw
Iago’s fearlessness and over-confidence while he manipulates people causes him to make
mistakes that lead to his execution. He is a bold and impulsive liar, turning the slightest
bit of hearsay into fact, when if any two people were to compare notes at any time, Iago
would be caught. His attitude toward his wife ultimately causes his downfall when she
exposes his deceit.

Influence Character Benchmark

As the story progresses, Iago envisions more ways to torment Othello, and use Roderigo,
Cassio, and Emilia to further his scheme. For example, he imagines discrediting Cassio
with Othello by having Cassio entreat Desdemona to promote his cause to the general,
unwittingly leading Othello to suspect him of having an affair with his wife. He
envisions Emilia stealing Desdemona’s handkerchief, planting it in Cassio’s rooms, then
reporting to Othello that Desdemona gave it to Cassio as a token of her love.

Influence Character Description

A young, average looking Venetian officer of the lowest rank. He’s little more than a
common soldier. At twenty-eight he’s expert at hiding a cynical, evil nature, and the
blackest of hearts. He proudly states, “I am not what I am.” (I,i,69) His capacity for
deceit is astounding and lethal.

Influence Character Throughline Synopsis

When Othello promotes Cassio to lieutenant, Iago feels slighted and plots revenge against
them both. He manipulates Cassio into discrediting himself. He then uses his reputation
for honesty to convince Othello of his wife’s unfaithfulness. By telling one lie after
another Iago drives Othello mad with jealousy, causing him to murder Desdemona. Iago
gets his wish when Othello makes him his lieutenant after he vows to kill Cassio. Iago
convinces his dupe, Roderigo, to slay Cassio. When the plot fails, he kills Roderigo to
keep from being exposed. Iago murders his own wife when she reveals that he lied to
Othello about Desdemona. He’s wounded by Othello, but survives only to be sentenced
to torture and execution.

Influence Character Backstory

At twenty-eight Iago’s a career soldier who has served under Othello for several years,
but has only earned the rank of ensign, a low-ranked commissioned officer. He has
learned the position of lieutenant has been bestowed upon Michael Cassio, a young,
educated Florentine who has seen little battle. Iago feels slighted and vows to take
revenge against Othello and Cassio. Iago’s also angry about rumors that Othello has
slept with his wife. Now Iago is ready to bedevil Othello, having learned that the general
has eloped with Desdemona, the young daughter of a Venetian senator. He has told
Roderigo, Desdemona’s rejected suitor, the news in hopes of using the degraded
Roderigo in his plot to destroy Othello.

Relationship Story Throughline

""Iago Takes Revenge Against Othello""

Universe
Relationship Story Throughline
Othello’s a respected warrior who’s also a new husband madly in love with his much
younger wife. When his wife’s loyalty is questioned, he’s driven to attain a true
assessment of his marriage situation. He relies solely upon his comrade-in-arms, Iago,
for the truth. Iago’s in a situation where his reputation for honesty allows him access to
Othello’s innermost desires and insecurities. He’s the man inside, in the perfect position
to betray the man he envies and hates.

Future
Relationship Story Concern
Iago feels by promoting Cassio as lieutenant over him, Othello has ruined his
future. Othello has plans to live happily ever after with his wife while Iago is dedicated
to shatter the Moor’s future. Once Othello arrives in Cyprus he concerns himself with his
honeymoon with Desdemona, beginning their life together. But that same evening Iago
sets his heinous plan in motion by getting Othello’s lieutenant drunk and involved in a
fist fight. Othello’s plans for the evening are interrupted when he’s called to discipline
Cassio. As Iago’s manipulations progress Othello’s future crumbles rapidly until there is
no love and no life left.

Preconception
Relationship Story Issue
A thematic issue that affects Othello and Iago revolves around preconception. Othello is
unwilling to question Iago’s motives for so urgently advancing the notion that
Desdemona is unfaithful. While he questions how Iago knows this, he never questions
Iago’s motives. Once Othello trusts a man it seems he’ll never re-evaluate that man’s
integrity. Iago’s equally unwilling to consider that Othello may eventually promote him;
unwilling to re-examine the rumors that Othello slept with his wife, something that an
honorable man like Othello would never do to one of his own men. Both men’s narrow
thinking leads to their destruction.

Openness
Relationship Story Counterpoint
Othello is totally receptive to Iago’s suggestions that Desdemona and Cassio are
lovers. As Iago’s “evidence” becomes more compelling, Othello re-evaluates Iago’s
loyalty and usefulness, and grants him the rank of lieutenant. Othello’s openness allows
Iago to manipulate him into murder.

Relationship Story Thematic Conflict

Preconception vs.Openness
Although openness is evident in the subjective story it’s the use of preconception that
carries greater impact. Iago won’t back down from his quest for revenge. He keeps up
his torment of Othello, finally telling Othello that Cassio has confessed to an affair with
Desdemona to Iago himself. Othello actually faints at what he believes is this absolute
proof. After this victory, Iago’s still unwilling to ease up on his torture of Othello, and
ruins himself along with the Moor.

T
e
m
p
t
a
t
i
o
n
Relationship Story Problem
The problems between Othello and Iago are created when Othello is tempted to trust Iago
based purely on his reputation as an honest man, and rely solely upon the ensign to
produce all the evidence against his wife. Iago points out to Othello that he’s old, black,
and homely while his wife is young, beautiful, and a cultured white woman. Othello is
tempted to question his marriage, asking himself, “Why did I marry?” (III,iii,276) He’s
also tempted to know what Iago is holding back from him, giving Iago even more power
over him. Iago is tempted by his jealousy of Othello’s rank and happiness with
Desdemona, and the need for superiority over his betters. Together, Othello and Iago’s
weaknesses for temptation create a situation where they’re both destroyed.
Relationship Story Solution
If either Othello or Iago used forbearance the tragedy could be avoided. Iago doesn’t
have a conscience. He gleefully uses everyone’s weakness to further his revenge against
the general he feels has undervalued him. Once Othello’s temper is engaged any
conscience he has is swallowed up by his blood-thirsty need for revenge against his wife
and Cassio.

Relationship Story Symptom

Where Othello is incapable of applying logic to the situation, Iago supplies his own
malicious take on how events in Othello’s life are related. For instance, he reasons to
Othello that Cassio steals away “guilty-like” from Desdemona when he sees Othello
coming because he’s having an affair with her; Desdemona pleads so passionately to
have Cassio reinstated because he’s her lover; Desdemona has realized that marrying an
old, homely, black man was a mistake, and now wants a young, handsome man of her
own race like Cassio. Iago uses logic to inflame Othello with jealous rage so that he’ll
disgrace himself and satisfy Iago’s need to feel superior over him.
Relationship Story Response
Iago hates Othello because he may have slept with his wife. The thought gnaws at him
and he won’t be content “Till I am evened with him, wife for wife.” (II,i,327) Othello
admits that once his temper is engaged no one is safe when it gets out of control. Iago
vows to make Othello so jealous that his usual good judgment will fail to control his
temper. Iago is successful. After Iago confirms his suspicions about his wife, Othello
lets himself be directed by his feelings of betrayal, jealousy, and hatred until he’s so
irrational he can’t see the truth.

Relationship Story Catalyst

As the story progresses, the use of openness accelerates the subjective story
forward. Iago’s willingness to deceive and manipulate Othello pushes the Moor to doubt
his wife and demand proof. Othello’s openness to Iago’s suggestions drives him to
denounce his marriage, abuse his wife, eavesdrop on a man he once trusted, bond with
Iago, and plan the murders of his wife and Cassio.

Relationship Story Inhibitor

Iago’s use of denial prevents Othello from discovering his true nature, and this slows the
growth of a positive relationship. Iago refuses to end his intrigue against Othello,
weaving one deceit after another. Whenever Othello waivers in his belief of Iago’s
accusations, the ensign pulls out another lie to distract him. Iago refuses to let up from
his torment of Othello even after he’s rewarded with the Moor’s swoon at news that
Cassio has confessed to adultery with Desdemona. Iago refuses to let go of his hatred of
Othello, or realize that if he destroys Othello, he’s destroying his means of support and
employment. He uses his blind ambition to keep Othello unaware to his maliciousness
until the very end, when it’s too late.

Relationship Story Benchmark

Othello and Iago’s relationship grows closer the more Iago uses events in the past to taunt
Othello. After he learns that Cassio served in the trusted position as go-between when
Othello was wooing Desdemona, Iago implies that Cassio betrayed that trust by pursuing
her himself. Later Iago reminds Othello of Brabantio’s warning about Desdemona, “She
has deceived her father, and may thee.” (I,iii,318)
Relationship Story Throughline Synopsis
Othello, a general serving the Venetian state, unwittingly provokes the jealousy of Iago,
his ensign, who had expected promotion, by instead promoting Cassio, who, Iago claims,
has little experience. Although Iago is liked and trusted, it is ostensibly this insult which
unleashes a consuming malevolence (for which he later offers different explanations) that
drives him to destroy Othello. (Encyclopedia of World Drama, p. 121)

Relationship Story Backstory

Othello believes that Iago, who’s been his trusted ensign for many years and through
many battles, is a loyal and honest man. He however promotes Michael Cassio over Iago
as his lieutenant. Iago is deeply offended by the appointment because he is a seasoned
soldier while Cassio has barely seen battle. Iago holds a grudge against Othello and
Cassio. Adding fuel to fire his hatred is a rumor that Othello has had an affair with
Iago’s wife, Emilia. Iago vows to destroy the Moor by using his trusting nature against
him.

Additional Story Points

Key Structural Appreciations

Subconscious
Overall Story Goal
All the objective characters are concerned with Othello and Desdemona’s
marriage. Brabantio’s outraged at the marriage, rejecting it and his daughter. Cassio and
Emilia are for the marriage while Iago and Roderigo work to destroy it.

Future
Overall Story Consequence
If the characters fail to see through Iago’s deceit and save Othello and Desdemona’s
marriage, many of them will not have a future.

Becoming
Overall Story Cost
Othello becomes a wife abuser and murderer; Desdemona is transformed from a vibrant
young wife into a dead martyr; Emilia, a loud, cynical woman, becomes a heroine by
telling the truth about Iago and loses her life; Roderigo, whose aim is to destroy the
marriage, becomes Iago’s pawn; Iago, the instigator of the fall of the marriage, becomes a
prisoner.
 Obtaining
Overall Story Dividend
Othello realizes too late that he was truly loved by Desdemona. As a result of failing to
achieve the story goal, Cassio is appointed Governor of Cyprus.

Memor
y
Overall Story Requirements
In order to achieve happiness in his marriage, Othello must remember how much he loves
Desdemona, how much she loves him, and that she has sacrificed her home and position
for him. But once his suspicions are aroused he forgets everything good about their
relationship, and the requirements to save the marriage aren’t met.

P
a
s
t
Overall Story Prerequisites
Othello and Desdemona’s enchanted evenings together in Brabantio’s home, their
whirlwind courtship, elopement, and wedding night should provide a foundation for a
happy marriage. But Othello dismisses their happy past and this prerequisite for a lasting
marriage is not fulfilled.
Overall Story Preconditions
As an example of an unessential condition put on the story requirement of “memory,”
Emilia should have remembered her husband’s unsavory past, and used her suspicions to
envision a plan to thwart his interference with Othello and Desdemona’s marriage.
Overall Story Forewarnings
Desdemona and Othello fail to understand the true nature of the differences between
them, and the consequences they are destined to face. They’re so wrapped up in each
other the evening of their wedding, they don’t appreciate that Brabantio’s rude rejection
of their marriage is a forewarning of their future.

Plot Progression
Dynamic Act Appreciations

Overall Story

Memory
Overall Story Signpost 1
Othello recalls his childhood hardships and heroic adventures, and wins Desdemona’s
affections; Brabantio remembers that Desdemona rejected all her suitors, saying she
didn’t want to get married; Desdemona remembers how Othello’s fine qualities and valor
caused her to fall in love with him.

Overall Story Journey 1 from Memory toConscious

Brabantio is shocked that Desdemona married the old, homely Moor when he remembers
that she rejected marriage to “The wealthy curled darlings of our nation.” (I,ii,83) He
contemplates her part in the courtship and her loyalty to Othello, then bitterly disowns
her.

Conscious
Overall Story Signpost 2
Roderigo contemplates his chances of winning Desdemona if Cassio is discredited, and
agrees to pick a fight with him during the celebration. Cassio considers that he can’t
tolerate wine, but gets drunk, gets involved in a brawl, and is demoted as punishment.

Overall Story Journey 2 from Conscious toPreconscious

Cassio, insensible to his responsibilities, is demoted. His immediate reaction to being
demoted for his drunken brawling is shock and shame. Cassio mourns his ruined
reputation. “O, I have lost my reputation/I have lost the immortal part of myself.”
(II,iii,269-70)

Precon
scious
Overall Story Signpost 3
Bianca finds Desdemona’s handkerchief in Cassio’s room and is immediately jealous of
the “other woman” in his life. Othello sees Desdemona’s handkerchief in Bianca’s
hands, and immediately thinks Cassio has given it to her. He flies into a jealous rage, and
when he sees Desdemona he impulsively slaps her.

Overall Story Journey 3 from Preconscious toSubconscious

Desdemona is shocked by Othello’s behavior. She becomes sad, singing the fatalistic
“Willow” song as she prepares for bed. She anticipates her death, asking Emilia to
shroud her in her wedding sheets if she should die.
Overall Story Signpost 4
Desdemona’s love for and obedience to Othello compels her to let him smother
her. Emilia’s outrage at Desdemona’s murder drives her to defy Iago and expose him as
a liar which causes him to kill her. Othello’s horror at killing his innocent wife is too
much to bear and he kills himself.
 Main Character

Understanding
Main Character Signpost 1
Othello fails to understand that he broke Venetian society’s code of conduct with his
secret marriage to Desdemona; he doesn’t grasp the level of disappointment Iago feels
about being passed over for the lieutenancy.

Main Character Journey 1 from Understanding toDoing

Othello reunites with Desdemona after a dangerous voyage and declares his love for
her. He understands she has also made the voyage at risk to herself just to be with her
husband, and says that if he were to die at that moment, it would be at the peak of his
happiness. He rushes into his honeymoon.

Doing
Main Character Signpost 2
Othello arrives in Cyprus and greets his wife; declares that the Turkish fleet has been
destroyed; orders a celebration to honor the defeat and his marriage; begins his
honeymoon with his wife; judges Cassio after he takes part in a drunken brawl while
assigned to guard duty.

Main Character Journey 2 from Doing to Obtaining

After his honeymoon night, Othello can’t resist Desdemona’s charms when she asks him
to reconcile with Cassio. “I will deny thee nothing!” (III,iii,94) For the last time declares
his love. “Excellent wretch! Perdition catch my soul/ But I do love thee! And when I
love thee not/ Chaos is come again. (III.iii,102-04)

Obtaini
ng
Main Character Signpost 3
Driven mad by unfounded jealousy, Othello wants the deaths of his wife and her “lover”
Cassio. Later, still desiring proof of Desdemona’s guilt, Othello demands that she give
him her handkerchief. When she lies about the missing gift, he thinks he has the final
proof of her unfaithfulness.

Main Character Journey 3 from Obtaining toLearning

Crushed when he obtains “proof” of Desdemona’s unfaithfulness, Othello vows
vengeance on her; asks Iago to kill her “lover,” Cassio; agonizes over how to kill his
wife, asking Iago for poison, but deciding to strangle her with his bare hands so as not to
mar her beauty.
Main Character Signpost 4
Othello learns that he is “As ignorant as dirt!” (V,ii,197) from Emilia, Desdemona’s
waiting-woman; it was Emilia who took Desdemona’s handkerchief and gave it to Iago;
that he, Othello, has murdered his innocent, loving wife.

Influence Character

Conceiving
Influence Character Signpost 1
Iago conceives the idea to awaken Brabantio in the middle of the night to look for his
missing daughter; hatches a plan to use his reputation for honesty to trick Othello into
believing that his wife is unfaithful and incite him into a jealous rage that will ruin him.

influence Character Journey 1 from Conceiving toBeing

Iago is beside himself with glee at his idea to pose as Othello’s friend, and trick him into
believing his wife is unfaithful. “The Moor is of a free and open nature/That thinks men
honest that but seem to be so/And will as tenderly be led by the nose/As asses are.
(I,iii,417-20) Iago commits himself to evil. “I haven’t! It is engend’red! Hell and
night/Must bring this monstrous birth to the world’s light.” (I,iii,421-22)

Being
Influence Character Signpost 2
Iago pretends to be Cassio’s good friend, advising him to seek Desdemona’s help after he
is demoted by Othello; acts like Othello’s trusted ensign although he’s not; pretends to be
Roderigo’s agent with Desdemona, but is only using him to further his own plan.

Influence Character Journey 2 from Being toConceptualizing

In order to inflame Othello’s jealousy, Iago pretends to be his friend and gives him a
warning. “O, beware, my lord, of jealousy!/It is the green-eyed monster, which doth
mock/The meat it feeds on. (III,iii,191-92)

Concep
tualizin
g
Influence Character Signpost 3
Iago envisions getting Desdemona’s handkerchief from Emilia, planting it in Cassio’s
rooms, telling Othello that Desdemona gave it to Cassio as a love token, and watch
Othello become mad with jealousy and disgrace himself.

Influence Character Journey 3 fromConceptualizing to Becoming

As Iago imagines playing out more of his plan, he suggests that Othello hide and listen in
on a conversation between Iago and Cassio that will appear to be about Desdemona. Iago
becomes more evil, and during his talk with Cassio, declares, “I am a very villain. . .”
(IV,i,143)
Influence Character Signpost 4
Iago transforms himself into a murderer when he kills Roderigo to cover his involvement
in Othello’s downfall; stabs his wife when she reveals the truth about him; becomes a
prisoner when he’s chained and ordered executed.

Relationship Story

Past
Relationship Story Signpost 1
Othello has passed over Iago for the position of lieutenant. Iago, smarting from Othello’s
slight and rumors that he’s slept with his wife, Emilia, vows to wreak vengeance against
his general.

Relationship Story Journey 1 from Past toProgressEnraged because Othello has

promoted Cassio to the lieutenancy over him, Iago forces Othello to leave his bride to
discipline his new lieutenant for brawling.

Progress
Relationship Story Signpost 2
At first all is going well for Othello: He reunites with his bride and orders a celebration in
honor of the Turks’ defeat and his marriage. Then, at Iago’s machinations, a brawl
breaks out disturbing Othello’s honeymoon, causing him much displeasure. Unaware
that Iago is the cause of the fracas, he’s pleased with his ensign’s attempt to protect
Cassio’s reputation. Iago sees Othello’s irritation at having his evening interrupted as a
success.

Relationship Story Journey 2 from Progress toFuture

Iago successfully plants doubts about Desdemona in Othello’s mind; he advises Othello
to watch his wife carefully in the next few days, especially whenever she’s with Cassio.

Future
Relationship Story Signpost 3
Iago incites Othello into a jealous rage until the Moor vows to murder his wife, ending
their future together. Othello charges Iago to kill her “lover,” Cassio, cutting his
promising future short. He makes Iago his new lieutenant, creating a strong bond
between them for the future.

Relationship Story Journey 3 from Future toPresent

Othello vows his allegiance to Iago, “I am bound to thee for ever.” (III,iii,243) Iago
swears to assist Othello in his vengeance against Desdemona and her “lover,” promising
to kill Cassio within three days. Iago is awarded the lieutenancy. But Iago’s future as
Othello’s valued lieutenant is shattered when the Moor discovers that Iago is a liar and
then tries to kill him.
Relationship Story Signpost 4
Iago watches as an irrational Othello strikes his innocent wife in front of Venetian
dignitaries; witnesses a crazed Othello who has just murdered his wife learn that Iago has
lied about Desdemona’s unfaithfulness; is wounded by Othello before the Moor turns a
blade on himself.
 Critical approaches to Othello
 Article written by:Virginia Mason Vaughan
 Themes:Ethnicity and identity, Tragedies
 Published:15 Mar 2016
There have been numerous interpretations of Othello over the last 400 years. Virginia
Mason Vaughan discusses four recent critical approaches: feminist, new historicist,
marxist and post-colonial.

Othello was crafted at the dawn of the 17th century, shaped by complex social and geopolitical
issues that new historicist critics, who seek to place literary works within a historical framework, have
recently sought to unravel. Yet from its first staging to the present,Othello has also been among the
few Shakespearean plays to be repeatedly staged to enthusiastic audiences, not only in England,
but across the globe. This continuing appeal suggests that the tragedy transcends the time and
location in which it was written, provoking new interpretations from generation to generation, place to
place. In order to fully appreciateOthello, we need to see it in its multifaceted historical context –
then – and consider the myriad ways it speaks to audiences now.

Cinthio's Gli Hecatommithi, an Italian source for Othello and Measure for Measure

Shakespeare took the idea for Othello from a tale of doomed mixed-race marriage in Cinthio’s De Gli
Hecatommithi, 1565.

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Postcolonial reading: ‘something from Cyprus’

Postcolonial readings focus on the play’s representation of Ottoman Turks. Shakespeare

derived Othello’s plot from a short narrative in Giraldi Cinthio’s Gli Hecatommithi (1565), but set his
play within the context of Venice’s struggle during the 1570s with the Ottoman Empire for control of
Cyprus, the eastern Mediterranean island that overlooked the shipping lanes between Europe and
trading centres in the East. Venice owned Cyprus from 1470 to 1569, but in 1571 Turkish forces
seized the island. Later that year an alliance of Christian powers defeated the Turk in the famous
naval battle of Lepanto. As a young man, James VI of Scotland (James I of England in 1603)
celebrated that battle, fought ‘Betwixt the baptiz’d race, / And circumcised Turband
Turkes’.[1] References throughout Othello to ‘the Turk’ or ‘turning Turk’ evoke the intermittent conflict
between Europe’s Christian powers and the Islamic Ottoman Empire, which was as much an
economic competition as a clash of religions. In sermons and treatises, English writers like Richard
Knolles, who published The General Historie of the Turks (1603), demonised the Ottoman Empire as
barbaric and cruel, even as they admired its military success and bureaucratic structure.

Description of the Battle of Lepanto in Knolles's History of the Turks

Richard Knolles’ General Historie of the Turks (1603) demonizes the lion-like Turks but admires their
military power.

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Shakespeare draws upon the Christian-Turkish binary but also undercuts it by making the play’s
most villainous character a Venetian and its hero an outsider. Fearful of vesting military power in one
of its own citizens, Venice’s republican government contracted with foreign mercenaries who could
easily be dismissed once the crisis was over (as Othello is in Act 5). Although Othello has been
chosen by the Venetian government to lead its army, ‘the Moor’ (a term that originally referred to
practitioners of Islam) remains an alien in Venice. Like the liminal island of Cyprus, he is caught in
the middle, neither European nor Turk yet embodying both, and in his suicide he highlights his
service as a Christian hero by killing the ‘turbaned Turk’ within, who ‘beat a Venetian and traduced
the state’ (5.2.352–53).

Othello’s geopolitical impact is not limited, however, to conflicts between Venice and the Ottoman
Empire. Othello’s blackness and his background as a foreign mercenary prefigures the hybridity
postcolonial theorists have identified in colonial subjects. Brabantio and Desdemona are fascinated
by his strange stories of cannibals and anthropophagi; Othello’s first gift to her is a handkerchief
given to him by an Egyptian charmer, ‘dyed in mummy [a black liquid distilled from corpses] and
steeped in the ancient lore of charmers, sibyls and magic’.[2] The Moor’s stories allow Desdemona to
experience the exotic/erotic delight found by many early modern readers in travel narratives that
described the ‘antres vast’ of unexplored territories in Africa, the East and the New World.

Manuscript of The Travels of Sir John Mandeville

Headless men and men with mouths behind their shoulders: these are some of the wondrous
creatures depicted in The Travels of John Mandeville, a book still hugely popular in Shakespeare’s
day.

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Public Domain in most countries other than the UK.

New historicist reading: ‘far more fair than black’

New historicist critics often debate whether or not race was a factor in early modern representations
of non-English peoples. Although Othello’s racial identity is clearly a factor in Shakespeare’s text,
when the play was first performed the audience would not have seen it as squarely focussed on race
as we do. As editor Michael Neill observes, ‘to talk about race inOthello is inevitably to fall into some
degree of anachronism, while to ignore it is to efface something fundamental to the tragedy.’[3] As a
result, Shakespeare’s Othello has been appropriated worldwide as a vehicle for the exploration of
racial and ethnic tensions.

In the opening scene Iago refers to Othello as ‘the thick-lips’ (1.1.66) and later he raises a toast to
‘the health of black Othello’ (2.2.29). Through these and other comments we learn that Othello is a
black African of sub-Saharan origin. In 1604 England was not yet formally immersed in the slave
trade, but as early as 1565 English privateers had bought captured Africans, and Shakespeare may
well have known some of them or other people of African heritage. Contemporary conceptions of
race and racism, influenced by the history of racial slavery and 18th-century pseudo-science, are
often based on hard and fast racial categories that were only incipient in Shakespeare’s England.
While Iago’s and Brabantio’s remarks in Act 1 exude what is today accepted as racism, the Duke’s
pronouncement that Othello is ‘far more fair than black’ and Montano’s claim that ‘the man
commands / Like a full soldier’ (2.1.36–37) indicate the high esteem others have for him.
Nevertheless, references to Othello as black and a Moor, as well as his lack of understanding of
Venetian customs, establish his liminal position in Venetian society.

16th-century costume guide

A wealthy Moor, 1598: In his guide to global fashions, Cesare Vecellio shows the fluid meaning of
the word ‘Moor’ at the time Shakespeare was writing.

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In Shakespeare’s time Othello was performed by Richard Burbage, a white actor who wore black
make-up and a wig of black lamb’s wool. (Burbage’s powerful cross-racial performance should not
be confused with the caricatured blackface used in 19th-century minstrel shows.) Still, by the early
19th century, a truly black Othello was no longer tenable in England and America. The English actor
Edmund Kean chose instead to appear as a North African in light brown make-up, suggesting an
African from the Mediterranean rim rather than a sub-Saharan. With the exception of Ira Aldridge, a
black actor who portrayed Othello throughout northern Europe in the 19th century, the role was
taken by white actors in various shades of make-up until the African-American actor Paul Robeson
undertook the role in London (1930) and New York (1943). Since then, black actors have usually
impersonated Shakespeare’s Moor.

Portrait of Richard Burbage

17th-century portrait of the actor, Richard Burbage, probably the first man to play Othello. He played
the part wearing black make-up and a wig made of black lamb’s wool.

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Usage terms © By Permission of the Trustees of Dulwich Picture Gallery, London.

Paul Robeson as Othello and Uta Hagen as Desdemona in New York, 1943–44

When Paul Robeson played Othello in New York in 1943, it ran for 296 performances – still the
longest Shakespearean run in Broadway history.

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Usage terms © Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

Feminist reading: ‘a maiden never bold’

Feminist critics highlight the ways Shakespeare portrays gender roles. In Act 1, Scene 3, Brabantio
describes his daughter Desdemona as ‘a maiden never bold’, yet in choosing a foreigner she has
violated the Venetian norm of arranged endogamous marriages (the practice of marrying within a
local community or ethnic group) and rejected her father’s authority. Still, she honours the patriarchal
dictum that, once married, the wife owes her husband the same respect and duty she had shown her
father. Emilia, too, defers to her husband Iago’s wishes. Even after she realises the full extent of his
villainy, she admits, ‘’Tis proper I obey him, but not now’ (5.2.194). At the same time, romances,
poems and plays often countered patriarchal authority in favour of romantic love. Just as the Duke
overrules Brabantio’s demands in Act 1, Scene 3, in fictional narratives the blocking father figure
cannot prevail and young lovers marry. If Othello ended after Act 1, it would be, as many
commentators have observed, a romantic comedy.

Alas, Desdemona and Othello’s love is no match for Iago’s plots and the green-eyed monster
jealousy. Infidelity was the ultimate marital crime in early modern England. The prospect of
illegitimate children subverted the bedrock of the era’s social and economic system, the inheritance
of property from father to son. In a speech that is often described as ‘proto-feminist’, Emilia argues
that a wife’s infidelity is a response to the husband’s behaviour:

Say they slack their duties,

And pour our treasures into foreign laps,
Or else break out in peevish jealousies,
Throwing restraint upon us; or say they strike us,
Or scant of former having in despite –
...
Yet have we some revenge. (4.4.82–88)

Desdemona rejects this reasoning, promising ‘Not to pick bad from bad, but by bad mend’ (4.4.100).
As she nears death in the play’s final moments, she exonerates Othello by claiming no one has
murdered her except herself.

From the play’s earliest performances, audiences responded sympathetically to Desdemona’s plight.
After a 1610 production at Oxford, Henry Jackson recalled that Desdemona ‘entreated the pity of the
spectators by her very countenance’.[4] That changed in the late 20th century, however, when
feminist critics underscored Desdemona’s initial independence and Emilia’s eventual strength, and
outlined the ways both women – as well as the courtesan Bianca – were constrained by the male
characters’ patriarchal suppositions. From a feminist perspective, early modern England’s
preoccupation with cuckoldry demonstrates a basic male insecurity about women’s sexuality.

Broadside ballad on cuckolds

This 17th-century ballad, ‘Cuckolds Haven’, shows the early modern obsession with cuckolds – men
who were depicted with animal horns as a sign that their wives had been unfaithful.

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Marxist reading: ‘’Tis the curse of service’

Marxist critics are concerned with the economic and psychological impact of early modern England’s
hierarchical social system. In 1604 James I took Shakespeare’s acting company under his
patronage, making Shakespeare a ‘servant’ of the king. Indeed, service to someone in a higher
position was expected from the lowest kitchen maid to the lords and ladies of the king’s court.[5] The
pecking order in Othello is clear. The Duke and aristocratic members of the Venetian Senate give
orders to Othello, who in turn commands his Lieutenant Cassio. Ensign Iago is subordinate to both.
All three ostensibly serve out of loyalty to the state and for the status their military position brings,
but they can be dismissed at the pleasure of their superiors. Iago resents Cassio, a man with ‘a daily
beauty in his life’ (5.1.19), hates being tied to Othello’s service and yearns for preferment.

The different gradations of status embedded in the text are often represented in military terms, with
Iago presented as a rough-speaking non-commissioned officer, resentful of Cassio’s rank and
courtly manners. But the play’s exploration of rank and class go beyond the military. Iago’s repeated
advice, ‘Put money in thy purse’, suggests that a new economic model has replaced the feudal
obligations of service, which had been based on a bond of loyalty and duty between servant and
master. As a ‘servant’ of the king, Shakespeare – who applied for a coat of arms to be named a
‘gentleman’ but was also an entrepreneur who loaned money and invested in land and rents – was
implicated in both models.

Photograph of Hugh Quarshie and Lucian Msamati in Othello, 2015

In the RSC’s 2015 production of Othello, the lead role was played by Hugh Quarshie and Iago was
played by Lucian Msamati.

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‘O bloody period!’

Shakespeare wove the contradictory discourses of his age into Othello’s tangled web, whether it be
the conflict between women’s self-rule and patriarchal marriage, western society’s fascination with
and fear of the Islamic or African other, or the resentment caused by shifting economic parameters.
400 years later the discourses have changed, but as contemporary appropriations of Othello remind
us, the issues have only intensified.
At the heart of Shakespeare's "Othello" is the doomed romance between
Desdemona and Othello. They are in love, but poor Othello can't get past his self-
doubt as to why such a lovely creature would love him. This leaves his mind
susceptible to the tragic poisoning by the scheming Iago, even though sweet
Desdemona has done nothing wrong.

Desdemona Analysis

Too often played as a weak character, Desdemona is strong and bold. She defies
her father:

“But here’s my husband,

And so much duty as my mother showed

To you, preferring you before her father,

So much I challenge that I may profess

Due to the Moor my lord”(Act 1, Scene 3, lines 184–188).

This quote demonstrates her strength and her bravery. Her father appears to be a
very controlling man, but she stands up to him. It is revealed that he has
previously warned Roderigo off his daughter: “My daughter is not for thee”(Act 1,
Scene 1, line 99), and she takes control so that he is unable to speak for her.

Desdemona and Othello

She, having the choice of many a more suitable match, chooses a man despite his
racial difference. In marrying a black man, Desdemona flies in the face of
convention and unapologetically faces criticism for her bold choice. It could be
argued that she loved him because of his racial difference if she meant to shock
her father.

As Othello explains, it is Desdemona who pursued him after she fell in love with
his stories of valor: “These things to hear would Desdemona seriously
incline”(Act 1 Scene 3, line 145). This also shows that she is not a submissive,
passive character in that she decided she wanted him, and she pursued him.
Desdemona, unlike her husband, is not insecure. Even when called a "whore," she
remains loyal to him and resolves to love him despite his misunderstanding of
her. She is resolute and tenacious in the face of adversity.

On the subject of her relationship with Othello, Desdemona says:

"That I did love the Moor to live with him,

My downright violence and storm of fortunes

May trumpet to the world: my heart's subdued

Even to the very quality of my lord:

I saw Othello's visage in his mind,

And to his honour and his valiant parts

Did I my soul and fortunes consecrate.

So that, dear lords, if I be left behind,

A moth of peace, and he go to the war,

The rites for which I love him are bereft me,

And I a heavy interim shall support

By his dear absence. Let me go with him."

Desdemona’s Tenacity

Desdemona is one of the only characters early in the play who stands up to Iago:
"Oh, fie upon thee, slanderer”(Act 2 Scene 1, Line 116). She is astute and bold.

She bids Othello do the sensible thing and ask Cassio how he obtained her
handkerchief, but this is too rational for Othello, who has already ordered his
murder. Her tenacity partly serves as her downfall; she continues to champion
Cassio’s cause even when she knows this may cause problems for her. When she
wrongly believes him to be dead, she openly weeps for him as she clearly sets out
she has nothing to be ashamed of “I never did/Offend you in my life, never loved
Cassio”(Act 5 Scene 2, lines 66–67).
Desdemona’s love for Othello is unwaning: “My love doth so approve him/That
even his stubbornness, his checks, his frowns—/Prithee unpin me—have grace
and favour in them”(Act 4 Scene 3, lines 18–20).

Even as Desdemona faces death, she asks Emilia to commend her to her "kind
lord." She remains in love with him, knowing that he is responsible for her death.

Othello Analysis

Othello might be impressive on the battlefield, but his own personal insecurity
leads to the tragic end of the story. He admires and loves his dear wife very much,
but he can't believe that she would be in love with him. So Iago's crazy lies about
Cassio just feed into Othello's self-doubt, to the point that Othello doesn't even
believe the truth when he hears it. He just believes the "evidence" that fits with
his skewed, incorrect perception borne from his own insecurity. He cannot
believe in reality, for it seems too good to be true.