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Construction
and Building

Construction and Building Materials 22 (2008) 1232–1238

MATERIALS
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Estimation of asphalt concrete fatigue curves – A damage

theory approach
a,* b
Marı́a Castro , José A. Sánchez
a
Departamento de Transportes, E.T.S.I.C.C.P., Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Profesor Aranguren s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
b
Departamento de Ingenierı́a Civil: Hidráulica y Energética, E.T.S.I.C.C.P., Universidad Politécnica de Madrid,
Profesor Aranguren s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain

Received 13 June 2006; received in revised form 3 December 2006; accepted 31 January 2007
Available online 12 March 2007

Abstract

In order to represent the behaviour during fatigue tests of asphalt concrete mixtures, a phenomenological model, based on the con-
tinuous damage theory, has been developed. From this model, a method for estimation of fatigue curves was formulated. From a prac-
tical point of view, the use of this method enables classic fatigue curves to be estimated with a smaller number of specimens tested. This
method of estimating fatigue curves was applied to three mixtures, and its results were compared with those of the standard procedure.
Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Asphalt mixes; Fatigue; Damage

1. Introduction Damage is defined as any loss of strength that takes

Fatigue cracking is one of bituminous pavements’ main
distress modes. Usually, the study of asphalt materials in
terms of fatigue is conducted by analyzing their fatigue
curves. These fatigue curves are mathematical relationships
between a state variable and the number of load cycles
needed to fatigue the mixture.
Usually, fatigue curves are obtained by means of labora-
tory testing. In Spain, the procedure for laboratory charac-
terization of the fatigue performance of asphalt mixtures is
standardized by means of the NLT-350/90 standard [1].
This standard indicates the procedure for obtaining two
fatigue curves: A ‘‘classic’’ fatigue curve in which the state
variable is the applied load, and an ‘‘energy’’ fatigue curve
in which the state variable is the dissipated energy in the
test. For both curves, the minimum number of specimens
tested is 10. The test established in NLT-350/90 is a
three-points bending test with a prismatic specimen.
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 91 3366653; fax: +34 91 336654.
E-mail address: maria.castro@upm.es (M. Castro).
place in a specimen during a test [2]. During a fatigue test,
modulus value decreases according to Fig. 1. Three phases
can be distinguished [3–5]:
 Phase I: at the beginning of the test there is a rapid dim-
inution of the modulus value.
 Phase II: modulus variation is approximately linear.
 Phase III: rapid decrease of the modulus value.
A damage parameter, D, which represents the relative loss
of modulus between the initial state and the state of the
material in a certain cycle N is defined as:
jE0 j  jE j
D¼ ð1Þ
jE0 j
where D is the damage parameter in cycle N, jE0 j is the
norm of the complex modulus in the initial state, and
jE*j is the norm of the complex modulus in cycle N. The
complex modulus characterizes the linear viscoelastic prop-
erties of a material under periodic sinusoidal loading. The
norm of the complex modulus jE*j is defined as the ratio
between the amplitudes of stress and strain in a cycle.

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.01.012
 M. Castro, J.A. Sánchez / Construction and Building Materials 22 (2008) 1232–1238
Nomenclature
D damage parameter
Df value of damage parameter when fatigue is
reached
E Young modulus
E0 Young modulus of virgin material
E* complex modulus
jE*j norm of the complex modulus
jE0 j norm of the complex modulus in the initial
state
PHASE I PHASE II PHASE III
Modulus
Number of cycles
Fig. 1. Modulus variation during a fatigue test.
During a fatigue test this damage parameter varies from
zero, when the material is virgin, to a value Df (Df 6 1)
when fatigue is reached.
Several researchers have proposed fatigue models of
asphalt mixtures based on the theory of damage. Piau [6]
proposes a law of damage applicable to the fatigue test stan-
dardized in France (two-points bending test on trapezoidal
specimens). Bodin et al. [7] propose an elastic model of fati-
gue damage (tension–compression tests on cylindrical spec-
imens and two-points bending test on trapezoidal samples).
Baaj [8] proposes a law of damage for tests on cylindri-
cal specimens under controlled stress or strain. The Baaj
model uses corrected values instead of the values resulting
from tests, in an effort to avoid the influence of factors such
as material heating during the test or tixotropy. Sousa et al.
[9] have questioned whether the aforementioned correc-
tions are correct.
For the purpose of simulating a fatigue test by means of
finite elements, Ullidtz et al. [10] propose two hypotheses
for damage analysis. Both hypotheses lead to expressions
of modulus variation for cases of tests with controlled
stress or strain, which are not valid for the Spanish test
because it was conducted with controlled displacement.
On the other hand, Lee and Kim [11,12] have proposed
a constitutive model for asphalt concretes under cyclic
loadings based on the damage theory. They consider the
behaviour of the material as viscoelastic, but the pseudo-
strain concept is used in order to operate as if its behaviour
were elastic.
1233
L span of the specimen (in mm)
M width of the specimen (in mm)
N number of cycles
Nf number of cycles at fatigue
O thickness of the specimen (in mm)
P applied load to the specimen
e strain
e0 amplitude of initial strain
r stress
Lee and Kim [12] have used the aforementioned visco-
elastic linear constitutive model to develop a prediction
model for fatigue. For the development of this fatigue pre-
diction model, they assume that the test is conducted under
controlled strain and consider as failure criterion the loss of
half the pseudostiffness. Pseudostrain-based models need
additional tests, for example, the creep test, to determine
material parameters used by these models. This is their
main disadvantage.
In this paper a method to estimate fatigue curves of
asphalt concrete mixtures is proposed. This method, based
on the theory of continuous damage, uses as input data
only measurements that were already made during fatigue
tests. It does not require any additional measurement or
test to characterize the material. As an additional advan-
tage it is possible to perform the estimation by testing a
smaller number of specimens than the standard Spanish
procedure.
2. Laboratory tests and materials
Three-points bending fatigue tests have been used. These
tests follow the Spanish standard NLT-350/90 [1]. A pris-
matic specimen, supported on its ends, is put under a cyclic
vertical load centred on its span (Fig. 2). Testing is con-
trolled by displacement so that, during testing, the maxi-
mum specimen displacement remains constant while the
applied load required to achieve that displacement dimin-
ishes at every cycle.
The test temperature is 20 °C. The shape of the loading
wave is sinusoidal, without rest periods, and its frequency
is 10 Hz [13]. It is assumed that fatigue has been reached
and the test completed when the applied load is half the ini-
tial load.
• Three-point bending fatigue test
• Prismatic beam specimen
• Displacement imposed M
O
• Sinusoidal repeated loading pattern: 10 Hz
• Temperature = 20° C
• Failure criterion:
Final force = ½ Initial force
L
Fig. 2. Characteristics of tests performed.
1234 M. Castro, J.A. Sánchez / Construction and Building Materials 22 (2008) 1232–1238

Each specimen (beam) has dimensions of 300 ± 10 mm
by 50 ± 10 mm by 50 ± 10 mm. It is made by sawing a
large specimen (slab) of asphalt mixture into five parts, in
compliance with NLT-173/84 [14]. In accordance with this
standard, each specimen is compacted by means of a
vibrating plate compactor. The total duration of this pro-
cess is 5 min. Every 75 s the plate turns 90°.
Fatigue tests have been conducted in a servo-hydraulic
testing facility. The system registers load, strain and dis-
placement waves every 500 cycles, from cycle 200. Thus,
in cycles 200, 700, 1200, 1700, and so on, the values of these
functions throughout a complete cycle are registered.
Strain is measured by means of a transducer located in
the centre of the bottom face of the tested specimen. Stress
(r), in a point located in the centre of the bottom face of
the specimen, is determined, in every cycle, from the regis-
tered load, the dimensions of the specimen and the distance
between supports (Eq. (2)):
 
L 1
r¼3P   10  ð2Þ
2 M  O2
where r, and P are, respectively, the instantaneous stress in
MPa and the registered load at the same instant in Newton;
L, M and O are, in mm, the distance between supports, the
width of the specimen, and the thickness of the specimen
(Fig. 2).
100
S25
80
S20
S12
%Passing
Modulus, in a certain cycle, is defined as the quotient
between stress and strain amplitudes. The amplitude, in a
cycle, is the absolute value of the difference between maxi-
mum and minimum value, of the magnitude of interest, in
that cycle.
The mixtures studied were three asphalt concrete mixes
with different grading curves (Fig. 3). S12 and S20 mixtures
are used in wearing courses. S25 mixture is used in base
courses. To make these mixtures 60/70 pen bitumen and
calcareous aggregates were used. The binder content, per
weight of aggregates, was between 4.6% and 5% (Table 1).
3. Damage model
The proposed model of damage is:
N ¼ a  eb0  Dc ð3Þ
The expression (3) relates to the damage, D, that the
material of a specimen undergoes, tested according to the
Spanish standard, after N cycles of load, and with an initial
strain e0. In this expression, a, b, and c are parameters of
the asphalt concrete mix that must be experimentally deter-
mined. In order to verify the validity of the proposed model
of damage, 26 specimens, made with three different asphalt
concretes mixes, have been tested.
The obvious approach with regard to verifying Eq. (3) is
to make a multiple regression to determine parameters a, b,
and c. A statistical analysis must then be made and, based
on the significance level of the estimated parameters (a, b,
and c) and the coefficient of correlation R2, the proposed
model of damage could be accepted or rejected. However,
this obvious approach has the disadvantage that the num-
ber of data points obtained from each specimen is propor-
tional to the duration of the test. Thus, lightly loaded

60
specimens (lower e0) have greater influence on the esti-
mated regression parameters. This different influence
40
among specimens could be as large as an order of magni-
tude. So, a different approach must be used to avoid this
20 pitfall. One way to avoid it is to study separately damage
evolution with the number of cycles and damage evolution
0 with the load (e0).
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieve size (mm)

Fig. 3. Grading curves.

S12 mixture. 3-5 specimen
70000

60000 2.09
y = 123070.90x
Table 1 2
Number of cycles

50000 R = 0.99
Characteristics of the mixtures studied
40000
Property Mixture
S12 S20 S25 30000

Binder penetration (0.1 mm) 60–70 60–70 60–70 20000

Binder softening point (°C) 48–57 48–57 48–57
Binder content (%) 5 5 4.6 10000

Aggregate bulk specific gravity (g/cm3) 2.67 2 67 0

Mix bulk specific gravity (g/cm3) 2.39 2.37 2.37 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Void content in the mix (%) 3.7 4.5 5.0 Damage
Void content in the mineral aggregate (%) 14.7 15.5 15.1
Fig. 4. Evolution of damage during a fatigue test.
 M. Castro, J.A. Sánchez / Construction and Building Materials 22 (2008) 1232–1238 1235

Table 2 age values of this coefficient for each mixture and its stan-
Exponent of damage dard deviation are shown.
Mixture c Standard a b R2 In contrast, the variation of coefficient b is great (greater
deviation of c than two orders of magnitude). This is logical because,
S12 2.4875 0.488 9.455E16 4.4249 0.99 according to the proposed model of damage, this coeffi-
S20 2.2233 0.452 1.1595E12 2.6612 0.79 cient is a function of the initial strain of the specimen. In
S25 2.0858 0.503 1.2199E18 5.0691 0.89
Table 2 the coefficients a and b for each mixture as well
Coefficients of initial strain and their respective coefficients of correlation. as their respective correlation coefficients are shown.

The evolution of damage with the number of load cycles
must be studied for each specimen alone. In each specimen
tested the initial strain is constant. Therefore, according to
(3), the relation between damage and number of cycles is
N ¼ b  Dc
where N is number of cycles, D is damage, and b and c are
constants to determine. In Fig. 4, the evolution of damage
with the number of cycles for a specimen, may be seen. In
all the specimens tested, the coefficient of correlation R2
has had a high value, varying between 0.924 and 0.998,
which confirms the validity of the proposed model of dam-
age to explain the evolution of damage in a specimen. On
the other hand the variation of coefficient c for specimens
made with the same mixture is small. In Table 2, the aver-
4. Prediction of fatigue curves
The model proposed in the previous section could be
used for the estimation of fatigue curves because it is valid
throughout the test, and, therefore, when fatigue is reached
ð4Þ also. In order to perform this estimation, decimal loga-
rithms on both sides of Eq. (3) must be taken. Also, vari-
ables N and D must be particularized for the cycle of
fatigue (subscript f). So, Eq. (5) may be written:
LogðN f Þ ¼ LogðaÞ þ b  Logðe0 Þ þ c  LogðDf Þ ð5Þ
Rearranging the terms Eq. (5) may be written as follows:
LogðaÞ þ c  LogðDf Þ 1
Logðe0 Þ ¼  þ  LogðN f Þ ð6Þ
b b

Fig. 5. Method proposed to estimate fatigue curves.

1236 M. Castro, J.A. Sánchez / Construction and Building Materials 22 (2008) 1232–1238
Eq. (6) is the equation of a fatigue curve. In order to com-
pare fatigue curves obtained by means of the proposed pro-
cedure, and fatigue curves obtained through the procedure
established by the Spanish standard NLT 350-90, it is nec-
essary to substitute e0 by 2 Æ e0 in Eq. (6) because the Span-
ish standard uses, in the expression of fatigue curves
obtained in compliance with it, an initial strain half of
which is measured in fatigue tests. Eq. (7) is then obtained:
LogðaÞ þ c  LogðDf Þ 1 8. Obtaining the fatigue curve from the expression
Logðe0 Þ ¼   Logð2Þ þ
b b
 LogðN f Þ
This expression provides an estimation of fatigue curves
from the proposed model of damage (Eq. (3)). It must be
taken into account that Df is a parameter of the mixture
and must be experimentally determined.
As mentioned previously, according to standard NLT-
350/90, at least ten specimens must be tested to determine
the fatigue curve of an asphalt mixture. Therefore, two
large specimens (slabs) of mixture must be made according
to NLT-173/84. As the proposed procedure to estimate
fatigue curves takes into account all the data acquired
while the test is in progress, and not only its final values,
fewer specimens could be used to estimate fatigue curves.
If only five specimens were used, then only one large spec-
imen (slab) would be needed.
Therefore, the method proposed to estimate the fatigue
curve of an asphalt mixture is as follows (Fig. 5):
1. Testing specimens following the procedure established
by the Spanish standard NLT-350/90.
2. For every tested specimen i, calculation of the value of
the damage parameter D in all cycles in which measures
are taken D ¼ ðjE0 j  jE jÞ=jE0 j.
3. Fitting a curve of the form N ¼ bi  Dci to the data of
every tested specimen i.
4. Calculation of parameter c as the average of ci.
Table 3
Parameters of the proposed model of damage and value of damage at fatigue for each mixture (5 specimens)
Mixture a b
S12 4.9402E16 4.3423
S20 6.8768E11 2.5819
S25 6.0506E18 5.375
Table 4
Parameters of fatigue curves
Mixture Log (strain) = A + B Æ Log (cycles)
A (Estimated)
S20 4.1661
S25 3.1504
S12 3.4758
Estimated versus standardized (NLT-350/90) fatigue curves.
5. Fitting a curve of the form N ¼ b0i  Dc to the data of
every specimen (it must be emphasized that c is now
the same for all specimens tested).
6. Fitting a curve of the form b0 ¼ a  eb0 to the coefficients
b0i obtained at the end of step 5 and to the initial strain
e0i of each specimen i.
7. Obtaining the expression N ¼ a  eb0  Dc valid for all
specimens made with this mixture.
obtained at the end of step 7. The value of the damage
parameter at the cycle of fatigue (Df) is estimated as
ð7Þ the average value of damage at fatigue among all the
specimens tested made with the same asphalt concrete
mix. Thus, the fatigue curve of the mixture can be
obtained with the expression (7).
As a consequence of using this method, following the
test procedure set out in the NLT 350-90 standard, test
validity criteria defined in this standard are applicable.
Specifically, tests in which some incident, such as an
abnormal breakage of the specimen, has occurred must
be rejected, as well as those that are too long or too short
in duration.
According to the proposed method to estimate fatigue
curves (Fig. 5), results corresponding to the testing of five
specimens are shown. In Table 3, the value of damage at
fatigue for each mixture Df (average value of damage at
fatigue of the specimens tested), as well as its standard devi-
ation, which is reasonably small, are shown. Also, Table 3
shows the parameters of the model of damage correspond-
ing to the three mixtures studied. By applying Eq. (7) to
these parameters, an estimation of the corresponding fati-
gue curves of these mixtures is obtained. In Table 4, the
coefficients of these estimated fatigue curves are shown.
For the sake of comparison, the coefficients of the fatigue
curves, obtained using the standardized procedure (NLT-
350/90), are shown in the same table.
c Df Standard deviation of Df
2.1963 0.7352 0.006
2.2215 0.7300 0.019
2.2654 0.7912 0.012
B (Estimated) A (NLT-350/90) B (NLT-350/90)
0.3873 3.9510 0.3429
0.1860 3.1975 0.1955
0.2303 3.4494 0.227
 M. Castro, J.A. Sánchez / Construction and Building Materials 22 (2008) 1232–1238 1237

2.8 the 95% confidence intervals of the curves obtained by

means of the standardized procedure (Figs. 6–8). This
Standard result supports the method proposed.
Log Strain (microstrain)

2.6 Estimated
Lower 95% CI
Upper 95% CI 5. Conclusions
2.4
A phenomenological model based on the theory of con-
tinuous damage was formulated to represent the fatigue
2.2
behaviour of asphalt mixtures tested according to the
Spanish standard NLT-350/90. The parameters of this
model can be determined using data usually measured dur-
2 ing the NLT-350/90 fatigue tests, without requiring any
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 additional tests or measurements.
Log (Number of cycles)
From this model, a method for the estimation of fatigue
Fig. 6. Standardized fatigue curve with confidence intervals and estimated curves of asphalt mixtures has been developed. The method
fatigue curve. S12 mixture. developed has the advantage over the standardized one
(NLT-350/90) that it allows an estimation to be made by
In order to demonstrate the accuracy of the proposed testing a smaller number of specimens. So, the cost and
method for the estimation of fatigue curves, curves time required for determining fatigue curves of asphalt
obtained by means of the standardized procedure and their mixtures can be simultaneously reduced.
95% confidence intervals, as well as the estimated curves, The fatigue curves of three asphalt concrete mixtures
have been plotted on the same graph. In all cases curves have been determined by means of the proposed method
estimated by means of the proposed method are within and the standardized (NLT-350/90) method. The fatigue
curves obtained by both methods were compared. One
result from this comparison that must be emphasized is
3 that the curves obtained by the method proposed are
Standard within the 95% confidence intervals of the curves obtained
2.8 Estimated
by the standardized one. This result supports the validity of
Log Strain (microstrain)

Lower 95% CI
2.6 Upper 95% CI
the method proposed for obtaining fatigue curves of
asphalt mixtures.
2.4

Acknowledgement
2.2

The laboratory tests were performed in the Spanish

2
Road Research Centre (CEDEX).
1.8
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
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