PDF Document PDF

COPYRIGHT AND CITATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THIS THESIS/ DISSERTATION
This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyrighted and that no quotation from
the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement.
Please include the following information in your citation:
Name of author
Year of publication, in brackets
Title of thesis, in italics
Type of degree (e.g. D. Phil.; Ph.D.; M.Sc.; M.A. or M.Ed. …etc.)
Name of the University
Website
Date, accessed
Example
Surname, Initial(s). (2012) Title of the thesis or dissertation. PhD., M.Sc., M.A., M.Com.
etc. University of Johannesburg. Retrieved from: https://ujdigispace.uj.ac.za (Accessed: Date).
SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF SUGAR
PRODUCTION OPERATIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA: A
SOCIAL LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT PERSPECTIVE.
By
TAKALANI M. NEMARUMANE
In partial fulfilment of the

requirement for the degree of
Master of technology
DEPARTMENT OF QUALITY AND OPERATIONS

MANAGEMENT
THE FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND BUILT

ENVIRONMENT
SUPERVISOR: Prof C MBOHWA
THE UNIVERSITY JOHANNESBURG
2013
In presenting this report in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a degree at the
University of Johannesburg, I agree that permission for extensive copying of this
report for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his
or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this report for
financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission.
_____________________________________________________
Department of Quality and Operations Management

The University of Johannesburg
Auckland Park 2006
Johannesburg
South Africa
Date
Signature
ii
ABSTRACT
This paper focuses on the social impact of the sugar industry in South Africa. A
social impact assessment is a method that aims to assess social features of the
product and their positive and negative aspects in terms of its processing of raw
material to the final stages of its disposal. The objectives of the study were guided by
the guidelines on social life cycle assessment of products of the South African Sugar
Industry developed by the United Nations Environmental Programme and SETAC
initiatives. The main aim is to add value to the social assessment methodology and
application techniques of social impacts assessment, focusing on the sugar industry
in South Africa. The study’s main focus is on health and safety, freedom of
association, employee’s wages, gender equality in the workplace, working
conditions, crime and the social wellbeing of the communities that surround the
sugar industry’s operations. Field research, historic comparative research, interviews
and questionnaires were used for the collection of relevant data. The areas that grow
sugar were identified to have low unemployment rates as compared to areas that do
not grow sugar. Although it is good that the sugar industry decreases the level of
employment in some areas, the decrease in sugar production during the season of
2010-2011 could have major financial and social challenges for these areas, and
could also impact the rest of South Africa. The other social impacts discussed above
are also assessed and presented in the paper.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the following people that added value to the successful
completion of my research: Professor Charles Mbohwa, my supervisor who patiently
and diligently guided me, My Head of Department, Mr John Agwa-Ejon, who gave
me time and resources to work and develop my research, the South African Sugar
Association stakeholders and workers that helped with the collection of my data. I
would also like to thank my parents, Mr and Mrs Nemarumane, who provided me
with the opportunity to attain my degree, my sisters Sandi, Ayanda and Londi who
have supported me, my friends and colleagues who have encouraged me, and
eventually if it was not for the love and grace of God, all this would not be possible.
iv
Table of Contents
Contents Page Numbers
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………….……v
1.1 Background and Justification 1
1.2 Objectives of the study 2
1.3 Character of the research 3
1.4 Summary of chapters 4
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………….….….6

2.0 Introdustion 6
2.1 The SLCA Methodology 6
2.1.1 Framework for SLCA 8
2.1.2 The Application of SLCA 10
2.1.3 Apllication of Guidelines in SLCA 11
2.1.4 Development of the SLCA Methodology 12
2.1.5 Disadvantages of SLCA 13
2.2 Health and safety and Working Conditions 14
2.2.1 Occupational Health and Safety 14
2.3 Freedom of Association 15
2.4 Wages 17
2.5 Gender equality and Crime 19
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY…………………………………………….….21
3.0 Methodology 21
3.1 Definition of goal and scope 21
3.2 Scope 21
3.3 System Boundary 22
3.4 Life cycle inventory analysis 23
3.4.1 Data Collection Techniques 24
3.5 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 28
3.5.1 Data Analysis 28
3.5.2 Statkon 29
3.5.3 Characterisation 29
3.5 Life Cycle Interpretation 30
CHAPTER 4: CASE STUDY…………………………………………………....31

4.0 Introduction 31
4.1 The South African Sugar Association 32
4.1.1 Growers 32
4.1.2 Sugar Milling 35
4.2 Social Development Programs 38
4.2.1 Enterprise development 38
4.2.2 Health and Welfare 38
4.2.3 Human Resource Development 39
CHAPTER 5: INVENTORY ANALYSIS……………………………………………………….41

5.1 Characterisation 41
5.2 Community 41
5.2.1 Schools 42
5.2.2 Social Relief 42
5.2.3 Healthcare Facilities 43
5.2.4 Water 44
v
5.2.5 Crime 44
5.3 Workers 46
5.3.1 Freedom of Association 47
5.3.2 Wages 48
5.3.3 Gender Equality 50
5.3.4 Working Conditions and Health & Safety 51
CHAPTER 6: IMPACT ASSESSMENT…………………………………………………….….53

6.0 Introduction 53
6.1 Workers 53
6.1.2 Wages 58
6.1.4 Working Conditions 65
6.1.5 Health and Safety 67
6.2 Community 69
6.2.1 Community Services 69
6.2.2 Environment 75
6.2.3 Crime 78
6.2.4 Health 81
CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS…………………84

7.0 Introduction 84
7.1 Discussion of Results 84
7.2 Recommendations 85
7.2.2 Wages 86
7.2.4 Working Conditions and Health and Safety 89
7.2.5 Service Facilities 90
7.2.6 Environment 90
7.2.7 Crime 90
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………..92
8.1 The Sugar Industry and the Workers 92
8.2 The Sugar Industry and the community 92
8.3 The Study Objectives and the Methodology 93
8.4 Gaps in the study 93
LIST OF REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………..95
APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………………………………….100
vi
List of figures
Figure 1.1 Why manage social aspects of a product…………………………....2
Figure 1.2 the general methodological framework for LCA……………………..3
Figure 3.1 illustrates the revised Flow Chart for Production of Sugar Cane….22
Figure 4.0 Organisation of the South African Sugar Industry…………………..32
Figure 4.1 prepared furrows for sugar cane growing…………………………….33
Figure 4.2 Fully grown sugarcane stalk, length important……………………....34
Figure 5.1 Availability of water across the 9 provinces of SA…………………..44
Figure 5.2 Murder rate for KZN 2011………………………………………………45
Figure 5.3 Murder rate based on the sugarcane growth rate……………………46
Figure 5.4 Subcategories of robbery……………………………………………….46
Figure 5.5 Wages paid based on type of workers………………………………..49
Figure 5.6 Distribution of men to women in the labour market……………….....51
Figure 6.1 Remuneration……………………………………………………..……..66
Figure 6.2 Training and Development………………………………………..…....66
Figure 6.3 Importance and Satisfaction by gender: local schools………….......73
Figure 6.4 Importance and Satisfaction by gender: Health and Safety……......74
Figure 6.5 Seriousness of pests by gender…………………………………….....77
Figure 6.6 Seriousness of dust particles by gender…..……………………….....77
Figure 6.7 Seriousness of crime around cane growing areas by gender……....78
Figure 6.8 Safe sugar growing phases by gender…………………………………79
Figure 6.9 Unsafe sugar growing phases by gender……………………………...80
vii
List of Tables
Table 3.1 The allocation of questionnaires in the provinces……………………….26
Table 3.2 Community questionnaires distribution across provinces………………26
Table 3.3 Worker’s questionnaire distribution across provinces……………..........26
Table 3.4 Categorisation of workers……………………………………………….....27
Table 3.5 Categorisation of local communities by age groups……………….........27
Table 3.6 Categorisation of local communities by gender……..…….……………..28
Table 3.7 Characterisation of the study………………………………………………30
Table 4.1 Total cane/sugar production: 1994/1995 to 2010/2011…………….……31
Table 4.2 Number of cane growers per cane supply region……………….……….35
Table 5.1 Characterisation structure of workers and local communities…….…….41
Table 5.2 SA Educational system review…………………………………………....42
Table 5.3 Social relief grants by ethnicity…………………………………………....43
Table 5.4 Satisfaction of communities with healthcare facilities………………......43
Table 5.5 Freedom of Association for workers………………………………………47
Table 5.6 Ranking of issues that organisations collaborate at the national level...48
Table 5.7 Minimum wage rates for sugar workers………………………………......49
Table 6.1 Cross-tabulation for freedom of association, wages and working
condition………………………………………………………………………………....55
Table 6.2 Frequencies and descriptive…………………………………………….....57
Table 6.3 Ratio of men to women in the workplace………………………………….63
Table 6.4 Favourability between men and women………………………………......65
Table 6.5 Physical harm caused by workers…………………………………………69
Table 6.6 Marginal homogeneity test results for quality of housing……………......71
Table 6.7 Seriousness of environmental effects………………………………….....75
Table 6.8 Safe sugar growing phases………………………………………………...79
Table 6.9 unsafe sugar growing phases………………………………………………80
Table 6.10 Crime rates in sugar…………………………………………………….....81
Table 6.11 Security structures in communities……………………………………….81
Table 6.12 Illnesses caused or aggravated by the sugar industry’s operations…...82
Table 6.13 Illnesses caused or aggravated by the sugar industry’s operations by
age…………………………………………………………………………………………8
viii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
The study will focus on the social impact of the sugar industry in South Africa. A
social impact assessment is a method that aims to assess social features of the
product and their positive and negative aspects in terms of its processing of raw
material to the final stages of its disposal, Maloa (2001). Life cycle analyses are the
tools to be used to apply life cycle thinking in a fact-based manner, with increasing
use by industry and policy. While the consideration of environmental impacts of
products in life cycle assessment (LCA) studies and the consideration of economic
impacts in life cycle costing (LCC) studies are quite common today, the investigation
of social effects in a life cycle perspective has been rarely done so far. This is the
case despite a clear recognition that products have in addition to environmental and
economic impacts many-faceted social impacts as well, not only on employees, but
also on customers, suppliers, communities, and society, Ciroth (2011). To predict
what the probable impact of development will be, we seek to understand the
behaviour of workers and communities affected by industry’s actions, development,
or policy changes, GPSIA (1994).
1.1 Background and Justification
The South African Sugar Industry employs 77000 people, who work directly for the
industry and 350 000 who are employed indirectly employment, this makes the sugar
industry in South Africa to be one of the largest contributors to employment in
agriculture within the country. There are more than 42 000 registered cane growers,
1660 farmers have large farms, and 40 600 have small plots of sugar cane; this is
according to SACGA (2011). A study on the Environmental impacts of the South
African sugar industry, was performed which had a direct link to the economy of
South Africa. Based on Ciroth (2011) environmental, economic and social aspects of
a product are important.
1
Figure 1.1 Why manage social aspects of a product. Ciroth (2011).
This model shows that the environmental aspects of a product, has implications on
the economic aspects which in-turn have implications to the social aspects of a
product or system.
1.2 Objectives of the study
The primary objective of the study was to conduct a Social life cycle assessment
study for the South Africa’s sugar millers and sugar growers. The study would apply
the United Nations Environmental Programme: guidelines on social life cycle
assessment of products on the South African Sugar Industry. The study aimed to
add value to the social assessment methodology and application techniques of
social impacts assessment.
The secondary Objectives of the study were as follows:
 To identify the social impacts of the sugar growing and milling within the sugar
industry
 To determine how employees of the sugar industry relate with the
organisation in terms of freedom of association, wages, gender equality,
working conditions and health and safety.
2
 To identify how the local communities are view the operations of the sugar
industry in relation to community services, service facilities, environment,
crime and health and safety.
 To promote the social awareness and social responsibility within the South
African sugar industries.
1.3 Character of the research
The Social Life Cycle Assessment methodology has specific guidelines that are used
to ensure that the assessment process continues to serve its purpose in the
assessment process.
Goal and Scope
Interpretation
Inventory
Impact Assessment
Figure 1.2 The general methodological framework for LCA. Guinee 2011
Interpretation
These phases encounter various stages, namely:
 Goal and scope of the study

The goal entails the objectives of the study and what expected outcome of the
study. In this phase the reasons for carrying out the study are outlined. This
section is inclusive of the functional unit and the system boundaries of the
study, UNEP (2009).
The scope of the study is concerned with the areas within the product life
cycle that the data will be collected from. It states the limits and breadth of the
study and also describes the depth of the study.
 Inventory analysis
3
The inventory analysis involves the different ways in which the data is
collected, the modelling of systems, and the validation process of the data
collected, UNEP (2009). The purpose of the inventory analysis is to collect the
data as outlined through the goal and scope definition, Jorgensen (2010).
 Impact Assessment
This phase deals with the interpretation of the data collected, the
characterisation of data and the establishment of subcategories. In the impact
assessment, the inventory data is through models ‘translated’ into impacts,
Jorgensen (2010).
1.4 Summary of chapters
Chapter 2: literature review

The literature review consists of complete discussions on the various issues
concerned with the Social Life Cycle Assessment. In this chapter the different
categories and sub-categories are discussed in relation to other countries that also
produce their sugar from sugar-cane. The literature review is inclusive of historical
data that was published from the South African Sugar Industry in relation to its social
impacts.
Chapter 3: Methodology
The methodology encompasses the description of how the SLCA was used. This
chapter indicates how the SLCA method was applied to the South African Sugar
Industry and also states its limitations and boundaries.
Chapter 4: Case study of the South African Sugar Industry

This chapter deals with the different processes that take place within the sugar
industry for the production of sugar in South Africa to be possible. In this chapter, the
different stakeholders are identified and their functions are clearly explained.
Chapter 5: SLCA Inventory Analysis

The inventory analysis is concerned with the process in which the data is collected.
Within this chapter, the data is validated and the system boundaries established.
4
This chapter focuses on the assembling of data which is later used in the impact
assessment.
Chapter 6: SLCA Results and Discussion

The analysis of the Inventory data is carried out in this chapter. This chapter also
deals with the establishment of categories and subcategories of the study. The
results on this characterisation are discussed in detail.
Chapter 7: Recommendations
In this chapter the solutions are identified for the negative impacts that were
established in the results and discussion chapter. A detailed description of how to
alter negative impacts into positive impacts is explained within this chapter.
5
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This section focuses on the different views of authors based on the SLCA
methodology, health and safety in the sugar industry, freedom of association, wages,
working conditions, gender equality and crime within the sugar industry. Various
arguments are about these factors are documented and discussed.
2.1 The Social Life Cycle Assessment Methodology
The social impact assessment has been defined in different ways from the authors
and the lack of a commonly accepted definition has often led to the inadequacy of
many studies, Vanclay (2002). Although many definitions have surfaced, Becker
(2001) defines it as the process of identifying the future consequences of a current or
proposed action which are related to individuals, organizations and social macro-
systems. It is essential to understand the problem analysis and the communication
strategy, this is concerned with the nature of the problem and why it has been judged
serious enough to merit action. Social impact assessment is also focuses on the
system analysis which is the boundaries of the system, its sub -systems and related
phenomena and the critical or base-line analysis which is concerning the existing
conditions and past trends associated with the human environment in which the
proposed activity has to take place. For example relationships with the biophysical
environment, the historical background, the political and social resources, the
culture, attitudes and social- psychological conditions, including attitudes toward the
proposed actions, and the population characteristics, Becker (2001).
The use of Life cycle assessment has been to analyse the effects that a product or
process will have on the environment UNEP (2009). The results of an LCA study
inform companies of the aspects in their operations that are efficient and also
6
indicate areas where efficiency can be improved to reduce environmental impacts.
The Social life cycle assessment adds dimensions of impact analysis, which reveals
valuable information for those that seek to produce or purchase responsibly. Since
the scope of the studies is quite large, it is impossible to truly assess the entire life
cycle, UNEP (2009).
When referring to the causes of social impacts, this generally implies three
dimensions:
 Behaviours: social impacts are those caused by a specific behaviour
(decision). E.g. forbidding employees to form unions, allowing illegal child
labour, and seizing employees’ identity papers.
 Socio-Economic processes: social impacts are the downstream effect of
socio-economic decisions. E.g. an investment decision in a sector to build
infrastructure in a community.
 Capitals: (human, social, cultural): social impacts relate to the original context
(attributes possessed by an individual, a group, a society e.g., education
level). They can either be positive or negative.
Petti (2009) identified three factors that are the main social aspects, the people’s
way of life (how they live, work, play and interact with one another on a day -to-day
basis), their culture (beliefs, customs and values) and their community (cohesion,
stability, character, services and facilities). An LCA study supplies a comprehensive
vision of the environmental aspects of a product or service considering many
categories, evaluating the potential impacts and trying to create a holistic view,
avoiding the shifting of the problems from an environmental category to another,
Dreyer (2006). There is a need for increasing the interaction among stakeholders
involved in the development, application and use of the LCA results (such as
scientific community, business associations, policy makers). The purpose of the
Platform is to improve credibility, acceptance and practice of Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA) in business and public authorities. It has been set up to ensure greater
coherence across LCA instruments and robust decision support to a range of
environmental policies and business instruments; this is according to Sala, et.al
(2010). S-LCA has the focus on social and socio-economic hotspots which are
identified in consultation and validated by concerned stakeholders: consumers, local
community, workers, value chain actors and the society. Stakeholder involvement is
essential to develop S-LCA studies, Esteves (2009). Ciroth (2011) states that the
impact assessment method covers two assessment steps of each subcategory: In a
7
first step the performance of the company/sector is assessed based on the inventory
indicators and in a second step (potential) impacts of this performance are assessed
in regard to six social impact categories (working conditions, health and safety,
human rights, socio-economic repercussions, indigenous rights including cultural
heritage, and governance). These impact categories are as well derived from the
UNEP/SETAC guidelines.
2.1.1 Framework for SLCA
Grieβhammer et al. (2006) and – Jørgensen et al. (2008), both agree that the social
LCA comprises of the following phases:
 Goal and scope definition
 Inventory analysis
 Impact assessment
 Interpretation
Goal and Scope definition

SLCA-approaches have been developed to support several different goals. Two
main classes of goals can be identified. One is product, process or company
comparison and social responsible investments, as exemplified by Schmidt et al.
(2004), Spillemaeckers et al. (2004). The other class is identification of product or
process improvement potentials, Dreyer et al. (2006). These classes of goals should
be seen as complementary. Different goals have implications for the methodological
possibilities and limitations. The objective of the scope definition is to identify and to
define the object of the study and to delimit the assessment. In this section, the
origin of social impacts, allocation, system boundary setting and social indicators will
be discussed, ISO 14040 (2006). The scope is also defined in the first phase of the
study. It encompasses issues of depth and breadth of the study. It defines the limits
placed on the product’s life-cycle (which ideally is the border between the economy
and nature) and on the detail of information to be collected and analysed. It defines
where the data will be coming from, how up-to-date the study will be, how
information will be handled, and where the results will be applicable. ISO 14040
(2006) specifies that the scope should be sufficiently well defined to ensure that the
breadth, depth and detail of the study are compatible and sufficient to address the
stated goal.
8
Inventory analysis
Dreyer et al. (2006), argue that most social impacts have no relation to the
processes themselves, but rather to the conduct of the companies performing the
processes. The causal link is therefore not from process to social impact, but from
conduct of the company to the social impact. They argue therefore that the SLCA
inventory analysis should be focused on the companies involved in the product
system. Schmidt et al. (2004), on the other hand, maintains that the focus on the
process is the basis for the assessment. Life Cycle Inventory Analysis involves
collection of modelling of data to determine how the production chain performs on
social and socio-economic aspects. It was found out that there are generally no S-
LCA databases on production, making it difficult to screen for hotspots. Particular
attention has to be paid to data status, quality, reliability and relevancy,
Spillemaeckers et al. (2004).
Impact Assessment
The impact assessment is the phase of the SLCA where the inventory information is
translated into impacts. The phase contains the classification, characterisation, and
normalisation and valuation of impacts. Classification is normally performed by
assigning inventory results to impact categories (ISO 14044). The purpose of
characterisation in SLCA, according to ISO 14044 (2006), is to aggregate the
inventory results within the same impact category. This involves conversion of
inventory data to a common metric.
Interpretation
In the interpretation the outcome of the previous phases in accordance with the goal
definition of the study. The final phase of the methodology, concerning the
interpretation of results, should include checks of completeness (or full coverage of
areas of impact), consistency, sensitivity, materiality (relevance of provided
information’s) and of responsiveness (engagement of stakeholders) O’Brian (1996).
Key requirements for this phase, moreover, are the participation of stakeholders, the
documentation of the evaluation process, the steps to ensure transparency and
verifiability of results, as well the analysis concerning the conformity with the goal of
the study and with the scope of inventory analysis, Griebhammer et al (2006).
9
2.1.2 The application of SLCA
The goal of SLCA is to enhance the use of life cycle assessment (LCA) as a tool in
business decision-making, a methodology for Social life cycle impact assessment
(LCIA) is being developed. Social LCA aims at facilitating companies to conduct
business in a socially responsible manner by providing information about the
potential social impacts on people caused by the activities in the life cycle of their
product. The development of the methodology has been guided by a business
perspective accepting that companies, on the one hand, have responsibility for the
people affected by their business activities, but, on the other hand, must also be able
to compete and make profit in order to survive in the marketplace, Dreyer, et al
(2006)
Implementation of LCA and Related Approaches

While LCA, has been increasingly accepted, and made more simplistic to perform
due to databases and software systems, Frischknecht et al. (2000) faces some
important challenges over the coming decade. This will include, among other topics,
evaluations and comparisons of the results obtained through different variants of the
methodology, issues related to uncertainty and data quality, as well as life cycle
impact assessment sophistication. These topics, however, should comprise only one
axis of development and refinement. Methods, operational procedures, and concepts
for the implementation into business processes need more attention, and research,
in order to enable the wide scale exploitation of LCA's potential. Additional levels of
sophistication, and new models, should not neglect the needs and the reality of
decision making. Specifically, LCA needs to accept the responsibility to concretely
contribute to sustainability; the pure provision of new scientific insights and ideas is
not sufficient. Therefore,
Application-focused research dealing with questions on how to apply life cycle

approaches and how to use them for business and other organizational processes
should be strengthened and better valued, also from a scientific point of view. The
thresholds for sustainability are vague and will likely require some time to define.
However, even such limits are insufficient if not applied on a scale and with means
which can move manufacturing, material, energy, transport, use and disposal
choices, in both the micro- and macro-economies.
10
To achieve a more widespread applicability, LCA needs to expand its role in
communication, and scientific journals have a role in this. The life cycle management
(LCM) section of the International Journal of LCA (Heinrich and Klöpffer (2003)
seems to now be able to provide less jargon-based approaches and to clearly
summarises and validates results, and to better identify limitations and constraints of
life cycle concepts. However the LCA community needs to develop improved formats
and procedures which are suitable, for instance, for sales and marketing, accounting,
and product development teams. In short, LCA as a science has to overcome the,
general, lack of support in the highest circles of academia. A fully developed LCA
approach and associated cases should strive for implementation as the ultimate goal
and not be limited to the use for publications, Hunkleler (2005).
2.1.3 Application of guidelines in SLCA
The Guidelines contain four main sections as according to Benoit (2010)The first
section presents the historical context in which the guidelines should be placed.
From the broad and vague concepts of sustainable development and human
wellbeing to the more specific goal of sustainable consumption and production
(including corporate social responsibility), a link is made with life cycle thinking and
related techniques and tools for assessment before going into details in the
methodology of an S-LCA (a social and socio-economic LCA).
The second main section explains clearly the principles of an social life cycle
assessment (S-LCA) and a life cycle costing. This section also clarifies the
differences and the commonalities between Social life cycle assessments and
Environmental life cycle assessments.
The third section provides a technical framework for SLCA from which a larger group
of stakeholders can engage to assess social impacts with a life cycle perspective
and possibly move towards a sustainable SLCA when assessing goods and
services. It draws largely and whenever possible on the E-LCA methodology. In this
section, the four major phases (goal and scope of the study, inventory analysis,
impact assessment, and interpretation as outlined in ISO 14040 and 14044) of the
methodology are presented and detailed in a systematic and coherent manner.
11
Finally, the fourth section including the remaining chapters present the possible
applications and the limitations, the communication of results, the review process,
and currently identified research and development needs. Benoit, et al (2010).
2.1.4 Developments of the SLCA Methodology
Societal LCA is generally considered to be still in its infancy. Despite the great
methodological difficulties, however, an astonishing increase in papers submitted
and published can be observed. The most recent papers can be summarized as
follows, Klopffer (2008):
• Dreyer et al. (2006) aim at assessing the responsibility of the companies involved in
the life cycle, although the products are the point of reference. This necessarily gives
more weight to the foreground activities and to the people involved in it. The
responsibility of the management for the social conditions in a plant cannot be
debated and this may be more important than the processes used. On the other
hand, the same is true for the machinery and the environmental technology used (or
not used).
• Weidema (2006) includes elements of Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) and proposes
Quality Adjusted Life Years (QALY) as a main measure of human health and well-
being (a common endpoint for toxic and social health impacts)
• Norris [13] also considers social and socio-economic impacts leading to bad health;
Life Cycle Attribute Assessment (LCAA) as a web-based instrument should
complement classical life cycle assessment methods.
• Labuschagne (2006) strive for completeness of the indicators. The method seems,
however, not primarily directed versus product assessment.
• Hunkeler (2005) solved the problem of relating societal impacts with the functional
unit by means of the working time spent to produce the fraction of the final product in
a factory or at the field etc. This time has to be determined as part of the societal
LCI; this can be done, but it has to be known where the work is done.
Regionalisation has to be more developed than usual in LCI/LCA. Knowing the
working hours per functional unit and using national statistics it can be calculated
how many hours a person has to work for eating, housing, education etc. This
evaluation can be considered as a societal impact assessment, whereas the un-
weighed working hours belong to the inventory
12
2.1.5 The disadvantages of SLCA
The main disadvantage of the method is that the level of detail cannot be increased
beyond the level allowed by the basic statistical information. This may in practice
limit the possibilities for interpretation of the results. There are no formal limitations of
the method as seen in relation to the ISO 14040 (2006), but there are some practical
limitations that the LCA-practitioner should be aware of. Apart from the creation of
common impact categories and indicators, one of the most challenging aspects
regarding SLCA seems to be the data collection. In ELCA, generic data on the
relevant input and output has been created for a large number of processes but,
according to Dreyer et al. (2006) and Spillemaeckers et al. (2004), several difficulties
may arise using the same approach in SLCA.
As previously mentioned, impacts are seen as a result of the conduct of the

company rather than because of the nature of the individual process. Accordingly,
two companies producing exactly the same products (and possibly with the same
environmental impacts as evaluated in an ELCA) can have completely different
social impacts. Thus, they advocate that social impacts have to do with the
behaviour of the company towards its stakeholders (as opposed to the industrial
process in ELCA), making use of generic process data irrelevant or at best very
difficult to apply.
Dreyer et al. (2006) and Spillemaeckers et al. (2004) see the management of a
company as a very local phenomenon, making the data collection a question of
collecting site specific data as opposed to the generally accepted approach of using
more generic process data in the ELCA. However, collecting site specific data from
the whole product chain is obviously a very demanding task and, as discussed in the
paragraph on the setting of system boundaries, several approaches have been taken
to delimit the product chain in order to restrict the needs for data collection.
Accordingly, Spillemaeckers et al. (2004) suggest using a screening based on
literature, Internet and various databases in order to locate focus areas along the
product chain, and thereby delimit the on-site data collection. Hereby, they are also
advocated for the use of generic data, although only in situations where the
probabilities of large negative social impacts are minor.
13
2.2 Health and safety and Working Conditions
Health and safety has been documented as dire in the African Sugar industry. There
are also issues around health and safety. In four of its last five annual reports,
Tongaat-Hullet (2010) has had to report at least one work-related death at Xinavane
– a shockingly high figure. These deaths have been caused by accidents including
included car crashes, being crushed by heavy machinery and a spillage of boiling
water.
In a survey undertaken by Waddell (2006), 15% of the workers interviews reported

having suffered at least one accident at work; a problem especially common among
inexperienced cane cutters who suffer from things like cuts, back trauma,
dehydration and exhaustion. Findings suggest that the problem does not lie with the
company failing to issue protective equipment or employees being unaware of
Health and Safety policies. Rather, safety risks are exacerbated because many of
the field workers prefer to not wear the protective equipment since it is bulky and hot,
and because factory workers can be asked to work up to 15 days in a row.
The health of seasonal cane cutters is also jeopardised by the poor quality
accommodation provided by the company. The dwellings sleep four people to a
room with a single shared bathroom. When the workers bring their wives and
children to visit, the accommodation can become even more cramped. Hygiene and
water quality is poor, and in June 2010 an outbreak of cholera occurred in one of the
areas where many of the cane cutters stay. Three people lost their lives and more
may have died in hospital, though these would not be counted as ‘work-related
deaths, Waddell (2006). Between 1989 and 1992, there were 12 fatalities on
Australian sugar cane farms. This is an average of three fatalities per year. Of the 12
fatalities on sugar cane farms, eleven (91.7%) were of persons working at the time of
the incident and one (8.3%) was of a bystander. Franklin et al, (2001).
2.2.1 Occupational health and safety
Occupational health and safety hazards for sugar manufacturing facilities are similar
to those of other industrial facilities and recommendations for the management of
these issues can be found in Neidell (2004). In addition, occupational health and
14
safety issues that may be specifically associated with sugar manufacturing
operations include the following:
 Physical hazards
 Exposure to dust and biological hazards
 Exposure to chemicals (including gases and vapours)
 Exposure to heat and cold and radiation
 Exposure to noise and vibrations
Noise Operations may also cause noise which is a nuisance to neighbours, as well
as odour from the waste lagoons and from processing may result in local nuisance
complaints. In some cases where the odour is regarded as a nuisance by the
authorities, mitigation measures may need to be implemented though these usually
relate to housekeeping measures, Neidell (2004).
A Human Rights (2009) documented that, conditions that are unfit for workers
include on-site housing that is unfit for living, exposure to pesticides without proper
safety equipment, lack of access to toilets or drinking water while working, and
efforts (by farmers) to block workers from forming unions.
During an inspection in 2008, Labour minister Mildred Oliphant said she was
shocked and disturbed by what she saw. She stated that she would personally see
to it that these conditions were improved. She A caring society cannot stand by and
watch as people are treated in this fashion, Human Rights (2009).
2.3 Freedom of association
Many trade unionists are exposed to negative attitudes, outright opposition or more
subtle means by employers or state authorities. Workers' Union comment,
harassment can sometimes take a hidden form. Difficulties can include the attitude of
employers to the union, absence of civilized relations between employers and
workers organizations, ILO (2010). On a global scale, it seems likely that at least half
of all agricultural workers’ organizations reported harassment in some form in the
course of their work. 52% of the organizations responding to this survey report that
their officers or members have experienced some form of harassment. The most
common form of harassment, confronted by 45% of organizations, is the threat. Just
over one third of these organizations have a record of members losing their job or
15
being out-rightly discriminated against. And in 16% of organizations there is a record
of arrests.
It is essential for trade unions and employers’ organizations to function in full

independence and freedom. This implies a dual absence of interference: firstly, on
the part of government authorities in the activities of these organizations; and,
secondly, on the part of employers’ organizations in the establishment and activities
of workers’ organizations, and vice versa. In recent years the ILO supervisory bodies
have witnessed a surge in complaints concerning acts of anti-union discrimination
and interference.
These allegations concern prejudicial acts (including dismissals, demotions,

transfers and refusals to hire) carried out primarily by employers, including
governments in their capacity as employers, against trade union officers and
members, either because they have established or joined a trade union or because
of their participation in trade union activities. Alleged acts of interference account for
over half of all complaints if allegations related to government interference in trade
union activities, for example, through restrictive legislation, are included, ILO (2010).
Illovo and Huletts avoid unions by outsourcing to small farmers. Just like sweatshop
owners, these farmers often operate with precarious, razor-thin profit margins and
stay afloat by forcing down costs, usually by employing the most vulnerable and
exploitable workers they can find and hiring them on a “seasonal” basis so that they
can be retrenched on a whim Scissions (2009).
As with sweatshops, the labour process on the cane fields is designed to extract as
much as possible from workers. Employers set thresholds for the number of tons or
rows that each worker must cut a day, and compensate for annual minimum wage
adjustments by raising them in order to squeeze out more productivity. If workers fail
to reach their thresholds they are often not paid the full rate, sometimes up to 33%
less than the minimum wage. Most workers put in seven days a week with only one
or two days off per month, usually without ever receiving overtime pay, Scissions
(2009). Benefits are non-existent, and maternity leave is unheard of.
This is why the South African Sugar Association can boast that it produces cheaper
sugar than 85 percent of its global competitors. Based on Scissions (2009)
16
,
Much of the blame for the plight of farm workers belongs to the unions. Aside from a
few half-hearted attempts, Fawu and Cosatu have made no serious effort to organise
farmworkers in South Africa. They remain committed to the model of industrial
unionism that worked so well for them in the 1970s and 80s, focusing on workers in
higher-skilled, full-time, formal employment to the exclusion of workers in casual,
rural, and so-called “a-typical” jobs. As a result, Cosatu has come to be
characterised by a relatively middle-class, often white-collar constituency based
largely in urban centres — what Sakhela Buhlungu has so aptly called a “labour
aristocracy” that no longer reflects the nature of the general workforce.
Fortunately, new sources of hope are beginning to emerge.
In 2006, organisers at Khanya College in Johannesburg spearheaded the Southern

African Farmworkers Network, which aims to link trade unions that organise
farmworkers across the region. The network’s new flagship campaign will focus on
the sugar industry. Hopefully this effort will succeed not only at unionising
farmworkers, but also at making small-scale operations stable and profitable for
farmers and their employees; this is argued by Scissions (2009).
2.4 Wages
In 2002 the Minister of Labour introduced minimum wages and minimum conditions
of employment in the South African agricultural sector by means of the Sectorial
Determination for Farm Workers, Department of Labour (2002). The intervention was
predicated on the view that farm workers are the “lowest paid and most marginalised
workers in South Africa” Kassier (2003). Standard economic theory suggests that the
introduction of a minimum wage would decrease employment and increase
unemployment. A binding minimum wage, set above the market clearing wage,
increases the cost of labour.
Firms demand less labour, while more labour is supplied as new entrants want to
take advantage of the higher wage. The sugar growing industry was not immune
from this trend of labour shedding. Employment decreased at an average annual
rate of about one per cent between 1973/74 and 2003/04, South African Cane
growers (2003/04). Changes in the sugar pricing structure in 1998 have stimulated
17
the planting of sugar cane and have resulted in a reversal in the employment trends,
Murray (2006). Since the late 1990s there has been a slight increase in employment
in sugar cane production.
Other than the substitution of contract labour for permanent labour, Newman et al.
(1997) showed that the introduction of the minimum wage resulted in a substitution
of machinery for labour, resulting in more capital-intensive production techniques. In
contrast, Simbi and Aliber (2000) proposed that the “labour-saving, capital-using”
nature of the technological change, labour shedding and the casualization of labour
in South Africa is not driven primarily by increasing real wages, labour scarcity, or
the falling real cost of capital. Rather, they argue that non-economic factors, such as
growers’ fear of losing control of their land as well as a sense that labour is more
difficult to manage than “prior to 1994”, is driving the process of capital deepening in
the agricultural sector, Simbi and Aliber, (2000).
Over the period the total number of growers (excluding miller-cum-planter) supplying
South African mills has decreased from 51 075 growers in the 1994/1995 season to
38 188 growers in the 2008/09 season. Small scale grower numbers have declined
from 49 257 growers to 38 188 growers over the period, while large scale grower
numbers have declined from 1 818 to 1 626 growers. During 1994/95 total cane
production was crushed at 16 sugar mills, 14 located in KwaZulu-Natal and 2 in
Mpumalanga. During 2008/09 sugarcane was crashed at 15 sugar mills, SA Cane
growers (2010).
According to SA cane growers (2004) in an attempt to create incentives for the

growing and milling sectors to work together to ensure cost competitive sugar
production, a cane quality system was introduced in April 2000. The Recoverable
Value (RV) payment system enhanced the incentives for growers to improve cane
quality by more accurately rewarding them for the estimated value of the cane they
delivered to millers. The amount of sugar that can be extracted from cane during the
milling process is dependent not only on the amount of sucrose in cane, but also on
the amount of non-sucrose and fibre that it contains. This factor is accounted for in
the RV system, which includes the percentage of sucrose, non-sucrose, and fibre in
the cane, SA cane growers (2004).
18
Seasonal workers are extended fewer employment rights and treated differently to
permanent workers. In this respect the practice of ‘casualization’ is particularly
worrying. It happens by repeatedly renewing short-term contracts so that a worker is
hired in spells of three month contracts, until they are released for a month before
being taken on again. Some workers had given a total of two or three years’ service,
yet still found themselves employed on a quarterly basis receiving. Though it helps
reduce payroll taxes for the company, it creates considerable uncertainty for the
employees concerned, Kassier (2003)
2.5 Gender equality and crime
Female workers have been vulnerable to males across all many industries. It was
reported by African Regional Organisation (2005), that female workers in the apparel
industry reported that some employers conduct daily body searches to look for stolen
goods. Female factory workers reported that the male security guards fondle some
workers as they are exiting the factories at night.
21 Women reported that the daily search is not only too invasive but also makes
them vulnerable to street crime. “We are searched every day leaving the factory,”
one female machinist reported. “ . . . [s]he wants to see under our skirts, inside our
shirts,. And sometimes, they make us late with all the delays in the searching. It’s
dangerous to go home late. Women have been raped walking home from the
transportation, African Regional Organisation (2005). The country is facing a
monumental task of overcoming poverty: 56% of the population lives below the
poverty line; an unemployment rate in excess of 40%, compounded by an increasing
number of youths leaving school who are looking for white-collar jobs.
These problems are exacerbated by high inequality in income and asset distribution
and a deteriorating gender inequality. The pressure to create jobs in the economy is
therefore very high and the sugar industry is expected to play a significant role,
especially in equating the roles of men and women within the industry, this was
stated by Sirgy (2006). People perceive many different things when they speak of
quality of living. While everyone agrees that a high crime rate is undesirable and the
air we breathe, the house, the environment we live in should be clean, there is great
diversity in ideas about quality of living, thus reflecting the different use of the term
19
and different understanding depending on age, gender social position, etc. of the
person. What many agree on though, is that crime is a critical issue for any race,
gender, or age, this is according to Jenaro (2005). Freeman (1999), also states that
in the large scale farming sector the trend has been towards ever larger units of
production, increasing corporate ownership and a shrinking class of landowners and
skilled managers.
Another trend has been increasing crime against white farmers, including stock theft,
robbery and murder. Lack of security has been associated with the abandonment of
more productive farming enterprises (e.g. sheep farming) and transformation of large
areas of prime grasslands to timber production. The deep social, economic and
cultural divisions of rural South African society are thus having an impact on the
social and economic sustainability in the large scale agricultural sector. Waddell &
Burton (2006) argue that the increased levels of poverty, increased tensions,
conflicts, and health in the unemployed individual’s family and potentially also levels
of crime. However, when engaging in the assessment of these impacts associated
with unemployment, it quickly becomes evident that different unemployment
situations create different ‘amounts’ of these impacts. Literature on unemployment
proposes many ‘modifying factors’ which influence how ‘effective’ unemployment or
decreased production is in creating the mentioned impacts, Waddell & Burton
(2006).
20
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Methodology
This chapter focuses on the goal and scope of the study. It is concerned with the
description of inventory analysis, detailing the different ways in which data was
collected for the study. It finally deals with the explanation of the impact assessment
and finally explains what is entailed in the discussion of results and
recommendations.
3.1 Definition of Goal and Scope
The goal focuses on what is to be assessed and why the assessment is necessary.
The goal of the Social Life Cycle is to assess the social aspects of a product life
cycle. The goal of this study is to assess the social aspects of sugar production in
South Africa. The results of this assessment are meant to communicate to the South
African Sugar Industry to provide them with knowledge of their operational
consequences and responsibilities to the social society. The results are also
intended to help the sugar industry in using their processes in a way that could
improve their response to the social society that they serve. The recommendations
of this assessment will help the sugar industry to optimise their processes to
positively affect the societies that they serve. These should also be communicated to
policy makers that are concerned with the social responsibility of agricultural
organisations.
3.2 Scope
The scope of the study encompasses issues of depth and breadth of the study. It
defines the limits placed on the product’s life-cycle and the details of information to
be collected and analysed. It defines where the data will be coming from and where
the results will be applicable UNEP (2009). The sugar processes that the study is
21
concerned with are, the sugar growing phase, the harvesting phase and the Milling
phase. The transportation and distribution will not be considered because they form
part of an environmental study that has already been conducted. The disposal phase
will also not be taken into consideration because users dispose in various ways and
thus would make the study complicated. The system boundary will include cane
growing. Figure 3.1 illustrates the revised Flow Chart for Production of Sugar Cane
(Mashoko 2009).
Distribution, Use, reuse, Recover,

transportation maintenance recycle
OUTPUT
Usable products
 Sugar
 Electricity
 Bi- products: molasses,
bagasse
Figure 3.1Revised Flow Chart for Production of Sugar Cane (Mashoko 2009).
The highlighted areas on figure 3.3 indicate the areas within the flow chart of sugar
production that the researcher focused on.
3.3 System Boundary
The system considered for this study was one in which sugar is produced from sugar
cane stalks. The sugar processes that the study is concerned with are, the sugar
22
growing phase, the harvesting phase and the Milling phase. These are explained as
following subsystems for SLCA were taken into account:
 Growing Phase: Sugar cane is grown in various stages. The first stage is land
preparation, were the soil is fed with fertilisers and enough moisture to
accommodate and grow the cane stalks. The second stage becomes the
germinating stage where only about two leaves appear on the stem of the
planted cane. The next stages are the Tillering, grand growth and maturation
stages. These stages vary from 15- 20 days and 3 months from the cane
plantation day, at these stages the cane stalks grow to maturity. The last
stage is the cane cutting were the matured cane stalks are prepared for
transportation and processing.
 Milling Phase: Sugar milling is concerned with the processing of the cane
stalks, Cane preparation, Milling, Diffusion, Evaporation, Sugar boiling,
Separation of crystals from molasses Sugar drying and Sugar refining.
3.4 Life Cycle inventory analysis
Inventory analysis involves the different techniques used to gather the data for the
study. Inventory analysis is concerned with the following, UNEP (2009).
 Data collection (for prioritizing and screening, using generic data, hotspots
assessment)
 Preparing for main data collection
 Main data collection
 Data needed for impact assessment (characterization)
 Validation of data
 Relating (main) data to functional unit and unit process (when applicable)
 Refining the system boundary
 Data collection was done through various techniques, these included
Observations, Questionnaires, Interviews, journals, the website and books.
This approach requires the researcher to spend many hours in direct personal
contact with those people and institutions being studied, this is because participant
observation and field research are the relevant techniques used in this approach
Neuman (2000).
23
3.4.1 Data collection techniques
Data for this qualitative study was collected using the following techniques.
3.4.1.1 Field research

The researcher obtained access to the sugar mills where sugar cane stalks are
transported for processing. The researcher observed the operations at the sugar
mills and interacted with the members of the mills. During these observations, the
researcher will focused intensely on how the sugar mill employees handle the
machinery and equipment in the mill, while relating that to the societal implications.
According to Neuman (2000), field research is usually used for exploratory and
descriptive studies; therefore, this type of data collecting technique was best suited
for this study. Field research allowed the researcher to have first-hand experience.
However, the researcher was at certain times seen as intrusive by the workers. The
workers were then notified about the observations that were taking place, which
made them feel as though they were a crucial part of the observation process, thus
will allowed them to accommodate and cooperate with the researcher.
3.4.1.2 Historical Comparative Research

The researcher, through this technique, was able to examine the aspects of the
social life cycle of the sugar industry operations that has been researched before.
This technique helped the researcher to be able to build on theory that already
existed within the sugar industry and to also remain relevant and significant in terms
of social implications. The type of historical data will varied from published journals,
to relevant textbooks and other articles that are focused on the sugar industry. This
technique combined theory that already exists on the subject and the data collected
by the researcher, Neuman (2000). The researcher was also able to compare the
methods that were used to evaluate the social implications of the sugar industry in
the past; this helped in identifying the best method to be used for this research.
Although this method allowed the researcher to analyse the information at a time of
convenience, there also was protected information which was not available for public
viewing. To access this information the researcher had to use interviews and
questionnaires to gain insight of the private information.
3.4.1.3 Interviews
24
Interview questions were also used as another form of data gathering technique.
Various members of both the sugar mills and the sugar growers were interviewed.
The interviewees involved external affairs members at the South African Sugar
Association (SASA). Some of the interviews were conducted telephonically, while all
the interviews in the Kwa-Zulu Natal province were conducted face to face.
Interviews were semi-structured and unstructured, this means that the researcher
began with a set of topics that were of high importance, but also allowed the
interview subjects to lead the conversation in whatever direction that made the most
sense to the researcher, therefore, the researcher had to be open to other issues
that arose during interviews. This type of interviews enabled the researcher to
explore all arising issues to their depth. Based on the theory by Lune et.al (2010) the
conversation between the researcher and the subject leads to answers that even the
subject was not aware of initially, this then becomes helpful to the researcher as they
are able to broaden their research horizons, and also help in getting the core of the
problem. The researcher also interviewed some of the members of the South African
Sugar Technologist Association, about their view on what the social aspects are in
the sugar industry that have not been attended to, also on their opinions in terms of
what could be done to overcome these implications. Interviews are useful when
informants cannot be directly observed, however interviews may also provide indirect
information that is filtered through the views of the interviewees, O’Leary (2010). The
interviews thus involved multiple participants who allowed for a variety and
differences in information and opinions. In total 10 high ranking individuals were
interviewed.
3.4.1.4 Questionnaires
A total of 300 questionnaires were allocated to the various sugar mills and sugar
growers, and their various communities. These questionnaires were allocated
equally to the Kwa Zulu Natal (KZN), Mpumalanga (MP) and Eastern Cape (EC)
provinces. Table 3.1 illustrates the allocation of questionnaires amongst the three
provinces and their communities.
25
KZN MP EC
Millers Growers Community Millers Growers Community Millers Growers Community

12 10 10 9 13 8 6 5 12
8 8 10 11 2 8 10 10 7
5 7 5 5 10 9 9 10 6
Total 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
questionnaires
Total per 75 75 75
Province
Overall Total 300
Table 3.1 The allocation of questionnaires in the provinces.
The data for the study was collected using two sets of questionnaires. One set was
used to gather data from the employees of the sugar industry, specifically the sugar
millers and the sugar growers. The second set of questionnaires was directed to the
local communities, which are directly and indirectly impacted by the operations of
both the sugar millers and the sugar growers. Both sets of questionnaires were
distributed to the three main sugar growing and milling areas in South Africa, namely
Kwa-Zulu Natal, Mpumalanga and the Eastern Cape.
A1 Province
Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Valid Kwa-Zulu Natal 50 33.3 33.3 33.3
Mpumalanga 51 34.0 34.0 67.3
Eastern Cape 49 32.7 32.7 100.0
Total 150 100.0 100.0
Table 3.2 Community questionnaire distribution across provinces
The local community’s questionnaires were distributed across the three provinces as
follows, 50 in Kwa-Zulu Natal, 51 in Mpumalanga and 49 in the Eastern Cape. These
values are indicated in table 3.2.
A1 Province
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Kwa-Zulu Natal 50 33.1 33.1 33.1
Mpumalanga 49 32.5 32.5 65.6
Eastern Cape 52 34.4 34.4 100.0
Total 151 100.0 100.0
Table 3.3 Worker’s questionnaire distribution across provinces.
26
The table 3.3 illustrates the distribution of the worker’s questionnaire across the
various provinces. 50 questionnaires were distributed in Kwa-Zulu Natal, 49
distributed in Mpumalanga and 52 distributed in the Eastern Cape. A total number of
151 questionnaires were filled out by the workers from all three provinces, while 150
questionnaires were filled out by the members of the local communities.
For the purpose of classification, the workers were categorised into millers and
growers. 78 millers and 70 growers were questioned. See table 3.4. the local
communities were categorised by their ages and genders.
A2 Occupations
Cumulative
Valid Millers 78 51.7 52.7 52.7
Growers 70 46.4 47.3 100.0
Total 148 98.0 100.0
Missing System 3 2.0
Total 151 100.0
Table 3.4 Categorisation of workers
The questionnaire for the local communities was answered by 8 people that were
under the age of 18, 32 people were between the ages of 18-24 years, 30 were
between 25-32 years, 39 were from 33-40 years, 23 were from 41-47 years and 17
were above 48 years. This is stated in table 3.5.
A2 Age
Valid Cumulative
Valid Under 18 8 5.3 5.4 5.4
18-24 32 21.3 21.5 26.8
25-32 30 20.0 20.1 47.0
33-40 39 26.0 26.2 73.2
41-47 23 15.3 15.4 88.6
48 and above 17 11.3 11.4 100.0
Total 149 99.3 100.0
Missing System 1 .7
Total 150 100.0
Table 3.5 Categorisation of local communities by age groups.
27
The local community’s questionnaire was answered by 77 males in total from all
three provinces and 59 females. This is illustrated in table 3.6.
A3 Gender
Valid Cumulative
Valid Male 77 51.3 54.2 54.2
Female 59 39.3 41.5 95.8
Transgender 6 4.0 4.2 100.0
Total 142 94.7 100.0
Total 150 100.0
Table 3.6 Categorisation of local communities by gender.
In South Africa, there are approximately 38 200 registered sugarcane growers, who
produce on average 20 million tons of sugarcane from 14 mills annually Maloa
(2001). Out of the 14 mills only 9 were selected for the study. Nine sugarcane
growers were also selected for the study. These questionnaires enabled the
researcher to reach a larger sample size. The questionnaire focused on the negative
and positive aspects of how the employees of the sugar industry are impacted by the
sugar industry’s operations. These questions also included the education and
development of employees within the sugar industry, the level of growth
opportunities for employees and the health and safety aspects involved.
Questionnaires normally do not give the participants the options of enhancing their
responses beyond the questions, thus the participants were allocated a space for
comments on the questionnaires, and this enabled the respondents to express their
opinions about other relevant information that was not asked in the questionnaire.
3.5 Life Cycle impact assessment
The life cycle impact assessment presents the general framework for a social and
socio-economic Life Cycle Impact Assessment (sLCIA) following the general
guidelines of ISO 14 044 (2006). This section is concerned with the selection of the
impact categories and subcategories, and the characterization methods and models
UNEP (2009).
3.5.1 Data analysis

A preliminary study was conducted using the qualitative data analysis developed by
O’Leary (2010); this method involved the following steps:
28
1. Read through all of the transcripts carefully, and wrote down ideas as they
came to mind.
2. Wrote thoughts about each document, without focusing on the substance of
the information but rather on the underlying meaning,
3. Made a list of all the topics, cluster together similar topics, formed these topics
into columns that were arrayed as major topics, unique topics, and leftovers.
4. Abbreviated the topics as codes and wrote the codes next to the appropriate
segments of the text. Checked if new categories of codes emerged.
5. Found the most descriptive wording for the topics and turned them into
categories, then reduced the total list of categories by grouping topics that
related to each other.
6. Made the final decision on the abbreviation for each category and
alphabetised the codes.
7. Assembled the data material belonging to each category in one place and
performed a preliminary analysis
8. Recorded the existing data.
This process enabled for further analysis, which was handled by Statkon.
3.5.2 Statkon
Statkon facilitated the design of questionnaires and the allocation thereof. The
completed questionnaires were then captured and analysed for the purpose of the
study. The information is analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social
Science software (SPSS). SPSS is one of the most popular statistical packages
which can perform highly complex data manipulation and analysis with simple
instructions. It is designed for both interactive and non-interactive (batch) uses.
SPSS has scores of statistical and mathematical functions, scores statistical
procedures, and a very flexible data handling capability. It can read data in almost
any format (e.g., numeric, alphanumeric, binary, dollar, date, time formats), SPSS
(2012). This software was used to analyse the data into information from the 300
respondent’s questionnaires.
3.5.3 Characterisation
29
The characterisation for the study was done as indicated in Table 3.7
Millers Freedom of association
Wages
Gender Equality
Working Conditions
Health and Safety
Growers Freedom of association
Wages
Gender Equality
Working Conditions
Health and Safety
Communities Crime
Health and Safety
Access to Products and Services
Community engagement
Local employment
Secure living conditions
Safe and healthy living conditions
Cultural heritage
Table 3.7 Characterisation of the study
3.6 Life Cycle interpretation
Life Cycle interpretation is the process of assessing results in order to draw

conclusions, Baumann (2004). In accordance with the goal and scope of the study,
this phase has several objectives: to analyse the results, conclusions, explain the
limitations of the study, provide recommendations and report adequately, UNEP
(2009). It was found that the level of crime was significantly high during certain sugar
growth season, and that there was a concentration of men in some of the sugar
industry’s position as compared to women. Recommendations were made in
reference to gender equality, working conditions, health and safety, and crime in the
South African Sugar industry.
Although the main reason for the use of sugar is its sweet taste, sugar has many
other functions in food technology. The most important among these are that added
sugar in foods acts as a sweetener, preservative, texture modifier, fermentation
substrate, flavouring and colouring agent, bulking agent. The various methods of use
of sugar are based on its physical and chemical properties. The replacement of
sugar by the newly available sweeteners is difficult if the sweetness values or
physical and chemical properties of the substitutes differ greatly from those of
sucrose.
30
CHAPTER 4
CASE STUDY
4.0 Introduction
The South African sugar industry is one of the world’s leading cost-competitive
producers of high quality sugar and makes an important contribution to employment
and sustainable socioeconomic development, particularly in rural areas, and also to
the national economy (SASA). South Africa produces its sugar from sugar cane.
Sugar cane is defined as a tall tropical grass (saccharum officinarum) having thick -
solid tough stems that are a chief commercial source of sugar, ERS (2011). Table
4.1 shows the sugar cane production figures and the resulting sugar after the cane is
crushed in South Africa for the past 14 seasons.
SEASON CANE CRUSHED SUGAR PRODUCED

National market International market
1994/1995 15 683 277 1 310 328 347 507
1995/1996 16 713 649 1 283 282 375 653
1996/1997 20 950 894 1 264 066 995 630
1997/1998 22 154 775 1 310 352 1 093 278
1998/1999 22 930 324 1 285 001 1 353 155
1999/2000 21 223 098 1 194 763 1 329 897
2000/2001 23 876 162 1 231 442 1 490 120
2001/2002 23 876 162 1 239 651 1 163 592
2002/2003 23 012 554 1 278 720 1 475 899
2003/2004 20 418 933 1 356 400 1 055 631
2004/2005 19 094 760 1 210 416 1 016 453
2005/2006 21 052 266 1 261 808 1 238 696
2006/2007 20 278 603 1 340 524 886 329
2007/2008 19 723 916 1 399 657 873 842
2008/2009 19 255 404 1 438 587 821 657
2009/2010 18 655 089 1 414 273 766 177
2010/2011 16 015 649 1 583 457 325 779
Table 4.2: Total cane/sugar production: 1994/1995 to 2010/2011. Source: Facts and
Figures. SASA, 2012
In the production of sugar, there are Growers and Millers. These two bodies are
regulated by the South African Sugar Association (SASA).
31
4.1 The South Africa Sugar Association
The South African Sugar Association (SASA) manages the partnership between the
South African Cane Growers Association and the South African Sugar Millers
Association Ltd (Tongaat-Hulletts, 2008). The South African Sugar Association
council is made up of an equal number of members from the growers and millers.
Figure 4.0 :Organisation of the South African Sugar Industry: Source Tongaat
Hullets, 2008.
The South African Sugar Association is an autonomous organisation and operates

free of government control. In terms of the Sugar Act and Sugar Industry Agreement,
statutory powers of self-governance are granted to the sugar industry. The South
African Sugar Association’s administrative and industrial activities and organisations
are financed from the proceeds of the sale of local and export sugars. Its affairs are
administered by the Council of the SA Sugar Association.
4.1.1 Growers
There are approximately 38,200 registered sugarcane growers in South Africa,

covering three provinces, namely Kwazulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and the Eastern
Cape. Of the 38,200 sugarcane growers, more than 36,500 are small-scale growers
producing 9 percent of the total crop. Large-scale growers (approximately 1,626)
32
produce 82.6 percent of the total sugarcane crop, while milling companies with their
own sugar estates produce 8.4 percent of the crop, Maloa (2001). Sugarcane is well
grown in the sub-tropical climate of KwaZulu-Natal because it is warm and wet from
the high rainfall. It is also grown in drier regions like Mpumalanga, however farmers
in such regions have to irrigate their cane, Ciroth (2011).
4.1.1.1 Growing process
Sugarcane is grown from stalk pieces known as setts. These are laid in prepared
furrows and covered with soil, as indicated in figure 4.1. Sugarcane needs about
1000mm of water (rain-fed or irrigated) a year and must be constantly weeded Ciroth
(2011).
Figure 4.1 prepared furrows for sugar cane growing. Maloa (2001)
The plant grows in clumps of cylindrical stalks measuring from 1.25 to 7.25 cm in
diameter and reaching 6 to 7 m in height, this is shown in figure 4.2. The cane stalks
grow straight upward until the stalk becomes too heavy to hold itself up. It then lies
on its side and continues to grow upward. This results in a mature cane field lying on
top of itself in a mesh pattern, Lehtola (2003).
33
Figure 4.2 Fully grown sugarcane stalk, length important. Lehtola (2003)
Sugar cane is harvested by chopping down the stems but leaving the roots so that it
re-grows in time for the next crop. Harvest times tend to be during the dry season
and the length of the harvest ranges from as little as 2 ½ months up to 11 months,
Skill (2012).
Cutting of sugarcane takes place from April to December when the cane is 12 to 24
months old and the stalks contain sweet juice known as sap. Most cane is cut
manually by agricultural workers, but mechanical harvesters can also be used on
level fields, Ciroth (2011). On average one hectare planted yields between 50 to 60
tons of cane, and 9 tons of cane is needed to make one ton of sugar.
To ensure the maximum sugar content of 1 to 17% of total weight, the cane must be
harvested immediately after it reaches its final growth period. The cane fields are
burned prior to harvest, to eliminate weeds (without destroying the crop) and to
destroy snakes, dangerous insects and other pests that live in the dense growth of
the cane fields. The cane is transported to the factory, often by truck or rail wagon,
Skill (2012).
34
Cane supply area Large scale Small Scale Total
growers Growers
2009/2010 2010/2011 2009/2010 2010/2011 2009/2010 2010/2011
Komati 83 82 852 810 935 892
Malelane 96 90 390 954 486 444
MPUMALANGA 179 172 1242 1164 1421 1336
Pongola 134 130 244 219 378 349
Umfolozi 87 84 7494 5976 7581 6060
Felixton 105 96 6055 5252 6160 5348
ZULULAND 326 310 13793 11447 14119 11757
Amatikulu 128 127 8357 6588 8485 6715
TUGELA 128 127 8357 6588 8485 6715
Darnal 119 111 294 256 413 367
Gledhow 134 121 2298 1555 2432 1676
Maidstone 93 98 2028 1316 2121 144
NORTH COAST 346 330 4620 3127 4966 3457
Eston 142 140 1728 1474 1870 1614
UCL Supplier forum 71 72 21 18 38 90
Noodsberg 149 149 619 519 768 668
MIDLANDS 362 361 2368 2011 2730 2373
Sezela 120 109 2841 2886 2961 2995
Umzimkulu 116 121 521 361 637 482
SOUTH COAST 236 230 3362 3247 3598 3477
INDUSTRY 1577 1530 33742 27584 35319 29114
Table 4.2 Number of cane growers per cane supply region. SA Cane growers
(2010).
There are various cane growers in South Africa, these are located in Mpumalanga,
Zululand, Tugela, North Coast, Midlands and South Coast, and this is indicated in
Table 4.1, which also illustrates the how much cane was supplied during the
2009/2010 season and the 2010/2011 season, by both the small-scale growers and
the large-scale cane growers
4.1.2 Sugar Milling
The South African sugar millers’ association limited represents the interests of all
sugar millers and refiners in South Africa. The Association is administered by an
executive director and staff who undertake these activities and who interact with the
other organisations, particularly cane-growers and the South African Sugar
Association, on matters concerning the industry. (SASA 2012)
The following are member of the South African Sugar Millers' Association, SASA
(2012)
 Illovo Sugar Limited
35
Illovo Sugar presently operates four sugar mills in South Africa, one of which has
a refinery and two which have packaging plants. It has three cane growing
estates and, in addition to producing speciality sugars and syrup, also produces a
variety of high-value downstream products.
 Tongaat-Hulett sugar limited
Tongaat-Hulett Sugar Limited operates four sugar mills in South Africa two of
which have packaging plants, a central refinery in Durban which has its own
packaging plant, various sugar estates and an animal feeds operation.
 Tsb sugar RSA limited
Tsb Sugar RSA Limited operates three sugar mills two of which have refineries, a
packaging plant, sugar estates, cane and sugar transport and an animal feed
division.
 Gledhow sugar company (pty) limited
On the 10 September 2009 Gledhow Sugar Company (Pty) Ltd came into being.
The company ownership is comprised of supplying growers with 25.1% equity; a
long established miller (Illovo Sugar Ltd) with 30.0% equity; a paper manufacturer
(Sappi Ltd) with 10% equity, and a BEE partner (The Sokhela Family Trust) with
34.9% equity. The mill has a 35 ton per hour refinery and produces EC2 quality
sugar.
 UCL company limited
UCL Company Ltd operates a sugar mill, a wattle extract factory, two saw mills, a
number of mixed farms and a trading division.
 Umfolozi sugar mill (Pty) ltd
The Umfolozi Mill is owned by a group of four investors comprising a large cane
growing company, the largest cane grower in northern KwaZulu-Natal, an
unlisted public company whose shareholders grow sugar cane and a large
alcohol producing company. SASA (2012).
4.1.2.1 Milling Process
The crushing or operating season can extend from May to January but typically it
runs from June to December each year. Hours of operation are continuous - 24
hours per day, 7 days per week, with short shutdown periods for maintenance during
the crushing season. Munsami (2008)
The sugar milling process is as follows. Munsami (2008)
36
 Crushing
When the cane trucks arrive at the sugar mill the sugar cane is weighed and then
tipped into a cane carrier which conveys the sugar cane billets to the shredder.
 The Shredder
The Shredder is in effect of a very large hammer mill. The Shredder disintegrates
the cane billets into fibre which is then conveyed to the milling train for extraction
of the sugar juice.
 The Milling Train
The shredded can is fed into the crushing mill which consists of three large rollers
arranged in a triangular formation so that the cane fibre is crushed twice in the
mill. After the mill the cane fibre is immersed in a bath of hot dilute juice recycled
from a subsequent mill. The process is repeated through three sets of crushing
mills until the last mill is reached. Prior to the last mill the dilution bath is made up
of final mill crushing juice and hot water. The final mill dewaters the residual cane
fibre (Bagasse) which is then conveyed to the bagasse bin and the boiler station
for use as fuel.
 Clarification
The juice extracted by the milling train contains impurities which are removed by
heating the juice and adding lime. The process coagulates the impurities into
flocks of mud which are settled in a large clarifier vessel. In the clarifier the mud
settles to the bottom while the clarified juice overflows from the top of the vessel.
 Filtration
The settled mud contains a considerable amount of sugar which is extracted by
filtration and washing and is recycled back into the process. The separated mud
solids are mixed with fly-ash from the boiler and are sent back to the cane
paddocks as fertilizer.
 Evaporation
The thin clarified juice is concentrated to heavy syrup by boiling at progressively
higher vacuums through the set of evaporators.
 Crystalizing
The heavy syrup, which is about 65% sugar is concentrated by boiling in a
vacuum pan and is seeded with small sugar crystals. The sugar crystals are
grown to required size by adding more syrup while boiling is continued. When the
crystals reach the required size, the mixture of syrup and crystals is discharged
from the pan.
37
 Centrifugal
Syrup is separated from the raw sugar crystals in perforated baskets which spin
at a high speed in casing (centrifugals). The dark syrup surrounding the crystals
is thrown off through the perforations and the crystals are washed with hot clean
water. The separated syrup is repeatedly boiled again until all possible raw sugar
crystals are obtained. Molasses is the syrup obtained from the final boiling and
centrifuging operation.
 Drying & Storage
The raw sugar from the centrifugals is dried by tumbling through a stream of air in
a rotating drum. It is then transferred to the raw sugar shed at Harwood prior to
dispatch to the sugar refinery. Munsami (2008).
4.2 Social development Programs carried out by the

South African Sugar Associations
The sugar industry’s involvement in social investment includes projects in the

areas of Enterprise Development, Health and Welfare, and Human Resource
Development, this is according to SASA (2012).
4.2.1 Enterprise Development
The industry is involved in numerous projects such as the provision of seed

funding to assist rural black women, youth and communities to establish co-
operatives and to access real economic opportunities. The enterprise
development programmes seek to accelerate people's access to employment
opportunities and increase their participation in the mainstream economy.
4.2.2 Health and Welfare
The staggering challenge of poverty, HIV and AIDS, unemployment and

household food insecurity not only affects the quality of life of the indigent, it also
threatens the social stability of these vulnerable communities. Meeting these
challenges is a priority of the sugar industry. The industry works in partnership
with non-governmental organisations supporting vulnerable communities in order
to respond to these issues.
38
4.2.3 Human Resource Development
Human resource development is a major area of social investment for the sugar
industry. The following initiatives are maintained by the industry to promote
human resource development, and are primarily focused on promoting Broad-
based Black Economic Empowerment:
 Educational Support
The Sugar Industry Trust Fund for Education (SITFE) was launched in 1965 as a
private sector initiative, and is one of South Africa’s oldest education and training
programmes. To date SITFE has provided bursaries to approximately 10 000
students, financed school building projects, given assistance to tertiary
institutions, and worked with community-based educational authorities to improve
overall education standards.
 Agricultural and Engineering Training

The Shukela Training Centre (STC) provides training in Agriculture and
Engineering. Agricultural training is specific to the Sugar Industry and provides a
support to new entrants into sugarcane farming, as well as ongoing support to
existing farmers. The skills-based training is mainly conducted on the farm.
Engineering training is mainly for apprentices and STC covers a wide spectrum of
trades. The institutional training takes place at the nationally acclaimed Training
Centre in Mount Edgecombe. The Centre is an accredited decentralised trade
test centre and services the sugar and other industries.
 Technology Transfer
Research conducted by the South African Sugarcane Research Institute
(SASRI) contributes to the profitability and sustainability of the industry whilst
encouraging environmentally responsible farming practices. Outputs from the
various research programmes at the Institute are transformed into practical
knowledge and technology products. Training and development takes place
through annual Certificate Courses in Sugarcane Agriculture and through a series
of interventions by a network of extension specialists. The Sugar Milling
Research Institute (SMRI) is the central scientific organisation involved in
39
research work and technical services for the southern African sugar
manufacturing/milling industries. It was founded in 1949 and is located on the
Durban campus of the University of KwaZulu-Natal.
 Health Education
The key focal area of the South African Sugar Association's Nutrition Department
is to communicate science-based information on nutrition, especially the role of
sugar as part of a balanced diet and healthy lifestyle to health; education and
media professionals and the wider public. The programme contributes to capacity
building and continued professional development of these professionals through
support of nutrition research, congresses and nutrition education, SASA (2012).
40
CHAPTER 5
INVENTORY ANALYSIS
5.1 Characterisation structure of workers and local

communities.
The table 5.1 below shows the areas of focus for both the workers and the
communities. The following factors were chosen, health and safety, Freedom of
association, wages, working conditions, gender equality, service facilities and crime.
Characterisation Growers & Millers Local Communities
Health and safety  Exposure to physical hazards Illnesses caused by exposure to mills or cane
 Protective equipment available fields
Freedom of Association  Freedom to join unions
 Level of union independence
 Freedom to engage in collective
bargaining negotiations
 Key issues in collective
bargaining negotiations
Wages  Satisfaction of wages and
commission
 Availability of wage related
incentives
 Basic expenditure of wages
Working Conditions Access to necessary work facilities
Gender Equality  The ratio of men to women in

the workplace
 Treatment of men to woman in
the workplace
 Favouritism in company policies
based on gender
Service facilities Importance and Satisfaction levels
Environment Seriousness of exposure
Crime  Safety in relation to the sugar

growth phases
 Common crimes in the areas due
to cane field and mills
 Security structures for human and
property safety
Table 5.1 Characterisation structure of workers and local communities.
41
5.2 Community
5.2.1 Schools
The South African Statistics reported the following figures with regard to the quality
of the educational system in South Africa. The analysis was made by province based
on the availability of books, availability of teachers, size of classes and the quality of
facilities. Each province was rated from 1 to 10, 10 being rates as exceptional, and 1
rated as poor.
Educational system Provinces
Eastern Cape Kwa-Zulu Natal Mpumalanga
Lack of books 6.4 6.9 5.9

Poor teaching 2.9 3.9 1.9
Lack of teachers 1.4 3.4 1.9
Classes too large 2.5 6.1 2.6
Teacher’s absent 1.1 3.5 1.9
Teacher’s strike 0.5 2.8 2.2
Facilities bad 4.2 6.9 3.2
Table 5.2 South African educational system review. South African Statistics (2012).
The Kwa-Zulu Natal region, which contains the most sugar growers in South Africa,
appears to have a better management of allocation of books, availability of facilities
and a manageable number of learners per class. The level of teaching and learning
at schools, in these cane-growing and processing provinces, is low, as the Eastern
Cape rated 1.4, the Kwa-Zulu Natal rated 3.4 and the Mpumalanga province was
rated at 1.9 out of 10 points. The biggest challenges that are of great concerns were
lack of teachers, absenteeism of teachers, teachers going on strike, and the poor
teaching at all three provinces.
5.2.2 Social relief
Table 5.3 illustrates the population that receives social relief grants based on
province and gender.
42
Population WC EC NC FS KZN NW GP MP LIM
group
Black M 189 1173 140 448 1613 515 818 546 970
African F 204 1252 151 463 1854 572 895 588 1028
Total 394 2425 291 911 3467 1087 1713 1134 1998
Coloured M 328 58 65 11 5 7 28 3 -
F 365 53 72 18 10 9 18 4 -
Total 693 112 137 28 15 17 46 6 -
Indian M - - - - 63 - 4 - -
F - 1 - - 80 - 11 - -
Total - 2 - - 143 - 15 - -
White M 14 9 3 9 10 9 50 9 -
F 24 13 6 15 13 6 62 7 5
Total 38 22 9 24 23 16 112 16 6
Total M 532 1240 208 469 1692 528 900 557 973
F 594 1320 229 495 1957 591 986 599 1033
Total 1127 2560 437 964 3649 1119 1887 1156 2006
Table 5.3 Social relief grants by ethnicity, province and gender. South African
Statistics (2012).
The Eastern Cape, Kwa-Zulu Natal and Mpumalanga provinces, which are the main
cane growing and processing regions, were amongst the highest regions that receive
social relief grants from government to improve their quality of life.
5.2.3 Healthcare facilities
Healthcare & Provinces

Environment
Eastern Cape Kwa-Zulu Natal Mpumalanga
Very satisfactory 27 = 2.0% 55 = 2.9% 48 = 6.8%

Somewhat satisfactory 54 = 3.9% 60 = 3.2% 23 = 3.2%
Neither satisfactory 76 = 5.5% 155 = 8.2% 50 = 6.9%
Somewhat Dissatisfied 298 = 21.6% 648 = 34.3% 150 = 21%
Very dissatisfied 923 = 67% 973 = 51.5% 446 = 62.2%
Table 5.4 Satisfaction of communities with current healthcare facilities, South African
Statistics (2012).
According to Statistics South Africa (2012), the residents of each province were
questioned on the level of satisfaction with regard to their health care facilities. 67%
of the Eastern Cape Province was found to be very dissatisfied with the state of their
43
province’s health care system, whereas Kwa-Zulu Natal reported 51.5%
dissatisfaction and 62.2% for the Mpumalanga province; this is indicated in table 3…
5.2.4 Water
The availability of tap water has generally improved in South Africa. This is indicated
in Figure 5.1, which illustrates the availability of water across the nine provinces of
South Africa, from the year 2002 – 2011.
Figure 5.1 availability of water across the nine provinces of South Africa, from the
year 2002 – 2011. South African Statistics (2012).
The three main cane-growing and cane-processing areas have been at low levels
with regard to the availability of tap water in the various communities. The Eastern
Cape Province, being one of the provinces with a low rate of tap water, indicated a
slight decline in the availability of tap water between 2007 and 2011. The same trend
was identified in Mpumalanga and Kwa-Zulu Natal. The Eastern Cape region
reported a 44.2% availability of tap water in 2007, however decreased to 44% in
2011. Kwa-Zulu Natal had 53.9% availability of tap water in the region in 2007, and
declined to 46.3% in 2011. Mpumalanga had a 3.8% decrease in the availability of
tap water between 2007 and 2011.
5.2.5 Crime
44
Murder
South Africa pronounced a 6.5 decrease in the murder ratio between 2009/2010 and
2010/2011 (Crime Report, 2010/2011). Murder has been classified into three main
categories namely, resident murders, road murders and murder that occurs on the
cane field or less than 10 kilometres from the cane field. In the Kwa-Zulu Natal
province 25% of the 834 murders that were recorded, were on the sugar cane field
and surrounding areas. Figure 4 depicts the murder figures for Kwa-Zulu Natal in
2011 as related to the sugar cane fields.
2011 KZN Murder rate

Cane murders Road and others Resident murders
15% 25%
60%
Figure 5.2: Murder rate for KZN 2011 (Crime Report, 2010/2011)
The murders that occur on the sugar cane plants are varied based on seasons. The
25% (209) of murders that occur on the sugar cane field is for both the high and the
low season. The low season starts from when the cane is planted up to when the
cane starts to sprout. The mild season is when the cane stalks starts to grow up to
when it is developed. The high season begins when the cane stalks are fully
developed and ready for harvesting. Figure 5 displays the different murder rates
based on the sugar cane growing seasons. Approximately 119 murders were
reported during the high season, 73 during the mild season and 17 murders were
reported during the low season.
45
Seasonal Murder Rate
Low Season Mild Season High Season
8%
35%
57%
Figure 5.3: Murder rate based on the sugar cane growth season (Crime Report,
2010/2011).
Social Contact Crime
Social contact crimes, which comprise of all contact crime except aggravated
robbery and common robbery, are mainly crimes occurring between people knowing
one another (relatives, friends, acquaintances, colleagues, neighbours) (Crime
Report, 2010/2011). Figure 7 depicts the different types of robberies that exist within
the Kwa-Zulu Natal province.
KZN robbery statistics for 2011

60.00%
Estimated Percentages
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
Robbery Robbery
Public/ at at non- Robbery
Car- truck- Bank
street Resident residenti of Cash
jacking jacking robbery
robbery ial al in transit
premises premises
KZN robbery statistics for 2011 57.10% 16.60% 14.40% 10.50% 1% 0.30% 0.10%
Figure 5.4: Subcategories of aggravated robbery during 2011(Crime Report,

2010/2011).
5.3 Workers
46
5.3.1 Freedom of association
It was established through interviews that were held with top management at the
South African Sugar Association, external affairs department, the sugar industry is
fully aware of the national legislative framework with regard to the freedom of
association of its workers. When some of the executive members of the SASA were
asked about the law concerning freedom of association, the following were their
responses.
Questions Yes No Unaware

Does the law guarantee 89% 11% 0%
freedom of association for
all workers?
Does the law guarantee 93% 4% 3%
the right to collective
bargaining?
Does the labour code 84% 7% 9%
cover agricultural
workers?
Table 5.5 freedom of association for workers.
Many of the management employees at the SASA agree that the South African law
encourages freedom of association amongst the work force, and also encourages
collective bargaining between employers and the employees. A large percentage of
the management team indicated that the labour code does also cover agricultural
workers, this indicate that the law takes onto account all workers which includes
workers in agriculture such as sugar millers and sugar growers.
It was found that trade unions have attempted to organize a wide range of workers
for both sugar millers and growers. Their success has depended on the
characteristics of a workforce, as well as on the capacity and resources of the union.
The challenge stated was the locations of these workers, as many are of these
workers are in remote areas that are far from the central business developments
(CBD). While unions have the right to organise seasonal or temporary workers, it
appears that relatively few have attempted to do so. Only 36% of unions report that
they have tried to organise sugar growers’ workers.
47
The unions organisations contacted indicated that the level of trust between the
workers and the unions was satisfactory. The unions could not guarantee that their
members fully trust them, but indicated that there was a lot of work that still had to be
done in terms of developing the trust of members with regard to unions. It was
further established that collective agreements amongst employers and workers’
organisations are well respected. This means that there is great value that is placed
on these agreements, both from the workers, the employers and the unions.
Relations between workers’ organizations - at the national, regional and international

level – are a crucial factor in effectively protecting rights and bargaining collectively.
Reported that a large proportion described relations of Unions, Workers and
Employers at the national level as being only ‘satisfactory’, and recognized the need
to strengthen their collaboration in various issues. The following issues were
identified and ranked from the most important issues to the least important issues
that were identified.
Ranking Issues at hand
13 Wages
12 Collective bargaining
11 Labour disputes
10 Industrial labour relations
9 Working conditions
8 Organising / Mobilising workers
7 Occupational Health and Safety
6 Freedom of association
5 Labour Law
4 Social Protection
3 Education
2 Representation
1 Living conditions
Table 5.6: Ranking of issues that organizations collaborate over at the national level.
5.3.2 Wages
According to interviews conducted with some of the workers of both the millers and
growers, it was established that the minimum wage rates for the workers is as
follows:
48
Per Hour Per Day Per Week Per Month
Millers R4.47 R53.64 R268.20 R1072.80
Growers R3.66 R43.92 R219.60 R878.40
Table 5.7ff: Minimum wage rates for sugar workers, Statistics South Africa (2012).
The growers seem to have a higher minimum wage rate as compared to the millers.
The growers’ wage rate per hour was R3.66, which equalled to R878, 40 per month,
when they work for 12 hours a day, and 5 days a week. The Millers however had a
minimum wage of R4.47 per hour, which equalled to R1072.80 a month, when
working for 12 hours a day and 5 days a week. The proportion of wages spent
amongst the workers is indicated in figure 5.3.
Wages paid per workers type
Other staff
22.40%
Drivers
General staff
27%
12.60% Permanent workers
37%
10% Harvesting Staff
13.80%
Seasonal staff
14%
Figure 5.5: Wages paid per based on type of workers, SASA(2012)
Harvesting staff account for 27.2% of the wage bill, followed by permanent field
workers (22.4%), drivers (13.8%) and general staff (12.5%). General staff include
mechanical maintenance, clerks, indunas and section managers. Seasonal field
workers and other staff make up the remaining 24% of expenditure on wages. Other
staffs include cooks, domestics, security and builders.
The minimum wage legislation ensures that employees who work more than 27
hours per week are paid the full monthly wage. For employees who work less than
49
27 hours per week, the legislation mandated a minimum wage of R4.47 per hour
from 1 March 2004. If growers were to shift from a 45 hour week (which the Sectoral
Determination is premised upon) to a 27 hour work week, growers would be able to
decrease their workers’ monthly wage from R871.58 to approximately R523.00. The
option of paying an hourly rate can be analysed from at least two points of view.
A more cynical approach would be to regard the hourly option as “exploitative”,

where a farmer tries to extract as much labour as possible in the stipulated 27 hour
work week, while paying them a wage lower than that prescribed in the Sectoral
Determination for full-time labourers. On the other hand, the hourly rate can be seen
as a mechanism aimed at minimising the employment impact associated with the
Sectoral Determination. The 27 hour working week was taken a step further by some
North Coast growers (in the Felixton Mill Group Area) who received dispensation to
pay the hourly wage up to 36 hours. These growers felt that, because of the heat
and humidity in their region, their labour was not productive past midmorning. Rather
than working a 45 hour week, the standard has become a 36 hour working week, the
wages of which are paid on an hourly basis.
Both the 27 and 36 hour working week decrease the marginal cost of the employee
(relative to a full 45 hour week) and therefore allows the grower to retain the
employee, who might otherwise have been retrenched. For many growers (and
workers as well), it is more attractive to employ workers for less than a full week than
retrenching them, Murray (2007).
5.3.3 Gender Equality
50
Figure 5.6: Distribution of men to women in the labour market. Stats SA (2012).
The distribution of men to women in the South African labour market is different; this
is according to Statistics South Africa (2011), this is indicated in figure 5.4. The
employment rate of men was higher than that of women by over 12%. Even though
the unemployment rate between woman and men in 2011 was almost equal, as men
had 13.7% unemployment rate and women had 13.3% unemployment, much
deviation was recorded with regard to the population that does not economically
active. This category comprises of housewives, students, scholars and pensioners. It
was reported that 38.8% of men were not economically active, whereas 52.1% of
women were in the same criteria; a total difference of 13.3% existed between men
and women in South Africa in this regard.
The variation in labour market indicates the imbalance of skills development between
men and women, the imbalance in the hiring and training between men and women,
and a general inequity in industry with regard to men and women.
5.3.4 Working conditions Health and safety
There are various causes for Poor Economic Conditions of Agricultural Laborer’s in
South Africa, this is according to Boudreaux (2010), and these are indicated below.
 Housing conditions
51
The housing conditions of agricultural laborers are miserable and deplorable.
Their houses are generally situated at places where insanitary conditions of
highest order are found. They are not well built and worst of its kinds. Thus,
because of insanitary conditions, lack of accommodation and poor standard of
living, the agricultural workers are subjected to diseases which are infectious
in nature.
 Low social status

Most agricultural workers belong to the depressed classes which have been
neglected for ages. The low caste and the depressed classes have been
socially handicapped and they had never the courage to assert themselves.
 Unorganized
Agricultural workers are illiterate and ignorant. They live in scattered villages.
Hence, they cannot easily be organized in unions.
 Seasonal employment
The agricultural workers do not have continuous work. On an average a farm
labourer finds employment for about 200 days in a year and for the rest of the
year he is idle. Unemployment and underemployment are two important
factors responsible for low income and consequently low economic position of
the agricultural workers in India. But, the nature of agricultural work is such
that a farm is seasonal and intermittent.
 Paucity of non-agricultural jobs

Paucity of non-agricultural occupations in village areas is another important
factor for their low wages and poor economic conditions. The growing
pressure of population is increasingly felt in rural areas and the number of
landless laborers is steadily increasing.
 Rural indebtedness
Agricultural labour is heavily indebted normally; the farm laborers borrow from
the landowners under whom they work. Since, they have no security to offer,
they pledge themselves to the moneylenders and rich landlords and become
52
bonded laborers in many areas. Naturally, they will be forced to accept lower
wages, Boudreaux (2010).
53
CHAPTER 6
IMPACT ASSESSMENT
6.0 Introduction
The impact assessment involves the assessment of the various categories identified
in the inventory analyses. This section produces results attained from the
questionnaires distributed to the sugar millers, sugar growers and the various
communities that are surrounding either the sugar mills or the sugar plantations. The
worker’s results are based on freedom of association, wages, and gender equality,
working conditions and health and safety. The communities were analysed using the
following categories, importance and satisfaction of community services,
environment, crime and health.
6.1 Workers
Table 6.1 illustrates the cross-tabulation results that were obtained about the both
the millers and growers with regards to freedom of association, wages and working
conditions.
54
Issues Millers Growers
Yes No Yes No
Freedom of Freedom to join 64 12 62 8
associations associations 84.2% 15.8% 88.6% 11.4%
Members of 60 16 40 30
associations 78.9% 21.1% 57.1% 42.9%
Independence 48 22 39 30
of associations 68.6% 31.4% 56.5% 43.5%
Wages Minimum wage 33 44 54 15
rate 42.9% 57.1% 78.3% 21.7%
Wage 19 58 9 60
satisfaction 24.7% 75.3% 13% 87%
Incentives 28 49 30 39
36.4% 63.6% 43.5% 56.6%
Working Emergency 52 25 37 33
conditions exits 67.5% 32.5% 52.9% 47.1%
Table 6.1 Cross-tabulations for freedom of association, wages and working
conditions.
Table 6.2 illustrates the Frequencies and descriptive for Freedom of association,
wages, gender equality, working conditions and Health and Safety. Both results for
table 6.1 and 6.2 are discussed further in the sections that follow.
55
B1 Please answer the following questions regarding your freedom of association in your workplace.
Yes No Total
B1.1 Do you have the organisational freedom to join any association Count 130 20 150
Row N % 86.7% 13.3% 100.0%
B1.2 Are you a member of any association Count 103 47 150
Row N % 68.7% 31.3% 100.0%
B1.3 Do your employers provide full independence and freedom in Count 90 52 142
the functioning of your association Row N % 63.4% 36.6% 100.0%
B1.4 Do you have the freedom to organise unions Count 90 55 145
Row N % 62.1% 37.9% 100.0%
B1.5 Do you have the freedom to industrial action Count 104 35 139
Row N % 74.8% 25.2% 100.0%
B1.6 Do you have the freedom to engage in collective bargaining Count 115 24 139
Row N % 82.7% 17.3% 100.0%
C1 Please answer the following questions regarding your wages.
Yes No Total
C1.1 Do you know th value of the minimum wage for your job Count 91 59 150
Row N % 60.7% 39.3% 100.0%
C1.2 Based on your income, do you feel that the minimum wage Count 70 80 150
should be increased Row N % 46.7% 53.3% 100.0%
C1.3 Are you satisfied with the wage that you earn Count 28 122 150
Row N % 18.7% 81.3% 100.0%
C1.4 Do you have wage-related incentives (overtime, commission, etc) Count 60 90 150
Row N % 40.0% 60.0% 100.0%
C1.5 Do you think that the minimum wage rate should be increased Count 45 22 67
urgently Row N % 67.2% 32.8% 100.0%
C1.6 Has your wage increased in the past two years Count 36 28 64
Row N % 56.3% 43.8% 100.0%
E1 Do you have access to the following facilities at your workplace?
Yes No Total
E1.1 Separate toilets for Males and Females Count 118 30 148
Row N % 79.7% 20.3% 100.0%
E1.2 Clean drinking water Count 143 4 147
Row N % 97.3% 2.7% 100.0%
E1.3 Rest facilities ( cafeteria, etc) Count 50 97 147
Row N % 34.0% 66.0% 100.0%
E1.4 Change rooms Count 40 111 151
Row N % 26.5% 73.5% 100.0%
E1.5 Personal lockers for your personal items Count 49 102 151
Row N % 32.5% 67.5% 100.0%
E1.6 Emergency exits Count 92 59 151
Row N % 60.9% 39.1% 100.0%
E1.7 Showers Count 64 87 151
Row N % 42.4% 57.6% 100.0%
E1.8 All necessary protective clothing (gloves, rubber boots, helmet, Count 99 52 151
etc) Row N % 65.6% 34.4% 100.0%
E1.9 Protective measures in place from outside danger Count 61 90 151
Row N % 40.4% 59.6% 100.0%
E1.10 Protection from climate conditions (rain, heat) Count 78 70 148
Row N % 52.7% 47.3% 100.0%
F1 Are you exposed to any of the following physical hazards in terms of Health and Safety at your workplace?
Yes No Total
F1.1.1 Transportation Count 133 15 148
Row N % 89.9% 10.1% 100.0%
F1.2.1 Flow in pipes Count 75 70 145
Row N % 51.7% 48.3% 100.0%
F1.3.1 Lime Milling Count 73 71 144
Row N % 50.7% 49.3% 100.0%
F1.4.1 Ventilators Count 124 23 147
Row N % 84.4% 15.6% 100.0%
F1.5.1 Turbines Count 131 14 145
Row N % 90.3% 9.7% 100.0%
F1.6.1 Compressors Count 93 38 131
Row N % 71.0% 29.0% 100.0%
F1.7.1 Unpleasant smells Count 73 15 88
Row N % 83.0% 17.0% 100.0%
F1.8.1 Heat and cold radiation Count 69 21 90
Row N % 76.7% 23.3% 100.0%
F1.9.1 Dust Count 57 72 129
Row N % 44.2% 55.8% 100.0%
F1.10.1 Do you have Cuts/skin drying/peeling Count 25 115 140
Row N % 17.9% 82.1% 100.0%
$B2 Frequencies
Responses
N Percent Percent of Cases
$B2 Given the opportunity, which 3 main subjects would you like to B2.1 Wages 122 27.1% 80.8%
discuss in a collective bargaining negotiation? B2.2 Hours per week 15 3.3% 9.9%
B2.3 Overtime payment 61 13.6% 40.4%
B2.4 Rest Periods 18 4.0% 11.9%
B2.5 Compassionate 5 1.1% 3.3%
B2.6 Accident insurance 39 8.7% 25.8%
B2.7 Health care 57 12.7% 37.7%
B2.8 Severance pay 5 1.1% 3.3%
B2.9 Maternity leave 32 7.1% 21.2%
B2.10 Paternity leave 15 3.3% 9.9%
B2.11 Educational leave 47 10.4% 31.1%
B2.12 Pension 30 6.7% 19.9%
B2.13 Funeral expenses 3 .7% 2.0%
B2.14 Others 1 .2% .7%
Total 450 100.0% 298.0%
56
Table 6.2 Frequencies and descriptive for Freedom of association, wages, gender
equality, working conditions and Health and Safety.
6.1.1 Freedom of Association
It is of importance that the sugar industry workers have the freedom to engage with
associations. This is because in the agricultural workers are more prone to
exploitation and harassment in the workplace as compared to workers of any other
sectors. The freedom to associate also limits the potential for exploitation of workers
by the employers, and informs and educates the workers of their rights in the
workplace. The freedom of association within the sugar millers and growers was also
analysed using a questionnaire.
Cross-tabulation was done between the Millers and Growers, with regard to the
differences amongst the two entities when concerned with freedom of association. It
was found that the level of freedom to join associations within the millers and
growers showed minor variations. 84.2% of the interviewed millers and 88.6% of the
growers, which equals to 64 and 62 workers respectively, reported that they do have
the freedom to join associations. It was thus discovered that only a small portion of
the workers within the sugar millers and growers, ranging between 11% and 16% (8
– 20 workers), see table 6.1, reported that they were restricted in terms of being
members of any association. Irrespective of the small percentage that reported an
absence to freedom to join association, this is still regarded as an infringement or
worker rights and is inappropriate for employers to stop or threaten workers form
being members of associations.
Although many of the workers had the right to join associations, not all of them were
members of any association. It is not enough for workers to have the right to join
associations, however it is vital that they are members of an organisational body that
represents them and also fights for their rights as workers. It was found that 42.9%
(30 growers) of the growers disclosed that they did not belong to any association,
thus on 57.1% (40 workers) had memberships to trade unions. The sugar millers
however, reported greater membership levels to trade unions. Only 21.1% (16
workers) did not belong to any association, however 78.9% (60 workers) stated in
Table 6.1, reported that they were active members of certain trade unions. It was
57
found that the workers are not exposed to any associations. Many of the workers
that are members of unions have been working with the organisation for longer
periods that those that are new employees. The newer employees do not have the
knowledge of how to contact unions or how to be members of any associations. The
employers also had not provided the newer employees with information in this
regard; this has had a large impact on the workers as they do not view being a
member of an association as vital or necessary.
An overall analysis of both the millers and the growers illustrated in table 6.2,
showed that in total, 103 workers are members of associations; however 47 of the
workers did not belong to any associations. The employers are required by law to
provide full independence of the associations that operate within the workplaces.
This means that the employers do not interfere with the operations of any
associations, and provide room for the efficient functioning of any existing
association. The full independence of associations allows for the workers to be
properly represented and to have a body that is able to raise their concerns in an
environment that is not under duress or fear of the employers.
It was found, as indicated in table 6.2, that the large majority of workers stated in the
questionnaires that their employers provide full independence of the operations of
their associations. This was a positive report from workers, as 63.4% supported this
statement. The other 36.6% of millers and growers indicated an absence of such
independence. These workers felt that their employers were too involved in their
associations, and also created an unpleasant atmosphere, as workers were unable
to surface their concerns in the workplace, due to the interference of the employers.
The cross tabulation analysis revealed that approximately 68.6% (48 employers) of
the Millers’ employers in South Africa provide full independence of trade unions and
other associations that exist with the organisation, whereas approximately 56.5% (39
employers) of the Growers’ employers provide such independence. This means that
the employers are able to participate in any associations of choice within the
organisation, without the interference from the employers; this is illustrated in table
6.1. This allows the employees to be able to express themselves accurately without
the fear of influence from the employers.
Another positive finding was that the workers that do belong to associations have the
right to industrial action, and most importantly, they have the right to collective
58
bargaining, this is indicated in table 6.2. This means that the workers have the
freedom to engage their workers when they are satisfied with certain factors of their
working policies, principles or procedures. This specific freedom also limits the ability
of employers to exploit their workers, and also encourages a healthy, safe and
conducive working environment. Collective bargaining is of vital importance to both
the workers and the employers, because it keeps the issues that are of concern to
both parties exposed and provides an environment that allows problems to be solved
in a satisfactory manner to both parties involved. When both millers and growers are
analysed together, it was found that 82.7% of workers have the right to collective
bargaining, which totals to 115 of the 139 respondents to this specific question.
The top three areas that were identified by workers to be of greatest concern were
their wages, overtime payment and health care, this is illustrated in Table 6.2. This
was found through an interview that requested workers to indicate the three areas
they would like to discuss with their employers given a collective bargaining
negotiation opportunity. A total of 122 workers stated that they would like to discuss
their wages with their employers. In recent years wage negotiations in agriculture
has been a concern for both the workers and the employers. The reasons for this
has been that the increased standard of living. 61 workers wanted the opportunity to
discuss the overtime payments, while 57 wanted to discuss health care issues with
their employers. Severance pay and funeral expenses where the least concerns for
the workers, this is because only 5 and 3 workers respectively showed concern for
such issues. This shows that the employers and the workers need to engage in
negotiations, as silence in such issues can lead to an industrial action, which could
be detrimental to the economy of the country. The negotiations of wages need to be
prioritised in any industry as this has the direct relationship to the quality of life for
the workers and their families.
6.1.2 Wages
It is important for workers to have the knowledge of their minimum wage rate. This is
the lowest amount of wages that the employer can pay their workers. This then
means that the employer is not allowed to pay workers below the minimum wage
rate. This knowledge is vital for the workers, as it limits the level of mistreatment by
the employers, and it provides workers with the rightful figures. It was established
59
through questionnaires that 39.3% of the millers and growers do not know the
minimum wage rate for their jobs, as indicated in table 6.2, this equals to 59 of 150
workers without the knowledge of how much they are supposed to be paid for their
duties in their various workplaces.
Cross tabulations indicated that, amongst the interviewed millers, many stated that
they did not know the minimum wage for their job titles. This means that they are
unaware if they are being over paid or underpaid. This has placed them at risk of
being exploited by their employers in wage negotiations and wage payments. It was
found that only 42.9% (33 workers) of the sugar Millers in South Africa has the
knowledge of the minimum wage rate for their jobs. In contrary, a large percentage
of the growers were aware of this rate for their respective jobs. 78.3% (54 workers)
reported that they knew what the minimum wage rate for their positions was. Table
6.1 shows how only 57.1% (44 workers) of the Sugar millers were unfamiliar with the
minimum wage rate for their positions, as compared to only 21.7% (15 workers) of
the growers.
The growers seem to be more informed about their wage rates as compared to
millers, this means that the growers have more knowledge and understanding of
their organisational issues as compared to millers, who seen to be oblivious to their
wage rates. It was expected that the workers would not be satisfied with their current
wages that they earn, however this was not the case for both the millers and the
growers. The workers stated that wages would be one of the items they wanted to
discuss with their employers given a collective bargaining negotiation; however table
6.2 indicates that 53.3% of the same workers stated that they do not think that their
minimum wage rate should be increased. This was then attributed to the high
percentage of workers who lack the knowledge of the minimum wage rate. It was
further established that because many of these workers do not know the minimum
wage rate for their jobs, they are then incapable of answering questions based on
the minimum wage rate, but can only answer based on the total wages that they
receive. Only 46.7% of workers, which accounts for 70 of the 150 questioned
workers, stated that the minimum wage rate should be increased.
The workers indicated that they are not satisfied with their current wages. This
validated the theory that they were incapable of answering questions about the
minimum wage rate for their jobs, as if they had the knowledge of this rate, there
60
would be a higher percentage of workers requesting an increase in minimum wage
rate as compared to just a 46.7%, illustrated in table 6.1. Only 18.7% of the workers,
which accounts for 28 of 150 workers, were satisfied with their wages. This was on
account that these were fairly new workers, who had just started earning wages,
thus they were still excited and able to satisfy a larger scale of needs as compared to
the older workers. A cross tabulations analysis revealed that amongst the Millers,
who have a high percentage of members who are unaware of the minimum rate for
their jobs was, 75.3% (58 workers) were not satisfied with the wages that they
earned and stated that it should be increased.
This means that only 24.7% (19 workers) of the questioned Millers, which is only 9
Millers, were satisfied with their wages. The sugar growers also displayed large
percentages of dissatisfaction in terms of the wages earned. 87% (60 workers) of the
interviewed growers reported dissatisfaction with the wages that they earn, with only
13% (9 workers) being satisfied, see table 6.1.
Wage incentives are necessary to compensate for the low wages that workers earn.
With the presence of wage incentives, workers would be able to meet more of their
needs. These wage incentives could be in the form of overtime. This is where
workers have the opportunity to work beyond their allocated times, at a defined rate
per hour or per output. This allows for an increase in the wages that the workers
earn and encourages hard work and dedication to a worker’s duties. The sugar
millers and growers in South Africa reported a 60% rate absence of wage incentives.
This means the workers have a sole income of their standard wages, without any
compensation from the employers. This also means that irrespective of the workers’
output, a standard wage rate is earned. This type of system does not encourage or
motivate workers to work harder, or put more effort into their work duties and tasks.
The 40% of workers, who account for 60 of 150 workers questioned, indicated that
they earn wage related incentives in a form of commission and overtime. This
creates a positive working environment, and motivates workers to be more dedicated
and committed to their work tasks.
Further analysis indicated that both the millers and the growers do not show much
variation on terms of differences in offering wage related incentives. The growers
were expected to have a higher percentage of such incentives, because of their kind
of work. The growers provide mills with the sugar cane, thus it was expected that
61
they would be offered incentives based on the tons of sugar cane they provide,
however the cross tabulation analysis proved otherwise. Of the 77 millers that
responded to the incentive question, 49 millers stated that they do not have
incentives, and 39 of 69 growers concurred with the millers, as indicated in table 6.1.
It was thus established that 36.4% and 43.5% of millers and growers respectively,
offer incentives to their workers. This percentage is somewhat low, given the high
rate of dissatisfaction with wages amongst both the millers and the growers. An
increase in the presents of incentives, would lead to an increase in the decrease in
the dissatisfaction rate of both millers and growers, with regard to their wages.
Most of the workers had received a wage increase in last two years. More than 50%
of the workers in total reported that their wages had been increased in the last two
year. Although this is a positive factor for the employers, this increase did not change
the workers’ dissatisfaction with the rate of their wages. The researcher concluded
that the increase in wages had been satisfactory at the time that it occurred, however
became menial as the standard of living increased yearly. Given an increase in
wages on a yearly basis, the workers’ dissatisfaction rate could decrease. During an
interview with the employer, it was discovered that sugar production had decreased
in the past 4 years due to some environmental effects; this has thus made it difficult
for the employers to increase the wages of their workers, as they themselves were
struggling to keep profits at a desired rate.
6.1.3 Gender equality
Gender equality does not only refer to organisations having a balanced number of
males and females within the organisation, but also means giving the same
opportunities and roles to individuals irrespective of whether they are males or
females. Gender inequality is prevalent in organisations were intense hard labour is
concerned, also industries where heavy machinery is handled. The introduction of
woman empowerment has been predominant as more women enter the
marketplace. Woman empowerment seeks to provide woman with the skills and
abilities required in the market place, this is because the domination of men,
especially at the executive levels, has created an imbalance between men and
women.
It was established that the ratio of men to women amongst the sugar millers and
growers in total was 60:40. This means that 60% of the workers were males.
62
Although this is an acceptable ratio, the skill development of women is not
discouraged. 69 workers reported a ratio of 60:40 of men to women in their
workplaces, whereas 31 workers, who account for 20.5% of the interviewed workers,
indicated a ratio of 80:20 of men to woman in their workplaces, this is illustrated in
table 6.3. This ratio is unacceptable as it mean that these specific employers are
more focused on employing men as opposed to woman. The reason for this has
been that the tasks of the various millers and growers have been viewed as
masculine tasks as opposed to feminine tasks. This then becomes the motivation for
employers to hire men as compared to women.
D1.1 The ratio of MEN to WOMEN at the workplace is approximately

Cumulative
Valid 50:50 16 10.6 10.9 10.9
60:40 69 45.7 46.9 57.8
40:60 27 17.9 18.4 76.2
80:20 31 20.5 21.1 97.3
20:80 4 2.6 2.7 100.0
Total 147 97.4 100.0
Total 151 100.0
Table 6.3 Ratio of men to women in the workplace
Gender discrimination refers to when an individual is deprived of certain

opportunities based on the individual’s gender. This type of discrimination is
prevalent in sectors that are dominated by a certain gender, thus the entry of the
opposite gender is challenged and discriminated against. Although 60.4% of both the
millers and growers indicated that they had never been discriminated against in the
workplace due to their gender, a total of 39.6% of workers, which equals 59 of 149
questioned workers, this is shown in table 6.1. This means that almost 40% of the
workers were discriminated against in their workplaces, this percentage matched the
ratio of men to women which was 60:40. It can thus be assumed that the
discrimination that had occurred was mostly against the female workers.
Gender discrimination in the workplace includes earning a lower salary due to the
individual’s gender, getting unequal work treatment due to gender or harassment or
bullying because an individual is of a specific gender. A menial 12.1% of workers in
total indicated that they had never been paid lower wages because of their genders.
This is because workers are prone to engage an employer with regard to wages as
opposed to any other workplace issues that may arise. The payment of wages was
discovered as public knowledge in the workplaces, thus it would be difficult for
employers to discriminate in this regard. Even though only 20.8% of workers
63
indicated that they were bullied or harassed in the workplace due to their genders,
71.8% reported that they had at some stage received unequal treatment because of
their genders. This high rate had been attributed to the perceptions of the workers
with regard to their employers. It was discovered that the workers perceived their
employers as favourable to certain genders, thus perceived that they had received
unequal workplace treatment. This conclusion came about as many of the workers
that reported that they had received unequal treatment at the workplace, could not
identify an occasion or even that such an incident had occurred.
Gender equality was further analysed using basic features of an organisation. This
lead to the realisation that in terms of recruitment and selection for certain positions,
women the workers felt that women were treated more favourable than men. This is
in contradictory to the existing ratio of men to women in the workplace. Given
favourability towards women in the organisation, the ratio would have been higher for
women as compared to men. This then also indicated that the workers perceptions
about the organisations operations are not always accurate, but have a damning
effect on how the workers view the employers and their organisations. With regard to
remuneration and training and development, it was found that the men are more
favourable as compared to women. 82 of 148 workers in total, who account for 55%
of the questioned workers, stated that men were remunerated better than women in
the organisation, and also are favoured with regard to training and development.
This however did not feature as discrimination in salary due to gender, when
analysed by workers. This is because 60.4% had indicated that they had never been
discriminated in pay, however 55% indicated that men are paid more than woman.
This means that the workers view this type of discrimination as a norm in their
industry, thus do not dispute nor query it. The workers also indicated that it was
normal for men to be favoured when it came to training and development, even
though it was earlier indicated that woman are favoured with regard to recruitment
and selection, this is illustrated in table 6.4.
64
Table 6.4 Favourability between men and women
A larger group of workers indicated that women and men were treated equally in
terms of promotional opportunities and performance appraisal. It was necessary for
further analysis to be done where the growers and the millers were analysed in
isolation, to identify the prevalence of gender equality or lack thereof amongst the
two bodies.
It was found that 63.2% (48 workers) of the males in the Sugar Millers were treated
more favourable as compared to woman in terms of remuneration. This means that
the men working at the sugar mills earned higher wages as compared to their
woman colleagues. 47.8% (33 workers) of the sampled growers indicated both men
and woman are treated equally when it comes to being remunerated; however
46.4% (32 workers) still felt that Men had higher wages compared to the Woman.
Figure 6.1 also indicates how only a small percentage of the millers and the growers
feel that woman are favoured in wage payments, this small group ranges between
5.8% and 7.9%, (4 – 6 workers).
A dominating percentage of men over woman were also found in relation to the
training and development of workers, in both the Sugar Mills and Sugar Growers.
This is indicated in figure 6.2. Many of the millers and growers reported that the male
employees where favoured when training and development of workers was to take
place. 45 of the 76 interviewed millers and 34 of the 69 interviewed growers stated
that men are more favourable to woman in training and development. Only 3 of the
millers and 13 of the growers felt that men and woman are treated the same in
training and development, this equals 3.9% (3 workers) of millers and 18.8% (13
workers) of growers.
65
Figure 6.1 Remuneration Figure 6.2 Training and development
6.1.4 Working conditions
Working conditions refer to ability for the employer to provide workers with resources
that enable them to conduct their duties. During observations it was found that
emergency exists are almost non-existent, especially amongst the growers. The
growers work at areas that have the potential to be highly flammable, yet lack the
standard fire exits. A further analysis was done using questionnaire, and the greatest
concerns that workers had in terms of their working conditions were the lack of rest
facilities, lack of change rooms, lack of personal lockers, the absence of fire exits
and the lack of protective measures from outside dangers.
Rest facilities are necessary for workers when they take their breaks during working
hours, as these provide a place where workers can recover from work related
fatigue. The absence of these facilities has a direct impact on the workers as they
have to find alternative areas of rest within the workplace which may not serve the
same purpose as a specially designed rest area. 66% of workers in total of the
millers and the growers, stated that these facilities were absent in their workplaces.
Change rooms are important for both millers and growers as they work in dusty and
chemical infested areas. The millers are exposed to the raw sugar, the particles
created during the processing phases and the intense sugar smell, thus they require
a shower before they leave the workplace, to avoid carrying the smell to homes. The
sugar growers are in direct contact with the soil, the raw sugar cane, pesticides and
the dust particles, showers are thus necessary for these workers. 73.5% of the
workers indicated that they do not have change rooms; with only 26.5% of workers
who account for 40 workers have change rooms within their workplaces.
66
Fire exits are vital necessity for workers. The absence of these exits is a threat to the
lives of the workers. 60.9% of workers in total showed that they have fire exits, this
means that a large 39.1% of workers do not have fire exists in their workplaces, and
this is indicated in table 6.1. Further analysis was done based on a cross tabulation
between millers and growers, with regard to emergency exits and protective clothing.
It was found that amongst the millers, 53 of the 77 millers stated that they did not
have emergency exits, while 54 of the 70 growers did not have emergency exits; this
is stated in table 6.1. Emergency exists are required to enable workers to find a
secure place during fire and other occupational hazards. The absence of such exits
creates a risk for the employees as they do not have measures in place to assist
them in case of any risk that might occur within the workplace. The growers have a
higher rate of absence with regard to the absence of emergency exits.
The sugar millers and sugar growers, require certain protective equipment and
clothing as they work in harsh and harmful environments. When asked if they were
provided with the necessary equipment and clothing to keep them safe from the
environmental hazards, Most of the millers responded positively. Barely 27% (20
workers) of the interviewed millers reported the absence of either, gloves, boots of
protective gloves. This means that more than 70% (57 workers) of the millers have
the protective equipment that is required and necessary to carry out their different
tasks. The growers had a higher rate compared to the millers of missing protective
equipment. Above 40% (30 workers) of the growers stated that they did not have the
protective gear for the tasks, this resulted in less than 60% (40 workers) of growers
owning a set of such equipment.
6.1.5 Health and Safety
It is essential for employers to provide a workplace that is safe to work in. Every
workplace needs to protect its employees from anything that could be life threatening
or damaging to the workers physical, mental or emotional state. It was found that the
workers are mostly exposed to transportation of sugar canes and raw sugar in their
operational yards. A large percentage of workers amounting to a total of 84.4% and
90.3% of the questioned workers were largely exposed to ventilators and turbines.
The most disturbing exposure of workers was to unpleasant smells, dust particles.
This is illustrated in table 6.1.
67
It was found that the workers at large are exposed to flow in pipes, lime milling,
compressors heat and cold radiation. All these create some sort of uncomfortable
sound, and smells that the workers require protection from when they are to be
exposed to them for long periods of time. There was a total of 51.7% of workers from
both the millers and the growers that were exposed to flow-in-pipes. 77 of the 144
questioned workers reported exposure to lime milling, 93 of the workers reported
exposure to compressors, these account for 71% of the questioned workers. 76.7%
of the workers further reported that they are exposed to heat and cold radiation in
their work operations, this information is indicated in table 6.1.
The workers at the sugar growing plants are exposed to manure and other pesticide
and herbicide chemicals which are applied to the ground in preparation for the
planting of the sugarcane stalks. These chemicals create certain smells that are
unpleasant to workers and other local residents that are closely located to the
sugarcane growing areas. The sugar miller’s deal with the processing of the
sugarcane stalks to sugar granules. A during this processing thick and sticky air is
created, this air is unpleasant to the workers and they require masks to protect them
from it. This was discovered during observations of these processing mills. It was
established that of the 88 workers that were asked if they were exposed to
unpleasant smells, 73 of the workers indicated that they were frequently exposed
and while only 15 of the workers indicate that they were not exposed to any
unpleasant smells.
Dust particles for the growers are intensified due to the frequent exposure to the soil
and the cane leaves. During windy seasons, the soil repels dust particles, and the
sugar cane leaves release small pieces of itself that cause dust for the workers. The
workers have to cover their eyes and nostrils to protect themselves from these dust
particles. The raw sugar also creates dust after it is processed; this means that both
the millers and the growers require protective equipment for the duration that they
are exposed to these particles. 57 of 129 workers, who account for 44.2% of workers
that were respondents in terms of exposure to dust particles, indicated that they
were on a frequent basis exposed to dust particles, both from the sugar mills and the
sugar growing plants.
68
Every workplace should be designed in a manner that does not create strain for the
workers, both physically and mentally. The workplace should be at all times
ergonomically created to suit the human body, creating minimal strain to the human
body and mind. An inappropriately designed workplace can fatigue and even
physical harm to workers, making it difficult for workers to perform their duties
adequately. When workers of any organisation get physically harmed in the
workplace, then that is a sign of either an inappropriately handlement of the work
equipment or tools, or the inappropriate design of the work area or task.
The workers of the South African sugar millers and sugar growers indicated that due
to their work activities they suffer from different types of body strains, these include
neck, shoulder, elbow, hip, wrist, hand, Knee, Ankle and foot aches. These were
recorded in table 6.5. The top three physical harm areas caused by the workers’
tasks were back-aches which were rated at a dominating 26.5%, shoulder aches
rated at 18.2% total and hips which were rated at 10.4%. These were the three areas
that the workers identified to be the most problematic in their physical beings. It was
found through observations that the workers handle heavy materials, and are
involved in tasks that require them to have bended for long period.
A2*$F2 Crosstabulation
a
$F2
BACK SHOULDER ELBOW HIP WRIST HAND KNEE ANKLE WRIST FOOT OTHER Total
A2 Millers Count 64 46 10 31 33 23 16 12 11 12 5 263
% within 24.3% 17.5% 3.8% 11.8% 12.5% 8.7% 6.1% 4.6% 4.2% 4.6% 1.9%
% of Total 15.1% 10.9% 2.4% 7.3% 7.8% 5.4% 3.8% 2.8% 2.6% 2.8% 1.2% 62.2%
Growers Count 48 31 9 13 8 18 9 4 11 9 0 160
% within 30.0% 19.4% 5.6% 8.1% 5.0% 11.3% 5.6% 2.5% 6.9% 5.6% 0.0%
% of Total 11.3% 7.3% 2.1% 3.1% 1.9% 4.3% 2.1% .9% 2.6% 2.1% 0.0% 37.8%
Total Count 112 77 19 44 41 41 25 16 22 21 5 423
% of Total 26.5% 18.2% 4.5% 10.4% 9.7% 9.7% 5.9% 3.8% 5.2% 5.0% 1.2% 100.0%
Table 6.5 Physical harm caused by workers’ tasks.
During observations, it was found that many of the sugar growers’ activities required
the workers to bend to the ground. These activities include the preparation of the
ground; the worker would have to bend to ensure proper usage of the rake. The
workers would also need to be in a bended position when planting sugarcane stalks
to the ground. These were the activities that caused major back aches for workers,
thus the increased percentage of back-aches. The millers work mainly with heavy
machinery. These machinery require a lot of man-power to be employed for them to
work at full efficiency, thus the workers have to exert extra strength to these
69
machinery. The large percentage of shoulder-aches was dominated by the millers
due to the heavy machinery that their work tasks require employing.
12.5%of the millers indicated that they have wrists that ache due to the tasks that
they perform when on duty, while only 5% of growers indicated the same physical
harm. Only 23 of the questioned millers and 18 of the growers stated they
disturbances with their hands caused by their work tasks. Less than 6% of workers in
total indicated strain in their knees and ankles, and less than 5% of the workers
totalling both the millers and growers indicated shoulder strain. This is the least of
physical harms that has been stated by workers and also that has been observed by
the researcher.
6.2 Community
6.2.1 Community Services
The local communities were assessed based on their living conditions. The following
categories were used, Quality Housing, local schools, electricity, opportunities for
youth employment and opportunities for adult employment. These categories were
assessed based on the importance and satisfaction of the all the factors. Table 6.6
indicated the results Marginal Homogeneity test results for Quality of housing, local
schools, health facilities and electricity.
70
Quality Housing
B1.2
Very Very
dissatisfied Dissatisfied Neutral Satisfied satisfied Total
B1.1 Low importance Count 0 0 1 0 0 1
% within 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0%
Neutral Count 0 3 6 7 0 16
% within 0.0% 18.8% 37.5% 43.8% 0.0% 100.0%
Important Count 2 13 17 8 2 42
% within 4.8% 31.0% 40.5% 19.0% 4.8% 100.0%
Very important Count 9 21 36 17 6 89
% within 10.1% 23.6% 40.4% 19.1% 6.7% 100.0%
Total Count 11 37 60 32 8 148
% within 7.4% 25.0% 40.5% 21.6% 5.4% 100.0%
Local schools
B2.2
Very Very
B2.1 Not at all Count 0 0 1 0 0 1
important % within 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0%
Low importance Count 2 0 0 0 0 2
% within 100.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0%
% within 0.0% 18.2% 45.5% 18.2% 18.2% 100.0%
% within 11.9% 54.2% 25.4% 8.5% 0.0% 100.0%
% within 20.3% 43.2% 17.6% 18.9% 0.0% 100.0%
Total Count 24 66 34 21 2 147
% within 16.3% 44.9% 23.1% 14.3% 1.4% 100.0%
Health Facilities
B4.2
Very Very
B4.1 Low importance Count 0 1 3 1 0 5
% within 0.0% 20.0% 60.0% 20.0% 0.0% 100.0%
% within 31.3% 31.3% 31.3% 0.0% 6.3% 100.0%
% within 14.0% 32.6% 32.6% 14.0% 7.0% 100.0%
% within 10.6% 38.8% 24.7% 22.4% 3.5% 100.0%
Total Count 20 53 43 26 7 149
% within 13.4% 35.6% 28.9% 17.4% 4.7% 100.0%
Electricity
B6.2
Very Very
B6.1 Not at all Count 0 2 1 1 0 4
important % within 0.0% 50.0% 25.0% 25.0% 0.0% 100.0%
Low importance Count 1 2 2 0 0 5
% within 20.0% 40.0% 40.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0%
% within 14.8% 40.7% 33.3% 7.4% 3.7% 100.0%
% within 19.6% 26.8% 41.1% 10.7% 1.8% 100.0%
% within 5.7% 20.8% 24.5% 37.7% 11.3% 100.0%
Total Count 19 41 48 29 8 145
% within 13.1% 28.3% 33.1% 20.0% 5.5% 100.0%
Table 6.6 Marginal Homogeneity test results for Quality of housing, local schools,
health facilities and electricity.
71
Quality Housing
148 members of the communities were interviewed with regards to how they view
the importance of good quality housing and also on how satisfied they are with the
state of housing within their communities. Table 6.6 displays how the community
members rated their state of housing. 89 of the 148 members of community that took
part in the study stated that quality housing was very important, as opposed to the 16
members that were neutral on the issue. 40.4% of those that viewed quality housing
as very important were then neutral when they were asked if they were satisfied with
the community housing, however, more than 30% ranged between dissatisfied and
very dissatisfied.
These figures show that the community members find housing as a general
important factor. Even though the state of the community houses had been in
desolate state, this has not diminished the value that is placed on housing. Many of
the houses were built my members of community themselves; this places the quality
of these houses at risk, and also places the residents of these houses at risk. The
community members indicated that they are mostly vulnerable to heavy rains and
strong winds, as these weather conditions cause damage to their homes.
Community members also indicated that on a seasonal base, they have to constantly
repair their houses to reduce the excessive level of damage that is caused by the
changes is seasons.
Local Schools
Based on the 147 responses collected about the local community schools, almost 50
of the respondents indicated that it was very important for communities to have local
schools, it was further established that more than 60% of the same population were
either dissatisfied or very dissatisfied with the state of their local schools. This is
indicated in table 6.6
Local schools are a vital foundation for any community; this is irrespective of whether
the community is rural or urban. The community members were dissatisfied with the
state of their schools because of the conditions that existed within these schools.
Community members indicated that the local schools do not have the necessary
resources available to enable learners to learn effectively.
72
It was found that the greatest contributor to the level of dissatisfaction that existed
amongst community was cause by the lack of class rooms for learners. The learners
were prone to being taught under a tree or on the school grounds were there was no
protective shelter. It was also indicated by community members that there was a
major shortage of teachers at the schools, which lead to learners not being properly
taught some of the subjects. The learners of the local schools were also reported to
being highly underperformed by the community members due to the proper
allocation of resources to these schools.
The study seeks to identify the overall level of importance and satisfaction of the
local school to the community members. It was found in figure 6.20 that 50% were
dissatisfied about the state of their local schools.
Figure 6.3 Importance and satisfaction by gender: Local schools
The other 50% ranged between dissatisfied and neutral, with only one male outlier,
who were very satisfied with the state of their community’s local schools.
Health Facilities
A total of 149 community members were questioned about the health facilities in
their various communities. In table 6.6, 5 members stated that health facilities were
of low importance to them, 43 indicated that it was important to have health facilities,
73
and a total of 85 community members specified a level of very importance with
regard to health facilities within their communities. From the members of community
that indicated a high level of importance of health facilities, approximately 48% of
them were between dissatisfaction and very dissatisfied with the state of their health
facilities. The dissatisfaction of workers streamed from the level of distance that
existed between the health facilities and these respective communities.
The community members stated health facilities were far from their local residences,
and thus it was difficult to reach these facilities in emergency cases. Some of the
community members further stated that they had medical camps placed in their
communities; however they were mostly referred to the main city health facilities, as
there have been frequent cases of medication shortages at these medical camps. It
was also discovered that the community dissatisfaction of health facilities in their
community was also due to the shortage of doctors and necessary equipment that
were required for the facility’s efficient operation.
Based on the comparisons of satisfaction between males and female, in figure 6.21,
the greater level of dissatisfaction with health facilities is from the females.
Figure 6.4 Importance and satisfaction by gender: Health Facilities
With regard to females, an average of 50% indicated dissatisfaction of their

community’s current health facilities, and the other 50% varied between being
74
neutral and being dissatisfied. The females had only 2 outliers that were very
satisfied with the health facilities of their respective communities. The males had an
average of members at neutral. 50% of them ranged between neutral and
dissatisfied, while the other 50% was ranked between neutral and satisfied.
Electricity
Electricity within the various communities was ranked between important and very
important by a large population. Table 6.6, displays how only 36 of the 145 members
of communities that were questioned about the level of importance with regard to
electricity, ranked it as not at all important and neutral. Irrespective of the large group
that indicated electricity as an importance resource to their communities, the level of
satisfaction varied. In total, 33.1% of the 145 community members questioned were
neutral in terms of their satisfaction with the distribution of electricity within their
communities. 13.1% were very dissatisfied and 28.3% were dissatisfied.
It was further established that, 20% were satisfied, and a small 5.5% were very
satisfied with regard to the electricity distribution within their communities. The type
of electricity that was distributed into these communities was prepaid. The
dissatisfaction with it was that they felt it was expensive. To some communities, it
was viewed as an unnecessary expense as community members had minimal usage
for it, due to the expense that was incurred by using it.
6.2.2 Environment
The environment was assessed under the following categories: the noise level,
smell, pests, dust particles and the crime that is created due to the operations of the
sugar industry, either by the growers or the millers.
Please state the seriousness of the following factors caused by the sugar millers/growers operations.
Not at a Minor Moderate Serious
problem problem problem problem Total
C1 Noise level Count 19 63 54 13 149
Row N % 12.8% 42.3% 36.2% 8.7% 100.0%
C2 Smell Count 7 59 45 37 148
Row N % 4.7% 39.9% 30.4% 25.0% 100.0%
C3 Pests Count 9 40 58 41 148
Row N % 6.1% 27.0% 39.2% 27.7% 100.0%
C4 Dust Particles Count 0 27 67 52 146
Row N % 0.0% 18.5% 45.9% 35.6% 100.0%
C5 Crime around cane growing areas Count 1 22 65 61 149
Row N % .7% 14.8% 43.6% 40.9% 100.0%
Table 6.7 Seriousness of environmental effects
75
After the assessment of the five factors, it was established that the level of noise
created by either the millers or the growers was the least problem to the surrounding
local communities. In table 6.7 the smell that results from the operations of the sugar
industry, was a minor problem to 59 of the 148 community members questioned.
Only 25% of them rated the smell as a serious problem. The most rated problems
were the pests that invade the communities from the sugar plants, dust particles and
the crime around the cane growing areas.
The pests were due to the fertilisers that were used by cane growers on their soil for
effective cane growing. The pests would spread to the local residences due to the
proximity between the cane growing plants and the residences. At every sugar
growing phase there are certain pests that are created, this is irrespective of the
usage of pesticides. The pesticide only limit the intensity of these pests, but
community members, indicated that they are prone to the exposure of pests on a
daily basis.
Dust particles have also been indicated as an injustice in the communities. It was
indicated that community members rely on rain and irrigation of the cane-growing
areas for the reduction of dust particles. Community members stated that it was
inevitable for any community to be exposed to dust particles, but they felt that their
communities, due to the closeness to cane-growing areas, were exposed at higher
degrees as compared to other communities. The dust is created from the plantation
to the harvesting of the cane, at different levels. Crime in cane growing communities
was reported to be higher than in any other communities. This was due to the
favourable environment that cane growth provided for the carrying out of criminal
activities.
Both the males and the females ranked on average pests as a moderate problem.
Approximately 50% of the females ranked pests between a moderate problem and a
minor problem. The males however had an even distribution, 50% rated pest
between a moderate problem and a minor problem, and the other 50% ranked as a
moderate problem and a serious problem. This is indicated in figure 6.22 below.
76
Figure 6.5 Seriousness of pests by gender.
In terms of the dust particles, the males and the females are of different views.
Figure 6.23 illustrates how on average both the males and females ranked dust
particles produced from the growing and milling of sugar cane around their
communities as a moderate problem.
Figure 6.6 Seriousness of dust particles by gender.
The males however were more concerned about the dust particles as compared to
the females. The males ranked dust particles between being a moderate problem to
77
being a serious problem, the females however were contradictory to the males, as
they ranked dust particles between being a moderate problem to being a minor
problem. Although the males and females differed in view on certain environmental
issues, a common view was established with regard to crime around the cane
growing areas. This is shown in figure 6.24.
Figure 6.7 Seriousness of crime around cane growing areas by gender.
Both the males and the females agreed that the crime around cane growing areas
was a moderate to serious problem. The males indicated only one outlier that was of
the view that crime was not a problem at all in the cane growing communities.
Overall, areas that grow cane have been indicated as high crime rate areas by the
members of the respective communities.
6.2.3 Crime
Crime within the cane growing areas was assessed using the four sugar growing
phases namely, the germination phase, Tillering phase, grand-growth phase and
Maturity and ripening phase.
78
D1 During which sugarcane growing phase do you feel mostly safe in terms of crime?
Valid Cumulative
Valid Germination phase 81 54.0 54.0 54.0
Tillering phase 69 46.0 46.0 100.0
Total 150 100.0 100.0
Table 6.8 Safe sugar growing phases
A majority of the community members stated that they feel mostly safe during the
germination phase. This is indicated in table 6.8, where 46% of the community
members say they are safer in the Tillering phase, while 54% state that they are safe
during the germination phase. The germination phase occurs when about two leaves
appear on the stem, whereas the Tillering phase occurs 15-20 days after the sprout
has appeared, Ciroth (2011). the was not much variation from the males, with regard
to safety levels between the germination and the Tillering phase, however figure 6.25
indicates that more of the females state that they are safer during the germination
phase, as compared to the Tillering phase.
Figure 6.8 Safe sugar growing phases by gender.
The phases that the community members indicated to being the least safe were the
Grand-growth and Maturation and ripening phase. See table 6.9 below.
79
D2 During which sugarcane growing season do you feel the least safe in terms of crime?
Valid Cumulative
Valid Germination phase 1 .7 .7 .7
Tillering phase 2 1.3 1.3 2.0
Grand Growth phase 28 18.7 18.8 20.8
Maturation and ripening 118 78.7 79.2 100.0
Total 149 99.3 100.0
Missing System 1 .7
Total 150 100.0
Table 6.9 unsafe sugar growing phases
78% of the questioned community members specified that they are at the least safe
during the maturation and ripening phase. This is when the sugarcane stalk has
grown to maximum length and is ready for harvesting. Only 18% stated that they are
at the greatest risk during the grand-growth phase, this occurs 120 days after
planting. Further analysis showed that both the males and the females were unsafe
during the maturation and ripening phase. Figure 6.26 provides the details of the
analyses by gender.
Figure 6.9 unsafe sugar growing phases by gender
Even though there are members of community that are of the view that during the
grand-growth phase is the most unsafe time in the communities, a large group of
both the males and the females indicated that the maturation and ripening phase is
80
the most unsafe. The most common crime that the community members identified
around cane growing areas were theft, smash and grab attack, assault, rape and
kidnapping.
Responses
N Percent
$D3 Which of the following crimes have you D3.1 Theft 68 30.1%
or any member of your family been a victim D3.2 Smash and grab 20 8.8%
of around the sugar cane field? D3.3 Assault 62 27.4%
D3.4 Rape 31 13.7%
D3.5 Kidnapping 15 6.6%
D3.6 Other 30 13.3%
Total 226 100.0%
Table 6.10 Crime rates in sugar
Theft and Assault were specifically rated the most common in the sugar growing
areas, more than 40% of the workers stated that they were either victims or knew
someone who had been a victim of theft or assault. Rape was also rated as a
common crime, 21.4% had indicated that they were exposed to someone who had
been a victim of rape or had been victims of rape themselves. In table 6.10, other
crimes included house-breaking and murder. It was found the security structures are
not properly employed in the various communities, especially during the unsafe
seasons of sugar growth.
Security structures
Responses Percent of
N Percent Cases
$D4 Do you have any form of the following D4.1 Police patrols 58 42.6% 47.2%
security structures during the least safe D4.2 Private protection services 3 2.2% 2.4%
season? D4.3 Community patrol forum 35 25.7% 28.5%
D4.4 Other 40 29.4% 32.5%
Total 136 100.0% 110.6%
Table 6.11 Security structures in communities
Police patrols were only identified by 42.6% of the 136 people that were questioned
about the security structures in their various communities. Other communities
reported that they have employs community patrollers to increase the level of safety;
however this was only reported by 25.7% of the respective communities. Table 6.11
also indicates that private protection services are almost non-existent with only less
that 3% of community members reporting the presence of such structures.
6.2.4 Health
81
The communities that are surrounding sugar mills or sugar growers are exposed to
certain environmental factors that may cause or aggravate current illnesses that the
community members may suffer. The state of the community member’s health was
assessed based on the following illnesses listed in table 6.12.
Health issues
Responses Percent of
N Percent Cases
$E1 Please state which of the following you E1.1 Irritation of the airways (e.g. Coughing or 41 18.2% 29.5%
or your family members suffer from, due to E1.2 Decreased lung function 8 3.6% 5.8%
the exposure to the sugar cane field? E1.3 Aggravated asthma 24 10.7% 17.3%
E1.4 Development of chronic bronchitis 14 6.2% 10.1%
E1.5 Irregular heartbeat 6 2.7% 4.3%
E1.6 Heart attacks 4 1.8% 2.9%
E1.7 Premature death in people with heart or lung 4 1.8% 2.9%
E1.8 Frequent headaches/ migraines 49 21.8% 35.3%
E1.9 Disturbed eyesight 47 20.9% 33.8%
E1.10 Other 28 12.4% 20.1%
Total 225 100.0% 161.9%
Table 6.12 Illnesses caused or aggravated by the sugar industry’s operations.
It was found that 21.8% and 20.9% of community members suffered from frequent
headaches or migraines and disturbed eyesight. These were believed to have been
caused by the frequent exposure to the sugar mills and sugar plantations. 41 various
community members reported difficulty of coughing while 24 stated that the exposure
to mills and sugar plantations caused an aggravation to their asthma. 8 people
stated that they were experiencing decreased lung function, while 14 indicated that
they had developed chronic bronchitis. The illnesses were further analysed by the
age of community members in table 6.13, this was done to establish which age
groups were mostly affected.
Health Issues
a
$E1
Airways Lungs Asthma Bronchitis Heartbe Heartatt Prem- headach eye- Other Total
rA2 32 years and Count 21 5 6 4 5 1 2 20 20 15 99
younger % within 21.2% 5.1% 6.1% 4.0% 5.1% 1.0% 2.0% 20.2% 20.2% 15.2%
% of Total 9.5% 2.3% 2.7% 1.8% 2.3% .5% .9% 9.0% 9.0% 6.8% 44.6%
Older than 32 Count 19 3 18 10 1 3 2 28 26 13 123
years % within 15.4% 2.4% 14.6% 8.1% .8% 2.4% 1.6% 22.8% 21.1% 10.6%
% of Total 8.6% 1.4% 8.1% 4.5% .5% 1.4% .9% 12.6% 11.7% 5.9% 55.4%
Total Count 40 8 24 14 6 4 4 48 46 28 222
% of Total 18.0% 3.6% 10.8% 6.3% 2.7% 1.8% 1.8% 21.6% 20.7% 12.6% 100.0%
Table 6.13 Illnesses caused or aggravated by the sugar industry’s operations by

age.
82
The age of community members was divided into two categories, namely 32 years
and younger, and older than 32 years. It was established that the variation between
the two groups was minimal. The members of community that were 32 years and
younger, indicted that 21% suffered from airway, and 20% suffered from both
headaches and eyesight. When compared to the members older than 32 years, only
15 % suffered from airways, whereas 22.8% and 21% suffered from headaches and
eyesight respectively. The largest variation was identified with regard to asthma, 6%
of the members of community that were 32 and younger suffered from asthma,
whereas for members of community that were older than 32 years, 14.6% had
asthma.
83
CHAPTER 7
DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.0 Introduction
This chapter is concerned with the summary discussion of the results and the
recommendations. The recommendations are based on the results established in the
inventory analysis and the impact assessment. The recommendations are aimed at
improving the social aspects of the operations of both sugar millers and the sugar
growers, specifically with regard to the workers and the communities concerned.
7.1 Discussion of results
Workers
 Community members indicated that it was important for them to have
quality housing; however they were dissatisfied with their current housing
structures. Local schools, health facilities and electricity were rated as
important services for a quality community; it was further found that the
communities concerned were dissatisfied with the current facilities that
they were offered in the communities.
 The sugar millers and sugar growers have the freedom to join any
associations; however most of them are not members of any association.
The employers provide full independence of the operations and
procedures of the existing associations, but do not encourage their
workers to become members. The workers, given the opportunity to
engage in collective bargaining would like to discuss their wages and
overtime payments with their employers.
 The workers sated that they were not satisfied with the wages that they
earn currently. It was found that they do not have wage related incentives,
and their wages have not increased in the past two years. They stated that
they require an increase in their wages to satisfy their basic needs.
 60% of the workers were found to be males as compared to females. The
workers reported that they have been discriminated against due to their
84
genders. It was identified that men were favoured by employers as
compared to women, with regard to remuneration, training and
development and promotional opportunities. It was however established
that women were favoured with regard to flexible working hours and
family-friendly policies.
 The workers do not have protective equipment for their designated tasks.
They are exposed to the various weather conditions and do not have
safety measures in place in case of emergencies. It was found that they
are exposed to unpleasant smells and dust particles, in their working
environment. A large percentage of workers reported that they suffer from
back-aches and shoulder-aches as a result of their daily work tasks, both
from the millers and the growers.
Community
 The community members that surround either the sugar mills or the
sugar growers stated that the noise level from the sugar millers and
growers is a minor problem, however the pests, smell and dust particle
that are a result of the operations of the millers and the growers are of
concern. The community members also indicated that the crime around
cane growing areas is a serious problem for the community.
 It was found that during the germination phase of sugar growing, the
community members feel mostly safe. However they feel the least safe
during the grand-growth and maturations and ripening phase of sugar
growth. The most common crimes around cane growing areas have
been theft, smash and grab attacks and assault. The concerned
communities do not have a high visibility of either police patrols or
community patrol forums.
 It was further established that a majority of community members suffer
from irritation of airways, aggravated asthma and frequent headaches
and migraines. This was due to their frequent exposure to sugar plants
and sugar mills.
7.2 Recommendations
7.2.1 Freedom of association
85
It is recommended that the employers of both the millers and growers invite different
unions to engage with their workers, this is because it was found that even though
most of the workers from both the millers and growers stated that they have the right
to join any association, many of them were not members of any associations. This
problem was most evident amongst the millers. The invitation of unions will help to
educate the workers on the benefits of being part of an association. This will also
provide workers with the knowledge of their rights and what they are entitled to as
workers. The engagement of unions with workers will decrease the opportunity of
exploitation of workers by their employees. According to Information for workers
(2012), the following method can be used when attempting to introduce unions to
workers:
 Explain about union dues.
They need to know how much they are and what they are for. Most workers,
especially young people have never belonged to a union. All they know is the bad
propaganda that they read in the newspapers. Some workers may have belonged to
a corrupt or do-nothing union, so it is important to explain how UE is different. Tell
them about the yearly National Convention and District Council meetings.
 Develop a short history of your Local.
Write about the Union's accomplishments in improving the wages, benefits and
working conditions at the workplace, and list some problems solved using the
grievance procedure.
 Explain Union language.
"Seniority," "grievances," "union contract" may be confusing words to a new
employee. The union steward must take the time to explain what these and other
terms mean.
 Present the Union contract to new employees.
Once a worker is past their probation period make sure they get all the Union
material they need. This should include a copy of the union contract and the union
constitution. The Steward should make sure that the proper forms are sent to the
National Offices to get the new member signed up.
7.2.2 Wages
Based on the findings that both the millers and growers are not satisfied with their
current wages, it is recommended that the employers provide financial management
workshops for the workers. These will help the workers to manage their finances
86
better, which will decrease their dissatisfaction level with regard with their wages.
The provision of these workshops should be based on how to draw up budgets, how
to manage debts and how to save money wisely. The employers are also
encouraged to provide wage-related incentives for their workers; these include
overtime and target-based commissions. These have been proven to increase the
motivation of workers while also increasing productivity levels. The presence of such
incentives will also increase the worker’s wages which then decrease their
dissatisfaction level with their current wages. There are various ways to help the
workers improve their financial management. The Simple Dollar (2007), states the
following as the ten steps to financial success for a minimum wage earner:
 1. Go rural.
It is suggested that staying in a rural town will decrease the spending potential and
the expenses of the minimum wage earner.
 2. Don’t drive.
It is cheaper to stay closer to where one works. This decreases the travelling costs. It
is also suggested that if the distance is too far for the worker to walk, a bicycle could
also be used as compared to using a car.
 3. Find the free stuff.
In towns of any size, there are resources available for the impoverished, from free
dinners at churches to food giveaways to soup kitchens. The library provides free
entertainment in the forms of books, music, and internet access. There are parks
and recreational activities which are available for everyone at no charge.
 4. Don’t be proud.
Pride often keeps people from walking into a soup kitchen. That kind of pride is an
obstacle ground into you by a life in a consumerist society. Look for every
opportunity to help you with your situation, from consulting to Medicaid to welfare
 5. Minimize your required commitments.
Call the debtors and explain the situation and ask for a reduction. This won’t get rid
of the debt, but it can minimize the requirements. If the worker has children that they
cannot support, they must look for opportunities to help them with that burden
 6. Take every side opportunity that one can.
There are all sorts of little opportunities to make more money if a person pays
attention, e.g. helping someone shingle a roof for R100 an hour is an opportunity.
Ask around for odd jobs and other small-scale moneymaking opportunities – perhaps
even get started on one’s own business.
87
 7. Minimize your possessions.
There are a lot of reasons for doing this. The biggest one is that the more stuff a
person has, the more money they have wasted. Also, fewer possessions mean that
one needs less room to live.
 8. Make a steely commitment to succeed.
One can get themselves in a position where they are not spending more than they
make, but it takes commitment to stay there. A person must remind themselves
every day to not waste money and spend less than they earn.
 9. Save automatically.
The wage earner should take the extra money and put it into a savings account.
Most of the money must be kept in a checking account. The worker should also set
up an automatic savings plan where they can withdraw R100 a week from their main
checking.
 10. Educate yourself.
Take classes at the nearest community college and work towards some kind of
degree. If the worker has been working on minimum wage for a long time and are
actually making strong progress towards a degree, the employer can help with
paying for it. The key is getting started see what local community colleges have to
offer.
7.2.3 Gender Equality

There are more men employed at both mills and sugar plants as compared to
women. It is suggested that more women be developed to enable the scale of men
to woman to be 50:50. The employer should provide the same opportunities to both
the male and female workers. The empowerment of woman is then necessary in this
regard to get the level of women to be the same as the men. Gender equality does
not discriminate against any gender. It is thus suggested that the employer does not
discriminate against women in terms of remuneration, training and development and
promotional opportunities. The following strategies are suggested by Financial News
(2012), with regard to redressing inequality and encouraging women in the
workplace.
 Demonstrate you are measuring performance consistently

Measure performances, address problems, then demonstrate to your female
employees that your organisation has overcome these issues.
88
 Encourage discussion on sex discrimination
Invite your female staff to talk about past discrimination, identify vulnerable staff, and
find ways to make sure your organisation does not perpetuate the discrimination.
 Be flexible with the work/family balance
Be aware of each woman’s individual circumstances and be prepared to be flexible.
Launch support initiatives for mothers who do not have strong support networks
outside of the workplace.
 Maintain momentum
Identify what training female staff members miss out on when they are on maternity
leave or career breaks, and make up the shortfall when they return. If they are to
have a successful career, it is imperative that they don’t lose momentum, both from
your organisation’s standpoint and for their own levels of confidence.
 Avoid women-only networking initiatives
Hold events with content to discuss and debate. Seeing how the male and female
perspectives differ is interesting in itself and ensures the Human Resources
department takes account of it more widely in the workplace.
 Tackle pay inequality (and the perception of it)
Equal pay questionnaires could be used in offering transparency, but compensation
should be in accordance with responsibility and performance, and regardless of
gender.
 Ensure effective management
Effective managers are crucial for everyone. Improve management training for men
and women to ensure managers are trained to be more aware of implicit bias.
7.2.4 Working Conditions and Health and Safety

The workers should be provided with protective equipment for their tasks. Many of
the growers reported that they work under severe weather conditions; protective
equipment will be able to ease the exposure to these conditions. it is recommended
that the employers, conduct fire drills for their workers to help them know how to
react in case of fires. This will enable both the workers and the millers to take
protective measures when it comes to their security in their workplaces. It is also
recommended that the employers provide training for their workers with regards to
body gestures that limit the strain of body muscles. The workers of both the mills and
sugar plants, have labour intensive tasks, this has led to many of them suffering from
back aches and stiff finger muscles. The introduction of such training will reduce the
89
number of physical body strain for the workers. According to Francis (2012) Fire
drills are for more than fires. Knowing the evacuation routes of a building will help in
the event of a power outage, gas or chemical leak, or other emergency situation that
can occur at the office. Fire drills ensure that employees exit the building in a timely
fashion and know their team's designated meeting area, which helps the rescue
effort in the event an employee in unaccounted for during an actual emergency at
the business.
7.2.5 Service Facilities

The communities that surround the sugar mills and sugar plants generally do not
have the basic necessities required for a quality lifestyle. It is thus recommended that
the South African Sugar Association invests into these communities to improve the
quality of lives. The investments should be based on skill development, and the
provision of electricity using the natural energy. The investments within these
communities enable the development and establishment of rural communities, which
would lead to job creation for the relative communities.
7.2.6 Environment
It is suggested that the sugar mills and plants, provide warnings during the various
stages of their sugar production that will alert community members of what to expect.
The mills and growers are encouraged to inform the community members when they
should expect, for example, dust, pests, unpleasant smells, and also provide ways of
managing such factors. This will help the community members to be aware of their
environment and also to manage it better.
7.2.7 Crime
It is recommended that the police services within the various communities become
more visible and easily available to the community members. The police in these
communities are recommended to teach the community members of the various
ways they can keep their household and property safe, with regard to the high risk
sugar growing seasons. The police are also recommended to increase their
patrollers during the unsafe seasons, to enable a decrease in criminal activities, and
also to increase the level of safety within the various communities. The community
members are encouraged to also establish a more formal structure of community
patrollers, and increase their visibility during unsafe seasons. This will help reduce
90
the level of crime in these respective areas. Craven (2009) suggests that the
following approaches must be used to when developing community patrollers
 Establish a structure for long-term implementation and evaluation.

Plan, coordinate, and integrate program development, training, technology, and
community outreach consistent with the objectives of the foot patrol and create
evaluation criteria prior to implementation.
 Establish criteria for locating foot patrols in the community.
Developing criteria such as identified community problems, unique needs, crime
data, and special populations allows strategic deployment of resources in a proactive
manner, rather than in response to incidents.
 Establish overarching program goals and objectives for implementing each
foot patrol/beat location.
Use foot patrols to improve community relations, suppress or prevent crime, or a
combination of these objectives. Each objective is viable, yet requires a different
approach and should be customized to the needs of the area.
 Establish baseline information on the foot patrol area to assist with developing
strategies.
An audit of the businesses, schools, social service agencies, parks, shopping areas,
and other features in the specific foot patrol area allows the department to better
understand areas that could benefit from the foot patrol and will assist with planning
the community policing strategy.
 Establish focused areas for the implementation of foot patrols.
Conduct a community survey to provide information on the community perceptions of
safety needs that can be addressed through foot patrols. Most important, it allows
community stakeholders to express ways through which they can support community
and department priorities.
91
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
8.1 The Sugar Industry and the workers
The South African sugar industry employs thousands of employees, however it still
lacks in providing its employees with the basic necessities to carry out their tasks
comfortable. The workers do not practice their rights in the workplace, it was found
that some are ignorant and the other are not informed. The employers of both the
millers’ ad growers do not infringe on the rights of their employees in any way,
however they do not encourage the development of their employees in terms of
unions and associations. The workers of both the millers and the growers, are not
satisfied with their wages, this is presently a common problem in the south African
agriculture. The development of women has not been as significant as the
development of men in the industry workers; this is evident in the imbalance of
gender amongst the workers.
8.2 The Sugar Industry and the Local communities
The local communities in sugar milling and sugar growing areas are not satisfied with
the state of their local school, their housing and health facilities. The community
members stated that they find the pests, dust particles and crime around cane
growing areas to being a serious problem. It was found that they feel mostly unsafe
during the germinating phase of the sugar growing process, and feel the least safe
during the maturation and ripening phase. The crimes that are most prevalent are
theft, smash and grab attack, assault, rape and kidnapping. The police and
community patrollers in these locations are not visible to community members, which
does not improve the state of their crimes. The local community members suffer from
various illnesses, but the most common illnesses were irritation to the airways,
aggravated asthma, and frequent headaches and migraines.
8.3 Study objectives and Methodology
92
The objectives of the study were met. The study provided a gate to gate social life
cycle assessment of the South Africa’s sugar Millers and Growers. The study applied
the United Nations Environmental Program, and added value to the social
assessment methodology application techniques. The study determined how
employees of the sugar industry relate with the organisation in terms of freedom of
association, wages, gender equality, working conditions and health and safety, and
also identified how the local communities’ view the operations of the sugar industry
in relation to community services, service facilities, environment, crime and health
and safety. The recommendation of the study will promote the social awareness and
social responsibility within the South African sugar industries.
A gate to gate assessment was done by assessing the sugar grower separately, and
then also assessing the sugar millers separately. The transportation of the cane
stalks from the growers to the millers was not assessed in the study; this was not
done because it was outside the scope of the study.
The study was structured based on the guidelines of the United Nations
Environmental Program (UNEP). These guidelines stated that the Social studies
should be divided into four categories namely, the goal and scope, the inventory
assessment, impact assessment and the discussion and recommendations. These
categories were explained and applied in the study. The usage of these guidelines in
the study adds value to the application of the social assessment techniques.
The study determined how employees of the sugar industry relate with the
organisation in terms of freedom of association, wages, gender equality, working
conditions and health and safety by means of observations, interviews and mainly
questionnaires. These were distributed amongst both the millers and the growers,
and analysis was done of the different responses of the workers and results were
drawn based on the analysis. The same methods were used to assess the local
communities’ view the operations of the sugar industry in relation to community
services, service facilities, environment, crime and health and safety.
8.4 Gaps in the study
The S-LCA results have to be communicated to decision makers effectively using a

well-structured reports and high quality data. Summaries and conclusion have to be
explicit and well marketed. The reports should be customized depending on the type
93
of audience targeted. An independent critical review, by internal and external experts
and by interested parties, enhances the quality and credibility of the assessment.
Benoit (2009)The gathering of data for slca was intense and at times confusing. This
is because large quantities of data were collected before it was categorised
according to the UNEP guidelines.
Future research is suggested through S-LCA case studies, production of teaching

materials, development of tools, documenting and communicating the relationship
with other models and methodologies in the same area, to detail stakeholder
approaches, to create models for the presentation of the results, for the development
of S-LCA consequential methodology, ways to identify socially significant processes
with less expense and effort, the development of subcategories, development of
databases, development of impact assessment methodologies like cause and effect
assessment, developing inventory indicators, methods to interpret data, structuring
guidance on review processes to ensure high quality studies. The fine tuning of S-
LCA will continue, since more methodological improvements are needed and this
effort contributes to that, Benoit (2009).
94
LIST OF REFERENCES
1. Baumann, H. Tillman, A. 2004. The Hitch Hiker's Guide to LCA - An
orientation in life cycle assessment methodology and application; 1st Ed.
2. Baztarrica, J. Lehtola, C. Munoz, R. Suchman, E. 2003. Occupational Health
and Safety: An Annotated Bibliography of Research and Related Literature.
http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/pubs/AB5_HealthSafety
.pdf. Last Accessed 16 September 2011.
3. Becker, H. A. 2001. Social impact assessment, European Journal of
Operational Research 128, 311-321.
4. Becker, H. A. Vanclay, F. 2003. The International Handbook of Social Impact
Assessment. Cheltenham, Colchester, United Kingdom: Edward Elgar
Publishing. ISBN: 1 84064 935 6
5. Benoit C. and Mazijn B., 2009 (Editors) Guidelines for Social Life Cycle
Assessment of Products, UNEP/ SETAC Life Cycle Initiative, Paris, ISBN
978-92-807-3021-0
6. Benoît, C., Norris, G. A., Valdivia, S., Ciroth, A., Moberg, A., Bos, U., ... &
Beck, T. (2010). The guidelines for social life cycle assessment of products:
just in time! The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 15(2), 156-
163.
7. Boudreaux, K. (2010). Land reform as social justice: The case of South
Africa.Economic Affairs, 30(1), 13-20.
8. Brandao, M. Hauschild, M. Pant, R. Pennigton, D. Sala, S. 2010. From
science to support decision making: recommendations and challenges in Life
Cycle Impact Assessment.
9. Cassia, U. Fabien, M. Si lvia, C. (2011) S-LCA: Preliminary results of
Natura's cocoa soap bar Technological Federal University of Parana.
Sustainable technologies, Cajamar, Brazil. www.greendeltatc.com Last
accessed 18 October 2012
10. Centre for Disease Control, 2009, South African Cane Growers Association,
http://www.cdc.gov/od/ohs/sasa/compergo.htm last accessed 22 September
2012
11. Ciroth, A. Franze, J. (2011): LCA of an Ecolabeled Notebook -Consideration
of Social and Environmental Impacts Along the Entire Life Cycle, ISBN 978-1-
4466-0087-0, Berlin.
12. Craven, K. 2009. Community policing dispatch. Foot Patrols: Crime Analysis
and Community Engagement to Further the Commitment to Community
Policing.
13. http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/html/dispatch/February_2009/foot_patrol.htm last
accessed 21 April 2012.Crime Report 2010/2011. South African Police
Service.
http://www.info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=150105 last accessed 23
September 2012
14. Department of Labour (2002). Basic Conditions of Employment Act (Act 75 of
1997): Sectorial Determination 8: Farm worker sector, South Africa.
Government Gazette, No. 24114.
15. Dreyer L.C. Hauschild M.Z. Schierbeck J. 2006. A Framework for Social Life
Cycle Impact Assessment, International Journal of LCA 11 (2), 88-97.
95
16. Economic Research Service. 2011. World Sugar Policy Review. Sugar and
Sweeteners Outlook, SSS-236 13. www.cato.org/tbp/tpb-013.pdf last
accessed 31 August 2011.
17. Esteves, A.M. Vanclay, F. 2009. Social Development Needs Analysis as a
Tool for SIA to Guide Corporate-Community Investment. Environmental
Impact Assessment Review 29(2): 137-145.
18. Financial news. 2012. The ten things that companies must do to ensure
gender equality. http://www.efinancialnews.com/story/2011-03-17/company-
to-do-list-gender-equality Last accessed, 03 March 2011.
19. Francis, K.A. 2012. Demand media: How to Conduct a Fire Drill at Work.
http://smallbusiness.chron.com/conduct-fire-drill-work-10444.html last
accessed 12 February 2012.
20. Franklin, R.C. Allen C. Fragar L.J. Harding W. 2001. National Farm Injury
Data Centre: OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY RISK ASSOCIATED
WITH SUGARCANE PRODUCTION. Australian Centre for Agricultural Health
and Safety. University of Sydney. ISBN 1 87649119 1.
21. Freeman, R.B .1999. The economics of crime. Handbook of Labor
Economics, volume 3, chapter 52. Edited by O. Ashenfelter and D. Card.
Elsevier Science.
22. Frischknecht R., Braunschweig A., Hofstetter P., Suter P.: 2000, Human
health damagesdue to ionising radiation in life cycle impact assessment ,
Environmental impact assessment Review, 20, 159-189
23. Grießhammer, R. Benoît, C. Dreyer, L.C. Flysjö, A. Manhart, A. Mazijn, B.
Méthot, A. Weidema, B.P. 2006. Feasibility Study: Integration of Social
Aspects into LCA, Discussion Paper from UNEP-SETAC Task Force
Integration of Social Aspects in LCA meetings in Bologna (January 2005),
Lille (May 2005), Brussels (November 2005) and Freiburg (May 2006).
24. Grießhammer, R. Manhart, A. .2006. Social impacts of the production of
notebook PCs – Contribution to the development of a Product Sustainability
Assessment (PROSA). Oko-Institute, Freiburg, German.
25. Guidelines and Principles for Social Impact Assessment, 1994. Inter‐
organizational Committee on Guidelines and Principles for Social Impact
Assessment. http://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/tm/spo/spo16.pdf. Last accessed
18 October 2011
26. Guinee, J. Heijungs , R. Huppes, G. 2011. Life Cycle Assessment: Past,
Present, and Future. Environmental science & technology vol. 45, no. 1.
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1021/es101316v. last accessed 24 January
2012.
27. Human Rights. Ripe with Abuse: Human Rights Conditions in South Africa’s
Fruit and Wine Industries www.hrw.org last accessed 12 October 2012
28. Hunkeler D., Rebitzer G. : 2005, The Future of Life Cycle Assessment , Int J
LCA 10 (5) 305-308.
29. ILO. 2010. Declaration/ACTRAV Questionnaire on Freedom of Association
and Collective Bargaining in Agriculture www.ilo.org/declaration, last
accessed 18 January 2011.
30. Information for workers, 2012. Welcoming New Employees into the Union.
http://www.ueunion.org/stwd_newmem.html Last accessed 22 January 2012.
31. International Confederation of Free Trade Unions/African Regional
Organization. 2005. A Survey of Human and Trade Union Rights in
Swaziland, August 2005.
32. ISO 14040 (2006). Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment –
Principles and Framework. International Organization of Standardization.
www.iso.org. last accessed 22 June 2012.
96
33. ISO 14044 (2006). Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment –
Requirements and Guidelines. International Organization of Standardization.
www.iso.org. Last accessed 18 September 2012.
34. Jenaro, C. Verdugo, M.A. Caballo, C. Balboni, G. Lachapelle, Y. Otrebski, W.
Schalock, R.L. 2005. Cross-cultural study of person-centred quality of life
domains and indicators: a replication. Journal of Intellectual Disability
Research 49(10) 734-739
35. Jørgensen, A. Le Bocq, A. Nazarkina, L. Hauschild, M. 2008. Methodologies
for Social Life Cycle Assessment, International Journal of LCA 13 (2), 96-103.
36. Jorgensen, A. 2010. Developing the Social Life Cycle Assessment:
Addressing issues of validity and usability. DTU Management Engineering.
Lyngby.
37. Kassier, E. Cherry, M. Du Toit, I. Aihoon, K. Le Clus, K. 2003. Advice and
assistance in the process of assessing applications for the ministerial
determination to vary prescribed minimum wages in the farm worker sector.
Report issued by the Department of Labour.
38. Lune,H. Koppel, R. Pumar, E. 2010. Perspectives in social research methods
and analysis: A reader for sociology. Singapore. SAGE publications Asia-
Pacific Pty. Ltd.
39. Klöpffer W (2003) Life-cycle based methods for sustainable product
development. Int J LCA 8(3):157–159
40. Klöpffer W, Udo de Haes H (2008) Life cycle sustainability assessment of
products (with Comments by Helias A. Udo De Haes). Int J LCA 13(2):89–95
41. Labuschagne C, Brent AC (2006) Social indicators for sustainable project and
technology life cycle management in the process industry. Int J LCA 11(1):3–
15
42. MALOA, M. 2001. Sugar Cane: Development of crop in South Africa Land
Reform and Poverty Alleviation in Southern Africa. Proceedings of the 2001
Conference held SARPN. Pretoria.
43. Mashoko, L. 2010. Application of Life Cycle Assessment to evaluate the
Environmental impacts of sugar industry in South Africa. South Africa
University of Johannesburg.
44. Mashoko,L. Mbohwa, C. Kekana, M. 2009. Bagasse energy cogeneration
potential in the South African sugar industry: International conference on
energy security and climate change: issues, strategies, and options. (ESCC
2009)
45. Munsami, R. 2008. South African Sugarcane Research Institute.
www.interpraxis.com/glossary.htm. Last accessed on 12 January 2010.
46. Murray, J., & Van Walbeek, C. (2007). Impact of the Sectoral Determination
for farm workers on the South African sugar industry: Case study of the
KwaZulu-Natal North and South Coasts. Agrekon, 46(1), 94-112.
47. Neidell, M. J. 2004. Air pollution, health, and socio-economic status: the effect
of outdoor air quality on childhood asthma. Journal of Health Economics
23(6), 1209 1236.
48. Neuman. W. 2000. Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative
Approaches. Fourth Edition. Needham Heights. Library of Congress
Cataloging-in Publication Data
49. Newman, R.A. Ortmann, G.F. Lyne, M.C. 1997. Farm labour remuneration,
labour legislation and commercial farmers’ perceptions in KwaZulu-Natal.
Agrekon 36(1):73-84.
50. Norris G.A. : 2006, Social Impacts in Product Life Cycles , Int J LCA 11,
Special Issue 1, 97-104.
97
51. O’Brien, M. Doig, A. Clift, R. 1996. Social and Environmental Life Cycle
Assessment (SELCA) Approach and Methodological Development.
International Journal of LCA 1 (4), 231-237.
52. O’Leary, Z. 2010. The essential guide to doing your research project.
Singapore. SAGE publications Asia-Pacific Pty. Ltd.
53. Petti, L. Campanella, P. 2009. The social LCA: The state of art of an evolving
methodology. University of Suceava. Fascicle of The Faculty of Economics
and Public Administration Vol. 9, No. 2(10).
54. SASA. (2012). South African Sugar Association. Facts and Figures.
http://www.sasa.org.za/FactsandFigures128.aspx. Last Accessed 26 August
2012.
55. Schmidt, I. Meurer, M. Saling, P. Kicherer, A. Reuter, W. Gensch, C. 2004.
Managing Sustainability of Products and Processes with the Socio-Eco-
Efficiency Analysis by BASF. Greener Management International (45) 79-94
56. Simbi, T. Aliber, M. 2000. Agricultural employment crisis in South Africa.
Trade and Industry Policy Strategies (TIPS) Working Paper 13.
http://www.tips.afrihost.com/research/papers/pdfs/415.pdf last accessed 16
April 2011.
57. Sirgy, M.J. Michalos, A.C. Ferriss, A.L. Easterlin, R.A. Patrick, D. Pavot, W.
2006. The Quality-of-Life (QOL) Research Movement: Past, Present, and
Future. Social Indicator Research 76 (3) 343-466
58. Skill. 2012. How sugarcane is made. http://www.illovosugar.com/. Last
Accessed. 22 October 2012.
59. South African cane growers association. 2011. The report of the board of
directors.
http://www.sacanegrowers.co.za/wpcontent/uploads/2011/02/2010.11-Report-
of-the-Board-of-Directors.pdf. Last accessed 22 January 2012.
60. Spillemaeckers, S. Vanhoutte, G. Taverniers, L. Lavrysen, L. Van Braeckel,
D. Mazijn, B. Rivera, J. D. 2004. Integrated Product Assessment - The
Development of the Label 'Sustainable Development' for Products Ecological,
Social and Economic Aspects of Integrated Product Policy. Belgian Science
Policy, Belgium
61. SPSS software. 2012. Predictive analytics software and solutions. http://www-
01.ibm.com/software/analytics/spss/. Last accessed 18 September 2012.
62. South African Canegrowers 2004. Labour cost and utilisation survey.
Unpublished statistics obtained from South African Canegrowers Association.
63. The simple dollar. 2007. Ten steps to financial success for minimum wage
earner. http://www.thesimpledollar.com/2007/10/07/ten-steps-to-financial-
success-for-a-minimum-wage-earner/ last accessed 18 January 2012.
64. Statistics South Africa, 2012. General Household Survey for 2011.
http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/statsdownload.asp?PPN=P0318. Last
accessed 24 May 2012.
65. Statistics South Africa. 2012. Employment trends in Agriculture for 2011.
http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/statsdownload.asp?PPN=EmployTren
dsAgri. Last accessed in 21 September 2012.
66. Tongaat Hullets. South African Sugar Structure. (2008)
http://www.huletts.co.za. Last Accessed 02 February 2011.
67. UNEP Methodological Sheets for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products.
2009. http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx1164xPA-
guidelines_sLCA.pdf. Last accessed 12 October 2012
68. Vanclay, F. 2002. Social Impact Assessment, in M. Tolba (ed) Responding to
Environmental Change (Volume 4 of Encyclopedia of Environmental Change).
Chichester: Wiley, 387-393.
98
69. Waddell, G. Burton, K.A. 2006. Is work good for your health and well-being?
TSO. London, UK< http://www.workingforhealth.gov.uk/documents/is-work-
good-for-you.pdf> last accessed 14 April 2011.
70. Weidema BP (2006) The integration of economic and social aspects in life
cycle impact assessment. Int J LCA 11(1 special issue):89–96
99
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: COMMUNITY QUESTIONNAIRE
SECTION A: Demographics Community Questionnaire
Importance level Satisfaction level

1= Not at all important 1= Very dissatisfied
2= Low importance 2= Dissatisfied
3= Neutral 3= Neutral
4= Important 4= Satisfied
5= Very important 5= Very Satisfied SECTION B: Community
Services
Please state the importance of each of the following services in your community in the first
column and also, state your satisfactory level in the second column for each of the services.
Service Facility Importance Satisfaction

Quality housing 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Local schools 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Day care centres 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Health facilities 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Convenient transportation 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Electricity 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Safe water 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Grocery stores 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Response time of Police to emergencies 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Response time of fire stations to emergencies 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Street lights 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Timely garbage collection 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Religious facilities (churches) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Community councils 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Entrepreneurial business 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Youth development facilities 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Educational 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Cultural Activities 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Recreational Activities 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Opportunities for adult employment 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Opportunities for youth employment 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Youth development facilities 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Recreational facilities and parks 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
100
SECTION C: Environment
Please state the seriousness of the following factors caused by the sugar millers/growers
operations.
problem
Not at all a
Problem
Minor
problem
Moderate
Problem
Serious
Noise level 1 2 3 4
Smell 1 2 3 4
Pests 1 2 3 4
Dust Particles 1 2 3 4
Crime around cane growing areas 1 2 3 4
SECTION D: Crime
1. During which sugarcane growing phase do you feel mostly safe in terms of crime?
Germination phase Tillering Phase Grand Growth Phase Maturation and
ripening
(When about 2 leaves (15-20 days after the (120 days after (Lasts for about 3
appear on the stem) sprout appear planting) months)
2. During which sugarcane growing season do you feel the least safe in terms of crime?
Germination phase Tillering Phase Grand Growth Phase Maturation and
ripening
(When about 2 leaves (15-20 days after the (120 days after (Lasts for about 3
appear on the stem) sprout appear planting) months)
3. Which of the following crimes have you or any member of your family been a victim
of around the sugar cane field
Theft
Smash and grab
Assault
Rape
Kidnapping
Other, please specify
……………………………………………………….
4. Do you have any form of the following security structures during the least safe
season?
Police patrols
Private protection services
Community patrol forum
Other, please specify
……………………………………………………….
SECTION E: Health
101
Please state which of the following you or your family members suffer from, due to the
exposure to the sugar cane field?
irritation of the airways (e.g. coughing or difficulty breathing)

decreased lung function
aggravated asthma
development of chronic bronchitis
irregular heartbeat
Heart attacks
premature death in people with heart or lung disease
frequent headaches/ migraines
disturbed eyesight
Other (Please state)…………………………………………….
102
APPENDIX B: WORKERS’ QUETIONNAIRE
SECTION A: Demographics Worker’s Questionnaire
Province 1. Kwa-Zulu 2. Mpumalanga 3. Eastern Cape

Natal
Occupations 1. Millers 2. Growers Transporters
Age 1. Under 18 2. 18 – 24 3. 25 – 32 4. 33 - 40 5. 41 - 47 6. 48 and above
Gender 1. Male 2. Female 3. Transgender
Education 1. Grade 1-7 2. Grade 8-12 3. Certificate/Nat 4. Degree 5. Post
ional diploma Graduate
Degree
Employment 1. Permanent 2. Temporary 3. Contract 4. Seasonal
Employment 1. 0–3 2. 3 – 7 years 3. 7 – 10 years 4. Over 10
Duration Years years
Quality of life 1. Poor 2. Fair 3. Good 4. Very Good 5. Excellent
(Optional)
SECTION B: Freedom of association
1. Please answer the following questions regarding your freedom of association in your workplace.
1.1 Do you have the organisational freedom to join any association YES NO
1.2 Are you a member of any association YES NO
1.3 Do your employers provide full independence and freedom in the YES NO
functioning of your association
1.4 Do you have the freedom to organise unions YES NO
1.5 Do you have the freedom to industrial action YES NO
1.6 Do you have the freedom to engage in collective bargaining YES NO
2. Given the opportunity, which 3 main subjects would you like to discuss in a collective bargaining negotiation
with your employer
Wages Maternity leave
Hours per week Paternity leave
Overtime payment Educational leave
Rest Periods Pension
Compassionate leave Funeral expenses
Accident insurance Others…. (Please state)
Health care ……………..………………………………..
Severance pay ………………………………………………
SECTION C: Wages
1. Please answer the following questions regarding your wages.

1.1 Based on your income, do you feel that your wage should be increased YES NO
1.2 Are you satisfied with the wage that you earn YES NO
1.3 Do you have wage-related incentives (overtime, commission, etc) YES NO
1.4 Has your wage increased in the past two years YES NO
103
2. State by means of a percentage which of the following basic necessities you spend your wage in.
Please ensure that the percentages add up to a 100%.
Food
Water
Electricity
Housing
Transportation
Healthcare
Education
Mobile phone
Entertainment
Savings
Other… ( Please state)
……………………………………………..
SECTION D: Gender Equality
1. Please answer the following questions regarding your Gender Equality in your workplace.
1.1 The ratio of MEN to WOMEN at the workplace is approximately
50:50 60:40 40:60 80:20 20:80
2. Have you experienced any of the following form of gender inequality at work?
2.1 Gender Discrimination YES NO
2.2 Lower salary due to your gender YES NO
2.3 Unequal workplace treatment YES NO

2.4 Harassment or bullying due to your gender YES NO
3. In your opinion and experience, which of these factors are favourable to either men or women within the
organisation?
Men and Woman treated Men treated more Women treated more
equally favourable than woman favourable than men
Recruitment & Selection
Remuneration
Appraisal/Performance
Management
Training & Development
Promotion Opportunities
Family-Friendly Policies
Flexible Working hours
Policies & Procedures
(e.g. grievance &
disciplinary policies)
104
SECTION E: Working Conditions
1. Please answer the following questions regarding your freedom of association in your workplace.
1.1 Do you have access to the following facilities at your workplace?
Separate toilets for Males and Females Yes No

Clean drinking water Yes No
Rest facilities ( cafeteria, etc) Yes No
Change rooms Yes No
Personal lockers for your personal items Yes No
Emergency exits Yes No
Showers Yes No
All necessary protective clothing (gloves, rubber boots, helmet, etc) Yes No
Protective measures in place from outside danger Yes No
Protection from climate conditions (rain, heat) Yes No
SECTION F: Health and Safety
1. Are you exposed to any of the following physical hazards in terms of Health and Safety at your
workplace
Transportation YES NO If YES, do you have protective YES NO
equipment for it
Flow in pipes YES NO If YES, do you have protective YES NO
equipment for it
Lime Milling YES NO If YES, do you have protective YES NO
equipment for it
Ventilators YES NO If YES, do you have protective YES NO
equipment for it
Turbines YES NO If YES, do you have protective YES NO
equipment for it
Compressors YES NO If YES, do you have protective YES NO
equipment for it
Unpleasant smells YES NO If YES, do you have protective YES NO
equipment for it
Heat and cold radiation YES NO If YES, do you have protective YES NO
equipment for it
Dust YES NO If YES, do you have protective YES NO
equipment for it
Do you have Cuts/skin YES NO If YES, do you have protective YES NO
drying/peeling equipment to avoid it
1.2 Please state which joint(s) have troubled you due to your daily work related tasks?
Back
Shoulder
elbow
Hip
Wrist
hand/fingers
Knee
Ankle
Wrist
foot/toes
Other………………………
Thank You for your participation. God Bless!
105

PDF Document PDF

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

PDF Document PDF

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

COPYRIGHT AND CITATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THIS THESIS/ DISSERTATION

Please include the following information in your citation:

Year of publication, in brackets

Title of thesis, in italics

Type of degree (e.g. D. Phil.; Ph.D.; M.Sc.; M.A. or M.Ed. …etc.)

Name of the University

In partial fulfilment of the

DEPARTMENT OF QUALITY AND OPERATIONS

THE FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND BUILT

SUPERVISOR: Prof C MBOHWA

THE UNIVERSITY JOHANNESBURG

Department of Quality and Operations Management

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………….….….6

CHAPTER 4: CASE STUDY…………………………………………………....31

CHAPTER 5: INVENTORY ANALYSIS……………………………………………………….41

CHAPTER 6: IMPACT ASSESSMENT…………………………………………………….….53

CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS…………………84

1.1 Background and Justification

1.2 Objectives of the study

1.3 Character of the research

Goal and Scope

 Goal and scope of the study

1.4 Summary of chapters

Chapter 2: literature review

Chapter 4: Case study of the South African Sugar Industry

Chapter 5: SLCA Inventory Analysis

Chapter 6: SLCA Results and Discussion

2.1 The Social Life Cycle Assessment Methodology

2.1.1 Framework for SLCA

Goal and Scope definition

Implementation of LCA and Related Approaches

Application-focused research dealing with questions on how to apply life cycle

2.1.3 Application of guidelines in SLCA

2.1.4 Developments of the SLCA Methodology

As previously mentioned, impacts are seen as a result of the conduct of the

In a survey undertaken by Waddell (2006), 15% of the workers interviews reported

2.2.1 Occupational health and safety

2.3 Freedom of association

It is essential for trade unions and employers’ organizations to function in full

These allegations concern prejudicial acts (including dismissals, demotions,

In 2006, organisers at Khanya College in Johannesburg spearheaded the Southern

According to SA cane growers (2004) in an attempt to create incentives for the

2.5 Gender equality and crime

3.1 Definition of Goal and Scope

Distribution, Use, reuse, Recover,

3.3 System Boundary

3.4 Life Cycle inventory analysis

3.4.1.1 Field research

3.4.1.2 Historical Comparative Research

Millers Growers Community Millers Growers Community Millers Growers Community

Overall Total 300

Table 3.1 The allocation of questionnaires in the provinces.

Table 3.2 Community questionnaire distribution across provinces

Table 3.3 Worker’s questionnaire distribution across provinces.

Table 3.4 Categorisation of workers

Table 3.5 Categorisation of local communities by age groups.

Table 3.6 Categorisation of local communities by gender.

3.5 Life Cycle impact assessment

3.5.1 Data analysis

3.6 Life Cycle interpretation

Life Cycle interpretation is the process of assessing results in order to draw

SEASON CANE CRUSHED SUGAR PRODUCED

The South African Sugar Association is an autonomous organisation and operates