Gaseous States

Page 1

Chapter

1. GASEOUS STATE
When the molecular forces of attraction between the
particles of a matter are minimum, the particles exist in
a state known as gaseous state or a state of matter in
which molecules are far away from each other and free
to move in available space is called gaseous state.
1.1 Properties of Gases
(a) They do not have definite shape and volume.
(b) They can occupy whole space open to then.
(c) They have very low densities because of negligible
intermolecular forces.
(d) Gases exerts pressure on the wall of the container
with perfectly elastic collisions.
(e) They diffuse rapidly through each other to form
homogeneous mixture against the electric,
magnetic and gravitational field.
(f) EXPANSIBILITY: Gases are highly expansible due
to very weak intermolecular attraction. Very small
amount of gas can occupy large volume.
(g) COMPRESSIBILITY: Gases may be easily
compressed due to large intermolecular distance.
Large quantity of gas can be placed in small
volume.
(h) DIFFUSIBILITY: Gases are highly diffusible. They
occupy all the available volume.
(i) EFFUSIBILITY: Gases are effusible (pass through
small orifice) and effusion takes place due to
difference in pressure.
(j) EFFECT OF GRAVITATION: Gases are state of
matter and hence there is effect of gravitation on
gases. But such effect can not be realized in small
vessels and hence it is neglected.
5
STATES OF MATTER
1.2 Parameters of Gases
The characteristics of gases are described in terms of
four measurable parameters and it is also called as
measurable properties of gases which are
(a) Mass (b) Volume
(c) Pressure and (d) Temperature
(a) Mass (m)- The mass of a gas is denoted by 'm'
which is related to the no of moles 'n'.
Therefore,
m( mass in grams)
n (no of moles) =
M ( Molar mass)
so, m =n×M
(b) Volume V-
(i) Gases occupy whole space available to then. The
volume occupy by a gas is simply the volume of
container in which it is filled.
(ii) The volume of a gas is denoted by 'V' and it is
measured in units of litre or cubic metre (m3) or
cm3 or dm3.
(iii) 1 litre = 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3 = 1000 ml
(c) Pressure (P)-
(i) It is force acting per unit area. A confined gas
exerts uniform pressure on the walls of its
container in all the direction.
(ii) It is denoted by 'P' and specified in pascal (Pa).
(iii) Other units of pressure are atm, cm hg, mmHg,
N/m2, bar, torr.
(iv) 1 atm = 76 cm Hg = 760 mm Hg
= 1.013 × 105 N/m2 = 1.013 × 105 Pa

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= 1.013 bar = 760 torr. Importance: Air is dense at the sea level because it is
F(Force) compressed by the mass of air above it. However the
(v) P (Pressure) =
A(Area ) density & pressure decreases with altitude. The
Mass  Acceleration atmospheric pressure at Mount Everest is only
= 0.5atm. Thus at high altitude oxygen in air becomes
Area
(vi) Pressure exerted by a gas is due to kinetic energy insufficient for normal breathing. This is the reason
(K.E. = ½ mv2) of the gases molecules. why mountaineers carry oxygen cylinders along with
(vii) K.E. of the gas molecules increases, as the them.
temperature is increased so, pressure of a gas is
directly proportional to temperature. P  T 2.2 Charle's law
(a) This law states that at constant pressure, the
(d) Temperature (T)- volume of a given mass of a gas is directly
(i) The temperature of a gas is denoted by 'T' and it is proportional to its absolute temperature.
measured in the unit of kelvin (K).
(Absolute temperature = ºC + 273.15)
(ii) Other units of temperature are , ºC, ºF, ºR.
(iii) K = ºC + 273.15 (b) Mathematically - V  T (at constant pressure)
V = volume of gas
Triple Point: It is the temperature at which all the 3 states T = Absolute temperature
of matter co-exist.
Ex: At 4.7mmHg pressure & 0.0098⁰C, ice (solid), water V = KT or
(liquid) & water vapour (gases) may be present V
simultaneously & all are stable. = K
T
Ice Water Vapour
Hence, if the volume of a gas of mass is V1 at
2. Gas Laws temperature T1 changes to V2 at T2, pressure
remaining constant,
The certain laws which relate the four parameters are
called gas laws. V1 V
then = 2 = constant
T1 T2
2.1 Boyle's Law or log V – log T = constant
(a) It states that at constant temperature, the volume of (c) For each degree change of temperature the
a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to
volume of sample of a gas changes by the
the pressure.
(b) Mathematically - fraction of 1 273.15 of its volume at 0 ºC
1
P (at constant temperature)  273.15  t 
V so Vt = V 0  
 273.15 
or PV = K or P1V1 = P2V2
(c) Graphical representations This equation is called Charles-gay-lussac
(i) P vs V (ii) P vs 1/V equation. where
Vt = volume of gas at temperature t ºC
V0 = volume of gas at 0 ºC temperature
t = temperature in ºC.
P P
(In atm.) (In atm.) (d) Graphical representations -

V 1/V
(in litre) 
(iii) log P vs, log V (iv) PV vs P (i) V vs T V

T
1 1
log P PV (ii) V vs or T vs
T V

log V P

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P
V P

1/T T 1/T
P
(iii) log P vs log T (iv) Vs T
T

(iii) log V vs log T, logV

log P
log T P/T

log T T

V 2.4 Avagadro's Law

(iv) vs T V/T
T
(a) According to this law under the same condition
T of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of all
gas contains equal no. of molecules.
Importance: Gases expand on heating, so that air is
less dense then cold air. That is why air balloons rise V  n (At constant temperature & pressure)
up by displacing the cooler air of the atmosphere. Where V = volume
n = no of molecules
2.3 Gay-Lussac's Law or Amonton's Law
(b) Molar Volume or gram molecular volume - 22.4
(a) It states that at constant volume, the pressure of a litres or 22400 ml of every gas at NTP is the
given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its volume occupied by its one gram mole and it is
absolute temperature. called molar volume or gram molecular volume.
(b) Mathematically - P  T (at constant volume) (c) Loschmidt number - It the no of molecules
where P = pressure of gas present in the volume of a gas at S.T.P. Its value
is 2.617 × 1019 per c.c.
T = Absolute temperature
P = KT
2.5 Ideal gas equation
P
or =K
T (a) It correlate all the four parameters of a gas.
Hence , if the pressure of a gas is P1 at temperature (b) It is the combination of Boyle's and charle's law.
T1 changes to P2 at T2, volume remaining constant. (c) PV = nRT
P1 P m
then = 2 = constant PV = RT
T1 T2 M
The equation is called as ideal gas equation.
log P – log T = constant.
Where n = no of moles of the gas
 t  m = mass of the gas
(c) Pt = Po 1  
 273.15  M = Mol. wt. of the gas
where Pt = Pressure of gas at t ºC R = Molar gas constant.

Po = Pressure of gas at 0 ºC (d) For 1 mole of the gas n = 1

PV = RT
t = Temperature in ºC.
P1V1 PV P1V1 PV
(d) Graphical representation - So = 2 2 =R or = 2 2
T1 T2 T1 T2
(i) P vs T (ii) P vs 1/T or T vs 1/P
Where P1, V1, T1 are the initial pressure, volume
and temperature and P2, V2 T2 are final.
The above equation is called as ideal gas
equation.

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(e) The unit of R is the unit of work or energy per (a) According to this law, when two or more than
degree per mole as - two chemically inert gases are kept in a closed
PV Pressure Volume container, the total pressure exerted by the
R= =
nT mole  Temperature gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the partial
force pressures of individual gases - i.e.-
 volume
force length
R= Area = P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ..... + Pn
mole  Temperature mole  Temperature
3.1 Applications of Dalton's Law of Partial pressure
work(energy)
R=
mole  Temperature (a) mole fraction of a gas in a mixture of gas

(f) Numerical values of R in different units - partial pressureof gas

=
Total pressureof the mixture of gas
(i) R = 0.0821 litre atm. K–1 mole–1
(b) % of a gas in a mixture
(ii) R = 0.083 bar dm3 K-1mol-1
partial pressureof gas
(iii) R = 8.314 × 107 ergs deg.–1 mole–1 = × 100
Total pressure
(iv) R = 8.314 J K–1 mole–1
(c) Pressure of dry gas which is collected over the
(v) R = 8.314 Nm K–1 mole–1 (If vol. taken in m3)
water is-
(vi) R = 2 cals. K–1 mole– PTotal = Pmoist air = Pdry gas + Pwater vapour

Calculation of density of an ideal gas: (Note : Pwater vapour is called aqueous tension)
According to ideal gas, PV = nRT or so Pdry gas = PTotal – PWater vapour
𝑛RT 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚 ) 𝑚RT
P= but n = P= (Note: Aqueous tension is directly proportional to
V 𝑚𝑜𝑙 .𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑀) MV absolute temperature)
𝑚 PM
Now, ρ = ρ=
V RT 3.2 Limitations of Dalton's law of partial pressure
Relation between density & temperature of a gas: (a) It is applicable only inert gases like N2 and O2,
𝑚 1 N2 and Cl2 etc.
Density, ρ = ∴ ρα
V V (b) It is not applicable for chemically reactive gases
1
But According to Charles’s Law, V α T, ρ α like H2 and Cl2, CO and Cl2 etc.
T
or ρT = constant
Thus, ρ1T1 = ρ2T2

5. Graham's Law of Diffusion of Effusion

Partial Pressure: In a mixture of gases, the pressure
exerted by every individual gas is its partial pressure. Diffusion: It is the ability of a gas to mix
Hence, partial pressure of a gas is defined as the spontaneously and to form a homogenous mixture is
pressure exerted by a gas in a mixture when it alone
known as diffusion.
occupies whole of the volume is called its partial
pressure. Effusion: It is a process in which a gas is allowed
Therefore, to escape under pressure through a fine orifice from
closed container.
Partial pressure = Mole fraction × Total pressure
Thus, if a vessel contains n1 mole of gas A, n2 mole of LAW
gas B & n3 mole of gas C at a total pressure P, the (a) This law was proposed by Thomas Graham.
individual partial pressure are given by (b) According to this law, at constant temperature
Note: and pressure, the rate of diffusion or effusion of a
1. When equal masses of two different gases are
gas is inversely proportional to the square root of
present in a mixture of gases, the partial pressure is
higher for the lighter gas its density. Thus and directly proportional to its
pressure.
2. When equal volumes of two different gases are
mixed, the partial pressure of each gas is nearly the P
Rate of diffusion (r) 
same (V α number of moles) d
3. When 2 different gases are present in equal number
of moles, the partial pressure of each gas is same. r1 p d2
= 1
r2 p2 d1
3. Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure

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It pressure is constant (b) The volume of the individual molecule is
negligible as compared to the total volume of the
r1 d2
= gas.
r2 d1
(c) Pressure exerted by gas is due to collision of gas
where r1 & r2 are rates of diffusion of two gases and molecules with the wall of the container so.
d1 & d2 are densities. Pressure  No of collisions per unit time per unit
 2 × vapour density = Molecular mass area by the molecules on the wall of the container
(d) All collisions between two molecules or between
r1 M2 a molecule and a wall are perfectly elastic.
 =
r2 M1 (e) All the molecules obey Newton's laws of motion.
(f) Gas molecules neither attract nor repel each
where M1 & M2 are the molecular masses of two
other.
gases.
(g) Kinetic energy of gas molecules depend upon the
Volume of gas diffused
(c) Rate of diffusion (r) = absolute temperature so.
Time taken for diffusion
Kinetic energy  absolute temperature
moles diffused Pressure drop 1 (h) The force of gravity has no effect on the speed of
r= =
time taken Pressure drop 2 gas molecules.
Note :
1. It should be noted that the rate of diffusion or 6.2 Calculation of Kinetic energy
effusion actually depends on pressure According to postulates of kinetic gas equation-
difference of the gas and not simply on its PV = 1/3 mnv2
pressure. Moreover the pressure difference to where P = pressure of the gas
be measured for this gas only i.e. if a container
V = volume of the gas
holds [He] at a pressure of 0.1 atm and if a
small pin-hole is made in the container n = no of molecules present in the
and if the container is placed in a room, then given amount of gas
the rate of effusion of He gas from the v = Root mean square speed.
container to outside depends only on its for one mole of the gas -
pressure difference, which is 0.1 – 0 (as there PV = RT and n = N
is no He in the atmosphere). This implies that
1
the diffusion of a gas is not dependent on the mNv2 = RT
diffusion of any other gas. 3
2 1
2. Whenever we consider the diffusion of a gas or . mNv2 = RT
experimental conditions, we always assume 3 2
that the gas diffuses in vaccum and during the 1
( mNv2 = K.E. per mole)
time period for which the diffusion is 2
studiedthe rate of diffusion (or the composition
 K.E. = RT
of diffusing or effusing mixture of gases)
3RT
remains constant. K.E. =  K.E. per mole / Avg. K.E. per mole.
2
5.1 Applications of graham's law of diffusion
  Boltzmann constant K = R N
(a) To the Detection of marsh gas in mines.
= 1.38 × 10–16 ergs K–1 molecules–1
(b) Separation of isotopes
3KT
(c) Determination of density and molecular mass of K.E. =  K.E. per molecule / Avg.
2
gases.
K.E. per molecule

6. Kinetic Theory of Gases

6.3 Velocities related to gaseous state
(a) It was a commonly given for ideal gases.
(A) Root mean square velocity (RMS velocity) -
(b) This theory was proposed by Bernoulli and next to
Square root of the mean of the squares of the speed of
developed by Clausius, Maxwell, Kroning and
Boltzman. all the molecules present in the given sample of the
gas is called root mean square speed.
6.1 Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of gases
(a) All the gases are made up of molecules moving µ = C12 + C22 + C32 +…………..……… Cn2
randomly in all the directions. n

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3PV 3RT 3P 7. Difference between real gas & ideal gas
u= = =
M M d
S.N. Ideal gas Real gas
(b) Average Speed -
1. Obeys gas law under Obeys only at low P
It is the arithmetic mean of the various speeds of the all condition and high T
molecules
2. Obeys ideal gas Does not obeys ideal
ϋ = C1 + C2 + C3 +……………..……… Cn gas equation
n
3. Intermoleuclar Intermolecular
8RT interaction between interaction between
Average speed ( v ) =
m gaseous molecules gaseous molecules
Average speed = .9213 × RMS speed are negligible. not negligible.

RMS speed = 1.085 × Average speed 4. Volume of a particle Volume of a particle

is negligible as
(c) Most Probable Speed- compared to total
Speed possessed by maximum number of molecules of volume of the gas.
a gas at a given temperature. 5. Exists only high
2RT temperature and low
Most probable speed  =
M pressure
is not be negligible
as compared to total
volume of the gas.
Exists only at low
temperature and
high pressure

MPS = .816 × RMS ; RMS = 1.224 MPS

MPS : A.V. speed : RMS 8. SPECIFIC HEAT OF GASES

1 : 1 . 128 : 1.224 (a) Specific Heat - It is the amount of heat required

to raise the temperature of one gm of the
Calculation of R. M. S. Velocity from Kinetic Theory: substance through one degree centigrade. It is
1. When the pressure & Volume are known,
usually expressed in "Calories".
According to kinetic theory, PV = 1 mnC2
3 (b) Calorie - A calorie is defined as the amount of
C2 = 3PV heat required to raise the temperature of one gm
mN because n = N of water through 1ºC (more accurately from 15.5
(Avogadro’s number)
ºC to 16.5 ºC.).
But mN = mass of the gas & V is the volume of the
gas, The heat so supplied is used up in increasing the
internal energy of the molecule, i.e. in raising the
3PV 𝟑𝐏𝐕 temperature or in raising the average K.E. of the
C2 = or C= ……(1)
M 𝐌 molecules.
(c) Specific Heat of a gas at constant volume (Cv) -
2. When temperature is known,
The amount of heat required to raise the
Equation (1) can be written as
temperature of one gm of the gas by 1 ºC when
𝟑𝐏𝐕 the volume is kept constant and pressure is
C= ----------(2) allowed to increase.
𝐌
(d) Specific Heat of a gas at constant Pressure (Cp) -

3. When density is known, The amount of heat required to raise the

Equation (1) can be written as temperature of one gm of the gas by 1 ºC when
the pressure is kept constant and volume is
𝟑𝐏 allowed to increase.
C= ----------(3)
𝐝 CV = cV × M and CP = cP × M
Where CV and CP are molar specific heat or heat
capacity per mole at constant volume and at
constant pressure.

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CP on decreasing (Z < 1), at low pressures & at higher
(e) Ratio for Molar Heats -
CV pressures the values went on increasing. This showed that,
(i) For monoatomic gases = 1.66 initially all the gases except H2 & He were more
compressible at lower pressures & less compressible at
(ii) For diatomic gases = 1.40
higher pressures (like H2 & He).
(iii) For triatomic gases = 1.33
Temperature effect: The experiment was repeated for
each gas at higher & higher temperatures. The nature of
9. VANDER WAAL'S EQUATION-A MODIFICATION IN variation of PV with pressure for N2 gas at different
GAS EQUATION temperatures are given in figure. From the curves it is
clear that, the values of PV deviated most at low
According to Vander Waal, Maxwell has made two
temperature over the entire range of pressure. This is
wrong assumptions in his kinetic theory of gases
indicated by the initial dip of the PV values at lower
which lead to wrong results. pressure & steep rise at higher pressure. As the
(a) The forces of attractions between gaseous temperature was increased both the dip & the slope of the
molecules are negligible under all conditions. rising part of the PV curve decreased. This indicates that
(b) The volume occupied by the gaseous molecules is the deviation from the ideal behavior is less pronounced
negligible as compared to total volume of gas. at higher temperatures. At 1000K the dip completely
vanished & the curves became similar to those of H2 &
Deviations of Real gases from Ideal behavior – He as shown. Thus it was observed that deviation was
Amagat’s Curves (PV – P curves) least as low pressure & high temperatures, that is when
the volume of the given mass of gas very large.
For one mole of an ideal gas, PV = RT
Pressure effect : At a given temperature, T being a
constant, PV should also remain constant whatever the
pressure may be. Amagat studied the behavior of gases like
N2, CO2, H2, He, etc at all temperature & pressures. Ex: He
first took one mole of N2 at room temperature (25⁰C) &
applied higher & higher pressure. For each value of
pressure applied, the volume of the gas was noted. The
volume of PV was then calculated. The value of PV was
plotted against applied pressure. The curves obtained were
called Amagat’s curves. Since temperature remains
constant, the curve is also called an Isotherm. The
experiment was then repeated with many other gases. The The temperature at which all real gases behave like ideal
nature of the curves was found to be different for different gases over appreciable range of pressure is called –
gases Boyle’s Temperature or Boyle’s point.

Pressure Correction – The observed pressure is lesser

𝑎𝑛 2
than ideal pressure & correction term should be added
𝑉2
for observed pressure in oreder to get ideal pressure.
𝑎𝑛 2
Pideal = P + unit of a = Nm4mol-2
𝑉2

Vander waal gas constant (a) :

Conclusion: For an ideal gas, since PV = RT, the PV – P Where a is a vander waal gas constant which indicate the
curves should be a straight line parallel to the pressure axis. inter molecular force of attraction.
No gas was found to obey this equation. In the case of H 2 & an 2
Pressure =
He the value of PV went on increasing (Z > 1), with rise in V2
pressure indicating that the gas became less & less unit of a = atm lit2/mol2
compressible. In the case of all other gases, value of PV went

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an 2 that of an ideal gas at low pressures when the volume
P1 = P + 2 is large. At higher pressures, however deviations are
V
observed.
Pi > PR
a,Fatt, liquification. ideal gas
real gas
Volume Correction - The observed volume is greater than P
ideal volume & correction term 'nb' has to be subtracted
from observed volume in order to get ideal volume.
Videal = V – nb unit of b = m3mol-1
V
Where 'n' is no. of moles of real gas & 'b' is constant which
COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR :
depends on nature of real gas.
PV volume observed
Vander waal gas constant (b) z= 
nRT volumeideal
Volume = nb
lit . INTERPRETATION OF DEVIATION FROM VANDER
Unit of b =
mol. WAALS EQUATION :
b = correction volume / vibratory volume PV a
(i) At low pressure z =  1
b = co-volume / excluded volume RT VRT
b = incompressible volume i.e. z < 1 ( –ve deviation)
b = 4Va × NA
this implies that gas is more compressible (below
Boyle’s temperature)
Va = 4/3 r3 = volume of 1 molecule which is rest. PV Pb
r = radius of 1 molecule
(ii) At high pressure z =  1
RT RT
Vi > V R i.e. z > 1 (+ve deviation)
If b, effective size of molecule it means the gas is less compressible (above
 Incompressible volume compressible volume 
Boyle’s temperature)
PV
Van der Waal’s equation of state: (iii) At extremely low pressure z =  1;
RT
 a 2 the gas is ideal (Boyle’s temperature)
 P  2 .n   V  nb  nRT
V
Conclusion: At very low pressure & high temperature,
At T, P, it act as ideal gas equation.
volume becomes so large that, both the correction factors,
 greater the value of ‘a’ more easily the gas is
‘a’/V2 & ‘b’ are negligible. Thus, Van der Waal’s equation
PV 2
liquefiable ; a = is reduced to ideal gas equation, PV =RT
n2
 greater the value of ‘b’ greater the molecular size, Thus, a real gas approaches ideal gas behavior
b = 4v at low pressure & high temperature.
 v = volume occupied by all the gas molecules.
Note: In the case of H2 & He which are lighter gases
Special note :
(exceptional behavior), the intermolecular
"a" and "b" depend on the nature of gas but not depend on
attraction is negligible, thus ‘a’ is very small thus
the temperature and pressure.
a/V2 becomes negligible compared to P, showing
 Limitations of Vander Waal’s equation: PV is more than RT, this explains the rising part
1. The values of ‘a’ & ‘b’ are not perfect constants for of the PV – P curve. Hence Z > 1.
any gas. They slightly vary with temperature.
2. The values of ‘a’ & ‘b’ differ from gas to gas. 10. CRITICAL CONSTANTS
3. Three constants (a, b, R) are used in equation. (a) Critical temperature (TC) - The temperature
above which gas cannot be liquified whatever
REAL GASES : DEVIATION FROM IDEAL BEHAVIOUR pressure is applied is called critical temperature.
The curve for the real has a tendency to coincide with

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8a 3. Intermolecular forces in liquid: more is the
TC =
27 bR attraction more is the viscosity.
(b) Critical pressure (PC) - The minimum pressure 4. Temperature: is inversely proportional to
required to liquefy a gas at its critical temperature temperature, less is temperature more is viscosity &
is called critical pressure. vice versa. At every 10 C rise in temperature
a viscosity decreases by 2%.
PC =
27b 2 Note: the most viscous liquid in the world is the
(c) Critical volume (VC) - The volume occupied by glass (supercooled liquid).
one mole of a gas at the critical temperature and
critical pressure is called critical volume. Surface Tension: The tangential force acting along
VC = 3 b the surface of the liquid at right angles to the surface
along one centimeter length of the surface. Units: Nm-1
11. LIQUIFICATION OF GASES or Jm-2
Factors affecting Surface tension:
(a) On increasing the pressure gas can be easily
1. Intermolecular forces in Liquid: More is the
liquified because intermolecular attraction between
gaseous molecule increases. attraction, surface molecules are more pulled to
inside and more is the surface tension. Ex: water
(b) On decreasing the temperature K.E. of gaseous
molecules decrease That's why gas can be easily shows strong hydrogen bonds and hence has high
liquified. surface tension.

(c) Temperature of gas must be lower than critical 2. Temperature: is inversely proportional to
temperature (TC). temperature, as decrease in temperature increases the
attraction and more will be surface tension & vice
12. BOYLE'S TEMPERATURE versa.

The temperature at which a real gas behaves like an Applications of Surface Tension:
ideal gas over an appreciable pressure range. a) Spherical shape of falling drops: due to increase in
a surface tension at all surface, it tries to decrease the
TB  surface tension by decreasing his surface at given
Rb
volume & appears spherical.
13. INVERSION TEMPERATURE b) Fire polishing of glass: sharp glass edges are heated to
It is the temperature at which any real gas is expanded make smooth, as melted glass takes up a rounded shape
adiabatically and no effect of cooling or heating is at the edges due to surface tension (it tries to decrease
observed. the surface tension by decreasing his surface).
2a c) Rise of liquid in a capillary tube: capillary tube dipped
Ti 
Rb into liquid wets the tube & the liquid rises into the
capillary tube to a certain height called capillary action,
Viscosity: the internal resistance to flow possessed by a this is due to surface tension. The inward pull of liquid
liquid (or) the force of friction which one part of the liquid molecules pushes the liquid molecules in the capillary
offers to another part of the liquid. Units: dynes cm-2 sec = tube. Ex: rise of oil in the wick of an oil lamp, rise of
1 Poise = 1g cm-1 s-1 liquid in the xylem strands of plants, etc.

Factors affecting Viscosity: d) Meniscus of a liquid: when a liquid is kept in the

1. Size/Mass of molecules: more is size more is
attraction and higher is the viscosity & vice versa.
2. Shape of molecules: spherical molecules rolls easily
and thus have lesser viscosity compared to irregular
shaped molecules which show resistance to flow &
thus more is viscosity.
container its surface acquires a curved shape known as
meniscus. Ex: Water and many liquids shows a concave
meniscus, since in water adhesive force is more than
cohesive force, due to which molecules hold the walls
of container tightly than with other molecules, thus from
centre they are dragged inward giving a concave
meniscus. But, Mercury & more viscous liquids shows a

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 Gaseous States
convex meniscus, here cohesive force is more then
adhesive force, hence molecules of liquids hold each other
firmly then holding walls, thus giving a convex meniscus.
e) Cleansing agents: Soaps & detergents are used cleansing
agents as they lower the interfacial tension between water
& the oil, dirt or greasy substance. Same happens in
toothpaste, face washes, shaving cream foams.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
The weak forces of attraction between the
molecules of a substance are called intermolecular
forces. These forces are also called van der Waal’s
forces by dutch scientist van der waals.
Applications: helpful to study physical properties.
 Greater the inter molecular forces, higher is the
melting points of solids.
 Greater the intermolecular forces, higher is the
boiling points of liquids.
 Greater the intermolecular forces, higher is the
viscosity of liquids.
 Greater the intermolecular forces, higher is the
surface tension of liquids.
 Greater the intermolecular forces, lower is the
vapour pressure of liquids.
Types of van der Waal’s forces
1. Dispersion forces (or) London forces: by Fritz
London, 1930.
In non-polar molecules & decreased to ¼ th of initial value at constant
monoatomic gases, there is symmetrical
distribution of electron cloud. Due to movement
of electrons the electron cloud gets distorted so
that a mo mentary dipole or instantaneous dipole
is produced. In this dipole, one part of the
molecule is more negative than the rest. This
temporary dipole induces dipole in the
neighbouring dipole. The two molecules are
attracted to each other. The forces of attraction
between instantaneous dipole & induced dipole
are called London forces or dispersion forces. It
operates at short distance of 500pm.
2. Dipole – Dipole forces
These forces operate between permanent
dipoles. Since dipoles possess partial charges (less than
1.6×10 –19 C). Ex: In HCl molecules.
3. Dipole – Induced dipole forces
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Non-polar Helium when is
dissolved in polar(dipole) water molecule, one
part of helium atom is made to acquire partial
negative charge & the other part acquires
partial positive charge. So, Helium atom gets
polarized & it becomes induced dipole. Thus,
interactions develop between dipole & induced
dipole. The dipole – induced dipole forces are
those which operate between polar molecules
having dipole moment greater than zero &
non-polar molecules having zero dipole
moment. This force is more stronger between
xenon in water. This means, lar ger is the size
of non-polar molecule, more is the tendency to
get polarized.
PROBLEMS
I. Problems based on Gas Laws:
1. Boyle’s Law -
1. Temperature remaining constant, calculate the volume
occupied by the gas at 70 kPa, if it occupies 10dm3
under 105 kPa pressure?
2. What will be the minimum pressure required to
compress 500 dm3 of air of 1 bar to 200 dm3 at 300 C?
3. A vessel of 120 cm3 capacity contains a certain amount
of gas at 350 C & 1.2 bar pressure. The gas is transferred
to another vessel of volume 180 cm3 at 350 C. What
would be its pressure?
4. 40g of gas occupies 20 dm3 at 300K and 100 kPa
pressure. If the pressure is changed to 50 kPa without
changing the temperature, what would be its volume?
5. A gas is present at a pressure of 2 atm. What would be
the increase in pressure so that the volume of gas can be
temperature?
6. At what pressure, the volume would be 1/3 rd of the
volume occupied by a gas under 875 mmHg at constant
temperature of 150 C?
2. Charle’s Law -
7. 7 dm3 of a gas is heated from 250 C to 1250 C at
constant pressure. Calculate final volume?
8. At 270 C, 0.8g of a gas occupies 500 cm3 under normal
pressure, what would be its volume if the temperature is
increased to 540 C at the same pressure?
9. 1 mole of an ideal gas at constant atm. press. is heated
to increase its volume by 50% of initial volume. The
change in temperature made was 300K to T K.
Calculate the T temperature?
10. At what temperature centigrade will the volume of a
gas at 00 C double itself if pressure is constant?
11. A sample of helium gas of volume 500 cm3 at 373 K.
Calculate the temperature at which the volume
becomes 260 cm3. Assume the pressure is constant.
12. On a ship sailing in pacific ocean where temp is 23.4 0
C, a balloon is filled with 2 L of air. What will be the
volume of the same balloon when the ship reaches
Indian ocean where temp is 26.10 C?
 Gaseous States
3. Gay-Lussac’s / Amonton’s Law -
13. At constant volume of 5dm3, a gas is heated from 270 C
to 570 C. if the initial pressure is 95 kPa, calculate the
final pressure?
14. A 10 L container is filled with a gas to a pressure of 2
atm at 00 C. At what temperature will the pressure inside
the container be 2.50 atm.?
15. A steel tank containing air at 15 atm press., at 15 0 C is
provided with a safety valve that will yield a pressure of
30 atm. To what minimum temperature must the air be
heated to blow the safety valve?
16. An iron cylinder containing helium can withstand a
pressure of 250 kPa at 300K. the cylinder can withstand
a pressure of 106 Pa. the room in which cylinder is
placed catches the fire. Predict whether the cylinder will
blow up or not before it melts? (M.P. of cylinder = 1800
K)
17. A gas cylinder containing cooking gas can withstand a
pressure of 14.9 bar. The pressure gauge of cylinder
indicates 12 bar at 270 C. due to sudden fire in the
building, the temperature starts rising. At what
temperature will the cylinder explode?
4. Ideal Gas Law -
28. The density of oxygen at NTP is 16 g dm-3. To what
temperature should it be heated at constant pressure
so that density becomes 8 g dm-3 ?
29. The density of CO2 is 0.326 g dm-3 at 270 C and
0.25 bar. What is the density of gas at 470 C ?
5. Graham’s Law of Diffusion -
30. H2 gas diffuses six times faster than another gas X
under similar conditions. What is the mol. mass of X
31. Rate of diffusion of a CH4 at a given temp is twice
that of gas X. Calculate mol. mass of X ?
32. 180 mL of hydrocarbon diffuses out of a vessel in 15
mins, while 120 mL of SO2 in 20 mins. Calculate the
mol. mass of hydrocarbon?
33. 50 dm3 of H2 gas takes 25 mins to diffuse out of a
vessel. How long will 40 dm3 of O2 take to diffuse ?
34. 20 dm3 of SO2 diffuse through a porous pot in 60 s.
what volume of O2 will diffuse in 30 s ?
35. Calculate the ratio of rates of diffusion of CH4 and
SO2 at 250 C?
36. Which will diffuse faster, NH3 or CO2 ? Calculate
their relative rates of diffusion ?
37. Equal volumes of 2 gases A & B diffuse through a
porous pot in 20 and 10 secs respectively. If the mol.
mass of gas A is 80, find mol. mass of gas B?
6. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure -
38. What is the pressure exerted by a mixture of 3.5g N2
and 2g He when confined in a vessel of 40L at 0 0 C
39. A 10L flask contains 0.2 moles of CH4, 0.3 mole of
H2 and 0.4 moles of N2 at 250 C. calculate the
pressure exerted by the gaseous mixture?
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18. Calculate the volume occupied by 5 moles of an ideal
gas at 250 C under 100 kPa pressure?
19. How many moles of helium gas occupy 22.4 L at 30 0 C
at 1 atm. pressure?
20. The mass of 0.5 dm3 of hydrogen at a pressure of 1 bar
& 300K temperature was found to be 0.04g. Calculate
the mol. mass of hydrogen?
21. 1 dm3 of oxygen is present in the flask at a pressure of
10-12 bar and 00 C. Calculate the no. of oxygen
molecules in the flask?
22. At 270 C and 80 kPa, 0.3g of a gas occupies 900 cm3.
What would be its volume at 1270 C & 100 kPa?
23. At 250 C and 760 mmHg, a gas occupies 600mL. What
will be its pressure at a height where temperature is 10 0
C and volume 640 mL?
24. 35 mL of oxygen were collected at 60 C and 758
mmHg. Calculate its volume at STP?
25. Determine the density of H2S gas at 270C under 200
kPa in terms of kg m-3 ? (M = 34×10-3 kg)
26. Calculate the mass of 500 cm3 of oxygen at 250 C
under 90 kPa pressure?
27. 34.05 cm3 of phosphorous vapours weigh 0.0625g at
5460 C and 1 bar. Calculate mol. mass of P ?
40. A gaseous mixture contains 55% N2, 20% O2 &
25% CO2. Calculate the total pressure?
7. R.M.S. Velocity -
41. Calculate the RMS speed of H2 gas at (a) STP;
(b) 270 C?
42. Calculate the RMS speed of CO2 at (a) STP; (b)
270 C?
43. Calculate the RMS speed of H2 gas at STP
(density of H2 = 0.09g/L)
44. Density of gas is 1.25g/L at 100 kPa. Calculate
R.M.S. ?
45. At what temperature will the RMS velocity of
methane be 684.1 ms-1 ?
46. At what temperature will He atoms have same
RMS velocity as H2 molecules have at 270 C?
47. At what temperature will O2 atoms have same
RMS velocity as N2 molecules have at 273 K?
48. At what temperature will SO2 atoms have same
RMS velocity as O2 molecules have at 298 K?
49. Compare the RMS velocity of O2 at 270 C and
540 C
50. To what temperature should H2 be heated from
290 K so as to double the RMS velocity?
8. Kinetic Energy of Gas -
51. The mean K.E. of a molecule at 00 C is
5.621×10-21 J. calculate the no. of molecules in 1
mole of gas?
52. Calculate the total K.E. of 5 moles of an ideal
gas at 00 C?
53. Calculate the total K.E. of 88g of CO2 at 300 K?