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ARC/05/5640.
August, 2011.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract.
1.0 Introduction.
7.0 Conclusion.
8.0 References.
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ABSTRACT
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1.0. INTRODUCTION
Thermal comfort is defined as: “that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction
with the thermal environment. According to this definition comfort is a subjective sensation.
Based on ASHRAE definition the zone of thermal comfort is the span of conditions where
80% of sedentary or slightly active persons find the environment thermally acceptable. In
terms of climatic conditions the acceptable ambient temperature of comfort would be slightly
higher in the summer than in the winter, being 23–27°C and 20–25°C, respectively. Fanger
(1970) defined 3 parameters for a person to be in thermal comfort: a. the body is in heat
balance; b. sweat rate is within comfort limits; c. mean skin temperature is within comfort
limits. These conceptual requisites for determining thermal comfort can be expressed by
measurable terms such as: body-core temperature within a very narrow range of 36.5–37.5°C,
a skin temperature of 30°C at the extremities and 34–35°C at body stem and head, and the
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body will be free of sweating. Any deviation from these assertions results in sensation of
discomfort. Thermal comfort will be attained when the rate of heat dissipation from the body
by means of radiation and convection (cardiovascular tone) will equal the rate of metabolic
heat production and, consequently, heat storage.
There are six major factors that determine comfort. They are ambient air temperature,
humidity, radiation, air movement, intrinsic clothing and level of activity. Other factors that
may have some effect on thermal comfort are age, sex, body shape, state of health, ethnic
grouping, diet, sleep, colour of clothing, acclimatisation, availability of fresh air, transients,
colour of a space enclosure and noise. An indication of the relative importance of these other
factors is the fact that when all the six major factors are within an acceptable and optimal
range, about 70% of the population will be comfortable.
Knowledge of the way different variables affect thermal comfort have been used to
formulate thermal indices or thermal scales that indicate the effects of combining the
different variables on comfort. Over thirty of these indices have been devised although their
definitions and ranges of applicability differ widely. An ideal index should reasonably and
accurately predict the consequences of any combination of the six major factors affecting
comfort. It should be applicable both indoors and outdoors and it should be capable of
indicating the degree of discomfort. One of the most popular indices is the Effective
Temperature Index (ET) from which the Corrected Effective Temperature index (CET) is
derived. Others include, the Operative temperature(OT), equivalent temperature, Mahoney
scale, Standard effective temperature(SET), the Equivalent Warmth(EW), the Resultant
Temperature (RT) just to measure a few.
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4.0. THE EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE.
The index requires that comfort limits should be established for the location, zone or region
and 22-27 degrees are assumed for the Tropics.
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Figures 1: Nomogram for the Effective Temperature index and the Corrected Effective
Temperature Index.
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ASHVE (1932) published a nomogram representation of the ET index, which
included air velocity effects and showed that over about 100°F (37.8°C) and 100% RH, air
movement increases the thermal load (hence the reversal of the air velocity lines). Vernon
(1932) included the effect of radiation by substituting globe temperature values for the dry
bulb temperature scale, adopted also by Bedford (1940). This became known as the CET
nomogram. As clothing has a large influence on radiation and wind effects, he produced two
monograms: for people wearing 1 clo clothing (normal scale) and for people stripped to the
waist (basic scale):
The following expressions approximate the values at 0.1 m/s air speed:
It was discovered that in hot environments the effect of humidity is underestimated and that
the adverse effect of 0.5 - 1.5 m/s air velocities at high temperatures is overestimated. Givoni
(1963) however established that above 32°C air movements produced a greater heating effect
than that suggested by the ET.
In 1932 Vernon and Warner substituted the dry-bulb temperature with a black-globe
temperature to allow radiation to be taken into account (the “corrected effective temperature”
(CET)). Since then many modifications were made to this basic index. For the present
discussion two indices, which are in daily use for many years are regarded.
The wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT) index:
The wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT) is by far the most widely used heat stress index
throughout the world. It was developed in the US Navy as part of a study on heat related
injuries during military training. The WBGT index, which emerged from the “corrected
effective temperature” (CET) consists of weighting of dry-bulb temperature (Ta), Wet-bulb
temperature (Tw) and black-globe temperature (Tg), in the following manner:
WBGT=0.7Tw+0.1Ta+0.2Tg
For indoor conditions the index was modified as follows:
WBGT=0.7Tw+0.3Tg
(For indoor purposes, when Tg ≈ Ta, t h e n WBGT=0.7Tw+0.3Ta)
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The coefficients in this index have been determined empirically and the index has no
physiological correlates; but, it was found that heat casualties and the time lost due to
cessation of training in the heat were both reduced by using this index. This index is
recommended by many international organizations for setting criteria for exposing workers to
hot environment and was adopted as an ISO standard (ISO 7243).
Corrected Effective Temperature can be used to calculate the Code of Measures for
dealing with thermal stress of workers in outdoor worksites during the summer months. This
is explained below:
Code of Measures for dealing with thermal stress of workers in outdoor worksites
during the summer months
1. General Measures
The following general measures aim to reduce the harmful effects of thermal exposure of
workers at outdoor worksites during the summer months:
· Issuing and using suitable head cover
· Issuing potable cool water (10-15°C) and in general issuing abundant supply of cool water
to workers
· Configuring / selecting shady worksites or erecting suitable canopies for carrying out work,
wherever this is possible.
· Designing the work schedule in such a way that labour intensive activities are conducted
when temperatures are lower.
2. Adjustments
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TABLE I (Conditions requiring adjustment of work schedule)
Dry Bulb Temperature (°C) Relative Humidity Corrected Effective Temperature (°C)
36 50 30
37 45 30
38 39 30
39 34 30
40 29 30
41 26 30
42 23 30
43 20 30
3. Explanatory notes
(a) The Corrected Effective Temperature listed in the third column in Table I corresponds to
the Corrected Effective Temperature calculated under conditions of negligible wind speed.
(b) Using data provided by the Meteorological Service, it is concluded that the appearance,
during the afternoon hours, of conditions of serious scorching heat and therefore conditions
which necessitate the regulation of work conditions, can be forecasted if at 9.00 am
conditions of average scorching heat prevail (Corrected Effective Temperature approx.
26°C).
(c) Using the aforementioned information, it is possible to forecast early in the morning
conditions where the upper limit values in Table I will be exceeded and hence inform
employers and employees if measures need to be taken by means of an announcement.
Confirmation of the forthcoming scorching heat can be carried out if, starting at 9.00 am,
temperature and humidity conditions are as in Table II.
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TABLE II (Scorching Heat forecasting conditions).
Dry Bulb Temperature (°C) Relative Humidity Corrected Effective Temperature (°C)
27 89 26
28 77 26
29 66 26
30 56 26
31 51 26
32 44 26
33 36 26
34 30 26
35 25 26
36 21 26
(d) The upper limit values of safe exposure (3rd column in Table I) are calculated according
to the fact that workers bear light summer clothing. In cases where special clothing is
required for carrying out specialised work, then the above upper limit values are not valid and
become stricter.
(e) The above upper limit values concern workers who are not included in high risk groups,
i.e. those who do not belong to these categories:
· Those suffering from general ailments which negatively affect the workers’ psychosomatic
health (diabetes, anaemia, arterial pressure disturbance, renal failure, psychological disorders)
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7.0. CONCLUSION.
In conclusion, the corrected effective temperature has been fully explained and the
use has been discussed in this paper. It has been discovered that the use of the corrected
effective index is important in achieving thermal comfort in the design of buildings. Its
usefulness also encompasses the dealing with thermal stress of workers in outdoor worksites
during the summer months.
REFERENCE
Andris Auliciems and Steven V. Szokolay. (2007. Thermal Comfort, Second revised edition,
Oxford Brookes University press, UK.
Yoram EPSTEIN* and Daniel S. MORAN (2006). Thermal Comfort and the Heat Stress
Indices, McGraw Hill press, London.
Gagge AP, Nishi Y. (1976). Physical indices of the thermal environment. ASHRAE J 18, 47–
51.
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