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SYMBOLIC LOGIC

SYMBOLIC LOGIC:
Symbolic logic deals with truth-functional propositions. A proposition is truth-functional
when the truth value of the proposition depends upon the truth value of its component parts.
Symbolic, or mathematical logic provides different techniques for discriminating between
valid and invalid deductions from Classical Aristotelian syllogistic logic. Modern logic does
not build on the system of syllogisms. It does not begin with the analysis of categorical
propositions in quantity and quality and analysis of terms into distribution and
undistribution. The relations of classes of things are not central for modern logicians as they
were for Aristotle and his followers
USES OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC:
1) Symbolic logic analyses deduction through an artificial symbolic language different from
our natural language of words.
2) Symbols greatly facilitate our thinking about arguments.
3) They enable us to get to the heart of an argument, exhibiting its essential nature and
putting aside what is not essential.
4) with symbols we can perform, almost mechanically, with the eye, some logical operations
which might otherwise demand great effort.
5)Using the approach taken by modern logic, with its more versatile symbolic language, we
can pursue the aims of deductive analysis directly and we can penetrate more deeply.
PROPOSITION: A proposition is a statement, a sentence which has a
truth value. It is either true of false.
A single proposition can be expressed by many different sentences. The
following sentences
all represent the same proposition:
God loves the world.
The world is loved by God.

TRUTH-VALUE: Every statement is either true or false. Therefore we say that every
statement has a truth value, where the truth value of a true statement is true, and the truth
value of a false statement is false.
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SIMPLE STATMENT: A simple statement does not contain any other statement as a
component. For example, “Charlie is neat” is a simple statement. A categorical statement is a
simple proposition.
COMPOUND STATEMENT: A compound proposition contains another statement as a
component. For example,“Charlie is neat and Charlie is sweet” is a compound statement,
because it contains two simple statements as components. Of course, the components of a
compound statement may themselves be compound. or part of the statement.
1) The part must be a statement in its own right; and (2) if the part is replaced in the larger
statement by any other statement, the result of that replacement must be meaningful—it must
make sense. The man who shot Lincoln was an actor is a compound statement.
LOGICAL OPERATORS:
Words which combine or modify simple propositions in order to form compound propositions
(words such as and and or) are called logical operators. For example, the proposition God
loves the world and God sent His Prophets is a truth-functional, compound proposition. The
word and is the logical operator. It is truth functional because its truth value depends upon
the truth value of the two simple propositions which
make it up.
TRUTH FUNCTION: Truth function is any compound proposition whose truth value is
completely determined by the truth values of its components. It is a function that determines
the truth-value of a complex statement solely in terms of the truth-values of the component
statements without reference to their meaning
TRUTH-FUNCTIONAL COMPOUND STATEMENT : A compound statement whose
truth value is determined wholly by the truth values of its components.
PROPOSITIONAL CONSTANT: A propositional constant is an uppercase letter that
represents a single, given proposition. Propositional constants commonly have some
connection with the propositions they symbolize, such as being the first letter of the first
word, or some other distinctive word within the proposition. For example, the proposition
The mouse ran up the clock could be abbreviated by the propositional constant M. On the
other hand, The mouse did not run up the clock may be abbreviated ~M (read as not M).
Within one compound proposition or argument, the same propositional constant should be
used to represent a given proposition. Note that a simple proposition cannot be represented by
more than one constant.
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PROPOSITIONAL VARIABLE: A propositional variable is a lowercase letter that

represents any proposition. It is customary to use lowercase letters as propositional variables,
starting with the letter p and continuing through the alphabet (q, r, s, . . .). Whereas a
propositional constant represents a single, given proposition, a propositional variable
represents an unlimited number of propositions. It is important to realize that a single
constant or variable can represent not only a simple proposition but also a compound
proposition. The variable p could represent God loves the world or it could represent God
loves the world but He hates sin. The entire compound proposition It is false that
if the mouse ran up the clock, then, if the clock did not strike one, then
the mouse would not run down could be abbreviated by a single constant
F, or it could be represented by symbolizing each part, such as  (M ⊃ (S
⊃D)). The decision concerning how to abbreviate a compound proposition
depends on the purpose for abbreviating it.

TRUTH-FUNCTIONAL CONNECTIVE: Any logical connective (e.g., conjunction,

disjunction, material implication and material equivalence) between the components of a
truth functionally compound statement.
TRUTH TABLE: An arrangement of truth values that shows in every possible case how the
truth value of a compound proposition is determined by the truth values of its simple
components.(Hurley) An array on which all possible truth values of compound statements are
displayed, through the display of all possible combinations of the truth values of their simple
components. A truth table may be used to define truth-functional connectives; it may also be
used to test the validity of many deductive arguments. (Copi)
NEGATION: (symbolized by~ also called tilde
Negation is the logical operator representing the words not, it is false that, or any other phrase
which denies or contradicts the proposition. As we have already seen, the symbol ~ (called a
tilde) represents negation. If the proposition All roads lead to Rome is represented by the
propositional constant R, then ~R means Not all roads lead to p p Rome or It
is false that all roads lead to Rome. Note that the negation of a proposition
is the contradiction of that proposition. Thus ~R could also be translated
T F
Some roads do not lead to Rome. If proposition is true, its negation is
false. If a proposition is false, its negation is true. F T
The truth table for negation shows how any statement having the form of
negation (p) is determined by the truth value of the statement that is negated (p): The truth
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table shows that p is false when p is true and that p is true when p is false. This is exactly
what we would expect, because it perfectly matches ordinary English usage.

Negation also begins with a sentence like 'It is not the case that' at the front of the sentence.

Examples

It is not the case that McDonald’s makes hamburgers. M. F

It is not the case that Starbucks makes hamburgers.  S T

The first statement is false because M is true, and the second is true because S is false. M
means that McDonald makes hamburgers and S means that Starbucks makes hamburger.

CONJUNCTION:
When two propositions are joined by and, but, still, yet, also, although, however, moreover,
nevertheless and so on even commas and semicolons or other similar words, a conjunction
is formed. The conjunction logical operator is symbolized by • (called, of course, a dot). If
Main Street leads to home is represented by the constant H, then All roads lead to Rome, but
Main Street leads to home could be represented by R • H (read as R dot H, or R and H).
CONJUNCTS: The components of the compound statement which form conjunction are
called conjuncts. The conjunction is true if and only if its components (called conjuncts) are
both true. If either conjunct is false, the conjunction as a whole is false.

p q p.q
(pq)

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Where p is true and q is true, p.q is true.

Where p is true and q is false, p.q is false.
Where p is false and q is true, p.q is false.
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Where p is false and q is false, p.q is false

Consider the following conjunctive statements:

Ferrari and Maserati make sports cars. F.M
Ferrari and GMC make sports cars. F.G
GMC and Jeep make sports cars. G.J
The first statement is true, because both conjuncts are true; but the second and third
statements are false, because at least one of their conjuncts is false.
We abbreviate simple statements by capital letters, generally using for this purpose a letter
that will help us remember which statement it abbreviates. Thus we may abbreviate “Charlie
is neat and Charlie is sweet” as N.S Some conjunctions, both of whose conjuncts have the
same subject term—for example, “Byron was a great poet and Byron was a great
adventurer”—are more briefly and perhaps more naturally stated in English by placing the
“and” between the predicate terms and not repeating the subject term, as in “Byron was a
great poet and a great adventurer.” For our purposes, we regard the latter as formulating the
same statement as the former and symbolize either one as P.A as If both conjuncts of a
conjunction have the same predicate term, as in “Lewis was a famous explorer and Clark was
a famous explorer,” the conjunction is usually abbreviated in English by placing the “and”
between the subject terms and not repeating the predicate, as in “Lewis and Clark were
famous explorers.” Either formulation is symbolized as L.C.
As shown by the truth table defining the dot symbol, a conjunction is true if and only if both
of its conjuncts are true. The word “and” has another use in which it does not merely signify
(truth-functional) conjunction, but has the sense of “and subsequently,” meaning temporal
succession. Thus the statement, “ Nasir ud Din Shah entered Pakistan at Wagha border and
went straight to Islamabad,” is significant and might be true, whereas “Nasir ud Din went
straight to Islamabad and entered the country at Wagha border” is hardly intelligible. There is
quite a difference between “He took off his shoes and got into bed” and “He got into bed and
took off his shoes.”

DISJUNCTION:
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A disjunction is formed when two propositions are joined by the logical operator or. It is a
truth-functional connective meaning “or”; components so connected are called disjuncts.
There are two types of disjunction: inclusive and exclusive.
In English, the word or is ambiguous. In one sense it can mean “this or that, but not both”
(called the exclusive or). For example, in the sentence The senator is a believer or an
unbeliever, the word or must be taken in the exclusive sense; nobody could be both a believer
and an unbeliever at the same time in the same way. However, the word or can also mean
“this or that, or both” (called the inclusive or). This is how it should be taken in the sentence
Discounts are given either to senior citizens or war veterans. If you were a senior citizen or a
war veteran or both, you would be allowed a discount.
In Latin, the ambiguity is taken care of by two separate words: aut, meaning the “exclusive
or,” and vel, meaning the “inclusive or.” Although it may seem like the exclusive sense of the
word or is the more natural sense, in logic the disjunction is always taken in the inclusive
sense. This is seen in the fact that the symbol ∨ is derived from the Latin vel.
INCLUSIVE DISJUNCTION OR WEAK DISJUNCTION: A truth-functional connective
between two components called disjuncts. A compound statement asserting inclusive
disjunction is true when at least one of the disjuncts (that is, one or both) is true. Normally
called simply “disjunction,” it is also called “weak disjunction” and is symbolized by the
wedge, . An inclusive disjunction is true if one or the other or both disjuncts are true; only
if both disjuncts are false is their inclusive disjunction false. The inclusive “or” has the sense
of “either, possibly both.” Where precision is at a premium, as in contracts and other legal
documents, this sense is often made explicit by the use of the phrase “and/or.
EXAMPLE: “Premiums will be waived in the event of sickness or unemployment.” The
intention here is obviously that premiums are waived not only for sick persons and for
unemployed persons, but also for persons who are both sick and unemployed. This sense of
the word “or” is called weak or inclusive.
EXCLUSIVE DISJUNCTION OR STRONG DISJUNCTION: A logical relation
meaning “or” that may connect two component statements. A compound statement asserting
exclusive disjunction says that at least one of the disjuncts is true and that at least one of the
disjuncts is false. The disjunction is intended to be exclusive—by means of the added phrase
“but not both”.
SYMBOL "": The Latin word vel signifies weak or inclusive disjunction, and the Latin
word aut corresponds to the word “or” in its strong or exclusive sense. It is customary to use
the initial letter of the word vel to stand for “or” in its weak, inclusive sense. The symbol for
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weak (inclusive) disjunction,  . Any statement of the form p  q is true if p is true, or if q is

true, or if both p and q are true. Unless” is best symbolized simply with the wedge .

Where both disjuncts have either the same subject term or the same predicate term, it is often
natural to compress the formulation of their disjunction in English by placing the “or” so that
there is no need to repeat the common part of the two disjuncts. Thus, “Either Smith is the
owner or Smith is the manager” might equally well be stated as “Smith is either the owner or
the manager,” and either one is properly symbolized O M as And “Either Red is guilty or
Butch is guilty” may be stated as “Either Red or Butch is guilty”; either one may be
symbolized as R B. The word “unless” is often used to form the disjunction of two
statements. Thus, “You will do poorly on the exam unless you study” is correctly symbolized
as because that disjunction asserts that one of the disjuncts is true, and hence that if one of
them is false, the other must be true. Of course, you may study and do poorly on the exam.

Examples Of Inclusive Disjunction:

Either Abdullah Husain or Myra Khan is a novelist. A  M

Either Abdullah Husain or Qurat Ul Ain is a novelist. A Q

Either Shuaib Malik or Sania Mirza is a novelist. S Sm

The first two statements are true, because in each case at least one of the disjuncts is true. The
third is false, because both disjuncts are false.

Examples Of Exclusive Disjunction:

The Tezgam is on either platform 5 or platform 7.

You can have either soup or salad with this meal.

Kalsoom is either ten or eleven years old.

The sense of these statements excludes the possibility of both alternatives being true.
If the exclusive aspect of these “either . . . or . . .” statements is essential, the symbolic
equivalent of “but not both” can be attached to their translations. Thus the first statement

could be translated (A B).  (A. B).

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If the context of an argument requires that the word or be represented in the exclusive sense,
as in The senator is either a Republican or a Democrat, it may be translated with the more
complicated (R ∨ D) • (R • D)—that is, “The senator is either a Republican or a Democrat,
but not both a Republican and a Democrat.”

A disjunction is thus considered to be false if and only if both components (called disjuncts)
are false. If either disjunct is true, the disjunction as a whole is true.
CAUTION OR EXCEPTION: Though in English grammar the word or is
called a conjunction, in logic only and (and equivalent words) is a
conjunction. Or is always called a disjunction.
USE OF PARENTHESES TO REMOVE AMBIGUITY:

Logic may use parentheses in symbolizing complicated compound propositions. This is

done to avoid ambiguity. The compound proposition A ∨ B • C could mean A or B, and C or
it could mean A, or B and C. Parentheses remove the ambiguity, as in (A ∨ B) • C, which
represents A or B, and C. This is similar to how parentheses are used in mathematics.
Assuming there are no rules about which operation should be performed first, the
mathematical expression 5 + 6 × 4 could equal either 44 or 29, depending on whether one
adds first or multiplies first. But parentheses would make it clear, as in (5 + 6) × 4. Logic uses
parentheses in the same way. Generally, in a series of three or more connected propositions,
parentheses should be used.The word both is often an indicator of how parentheses are to be
placed when using conjunctions. The symbolized exclusive or in the paragraph above could
be read R or D, but not both R and D, the word both telling us to place parentheses around R
• D. A proper use of parentheses can also help us to distinguish between not both and both
not propositions. For example, the proposition Cats and snakes are not both mammals (which
is true) would be symbolized as ~(C • S). The not comes before the both, so the tilde is placed
before the parenthesis. However, Both cats and snakes are not mammals (which is false)
would be symbolized as (~C • ~S). Note that this second proposition could also be translated
Neither cats nor snakes are mammals. When symbolizing compound propositions which use
negation, it is standard practice to assume that whatever variable, constant, or proposition in
parentheses the tilde immediately precedes is the one negated. For example, the compound
proposition p ∨ q is understood to mean (p) ∨ q, because the tilde immediately precedes
the variable p. This is different from (p ∨ q). Negation is used in the same way that the
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negative sign is used in mathematics. The mathematical expression -5 + 6 means (-5) + 6,

which equals 1. This is different from -(5 + 6), which equals -11. So when negating a single
variable or constant, you need not use parentheses. But when negating an entire compound
proposition, place the  (tilde) in front of the parentheses around the proposition.

USE OF EITHER --OR AS DISJUNCTION:

More often EITHER IS used to introduce the first disjunct in a disjunction, as in “Either the
blind prisoner has a red hat or the blind prisoner has a white hat.” The word “either”
punctuates a compound statement. Thus the sentence:
"The organization will meet on Thursday and Anand will be elected or the election will
be postponed" is ambiguous. This ambiguity can be resolved in one direction by placing the
word “either” at its beginning, or in the other direction by inserting the word “either” before
the name “Anand.” It is expressed ambiguously in p.q r

NEITHER ... NOR

The negation of a disjunction is often formed by use of the phrase “neither–nor.” Thus the
statement, “Either Fillmore or Harding was the greatest U.S. president,” can be contradicted
by the statement, “Neither Fillmore nor Harding was the greatest U.S. president.” The
disjunction would be symbolized as F  H and its negation as either or as (F H) or as
(F ). (H)

BOTH:

The word “both” in English has a very important role in logical punctuation, and it deserves
the most careful attention. When we say “Both Jamal and Derek are not . . .” we are saying,
as noted just above, that “Neither Jamal nor Derek is...." we are applying the negation to each
of them. But when we say “Jamal and Derek are not both . . .” we are saying something very
different; we are applying the negation to the pair of them taken together, saying that “it is not
the case that they are both . . . .” This difference is very substantial.
Entirely different meanings arise when the word “both” is placed differently in the English
sentence.
Consider the great difference between the meanings of

Jamal and Derek will not both be elected.  (J.D). MEANS NONE OF THEM WILL NOT
BE ELECTED.

and
Jamal and Derek will both not be elected.  (J).  (D) MEANS THAT EACH ONE OF
THEM WILL NOT BE ELECTED

The first denies the conjunction and may be symbolized as The second says that each one of
the two will not be elected, and is symbolized as  (J).  (D) When the task is logical
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analysis, the punctuation role of “both” must be very carefully determined. p  q is

ambiguous meaning either (p)  q or (p q). The exclusive disjunction of p and q
asserts that at least one of them is true but not both are true, which is written as (p  q ).
(p  q ). Exclusive disjunction is also expressed as ""
SUMMARY

Three common logical operators are negation (not, symbolized ~), conjunction (and,
symbolized •), and disjunction (or, symbolized ∨). These logical operators can be defined by
means of truth tables. Negation reverses the truth value of a proposition, conjunction is true if
and only if both conjuncts are true, and disjunction is false if and only if both disjuncts are
false.

CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS AND MATERIAL IMPLICATION

Basic Truth Tables

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A truth table shows how the truth or falsity of a compound statement depends on the truth or
falsity of the simple components statements from which it's constructed. So we'll start by
looking at truth tables for the five logical connectives. A truth table is a complete list of all
the possible permutations of truth and falsity for a set of simple statements, showing the
affect of each permutation on the truth value of a compound statement having those simple
statements as components. Each permutation of truth values constitutes one row of a truth
table and the number of rows in a truth table is 2n where n equals the number of simple
statements. In order to determine the truth value of a compound, examine the column under
the dominant operator for that compoundA truth table is a convenient way to define the
results of a logic operation. For negation there are two columns; one for the statement and
one for the negation. Only two rows are needed in the body of the table since the statement
can be only true or false:

Negation (not)

P ~P
T F
F T

For the binary operations there are three columns; one for each statement and one
for the result of the logical operation.

Conjunction (and) Disjunction (or) Conditional (if-then)

A B A ^ B A B A v B A B A -> B
T T T T T T T T T
T F F T F T T F F
F T F F T T F T T
F F F F F F F F T

While these tables define the results of the basic logic operations, it is not
necessary to memorize the tables. You will notice that each binary operation has an
exceptional case: a single row (highlighted above) with a value opposite that of the
other rows. All you must remember are these exceptional cases:

 The conjunction of two or more statements is true if and only if all of the
statements are true.
 The disjunction of two or more statements is false if and only if all of the
statements are false.
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 The conditional is false if and only if the premise is true and the conclusion
is false.

Remembering these special cases will save you a significant amount of time when
you begin creating truth tables for more complex statements.

The truth value of elementary negations, conjunctions and

disjunctions can be immediately determined from their defining
truth tables. But what about compound propositions like  p ∨
( q • r)? To find the truth values for such
complicated propositions, the following procedure may be
followed: