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Experimental study on flame stability of biogas /

hydrogen combustion

Zhunqing Hu*, Xin Zhang

Beijing Key Laboratory of Powertrain for New Energy Vehicle, School of Mechanical, Electronic and Control
Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, PR China

article info abstract

Article history: The flame stability of biogas blended with hydrogen combustion was experimentally
Received 10 July 2018 studied in the constant volume combustion bomb. The variations of characteristic pa-
Received in revised form rameters of flame instability and effect of pressure and fuel component proportion on
30 July 2018 flame shape were analyzed. The experimental results show that the flame instability in-
Accepted 3 August 2018 creases with the decrease of equivalence ratio, and the global flame stability decreases
Available online xxx with increase of CO2 fractions. With increase of initial pressure of biogas and hydrogen
mixture, Markstein length decreases, hydrodynamic instability decreases, but the thermal
Keywords: mass diffusion instability has no effect. The effect of increase of the hydrogen ratio on
Flame stability flame stability is more obvious, with the increase of initial pressure and hydrogen ratio
Biogas together, both hydrodynamic instability and thermal mass diffusion instability increase.
Hydrogen This research can provide experimental basis for the design and development of biogas
Constant volume combustion bomb blended with hydrogen engines.
© 2018 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

adding some hydrogen has good effect on improvement of

Introduction
With the shortage of energy and the worsening of the envi-
ronment, the automobile engine has been restricted by the
increasingly stringent emission regulations. The development
of renewable clean fuel has become one of the hot topics in
the field of engine research. Biogas has been used more and
more widely for its strong availability, wide source and clean
combustion [1]. However, because of its high non hydrocarbon
content and complex composition which vary with the
change of temperature and pressure, the combustion speed is
slow, the stability of flame is poor, and the fire is easy to lose
fire, so it is restricted in the application of engine [2]. In order
to compensate for the defects of the biogas in engine appli-
cation, during the combustion process of biogas engine,
flame propagation speed [3]. Therefore, it is necessary to study
the flame stability of biogas/hydrogen engine combustion.
The flame will form unstable flame cells under certain
conditions, which was observed first in the experiment by
Smithells and Ingle [4], but no further study was carried out at
that time. Markstein [5] made flame cell with a tube burner，
and determined the relationship between the molecular
weight and the cell size of the fuel. He found that the hydro-
carbon fuel with different carbon atoms have the opposite
effect on the instability of the flame cell. His study also
showed that there were two modes of flame instability: hy-
drodynamics and thermal mass diffusion instability respec-
tively. Konnov [6] carried out an experimental study on the
flame cell instability with a plane flame burner, and observed
the flame cells and measured the velocity of the cell flame and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zhqhu@bjtu.edu.cn (Z. Hu).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.08.011
0360-3199/© 2018 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Hu Z, Zhang X, Experimental study on flame stability of biogas / hydrogen combustion, International
Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.08.011
2 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 e8
the number of the cells. Gorman [7] observed the flame cells
using a plane flame burner, and his results show that the
pattern of different flame cells depends on the equivalent
ratio of the mixture and the flow velocity of the burner outlet.
Law [8] has obtained the critical conditions of flame cell pat-
terns for natural gas, acetylene and propane, and their
research results show that when the composition and equiv-
alence ratio of propane blended with hydrogen are definite,
the smooth flame appears wrinkles as the initial pressure
increases. Groff [9] obtained the laminar flame cells of pro-
pane/air in constant volume bomb using high speed schlieren
photography system, and their results show that the H2/O2/N2
and C3H8/O2/N2 flame will be affected by the hydrodynamic
instability under conditions of stable heat diffusion, and the
unstable flame cells appear. Bechtold and Matalon [10] found
that when the flame starts to spread out from the ignition
core, the flame cell instability is restrained by the stretch force
at small flame radius, but as the flame gradually spreads
outward, the flame radius increases gradually and the stretch
strength decreases, reaching a critical point. At this time, the
stability of the flame cells is no longer suppressed by the
stretch rate, and many cells appear at the same time and fill
the whole flame surface. The appearance of this phenomenon
depends on the interaction of hydrodynamics and thermal
mass diffusion instability. Kwon and others [11] have studied
the effect of pressure on the flame stability of hydrogen-
oxygen-nitrogen mixture in a high-pressure constant vol-
ume combustion bomb, and their research shows that with
the increase of initial pressure, the thickness of the flame is
reduced, and the instability of the flame is enhanced. Bradly
[12] quantified the shape of flame cells, studied the flame ac-
celeration caused by the increase of the area of the flame
surface during the large scale explosion, and his results
showed that the large scale experiments were difficult to be
carried out and analyzed because of the effect of radiation
heat loss and buoyancy. Miao and others [13] studied the
laminar combustion characteristic of natural gas-hydrogen -
dilute gas (N2/CO2) when the hydrogen ratio is 20% and 80%,
obtained Markstein Length, and their research showed that
the effect of initial pressure on flame stability is also crucial.
Jeongjae [14] reported the stability characteristics of attached
hydrogen and syngas (H2/CO) turbulent jet flames with coaxial
air, the detachment stability limit of the syngas single jet
flame was found to decrease with increasing amount of car-
bon monoxide in the fuel. Um et al. [15] found that the blow off
limits improve with NH3 substitution in H2eair flames, due to
decrease of the maximum flame temperature and reduction in
the concentration of light radicals, and the chemical effects of
NH3 substitution on flame structure are dominant. Miao [16]
investigated that with hydrogen addition, the inverse diffu-
sion flame can sustain burning with a lower global energy
than without it. The most significant stabilization effect was
obtained with 30% hydrogen addition for complete extinction
limit and 30%e90% for local extinction limit. The corre-
sponding fuel jet velocity at complete extinction limit also
decreases with hydrogen addition. Leung [17] found that with
the presence of a significant amount of CO2 in the fuel, the
stability limits were very low and the flames can only be sta-
bilized over a very small range of co-flowing air velocities.
Zhen [18] reported upon hydrogen addition in the biogas
Please cite this article in press as: Hu Z, Zhang X, Experimental study on flame stability of biogas / hydrogen combustion, International
Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.08.011
flame, there is a corresponding change in the appearance,
stability and heat transfer characteristics of the flame. Addi-
tion of hydrogen significantly enhances the stability of the
biogas flame, and the initial 5% hydrogen addition is found to
be more efficient in the stability enhancement than the other
5% hydrogen addition. Cardona [19] investigated measure-
ments of the laminar burning velocities of biogas and a biogas/
propane/hydrogen mixture with normal and oxygen-enriched
air while varying the air/fuel ratio. An increase in the laminar
burning velocities of both fuels is reported by enriching air
with oxygen, a phenomenon that is explained by the
increased reactivity of the mixture. Some other studies related
to this subject are reported [20e22].
For biogas blended with hydrogen, there are few studies on
the flame stability at present. The CO2 and hydrogen in biogas
are very important for the instability of flame, especially the
appearance and development of flame cells. This study is
expected to clarify the behaviors of flame stability with
various fractions and initial pressures of biogas and hydrogen
mixtures. The study will enrich the understanding of com-
bustion flame stability for the biogas blended with hydrogen
and provide a practical guide to engine application.
Test system
The schematic diagram of the experimental platform for
constant volume combustion bomb is shown in Fig. 1, which
consists of a constant volume combustion bomb, high-speed
schlieren photography system, temperature control system,
intake and exhaust system, ignition system, and dynamic
data acquisition system. The constant volume combustion
bomb consists of a cylinder of 1.884L, a transient pressure
sensor, an ignition electrode, a jet. The high speed schlieren
photography system uses schlieren and high-speed camera to
obtain flame image. The schlieren method can convert the
space phase distribution into visible image. The image ob-
tained by schlieren method can reflect the inhomogeneity of
the physical quantity such as the refractive index and density.
The flame photos obtained by schlieren method reflect the
change of the density gradient on the flame surface in the
constant volume combustion bomb, and the flame image ob-
tained by schlieren can capture a clear flame front. The high
speed photogrammetry is used to capture light from the
schlierer, and get the image of the flame propagation process.
The temperature control system includes a premixed box, a
temperature controller, a heater, and a thermocouple tem-
perature sensor. The intake system is composed of cylinders,
a premixing box and an intake manifold. The exhaust system
is composed of an exhaust pipe and a vacuum pump. The
ignition system includes an electronic control unit, an ignition
drive circuit, etc. The dynamic data acquisition system in-
cludes the combustion pressure acquisition unit, the ion
current acquisition module, etc.
Biogas is mainly composed of methane and carbon dioxide,
in this experiment, the mixture of CNG and CO2 was used to
simulate biogas, the volume fraction of CO2 in a mixture is
expressed as FCO2 ,
VCO2
FCO2 ¼ (1)
VCNG þ VH2 þ Vair þ VCO2
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 e8 3

Fig. 1 e Experimental schematic.

where VCO2 is the volume of CO2 contained in the fuel/air, VCNG ,
VH2 and Vair are the volumes of compressed natural gas,
hydrogen and air, respectively. The hydrogen ratio in mixture
is defined as FH2 , which represents the volume ratio of H2 in
mixture, as shown in Eq. (2),
VH2
FH2 ¼
VCNG þ VCO2 þ VH2
Results and analysis
Variations of characteristic parameters of flame instability
Hydrodynamic instability is caused by the thermal expansion
of the flame front, which is usually characterized by expan-
sion ratio and flame thickness. The characteristic parameter
of thermal mass diffusion instability is Lewis number Le.
When Le < 1, the flame instability increases, while Le > 1, the
flame instability decreases. Markstein length is a global
characterization parameter which can comprehensively
reflect hydrodynamic instability and thermal mass diffusion
instability.
Fig. 2 shows the stability characterization parameters of
biogas at different equivalence ratios and different CO2
(2) fractions. Where the initial pressure is Pin ¼ 0:1MPa, the
initial temperature is T ¼ 297K, and H2 fraction is FH2 ¼ 0.
From Fig. 2(a), it can be seen that the flame thickness in-
creases with the increase of the CO2 component in the
mixture, and it is the smallest at the theoretical equivalent
ratio, which is illustrated that the hydrodynamic instability
increases with the increase of CO2 fraction, while the effect
of equivalence ratio on hydrodynamic instability is not
obvious. As shown in Fig. 2(b), with the increase of CO2
content, the Lewis number decreases, with the increase of
the equivalent ratio, the Lewis number increases, this just
shows that the thermal mass diffusion instability of the

Fig. 2 e Characteristic parameter of instability of premixed biogas flame.

Please cite this article in press as: Hu Z, Zhang X, Experimental study on flame stability of biogas / hydrogen combustion, International
Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.08.011
4 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 e8
flame increase with the increase of CO2 content and lean
burn mixture combustion.
The thermal mass diffusion instability is determined by
the maximum diffusion coefficient in the reactants, when the
component with the maximum relative diffusion coefficient is
lacking in the reactants, the premixed laminar flame will
become more unstable under the influence of the preferential
diffusion, and the mass diffusion coefficient between CH4 and
CO2 in the biogas is higher than that between O2 and CO2.
When the equivalent ratio increases, the CH4 increases rela-
tively, which leads to the increase of the components with the
maximum diffusion coefficient, the diffusion instability is
weakened, so the flame will tend to be stable. The Lewis
number is obviously affected by CO2, because the thermal
diffusivity of CO2 is small, and the thermal diffusivity of the
mixed fuel decreases with the increase of CO2 in biogas, so the
Lewis number of the mixture is also reduced accordingly. In
general, with the increase of CO2, the thermal and mass
diffusion instability of the flame increases, the hydrodynamic
instability weakens, and the heat and mass diffusion insta-
bility in the lean burn is stronger.
Fig. 3 gives the variation of the characteristic parameters
of flame stability. Where the initial temperature is T ¼ 297K,
the equivalent ratio is f ¼ 1:0, and H2 fraction is FH2 ¼ 20%. As
illustrates in Fig. 3(a), the initial pressure has a great influ-
ence on the flame thickness. With the increase of the initial
pressure, the flame thickness decreases rapidly, which in-
dicates that the flame surface becomes thinner and the hy-
drodynamic instability is enhanced. With increase of CO2
content, the flame thickness increases gradually, which
means the hydrodynamic instability weakens with the in-
crease of CO2 content in the mixture of biogas and hydrogen.
Fig. 3(b) presents the Markstein length of different initial
pressure and different CO2 content. It is shown that the
initial pressure has a great influence on the global flame
stability. With the increase of initial pressure, the Markstein
length decreases rapidly, especially after the pressure is
greater than 0.2 MPa, the Markstein length is less than 0,
which indicated that the flame had been unstable at this
time. Under the working conditions shown in Fig. 3(b), the
increase of CO2 content leads to a slight increase in the global
stability of the flame.
Fig. 3 e Characteristic parameter of instability of premixed biogas flame at different CO2 fractions.
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Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.08.011
Effect of pressure and fuel component proportion on flame
shape
Fig. 4 displays the image of biogas blended with hydrogen at
different CO2 fraction. It can be observed that for FCO2 ¼ 0 the
spherical flame is smooth at the radius of 9 mm, but a trans-
verse crack occurs when the radius is 15 mm. As the flame
radius is 18 mm, the flame surface is filled with transverse
cracks, which means that the flame has large wavelength flame
cells. After that, the flame cells of large wavelengths divide
continuously with the development of the time. Until the flame
radius reaches 28 mm, the flame surface is covered with flame
cells, and the wavelength of the flame cell is obviously smaller
than that of the unstable flame cell just appeared. When CO2
fraction increased to 5%, compared with FCO2 ¼ 0, the time of
transverse crack on the flame surface was delayed, at the flame
radius reaches 18 mm, the flame surface will appear transverse
crack. And the flame surface is still dominated by a large
wavelength flame cell until the flame radius is 30 mm. When
the flame radius is 35 mm, the flame cell begins to split into
many small wavelengths. When the CO2 fraction increased to
10%, the flame front surface became smoother, and only a few
cracks appeared on the flame surface after the flame radius is
28 mm. As the flame radius is 35 mm, the flame surface is still a
few flame cells of large wavelengths. The increase of CO2
fraction makes the flame surface smoother, which indicates
that the weakening effect of CO2 fraction on the hydrodynamic
instability eventually dominates, and leads to the weakening of
the global flame stability.
Fig. 5 shows the variety of flame shape caused by hydro-
dynamic instability. When the initial pressure is 0.1 MPa and
the flame radius is from 9 mm to 35 mm, the flame front faces
keep smooth, indicating that the flame is globally stable.
When the initial pressure increases to 0.2 MPa, a slight wrinkle
appears on the flame surface, which means that the flame
surface tends to be unstable. When the initial pressure con-
tinues to increase to 0.4 MPa and the flame radius is 15 mm,
cracks appear in the longitudinal and transverse directions of
the flame front, i.e., the interlaced flame cells appear, and the
wavelength of these flame cells increases with the develop-
ment of the flame. With the development of the flame, the
flame cells on the flame surface continues to increase, and
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 e8 5

Fig. 4 e Schliren photos of hydrogen blended biogas flame at different CO2 fractions ðPin ¼ 0:2MPa; f ¼ 0:9; FH2 ¼ 60%Þ.

Fig. 5 e The effect of initial pressure on the evolution of flame affected by hydrodynamic instability ðf ¼ 0:8; FCO2 ¼ 5%;
FH2 ¼ 0%Þ.

new cracks appear on the flame surface when the flame radius
is increased, but these new cracks are not derived from the
original flame cells, but from the new folds caused by the
hydrodynamic instability. When the initial pressure continues
to increase to 0.6 MPa, the crack on the flame surface is more
obvious, the flame cell still appears at the smaller flame
radius, the wavelength increases with the increase of the
flame radius, and the flame surface rises slightly.
The effect of buoyancy is more obvious with the increase of
the flame radius. This is because with the outward
propagation of the spherical flame, the diameter of the flame
becomes larger, the curvature of the flame becomes smaller,
and the effect of curvature on the maintenance of flame sta-
bility is weakened, thus causing the flame rises obviously
when the flame radius is increased.
Fig. 6 displays the effect of hydrogen blending ratio on
flame shape at initial pressure of 0.1 MPa and 0.2 MPa (hy-
drodynamic instability is relatively weak at low pressure)
when the proportion of CO2 is 5%. At the initial pressure of
0.1 MPa, the increase of hydrogen ratio leads to the emergence

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6 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 e8

Fig. 6 e The effect of hydrogen fractions on the global flame stability ðFCO2 ¼ 5%Þ.

of large wavelength wrinkles on the flame surface, but this
change is not obvious. At the initial pressure of 0.2 MPa, the
effect of increase of the hydrogen ratio on flame surface is
more obvious, and the transverse wrinkles begin to appear
when the flame radius is 18 mm, then the large wavelength
flame cells gradually increase with the development of the
flame, and these large flame cells begin to split with the
development of time, until the flame radius is 37 mm, the
flame surface has been split into multiple homogeneous small
wavelength flame cells.
Fig. 7 shows the effect of equivalence ratio on the flame
stability of biogas and hydrogen mixture at the initial pressure
of 0.1 MPa. It can be seen that the flame surface is generally in
an unsy state during lean burn combustion, and the flame
instability increases with the decrease of equivalence ratio.
When the equivalence ratio is 0.6, the flame surface with a
flame radius of 15 mm also maintains a nearly circular shape,
but longitudinal cracks have appeared on the flame surface,
and with the development of time, more and more cracks on
the flame surface (i.e., long wavelengths) have been found,
which have a great influence on the flame shape. Because of
the wrinkle, concave or convex surfaces caused by the insta-
bility of the flame, the flame surface is seriously pulled, and
the stretch ratio decreases with the increase of the flame
radius, and its maintenance effect on the flame surface is
reduced accordingly. Therefore, the flame surfaces no longer
maintain circular shapes after the flame radius reaches
30 mm, and the flame surfaces cover with wrinkles. When the
equivalent is 0.7, there is a similar trend in the flame surface,
at the flame radius of 18 mm, the wrinkles on the flame sur-
face are more obvious, and then the long wavelength flame
cells divide into a number of irregular flame cells. At the flame
radius of 30 mm, the further development of the flame cells
causes the peak to protrude from the circular flame surface, as
shown in the red circle. When the equivalence ratio is further
increased to 0.8, the flame surface becomes relatively smooth,
until the flame radius of 30 mm there are only a few wrinkles.
When the equivalence ratio is 1.2, the flame surface is
completely smooth without cracks and wrinkles. Therefore, it
can be seen from Fig. 7 that the global stability of lean burn
combustion is worse, and the flame instability increases with
the decrease of equivalence ratio.
Fig. 8 illustrates the variation of flame shape for increasing
the initial pressure and hydrogen ratio together to increase
hydrodynamic instability and thermal mass diffusion insta-
bility. It can be seen that the effect of hydrodynamic insta-
bility and thermal mass diffusion instability on the flame
surface is obvious. At the low initial pressure and hydrogen

Please cite this article in press as: Hu Z, Zhang X, Experimental study on flame stability of biogas / hydrogen combustion, International
Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.08.011
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 e8 7

Fig. 7 e The effect of equivalence ratio on the evolution of hydrogen blended biogases flameðPin ¼ 0:1MPa; FCO2 ¼ 0%;
FH2 ¼ 60%Þ.

Fig. 8 e The evolution of flame affected by coupled hydrodynamic instability and thermal diffusion instability ðFCO2 ¼ 5%; f ¼
0:8Þ.

content, the flame surface appears wrinkles in the later stage hydrogen ratio, the flame surface showed strong instability in
of flame development, and the flame surface is covered with the early stage, and the flame surface did not appear obvious
uniform visible mesoscale cells when the flame radius de- cracks. When the flame radius reaches 28 mm, the flame cells
velops to 48 mm. With the increase of initial pressure and are densely distributed on the flame surface, where these

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Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.08.011
8 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 e8
small scale flame cells continue to split and develop with the
development of time, besides, the flame surface keeps the
shape of the multi flame cells in the process of increasing
flame radius. Comparing the two flame forms given by the
flame radius of 48 mm, it is found that the number of cells on
the flame surface increase and the peak of the cell peak is
higher when hydrodynamic instability and thermal mass
diffusion instability increase together.
Conclusion
(1) The increase of initial pressure leads to the decrease of
Markstein length for the combustion flame of biogas
and hydrogen mixture, and the increase of initial pres-
sure leads to decrease of hydrodynamic instability but
has no effect on the thermal mass diffusion instability.
When the initial pressure is increased, the flame surface
is covered with regular cellular flames, and the wave-
length of the flame cell is smaller and the amplitude is
higher.
(2) With the increase of initial pressure and hydrogen ratio,
hydrodynamic instability and thermal mass diffusion
instability increase together, the flame surface exhibits
strong instability in the early stage of development and
the cellular flame appears earlier. But when the flame
radius reaches 28 mm, the flame surface is densely
distributed small scale of flame cells, and these small
scale flame cells continue to split and develop with the
development of time. In the process of increasing the
flame radius, the flame surface keeps the shape of the
multi flame cells.
Acknowledgements
This study is supported by National Key Research and Devel-
opment Program (2017YFB0103400), and National Natural
Science Foundation of China (No. 51676011).
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