OilReservoirEngineering DR - Hamid PDF

Suez Canal University
Faculty of Pet. & Min. Eng.

Petroleum Engineering dept.
Oil Reservoir Engineering

Part 1
By
Prof. Dr Eng. /
Hamid M. Khatab
2007
Oil Reservoir Engineering (1)

Contents
Oil reservoir (definitions)
Physical Properties of reservoir rocks
(1) Porosity
Geological factors affecting porosity
Experimental porosity measurements
Preparation of samples for measuring porosity
Glass pycnometer
Rusel volumeter
Ruska porosimeter
(2) Fluid saturation
fluid saturation measurements
Distillation method( A S T M )
Centrifugal method
Factors affecting fluid saturation
The uses of core determined fluid saturation
(3) Permeability
Limitations of Darcy's law applications
Dimensions of permeability
Reservoir flow system applications
Conversion units of Darcy's law
Permeability of combined layers
Linear beds in serried
Linear beds in parallel
Radial beds in series permeability of channels
and fractures
Laboratory measurements of permeability
Perm-plug method
Hole-core measurements

Factors affecting permeability measurements
Effective and relative permeability
Characteristics of two-phase relative permeability
curves
Three phase relative permeability
Factors affecting relative permeability
Relative permeability ratio
Measurements of relative permeability data
Uses of effective and relative permeability data
(4) Capillary forces
Surface and capillary pressures
Adhesion tension
Rise of fluids in capillaries
Calculations of capillary pressure
Capillary pressure in unconsolidated sands
Capillary pressure curves
Drainage and imbibition capillary pressure
curves
Laboratory determination of capillary pressure
curve
Jamin effect
Calculation of wettability
Relationship between gravity and capillary forces
Converting laboratory capillary pressure data
Extending the range of laboratory Pc - Sw data
Calculation of effective and absolute
permeability from capillary pressure data
Calculation of relative permeability from
capillary pressure data

(5) Petrophysics
Properties of clean rocks
Relation between porosity, permeability,
tortuosity and mean capillary radius
Specific surface
Kozeny equation
Flow of electric current through clean rocks
Formation resistivity factor
Lithologic factor affecting formation factor
Resistivity of rocks partially saturated with water
Saturation exponents
Tortuosity determination
Effective tortuosity
Hydraulic formation factor and index
The effective hydraulic index
Relative permeability to the wetting-phase
Imbibition direction
Drainage direction
Relative permeability to the non wetting-phase
Imbibition phase
Drainage direction

Oil Reservoir Engineering
Oil Reservoirs (Definitions)
Oil is produced from wells drilled into underground porous rock

formations. The ensemble of wells draining a common oil accumulation
or source or surface area defined by the well distribution termed an "Oil
Field" or "Oil Pool". The part of the rock that is oil productive is termed
an "Oil Reservoir" by variety of the subsurface location of the reservoir
rock; its entrained fluids are subject to elevated temperature and
pressure – the reservoir temperature and reservoir pressure.
Reservoir rocks are mostly sedimentary in origin. They are either

mechanical or chemical deposition of solid–materials or simply the
remains of animals or plant life.
Physical properties of reservoir rocks
Considered on hand–specimen scale reservoir rocks have defined

ranges of physical properties which are of paramount interest to the
reservoir engineer. The three engineering characteristics of the reservoir
rock are porosity, oil, gas and water saturation and permeability,
Specific, effective and relative.

Porosity (Φ %)
Porosity of a material is defined as that fraction of the bulk volume
of this material that isn't occupied by the solid framework of the material.
In oil reservoirs, the porosity represents the percentage of the total

space that is available for occupancy by either liquids or gases.
One may distinguish two types of porosity, namely: absolute and

effective.
Absolute porosity
The percentage of total void space with respect to the bulk volume
regardless of the interconnection of the pore voids. A rock may have
considerable absolute porosity and yet have no conductivity to fluid for
lack of pore interconnection.
Effective porosity
The percentage of interconnected void space with respect to the
bulk volume. It is an indication of conductivity to fluid but not necessarily
a measure of it.
Porosity in sediments both treated and descried by natural

geological processes. Geological conditions are responsible for both
primary and secondary porosity.

Primary porosity
Primary porosity results from voids which are left between mineral
fragments and grains after their accumulation as sediments.
Secondary porosity
Secondary porosity results from geological agents such as leaching,
fracturing, and fissuring which occur after lithification of sediments.
Effective porosity is a function of a great many lithological factors.

Some of the most important of this are heterogeneity of grin size,
packing, clay content, cementation, weathering and leaching, clay types
and clay hydration status.
Geological factors affecting porosity
1– Degree of sorting
Well–sorted, moderately rounded sand grains settle in water giving
a packing of 30 to 40% porosity. In poorly sorted sediments, the smaller
grains fit into the space between the larger ones, and porosity is
considerable decreased.
2 – Compaction
It's a geological factor which reduces porosity due to overburden
pressure of the overlying sediments. Sandstones, whoever, exhibit very
little compressibility 3x10–6 whereas shales may be reduced to a small
fraction of there original sedimentation volume.

3 – Cementation
It's the agent which has the greatest effect on the original porosity
and which affects the size, shape and continuity of pore channels.
4 – Clay content
Clay may often act as cementing material. Clay is deposits of the
same time as sand grains and generally it adheres to them so that after
deposition considerable porosity still exists and the over–all porosity of
sandstone may not be lowered greatly by a small amount of clay.
5 – Granulation and crushing of sand

grains
Their effect on porosity at great depth under overburden pressure is
of interest. With increasing overburden pressure, quartz grains in
sandstone show a progressive change from random packing to closer
packing. Some crushing and plastic deformation of the sand grain
occurs.
6 – Mode of packing
One may get qualitative picture of the geometrical structure of
sands by consideration of packing of spheres of uniform size. This, too,
is of infinite variety. However, it will suffice to note here two basic and
extremely types, namely: the cubic and rhombohedra packing. Unit cells
of such packing are shown in fig (1).

Figure 1
r denoted the radius of sphere, thus for cubic packing:
Bulk volume 
2r 
3
8r 3
4 3
Solid volum  r
3
p.v B.v S .v 8r  3 r
3 4 3
 porosity    3
47.6%
B.v B.v 8r
For rhombohedra system:
B.V . 8r 3 sin 60
4
S .V .  r 3
3
8r 3 sin 60 4 r 3
 3 39.5%
3
8r sin 60
In general we can write:

1 

1 cos1 2 cos 

Of particular interest is the fact that the radii cancel and the porosity
of packing of uniform spheres is a function of packing only.
7– Rock compressibility:
Assume that:
Pore volume compressibility


c  .
1 dvp
p
vp dp
Bulk volume compressibility


c B 
1
.
dvB
vB dp
1 dvs
Solid volume compressibility

cs 
 .
v s dp
v B v p v s
dvB dvp dvs
  
dp dp dp
v B c B c p v p c s v s
vs v
c B c s c p p
vB vB
c B c s 
1 
c p 
c c
 B  s
c p c s
Experimental porosity measurements
Experimental porosity – determination procedures may be divided in

to two classes, namely, those designed to measure effective porosity
and those which measure absolute porosity.

Preparation of samples for measuring it is porosities:
They are selected to be preferably10 to 20 cm 3 in bulk volume and

are obtained from the center of the core .their surfaces are cleaned to
remove traces of drilling mud. The samples are extracted in a soxhlit
using oil solvents such as benzene, toluene alight hydrocarbon fraction.
During the extraction, the sample should be kept in a paper thimble,
covered with plug of cotton in order to avoid erosion of loosely cemented
grains.
After extraction, the samples are dried in an over a 100 to 105 c o

and cooled in a desiccators. This operation removes the solvent and
moisture from the samples.
Effective – porosity measurements:
For approximate work, some methods of obtaining effective porosity

(grain volume methods) may be used. In these methods: the bulk
volume is determined either by the displacement of a liquid which does
not penetrate the sample or by saturating the sample and volumetrically
displacing a suitable liquid with the saturated sample. The grain volume
may be measured by the volumetric displacement of a gas or a liquid,
while the pore volume may be measured by determining the amount of
liquid necessary to saturate the sample.
An alternate method of obtaining the grain volume is to divide the

dry weight of the sample by the average grain density of 2.65 (the
average density of most reservoir rock minerals).

Example:
A coated sample has the following data:
Weight of dry sample in air (Wa) = 20 gms.
Weight of coated sample (with paraffin of density 0.9

gm/cc) = 20.9 gms.
Weight of coated sample immersed in water = 10 gms.
Calculate the bulk volume of the sample.
Solution:
Wt. of paraffin = 20.9 – 20 = 0.9 gm.
Volume of paraffin = 0.9/0.9 = 1 cm3.
Volume of water displaced = (20.9 – 10)/ew = 10.9 cm3.

So: B.V. = volume of water displaced – volume of paraffin
= 10.9 – 1 = 9.9 cm3.
Example:
If the sample of Ex.1 has been saturated (100%) by water
and; its weight in air become 21.5 gms. When it has been
immersed in water, it weights 11.6 gms; calculate B.V.
Solution:
Wt. of displaced water = 21.5 – 11.6 = 9.9 gms.
B.V. = volume of water displaced = 9.9 / 1 = 9.9 cm3.

Laboratory measurements for porosity measurements:
Glass pycnometer:
A glass pycnometer with a cap which rests on a ground taper joint
and with a sample hole through the cap is filled with mercury, the cap is
pressed into its seat and the excess mercury which overflows through a
hole in the cap is collected and removed. The pycnometer is opened and
the sample is placed in the surface of the mercury and submerged by a
set of pointed rods which project from the lower side of the cap, fig (2).
Figure 2
The cap is again pressed into its seat, which causes a certain
amount of mercury equivalent to the bulk volume of the sample to
overflow. The rods which submerge the sample should be adjusted so
that the sample does not touch the sides of the pycnometer; this avoids
trapping air bubbles.
Either the volume of mercury which overflows or the loss of weight

of the mercury in the pycnometer may be measured and the core bulk
volume calculated.

Example:
For a core weights in air 20 gms; given:
Weight of pycnometer filled with Hg = 350 gms.
Wt. of pycnometer filled with Hg and sample = 235.9 gms.

Of the mercury density is 13.546 gms/cc.
Calculate B.V.
Solution:
Weight of pycnometer + weight of Hg + weight of sample =
350+20 = 370 gms.
Weight of Hg displaced = 370 – 235.9 = 134.1 gms.
So: B.V. of sample = 134.1 / 13.546 = 9.9 cm3.
Russel volumeter
Figure 3
As the determination of the bulk volume by glass pycnometer can

not be applied to loosely cemented samples which have a tendency to

disintegrate when immersed in mercury, and a serious source of error of
the trapping of air bubbles at the surface of the sample, Russle
volumeter provides for direct reading of bulk volume. A saturated sample
is placed in a sample bottle after a zero reading is established with fluid
in the volumeter. The resulting increase in volume is the bulk volume.
Only saturated or coated samples may be used in the device. This
device has the advantage of applicability to loosely cemented sample
with irregular surfaces. Since the liquid used is transparent, trapped air
bubbles may be seen and steps taken to remove them.
Ruska porosimeter
A schematic diagram is given in Fig (4)
Figure 4
A micrometer piston is used to pressure the sample cup, so that the

mercury reaches a given reference on the manometer. Let the reading
be Rb in the absence of a core sample in the cup. When the core floats
on the mercury within the cup, the displacement of the micrometer piston
gives a reading Rc to reach the same reference mark. The porosity of
the sample is then calculated by:

 Rc 
100
1 
 Rb 
a number of other devices has been designed for measuring pore

volume, grain volume, and porosity including the cope porosimeter, the
mercury pump porosimeter, Washburn–Bunting porosimeter, Stevens
porosimeter, … etc.
In the determination of absolute porosity, it is required that all

unconnected as well as interconnected pores are accounted for. The
procedure required that the sample be crushed. The method is as
follows:
Break of the well core, clean the surface of the sample to remove
the drilling mud, measure the bulk volume by any one of the procedure
described above, crush the sample to its grains, wash the grains with
suitable solvent to remove oil mud and water, and determine the volume
of the grains. It is of course necessary to dry the rock grains before their
volume is determined. The volume of the dry grains may be determined
in a pycnometer containing a suitable liquid as kerosene.

Fluid saturation
Cores or underground rock samples, which brought to the surface,
are universally found to have entrained in their pores varying amounts of
liquid. In a typical oil field, water called interstitial or connate–water and
frequently free gas pressured in addition to the oil.
The water saturation S w is defined by the equation:
pore volume filled by water

Sw 
total pore volume
Similarly;
pore volume filled by oil

So 
total pore volume
If oil and water are the only fluids present, the volume filled by water
plus the volume filled by oil must equal the total pore volume; thus:
Sw + So = 1
In many pools, in addition to oil and connate water, free gas is also
present. The free gas saturation is defined by:
pore volume filled by gas

Sw 
total pore volume
And then:
S w + S o + Sg = 1
Three factors should be remembered concerning fluid saturation:

The saturation will vary from place to place; the water saturation
tending to be higher at the lower part due to gravity.
Water tending to be higher in the less porous section.
The saturation will vary with cumulative with drawal.
Figure 5
Fluid saturation measurements

Methods for the determination of reservoir fluid saturation in place
consist in analyzing reservoir core simples for water and oil, the
saturation in gas being obtained by difference since the sum of the three
fluids is equal to unity.
Distillation method (ASTM):

 Take a sample ranging in volume from 50 to 60 cc from the
central part of the larger core.
 Place the core in an extraction thimble and weighed.
 Put the thimble in the flask containing a liquid solvent such as

toluene or a gasoline fraction boiling at about 150 C̊.

 A reflux condenser is fitted to the flask to return the
condensate to a calibrated glass trap. Fig (6)
 The liquid hydrocarbon is boiled and the water present in the

sample vaporized, carried into the flask condenser, and
caught in the trap. When the volume in the trap remains
constant under continued extraction, the volume of the water
collected is read and the sample containing the sample is then
transferred to a soxhlet for the final extraction.
Figure 6
 The thimble and the sample are then dried and weighted.
 The total fluid saturation is obtained by weight difference and

includes both oil and water.
 By weight difference again, the weight of oil is obtained, and,

by use of an appropriate oil density, its volume is calculated.

 The saturations on a percentage of pore–volume base are
readily calculated for both water and oil
Centrifugal method
A solvent is injected into the centrifuge just of center.
Figure 7
Owing to centrifugal force, it is thrown to the outer radii, being

forced to pass through the core sample. The solvent removes the water
and oil from the core. The outlet fluid is trapped and the quantity of water
in the core is measured.
This method provides a very rapid method because of the high

forces which can be applied; at the same time that the water content is
determined, the core is cleaned in preparation for the other
measurements.
Factors affecting fluid saturation
Mud filtration
In the case of rotary drilling, the differential pressure across the well
face causes mud and mud filtrate to invade to formation immediately
adjacent to the well surface, this flushing the formation with mud and this

filtrate displacing some of the oil and perhaps some of the original
interstitial water. The displacement process changes the original fluid
contents to fluid saturation.
Pressure gradient
Pressure gradient between the surface and the formation permits
the expansion of the entrapped water, oil and gas. Thus the contents of
the core at the surface have been changed from those which existed in
the formation.
Uses of core determined fluid saturations
The saturation values obtained directly from rock samples are used
to:
 Determine the original oil–gas contact, original oil water

contact and weather sand is productive of oil or gas.
 Establish a correlation of the water content of cores and

permeability from which it can be determined whether a
formation will be productive of hydrocarbon.
In summary, it is seen that although fluid–saturation determinations

made on core samples at the surface may not give a direct indication of
the saturation within the reservoir, they are of value and do yield very
useful and necessary information.

Permeability
Permeability is a property of the porous medium and is a measure
of the capacity of the medium to transmit fluids. The measurement of
permeability is a measure of the fluid conductivity of the particular
material.
By analogy with electrical conductors, the permeability represents

the reciprocal of the resistance which the porous medium offers to fluid
flow.
If the reservoir rock system is considered to be a bundle of circular

tubes such that the flow could be represented by a summation of the
flow from all the tubes as described by poiseuille's equation:
n  r 4 p
Q
8  l
Where:
Q
: Flow rate, cm3/sec.
r : Radius of tubes, cm.
p
: Pressure lose over length, dyne/cm2.
 : Fluid viscosity, cp.
l p
: Length over which is measured, cm.
n : Number of tubes.

Figure 8
As there are numerous tubes and radii involved in each segment of

porous rock, it is an impossible task to use poiseuille's flow equation for
porous medium.
In 1856, as a result of experimental studies on the flow of water

through unconsolidated sand filter bed, Darcy formulated a law which
bears his name; this law describes, with some limitation, the movement
of fluid in porous medium.
Darcy's equation states that the velocity of homogeneous fluid in a

porous medium is proportional to the pressure gradient and inversely
proportional to the fluid viscosity;
Q p
 
A  dl
Or
K P

 l
 is the apparent velocity in cm/sec. and A is the apparent or total

across–section area of the rock, cm2.

In other words, A includes the area of the rock material as well as
dP
the area of the pore channels. The pressure gradient dl is in
atmosphere per cm, taken in the same direction as  and Q .
The proportionality constant (K) is permeability of the rock

expressed in Darcy units.
The negative sign indicates that if the flow is taken as positive in the
positive direction, then the pressure decrease in that direction, so that
dP
the slope dl is negative.
Limitation of Darcy's law applications
1. Darcy's law applies only in the region of laminar flow, for in

turbulent flow, which occurs at higher velocities, the pressure
gradient increase at a greater rate than does the flow rate.
2. It does not apply to flow within individual pore channels, but to

portions of a rock whose dimensions are reasonably large
compared with the size of the pore channels.
3. Because actual velocity is in general not measurable,

apparent velocity from the basis of Darcy's law. Actual velocity
can be related to apparent velocity as following:
q = A app. . Vapp. = Aact. . Vact.
A l P .V .
Vapp Vact  act  V act   Vact .
Aapp l B .V .

Figure 9
This means that the actual velocity of a fluid will be the apparent
velocity divided by the porosity where the fluid completely
saturates the rock
4. The fluid flow region is steady–state ,isothermal
5. Fluids used are non compressible fluids.
6. Use non reactive fluids.
the unit of permeability is the darcy .where
1 dareg = 1000 md = 1.0133 x 106 dyne/ cm2.atm.
Dimension of permeability
The dimension of permeability can be established by substituting

units of the other terms in Darcy's law as:
l
v , ML1 T 1
t
, 
P  F MLT 2 / A L2 ,  L L
KAP
Q AV 
L
LT 1 K .ML1T 2 / ML1T 1 .L
K L2

Reservoir flow system applications:
Several simple flow systems are frequently encountered in the

measurement and application of permeability.
Figure 10
Linear flow
Figure 11
It is assumed that flow occurs through a constant cross–sectional

area that the ends of the system are parallel planes and that the
pressure at either end of the system is constant over the end surface.
If the block is 100% saturated with an incompressible fluid and

steady–state flow of constant rate g;
Darcy's low for a " dl " segment of this system:
KAdp
q
dL

Integrating between the limits "0" and "L" and p1 and p 2
KA p 2
q o 
L
dl  p1  dp

KA
q[ L ]  [ p2 p1]

KA[ p1 p 2]
q 
L
If a compressible fluid is flowing, the quantity of q varies with the

pressure. The usually assumed valuation is that
p.q=pmqm = constant
where :
p p 2
pm  1
2
And Qm is the flow rate at pm the integral is therefore;
KA p 2
qo 
L
dL   dp

p1
[qm p m / p ]o 
L
dL [KA / ] p1 
p2
dp
KA
o 
L
dL  p1  pdp
p2
q m pm 
KA p 2 2 p1
2
L  [ ]
qm pm  2

KA
.
2 p1p2

.
p p2

q m  p1 p 2  2 


KA
p1 p 2 
qm 
L
Thus it is evident for the linear system that gas flow and liquid flow
can be calculated by the same equation provided the rate is measured
of the mean pressure of the system
Radial flow
A redial flow system, analogous to flow in to a well bore from a

cylindrical drainage system. When dray's law in differential from is
applied to a (dr) cylinder of the system, the resultant integrated equation
of flow is
Figure 12
K
2rhp
Q
dr
dr 2Kh
q rw 
re
 pw  dp
pe
r 
2Kh p e p w 
q 
ln( re / rw)

in case of compressible flow:
qm pm = q.p= constant
q qm pm / p
dr 2kh pe
qm pm / p rw 
re
  dp
r  pw
dr 2Kh pe
qm pm r rw 
ve
 pw  pdp
r 
2Kh( p 2 e p 2 w )
qm 
2 lv
re / rw 
2Kh 
pe pw 
qm 
en re / rw
3–Spherical flow
Figure 12
such a system might be closely approached where is producing

formation was of a thickness approximately half the distance between

wells and where the formation was penetrated for only a short distance
comparable to the total pay thickness.
1

A 4  
r 2  2  r2
2
q

k 2  
r2 
p 
dr
dr 2 k pe
rw 
re
  dp
r2 q pw
1 1  2 
  
k
pe pw 

rw re  q 
2Kpe p w 
q
1 1 
r re 
 w 
rw re
1  1
rw re

2 k
pe pw 
rw
q 

For compressible fluids, the same equation can be used as:

2 k
pe pw 
rw
qm 


Conversion units of dray's
1-linear flow
KAP k A 
 P
Qincomp  , Qincomp 
L L
where : Q : cm3 / sec , A : cm2
, p atm, : cp, L : cm , K : darey
k A 
P KAP
Qincom 1.127 Qincom 1.127
 L L
when : Q : bb1/ day , A : t2 , p : psia
, : cp , K : Darcy
KAP
Qincomp 6.323 
L
Where;
Q : ft 3 / day , A : ft 2 , P : psia , : cp , K : Darcy

L : ft.
and
2-Radial flow
Kh ( Pe Pw )
Qincomp 7.08
  Ln e
r
rw
Where;
Q : bbl / day, h : ft , P : psia, : cp , K : Darcy

r : ft.
and

Kh( Pe Pw )
Qincomp 39.76
 Ln e
r
rw
Where;
Q : ft 3 / day , h : ft , P : psia, : cp , K : Darcy

r : ft.
and

2 Kh( Pe Pw )
Qincomp 
  r
Ln e
rw
Where;
Q : cm 3 / sec, h : cm, P : atm, : cp, K : Darcy

and
r : cm.
Permeability of combination layers
The foregoing flow equations were all derived on the basis of one
continuous value of permeability between the inflow and outflow face. It
is seldom that rocks are so uniform – most porous rocks will have space
variations of permeability.
If the rock system is comprised of different layer of fixed

permeability, the average permeability of the flow system can be
determined by one of the several averaging procedures:

Linear beds in series
Consider the case of the average permeability Kav , can be
computed as follows:
Figure 13
Qt Q1 Q2 Q3
pt p1 p2 p3
L L1 L2 L3
K . A.Pt K Ap1
Qt  av , Q1  1
 L L1
K Ap2 K Ap3
Q2  2 and Q3  3
L2 L3
Solving for pressure and substituting for p ;
Qt L Q1 L1 Q2 L2 Q3 L 3
   
K av A K1 A K2 A K3A
L L1 L 2 L 3
   
Kav K1 K 2 K 3
L
Kav  n i 1
 Li / Ki

As the permeability is a property of the rock and note of the fluids
flowing through permeability must be equally applicable to gases.
For example , the average permeability of 10 md , 50 md and 1000

md beds , which are 6 ft , 18 ft and 40 ft respectively in length but of
equal cross– section when placed in series is:
Li 6 18 40

Kav   64md .
Li / Ki 6 18
 
40
10 50 1000
1-Linear beds in parallel
Figure 14
cons tan ts : p ,  and L

var iable : k ,
A and q
Consider fig (15).
The total flow rate is the sum of the individual flow rates,
qt =q1+q2+q3

kav .At p K1 A1p K 2 A2 P K3 A3 p
  
L L L L
kav . At K1 A1 K 2 A2 K 3 A3
K av K i Ai / At
if all beds are of the same width , their areas are proportional to
their thicknesses.
k av K i Ai / hi
for example the average permeability of three beds of 10 md , 50

md and 1000 md and 6ft , 18 ft and 36 ft respectively in thickness but of
equal with , when placed in parallel is
K I hi 10 6 18 50 36 1000
K av   616 md.
hi 6 18 36
2– Radial beds in parallel
Constants: p, r and 
variable, q and h
Many producing formations are

composed of strata which many vary
widely in permeability and thickness,
Figure 15
If these are producing fluid to a

common well bore under the same draw–

down and from the same drainage radius, then;
q t q1 q 2 q3
7.08K av 
ht 
( Pe Pw ) 7.08 K1 h1 ( Pe Pw )
 
re r
 Ln  Ln e
rw rw
7.08 K 2 h2 ( Pe Pw ) 7.08 K 3 h3 ( Pe Pw )

 
r r
 Ln e  Ln e
rw rw
K av 
ht K1  h K 2 
h2 K 3 
h3
K  h
K av  i i
hi
This is the same as for the parallel flow in linear beds with the same
bed width.
Example:
Calculate the average permeability of the depth
permeability data given below:
Depth, ft K, md
5012 – 13 500
5013 – 16 460
5016 – 17 5
5017 – 19 235

5019 – 23 360
5023 – 24 210
5024 – 29 3
Solution:
K  h
 K av  i i
hi
(500)(1) (460)(3) (5)(1) (235)(2) (360)(4) (210)(1) (3)(5)

11
327md
3-Radial beds in series
Figure 16
q,  and h
Constants :
P, K and r
Variables :

Consider Fig (17)
Pe Pwf ( P1 P1 P1 )

( P1 Pwf ) ( P2 P1 ) ( Pe P2 )
2  K av h ( Pe Pw )
qt 
r
 Ln e
rw
2  K av h ( P1 Pw )
q1 
r
 Ln 1
rw
2  K av h ( P2 Pw )
q2 
r
 Ln 2
rw
2  K av h ( P3 Pw )
q3 
r
 Ln 3
rw
re r1
q  Ln q  Ln
rw rw
 
2  K av h 2  K1 h
r2 r
q  Ln q  Ln e
r1 r2
 
2  K2 h 2  K2 h

re r r r
Ln Ln 1 Ln 2 Ln e
rw rw r r
   1  2
K av K1 K2 K3
re
Ln
rw
Kav 
r r r
Ln 1 Ln 2 Ln e
rw r r
 1  2
K1 K2 K3
Example:
What is the average permeability of four beds in series

having equal formation thickness under the following
conditions?
1. For a linear flow.
2. For a radial flow system if the radius of the

penetrating well bore is 6 in, and the radius of
effective drainage is 2000 ft.
Bed 1 2 3 4
L, ft 250 250 500 1000
K, md 25 50 100 200
Solution:
Assume bed (1) adjacent to the well bore;

a) Linear flow:

L
K av 
L
 i
Li
250 250 500 1000

250 250 500 1000
  
25 50 100 200
2000
 80md
25
b) Radial flow:
ln re rw
Kav 
(ln ri / ri 1) / Ki 
ln(2000 / .05)
 30.4md
ln 
250 / .05  ln  500 / 250  ln 1000 / 500 ln 
2000 / 1000
  
25 50 100 200
Example:
A well of 6 bore is drilled in to a pay of 500 md on a
spacing of 40 Ares (re = 750 ft). Assume that the mud
penetrated for a distance of one foot in to the pay and that
experiment indicates that the pay will be reduced in
permeability to a value of 10 % of its original. It is desired to
know to what average permeability the well system is reduced
by the mud penetration.
Solution:
The reduced permeability =0.1x500=50md

ln 750 / 0.25 
Kav  478md
ln1.25 / 0.25 ln 750 / 1.25

50 500
Example:
A well of 40 acres spacing with a 6 ft bore produce 50
bb1/day of fluid from a pay of 50 md permeability before
acidizing and 90 bb1/day after acidizing. If the acid had been
injected to penetrated 15 ft into the formation, from these data
can you calculate the permeability increase which would have
had to occur in the acidized section to produce the observed
increase in the production rate.
Solution:
q after acidizind K after acid 90

 av  1.8
q before acidizind K av before acid 50
90
K av after 50( ) 90 md
acid
50
750
Ln
90  0.25
15.25 750
( ) ( )
Ln 0.25 Ln 15.25
K1 50
K 1 373md

Permeability of channels and fractures
In some sands and carbonates the formation frequently contains

solution channels and fractures do not change the effective permeability
of the flow network. In order to determine the contribution made by
fracture or channel to the total conductivity of the system, it is necessary
to express their conductivity in term of the darey.
Channels
Considering Poiseulle's equation for fluid conductivity in capillary
tubes,
 r 4 P
Q
8  L
The total area available for flow is;
A  r 2
So that the equation reduces to
r 2 P
Q A  
8  L
From Darcy's law, it is also known that;
P
Q A 
K
 L
Equating Darcy's and Poiseuille's equations for fluid flow in a tube,
r2
K
8

Where K and r are in consistent units.
If r is in cm, then K in Darcy is given by:
r2
K 9
12.5 106 r 2
8(9.869) 10
If r is in inches; then K in Darcy is given by:
K 12.5 10 6 (2.54) 2 r 2

80 10 6 r 2
Example:
Consider a cube of reservoir rock one foot on the side and
having a matrix permeability of 10 md. If a liquid of one cp.
viscosity flows linearly through the rock, under a pressure
gradient one psi per ft, the rate of flow will be:
Solution::
Q 1.127(0.01) 11 0.01127bbl / day
If a circular opening 0.01 ft diameter traverses the same rock , then the
total flow rate can be considered to be the above value (Q1) value plus the rate
of flow through the circular opening (Q2)
0.005 1
2
Q2 1. 127[80 10 
.005]   0.00122
6 2
bb1 / day
144 1
Qt 0.01127 0.00122 0 .012491 bb1 / day
Therefore the combined rate is 0.012491 or an increase of about 11 %.

Fractures

For flow through slots or fine clearances and unit width (w) , by analogy
to channels relationships ,
K=w 2/12
If the width is in cm and K in darcys, the permeability of fractures is
given by
K = 84.4 x 105 w2
If w is in inches and K in dareys,
K = 54.4 x 10 6 w2
Example:
A core of very low permeability (0.01 md). It contains
fracture of (0.005") wide and 1 ft in lateral extent per square
foot if the core. Assume that the fracture is in the direction in
which flow is desired.
Calculate the average permeability of the core:
Solution:
KiAi
Qaw 
Ai
0.00001
144 12 0. 005
54.4 106 
0.00512 0.005
2
 562md
144

Laboratory measurements of permeability
The permeability of a porous medium can be determines from

samples extracted from the formation or by in place testing. Two
methods – will be presented here – are used to evaluate the permeability
of cores.
perm– plug method
Figure 17
The tested samples are usually cut with a diamond drill from the
well cores in a direction parallel to the bedding plane of the formations.
Perm plugs are approximately 2 cm in diameter and 2 to 3 cm long.
Samples are dried after extraction process "as described before".

The residual oil or fluids are thus: remove and the core sample becomes
100 % saturated with air. The perm plug is then inserted saturated with
air. The perm plug is then inserted in a core holder of the permeability
device.
Fig18 samples are mounted in such a way that the sides of the
samples are sealed, and a fluid pressure differential can be. Applied

across their full length, and the rate of flow of fluid "air" through the plug
is observed.
Obtaining data "for conditions of viscous flow" at several flow rates

and plotting results as shown in fig (19) from eq:
Q/A p1 p 2 / L
K

for viscous flow condition : the data should plot a straight line
passing through the origin. Turbulence is indicated by curvature of the
plotted points.
The slope of the straight line portion is equal to (k/μ) from which the
absolute permeability (k) can be computed.
In case of using liquids in stead of air. Data are taken only at one
flow rate .
To assure condition of viscous flow, it is the lowest possible rate

which can be accurately measured.
Figure 18

Whole – core measurement
Figure 19
The core must be prepared in the same manner as per–plug

method preparation. The core is then mounted in a special holding
device such as shown in fig: 20 the measurements are the same as for
perm–plugs but the calculation are slightly different. Measurements of
permeability on long cores generally yield better indication of the
permeability than do the small cores especially for rocks which contain
fractures as limestone.
Factors affecting permeability measurements
1-Klinkenberg effect "Gas slipping"

Klinkenberg has reported variations in permeability as determined
using gases as the flowing fluids from that obtained when using no
reactive liquids.

The permeability of a rock for any liquid will be the same but for a
gas will depend upon the individual gas and the mean pressure of flow.
The measured permeability of a porous medium to gas is greater

than that to a liquid for the liquid has a zero velocity as the wall past
which it flows but that the gas has a finite velocity at the wall. Fig (21)
Figure 20
This is said due to the gas slippage. The gas slippage is a function
of the mean pressure and the type of rock. The phenomena of gas
slippage occurs when the diameter of the capillary openings approach
the mean free path λ
.
The mean free path of a gas is a function of the molecular size and
the kinetic energy.
The Klinkenberge effect is a function of the gas for which the

permeability is determined.
The amount of slippage causes a change in permeability that can

be represented by the following equation:
4C
K g K l (1  )
r
Where;
Kg
: Gas permeability

Kl
: Liquid permeability
r : Mean radius of capillary tubes.
C : Constant nearly equal One.
The last equation can else be written in the following formula:
b
K g K l (1  )
Pm
Where;
Pm Kg
: Mean flowing pressure of the gas at which was
1
Pm 
observed, 
1
b  ,
b : Constant for a given gas and rock, r
Figure 21

Fig (22) is apart of the equation at various mean pressures using
Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Carbon dioxide.
Note that for each gas a straight line is obtained for the observed
permeability as a function of the reciprocal of the mean pressure of the
test.
The data obtained with lowest molecular, (H2), weight gas yield the
straight line with greater slope, indicative of a greater slippage effect.
All the lines when extrapolated to infinite mean pressure,

1
0
Pm
( ), intercept the permeability axis at a common point.
According to Fig (22);
Kl 
b
The slope of the straight line, m, is equal .
The constant b depends on the mean free path λof the gas and
the size of the openings in the porous medium.
To obtain accurate permeability measurements, requires

approximately 12 flow test under viscous flow conditions from which the
permeability to liquid can be graphically determined.
2-Clay content
Many clays act as cementing minerals or are as part of the rock
matrix. These minerals or are as part of the rock matrix. These minerals
are usually very complex in molecular structure and posses the ability to
attract and hold +ve ions such as hydrogen , sodium or calcium. These

minerals also have the property of hydration, i.e., holding water within
their molecular structure. This is normally called "clay swelling"
Reservoir waters generally contain ions such as sodium and

calcium or magnesium which can be transferred to the clay. The greater
the amount of ions in solution the move will be absorbed by the clay and
vice verse. If the reservoir water is replaced by fresh water, the clay
must given up some of its +ve ions to the water until a new equilibrium is
established. The result of this ion exchange and the change of ion
concentration in the flowing liquid is an increase in clay volume and
consequently reducing the pore volume available for flow.
Figure 22
Fig (32) shows such a decrease in flow rate with fresh water flow
thus permeability determination with fresh water on a core containing
clays will be less than that in the natural state.
3-Reactive liquids
alter
Reactive liquids after the internal geometry of the porous. Medium,

due to precipitation or corrosion.

4-Overburden pressure
When the core is removed from the formation, the confining forces
are removed. The rock matrix is permitted to expand in all direction
partially changing the shapes of the fluid– flow paths inside the core.
Compaction of the core due to overburden pressure may cause as

mush as 60 % reduction in the permeability of various formations.
5-Grain size
It was found that the rate of fluid flow is proportion al to the square
of the grain diameter , hence the finer sand the smaller the permeability.
6-Mode of packing:
The effect of packing as a factor which influence permeability can
be introduced as:
K = 10.2 d2 / c
Where d: diameter of spheres, cm
C: packing constant depending on porosity . table:1

mode of packing Φ c
Hexagonal 26 52.5
30 52.5
40 20.3
cubic 45 23.7

Effective and relative permeability
It was note that Darcy's low for flow in porous media. was
predicated upon the condition that the porous media was entirely
saturated with the flowing fluid such a circumstance does not often exist
in nature , particular in petroleum reservoir. Gas or oil is usually fauna
coexistent with water and frequently gas, oil and water may occupy
together the pores of reservoir.
Ability of aporous medium to conduct a fluid when the saturation of

that fluid in the material is less than 100 %of the pore sbace is known as
the "effective permeability of the porous medium to that fluid. The
effective permeability is written by using a subscript to designate the
fluid under consideration. For example
Q L
Ko  o o
A p
Effective permeability to oil ,
Q L
Kg  g g
Ap
Effective permeability to gas ,
And
Q L
Kw  w w
Ap
Effective permeability to water ,
Of course , it would be expected that for a given system (A , Δp , μ,

L being constant) , the value of Qx would increase as the pore space of
the porous medium in question contained more fluid (x). it has been
found experimentally that at a given value of fluid saturation , the value
of the effective permeability to that fluid is constant. Thus , a change in
effective permeability depends only upon a change in saturation.

Effective permeability will , of course , vary from zero to the value of
the permeability at 100 % saturation. No two porous bodies will
necessarily have the same variation of effective permeability with
saturation.
Relative permeability
Relative permeability is defined as the ratio of the effective

permeability to a given fluid at a definite saturation to the permeability at
100 % saturation. The terminology most widely used is simply (Kg/ K),
(Ko /K) and (Kw /K), meaning the relative permeability to gas, oil and
water respectively. Since K is constant for a given porous medium, the
same fashion as dose the effective permeability. The relative
permeability to a fluid will vary from a value of zero at some low
saturation of that fluid (critical saturation), to a value of 1 at 100 %
saturation of that fluid.
Characteristics of two – phase relative permeability

curves:
Figure 23
a) Rapid fall in
permeability to
wetting – phase
(Krw) as the
wetting phase
saturation first

decreases from 100 %.
b) Its approach to zero value at saturation greater than zero %.
c) Relative permeability to the no wetting phase (krnw)

apparently dose not rice.
Above zero until the wetting phase saturation has fallen to

approximately (1– Snwc) where Snwc is the critical non-wetting
saturation or equilibrium saturation.
1. Rapid rise of the permeability (Krnw) as the wetting phase

saturation decreases.
2. Virtual attainment of 100 %permeability to non-wetting phase

before all the wetting phase is completely removed.
Interpretation
1. The rapid decline in Krw indicates that the larger pores or

larger flow paths are occupied first by the non-wetting fluid.
Figure 24

As the saturation of the non-wetting phase increases, the average
pore size saturated with wetting phase be comes successively smaller.
Fig (25)
2. Blocking off of central regions of pores by non-wetting phase

will leading to an increase in flow resistance or rapid fall in krw .
This behavior will continue with decreasing (S w ) until (Swe),
where a minute film which would wet the surface of the grains.
This film would decrease the diameter of the larger tube, thus
reducing the flow capacity for the non-wetting phase, and yet
the film itself would contribute no flow capacity. Fig (26)
Figure 25
To the wetting phase (Krw = 0). Thus the total fluid capacity
of the tubes would be decreased.
3. This point represents the equilibrium saturation which is the

value at which the non-wetting phase becomes mobile.
4. At any saturation value above this saturation wetting-phase

saturation falls into the pendular saturation state, so that it
losses its own mobility and this confirmed by the rapid rise in
Krnw.

5. The attainment of 100 % Krnw at saturation of non-wetting –
phase less than 100 % indicates that a portion of the available
pore space even though interconnected contributes little to the
fluid conductive capacity of the porous medium.
Three– phase– relative permeability
There are many instances when not two fluids but three fluids exist
in rock simultaneously as oil, water and gas.
Figure 26
Fig (27) show the triangular diagram representing the saturation

conditions of rock the coordinates of any point with the triangle represent
the different saturations in all three phases. For example;
Point 1 2 3 4 5
So 20 20 40 60 40
Sw 20 40 40 20 60
Sg 60 40 20 20 0

The symmetry of water permeability with respect to any axis of the
triangle is due to water is considered as wetting – phase with respect to
each of oil and gas phases.
Figure 27
The symmetry of gas relative permeability is due to similar behavior

of gas as anon wetting phase with respect to oil and water.
Figure 28

The relative permeability to oil is not symmetrical with respect to any
axis of the triangle. This symmetry is distorted toward the high
percentage of gas saturation which indicates a lowering of mobility of oil
by the presence of gas.
Figure 29
Fig: 31 shown the regions in which single–phase, two–phase and

three phase fluids flow normally occur.
Figure 30
The region of three – phase flow

is externally small it is illustrated by
the hatched area two – phase flow
region the white area , which
indicates that in most cases two
phase relative permeability curves are quite satisfactory the single –
phase regions are illustrated by the shaded area.

Factors effecting relative permeability
1-Rock wettability
Figure 31
The relative
permeability values are
affected by the change in
fluid distribution brought
about by different wetting
characteristics.
Curve (1) indicates

that the system is water wet system while, curve (2) indicates oil wet
system.
2-Structure history (Drainage or imbibition)
Figure 32
It is note that the imbibition processes causes the non-wetting

phase (oil), to lose its mobility at higher value of structure than does the
drainage process.

The drainage method causes the wetting Phase (water) to lose it'
mobility at higher value of (Sw ) than does the imbibition method.
3-Pore configuration and pore size

distribution
Figure 33
Curve 1 : Capillary tubes.
Curve 2 : Dolomite.
Curve 3 : Unconsolidated Sand.
Curve 4 : Consolidated sand.

Relative permeability ratio
Figure 34
The relative permeability ratio expresses the ability of a reservoir to

permit flow of one fluid as related to its ability to permit flow of another
fluid under the same circumstances.
Kg
Ko
The two most useful permeability ratios are ( ). The relative
Kw
Ko
permeability to gas with respect to that to oil and ( ), the relative
permeability to water with respect to that to oil, it is understand that both
quantities in the ratio are determined simultaneously on a given system.
The relative permeability ratio may vary in magnitude from zero to
infinity.
Consider a system flowing gas and oil. At high oil saturation, the
Kg
Kg Ko
flow of gas is zero, and hence, is zero.

Figure 35
Kg Ko
As the gas saturation increases, increase but decrease
Kg
Ko
and therefore increase. When the oil saturation becomes
Kg
Ko Ko
sufficiently low, approach zero and the value of approach
Kg
Ko
infinity. Fig (35) is a typical plot of versus the oil structure. To
Kg
Ko
give linearity, was plotted against oil structure saturation or
liquid saturation on a semi–log paper, Fig (36). It has become common
usage to express the central straight line portion of the relationship in the
analytical form:
Kg
log( ) log a b 
So
Ko

Kg
ebS o
a 
Ko
Where;
a and b are constants characteristic only of a given reservoir

material and a given set of fluids. Slope of the linear plot is denoted b .
The use of this analytical expression has been justified in view of

agreement between theoretical relationship which may be deduced from
it and actual observed data.
Measurement of relative permeability data
There are essentially for means by which relative permeability data

can be obtained:
(1) Laboratory method.
(2) Capillary pressure method.
(3) Field data.
(4) Petrochemical data.
1-Laboratory method:
Figure 36
A small core is
choose and prepared
for the test. It is
mounted in a

pressurized rubber sleeve. The two fluids are introduced simultaneously
at the inlet and through different pipe systems, at a predetermined flow
ratio and are flowed through the core until the produced ratio is equal to
the injected ratio.
The saturation of the various fluids is determined in one of different

methods (as measuring the fluid resistively by means of two electrodes).
Once the saturation has been measured, the relative permeability of

the two phase at this saturation conditions can calculated by means of
the injection ratio.
The injection ratio is varied and the process continually repeated

until a complete relative–permeability curve is obtained.
2-Field determination
Due to Darcy's equation for gas and oil, the relative permeability
ratio can be defined by the following equation:
Kg Pg
Qg A ( g )( L)

Qo K P
A( o  )( o L )
g
Figure 37
Qo Qg
If the and are expressed at reservoir condition and if it is
Pg Po
assumed the pressure drops ( and ) are the same,

Qg K   free gas
  g o o 
g 
Qo K o  g oil produced
total gas prod free gas gas in sol

R p   
oil prod oil produced oil produced
Or;
Qg
R p  rs
Qo
K  
R p  g o o rs
g 
Ko  g
K g g 
g
  ( Rp rs )
K o o 
o
The normal procedure is to use field average GORs which are

normally the most accurate values obtainable. The saturation at which
this particular value of relative permeability ratio applies must be
calculated from field production data as follow:
oil volume ( N Np ) o

So  
pore volume N  Boi
(1 S wi )
Np 
S o (1  )( o )(1 S wi )
N Boi
Example:
Given the following data:

Pressure Rp o g x10– r o Np
6 g N
3000 850 1.443 840 752 30.4 0.0041
2900 920 1.432 875 725 32.1 0.0150
2800 990 1.420 910 695 34.0 0.0240
2700 1020 1.403 970 657 36.8 0.0399
2600 1000 1.393 1010 632 38.4 0.0517
2500 1180 1.382 1062 608 40.5 0.0632
2400 1420 1.371 1122 580 42.4 0.0752
2300 1510 1.364 1162 565 43.6 0.0847
2200 1666 1.354 1230 540 45.5 0.0965
2100 1920 1.340 1330 509 48.0 0.1083
2000 2220 1.326 1453 476 50.8 0.1202
1900 2480 1.313 1590 446 53.8 0.1318
1800 2710 1.301 1758 416 57.4 0.1420
1700 2800 1.298 1795 410 58.2 0.1453
psi SCF/STR bbl/STB bbl/SCF SCF/STB
Calculate constants a and b in the equation if S wi = 28.5%
Kg bS o
and K a 
e .
o
Solution:
Kg
For each pressure step calculate So and K using equations;
o
K g g 
g
  ( R r )
K o o 
o p s
And,
Np 
S o (1  )( o )(1 S wi )
N Boi

Example of calculations at P=2500 psi
Kg 1 0.001062
 (1180 608) 0.01085
K o 40.5 1.382
1.382
S o (1 0.0632 )( )(1 0.285) 0.638
1.443
P So Kg
Ko
3000 0.710 0.00187

2900 0.696 0.00321
2800 0.684 0.00556
2700 0.664 0.00682
2600 0.652 0.00694
2500 0.638 0.01085
2400 0.625 0.01620
2300 0.615 0.01848
2200 0.609 0.0224
2100 0.589 0.0292
2000 0.575 0.0377
1900 0.563 0.0456
1800 0.550 0.0540
1700 0.540 0.0567

Figure 38
Determination of constants a and b ;

Kg
At So = 0.516 , K = 0.1
o
Kg
At So = 0.648 , K = 0.01
o
Kg
 e bS o
a 
Ko
e 0 .516b
0.1 a 
And,
e 0 .648b
0.01 a 
So,
ln10 0.132b

b 2.3 0.132 17.42
Kg
ln( ) ln a b 
So
Ko
ln(0.1) ln a 8.988
ln( a) 8.988 (2.3) 6.688
a 803
Uses of effective and relative permeability data
Relative permeability data are essential to all flow work in the field
of reservoir engineering. Just a few of its uses are mentioned
engineering. Just a few of its uses are mentioned here.
Determination of free water level:

From the relative permeability curves, it should have
become apparent that the point of 100% water flow is
not necessarily the point of 100% water saturation. It is
recognized that there are two water levels.
Free water level: zero capillary pressure level.
Initial WOC: the level below which fluid production is
100% water, from relative permeability data the
engineer can determine what the fluid saturation must
be at the point of zero oil permeability. When the fluid
saturation determined from well test data and relative
permeability curves are used, the capillary pressure can
be determined and the height above the free water level
can be calculated.
Other uses of relative permeability data
1- Determination of residual fluid saturation.

2- Fractional flow and frontal advance calculation to
determine the fluid distribution.
3- Making future prediction for all types of oil reservoir
where two phase flow is involved.
4- Emulation of drill–steam and production tests.

Capillary forces
Surface and capillary pressure
Consider two immiscible fluids (water and oil, fluid commonly found
in petroleum reservoirs). A water molecule which is within the body of
the water will uniformly attached in all directions, by an attractive force,
by other molecules and thus the resultant force on the molecule will be
zero
Figure 39
A water molecule at the interface has force acting upon it from the
oil lying immediately above the interface and water molecules lying
below the interface. The resulting forces are unbalanced and give
rise to interfacial tension.
Figure 40
This attractive force tends to attract the surface molecules in to the

liquid and minimize the surface area. A certain amount of work is
required to move a water molecule from within the body in the liquid

through the interface; this work is referred to as the free surface energy
of the liquid.
Surface tension
The force in dynes acting in the surface perpendicular to a line cm

of length and for a distance of one com in order to produce the new until
area of the surface, or it is the force per unit length required to create a
unit new surface.
Surface tension is the force acting on the surface between a liquid

phase and a gaseous phase while the interfacial tensing is created at
the interface between two liquids.
vapour or air liquid

liquid liquid or solid
surface tension int erfacial tension
Figure 41
One of the simplest example of the surface tension is the tendency

of free volume to take the minimum possible form as, for example, a
sphere in the case of a free drop liquid.
Capillary pressure force
The forces that are active at the interface between two immiscible
liquid faces
Adhesion tension, At:

Figure 42
so ws wo cos 

wo cosso ws
At (ve)
 At wo cos 
A positive adhesion tension indicates that the dense phase (water in
this case) wets the solid surface.
An adhesion tension of zero indicates that both phases have an

equal affinity for the surface.
Figure 43
At wo cos
wo cos 90 0
Thus the adhesion tension determines the ability of the wetting

phase to adhere to the solid and to spread over the surface of the solid.

Figure 44
If the contact angle 90 , an outside energy will be required to

cause the dense fluid to spread over the surface.
Adhesion tension or the degree of spreading depends upon the

contact angle of the system that affected by the mineralogy of surface
(rock) and the kind of the two immiscible fluids.
Rise of fluids in capillaries
Figure 45
The rise in height, Fig (46) is due to the attractive force (adhesion
tension) between the liquid and tube that tends to pull liquid upward.
This total upward force is balanced by the weight of the liquid column
Upward force Downward force


At and 2  r,  r 2
h g
Equating this two balanced forces:

cosr 
2  g
h
cos 
2
 
gh P
r (1)
It is noticed from the shape of the interface between the two phases
in the tube that the pressure in the liquid phase beneath the interface (A)
is less than above the interface.
This difference in pressure existing across the interface is referred

to as capillary pressure of the system.
cos 
2
Pc Pnw Pw 
gh
r (2)
Figure 46
Fig (47) shows the condition of two liquid phases compared with
case of liquid and gaseous phase.

Calculation of capillary pressure, Pc
1-For liquid–air system
Figure 47
At the point B' within the capillary the tube pressure is the same as
that. At the point B outside the capillary, which pressure is atmospheric.
At the point A' just under the meniscus with in the capillary, the
pressure is equal to that at B' within the capillary minus the head of
water.
The pressure at A' is therefore;
PA ' PB ' w 

gh
(3)
Now, at the point A, just above the meniscus within the capillary, the
pressure is the same as that at B.
This statement can be made because the density can be neglected.

The pressure across the meniscus (or the phase boundary) is
therefore;
Pair Pwater Pnw Pw Pc

(4)
PA PA'
Where;
Pw Pnw
and are the wetting phase pressure (water) and the non
w
wetting–face pressure (air), and is the water density.
Substituting equation (3) in equation (4);
Pc PA PA '
PA ( PB ' w 

gh)
PA PB ' w 

gh
(5)
As mentioned before;
PA PB ' PB Patm
Pc w 
gh
(6)
For two immiscible liquids (oil and

water)
In this case the pressure at A is now equal to that at B minus the
head of oil, because the oil density isn't negligible compared to water
density.

PA PB o 
gh
(7)
Substituting equation (7) into equation (5);
Pc ( PB o 
gh ) PB ' w 
gh
( w o ) 
gh
(8)
It was noted in equation (1) that the quantity ( h ) could be

expressed by the surface tension ( ) and the contact angle ( );
therefore, the capillary pressure can be expressed as:

2 cos
Pc  
gh
r (9)
It noticed from equation (9) that the capillary pressure is a function

 At cos 
of the adhesion tension ( ), and inverse proportional to
the radius of the capillary tube.
Thus, across a fluid boundary which is within a larger vessel, the

capillary pressure will be zero, or substantially so, because r becomes
infinitely large.
Capillary pressure in unconsolidated sands
Reservoir rocks are varying in complexity of pore structure, and a

simple or ideal porous structure is required as a starting point to explain
their capillary behavior. The ideal pore configuration usually chosen is
that made up of spherically uniform particles of definite size, i.e.,
unconsolidated sand.

Figure 48
Consider to spherical grains in contact as shown in Fig (10) with a

wetting fluid at the point of contact. A contact angle of zero will be
assumed in order to have the condition of a continuous film of the
wetting phase a round the sand grain. In this system, the capillary
pressure is given by;
1 1
Pc {  }
R1 R2
(10)
Where;
R1
and
R2
are the radii of the curvature of the interface and  is
R1
the interfacial tension between the two fluids. The values of and
R2
expresses the amount of fluid that is contained at the contact, or the
saturation of that fluid within the porous body if the number of such
contacts are considered. It is practically impossible to measure the

R1 R2
values of and so they are generally referred to by the mean
Rm
radius ( ); where;
1 1 1
 
Rm R1 R2
(11)
The mean radius is empirically determined from other measurement

on a porous medium.
R1 R2
Referring to equation (10), it is seen that if and both
decreased (i.e. the quantity of the wetting–face decreases); the
magnitude of the capillary pressure would in turn have to increase in
size. It is therefore possible to express the capillary pressure as a
function of rock saturation when two immiscible fluids are used within the
porous medium. In other words, smaller water saturation gives a greater
capillary pressure.
Equation (8) and Equation (10) together demand that: at a given

height within a reservoir, the amount of water that is held by capillary
pressures will increase as the permeability decreases. Also the capillary
pressure increase with height in the reservoir.
Capillary pressure curves
The relationship between water saturation at any point in a porous

body and the capillary pressure at that point is known as the capillary
pressure. Since the capillary pressure must vary with height above the
free water level in a porous section, the capillary pressure curve
expresses also the relationship of water saturation to height above the

free water level. Fig (50) shows a typical curve, any point in this curve
represents an equilibrium condition.
First, it is assumed that the reservoir rock was originally filled with
water.
Figure 49
Second, this water was displayed by the oil which accumulates in

the reservoir. The capillary pressure can be measured by finding out
how much pressure must be applied on oil (non wetting fluid) in order to
reach certain saturation in that fluid (wetting–phase fluid). If the largest
capillary opening be considered as circular of radius r , the pressure

2 cos 
P 
needed for forcing the oil will be r .
It is the minimum pressure at which the non-wetting fluid starts to

enter the core because any capillary of small radius will require a higher

pressure application. This minimum pressure is called the "displacement
pressure" of the core.
As the driving pressure upon the non-wetting fluid is increased,

capillaries of smaller and smaller radii are penetrated by the non–
wetting fluid. Should the capillaries of the specimen be highly uniform in
size , no excess pressure would be required to saturate them in non-
wetting fluid and the plot of pressure applied vs. fluid saturation would
be very flat nearly until the irreducible saturation (Swi ) is reached. This is
illustrated incurve "1" fig (51).
Figure 50
On the contrary, should the capillaries be of very heterogeneous

size, the capillary – pressure curve would be very step such as curve (3)
curve (2) is the capillary pressure for capillary size distribution of medium
heterogeneity.
It may be summarized that the capillary pressure of a reservoir rock

as a function of fluid saturation is a measure of capillary size distribution,

which in turn is a measure of rock texture. Fine textured rocks made up
of small cemented grains, closely packed exhibit a higher capillary
pressure at a given saturation then coarse textured rocks made up of
large grains, poorly cemented and loosely packed.
There is no sharp line between oil and water level, Fig (51). The
depth internal within which the saturation (S w) changes from 100% to the
irreducible saturation (Swi ) is known as the "transition zone", thus, the
water–oil contact con not be said to exist at a definite depth, but rather
within a range of depth.
In general, less permeable sands are expected to have a greater

transition zone, Fig (52).
Figure 51
A distinction must be made between the displacement pressures

and "threshold pressure", the former refers to the entrance pressure of
the non-wetting fluid into the porous medium fully saturated with the
wetting fluid.

However, if the medium is partially
saturated with non-wetting fluid, the
entrance pressure is reduced to a
point below the displacement
pressure. If the saturation in the non-
wetting fluid is the equilibrium
saturation to this phase, the threshold
pressure is now zero. Fig (53).
Figure 52
Drainage and imbibition capillary pressure curves
To obtain the drainage curve,

the core was saturated with water
and then let a non-wetting fluid (oil or
air), be forced into the core. In this
desaturation direction, the water is
displaced from the larger toward the
smaller capillaries. Fig (54)
Figure 53
By contrast, when the water

saturation changes are toward larger
saturation values, "in the imbibition direction", which is also the direction
of displacement of oil or air by water. The oil saturation is reduced until it
reaches to the ultimate oil saturation "residual oil saturation".

A higher value of water saturation for a given capillary pressure
value would be obtained if the porous system was being desaturated
(drainage), then was being resaturated (imbibition) with wetting fluid.
We can summarize factors affecting capillary pressure curve as:
The pore size distribution.

The saturation history "drainage or imbibition
direction".
Rock homogeneity or heterogeneity.
Rock permeability.
The kind of fluid and solids that are involved.
Thus in order to use capillary pressure data, these factors must be
taken into consideration before the actual application of the data.
Laboratory determination of capillary pressure curve
A typical apparatus which is used for the determination of capillary

pressure curve is shown in Fig (16). Many versions of the apparatus are
used but the basic principles are the same.

The porous diaphragm is chosen so that it will permit water to flow
through it, but will not permit air to flow through it under the pressure
necessary. This means that the diaphragm must have very small pores
and must be water wet.
To determine the capillary pressure curve to quantities must be

measured:
1-Sw in the core at any time.
2-Pc at the same time
By definition, Pc is difference in pressure between the gas (air) and

water phases in the core. The water saturation (Sw) can be determined
either by wetting the core from time to time or by measuring the volume
of water that has been removed from the core from time to time.
Procedure
 The porous diaphragm must first be completely saturated with
water.
 On the diaphragm is placed a thin layer of finely powder, the

purpose of which is to ensure good contact between the
diaphragm and the core. This layer is completely saturated
with water.
 The core itself is also completely saturated with water and

placed on the layer of powder.
 The apparatus is then closed so that an air pressure can be

applied. This pressure is set at some definite and contact
value (Pair).

 Because the diaphragm has been chosen with such a fine
pore structure that air can not penetrate it, there will be no air
flow except into the core. Air flow into the core will displace
water which itself can path through the diaphragm. However
air will displace water from the core through the diaphragm for
a while but eventually all flow will stop and the system will be
static.
 When the system has reached this point of no flow, the

pressure in both the water and air phases within the core is
known.
A. P air = the applied pressure.

B. P w = P atm (the pressure below the diaphragm) –
the head, ΔP from the bottom of the diaphragm
to the center of the core.
h
Pc Papplied ( Patm  core 
g
w)
2
 At this point, the core can be removed from the holder and the
wide determined, weight of the core minus the dry weight gives
the weight of water present and consequently the saturation.
 The core is replaced in the holder and the process is repeated,

a new air pressure higher than the first beginning used to
determine a new capillary pressure and a new saturation.
 By making a succession of such determinations, the entire

capillary pressure curve is obtained and plotted.

Example:
A dry core weights 8.59 gms and then 100% saturated
with water it weights 9.74 gms. It is placed in a closed
container diaphragm.
A constant pressure is applied and when equilibrium is
attended the core reweighed for various applied
pressures, the following data were obtained:
Pressure Weight
10 9.74
20 9.74
30 9.68
40 9.57
50 9.41
60 9.29
80 9.50
100 8.96
150 8.88
200 8.85
300 8.82
400 8.82
mmHg gms
a. Plot P c versus Sw.
b. Find Pd and S wi .
Solution:

Figure 54
wt . of 100% sat . sample wt of dry sample

P.V . 
fluid
9.74 8 .59
 1 .15cm 2
1
volume of fluid
Sw 
P.V .
And,
Pc Papplied Pc
Pc Sw
10 100
20 100
30 94.7
40 85.2
50 71.3

60 60.8
80 40.0
100 32.2
150 25.2
200 22.6
300 20.0
400 20.0
From Fig
Pd = 20 mmHg
S wi = 20%
The Jamin effect
The idea of the capillary pressure is that a pressure existing across

an interface within a capillary system.
Figure 55
When more than one interface is present in a given channel–

condition may be such that the resistance to flow is markedly increase,
or may become great enough to prohibit flow. This effect is named
"Jamin effect".
Consider at first a straight pore cylindrical capillary. The capillary

pressure which is equavelent to the displacement is given by:

cos
2
Pc 
r
This the pressure difference between point A and B, it is also the
pressure necessary to keep the interface from moving to the right at
point B within the capillary, Fig(57)
Figure 56

2 cos 
 J effect PB PA  from 
  to 
 
r A B
Consider a discrete global of one fluid within another fluid with

which it is immiscible, Fig (20).
Figure 57
There are now two interface, the pressure drop across each
interface is the same but opposite in the direction to the other, there is
no net pressure necessary to prevent motion, the total pressure drop
between the point A and B is zero as seen by;

2 cos  
2 cos
J PB PA ( ) A ( ) B 0
r r
Now if either term of this equation were modified, the net pressure
drop between point A and B would not be zero.

This condition gives the Jamin condition, i.e. the resistance to flow.
The difference may not be zero due to a change in any one of the three
terms , cos or r .
Variation in " r ":

The difference in pressure between point A and B is:
1 1

PB PA 2  cos (  )
rA rB
rB rA
PA PB
A positive pressure is required at point A to retain the bubble in

position shown. If flow were to the right, a bubble of oil in the water
stream could block such a channel until the pressure drop between point
A and B was sufficiently great to push the bubble through the smallest
construction.
Variation in contact angle 

Consider Fig (61). The resultant pressure between point A and B:
Figure 58
2
PB PA  (cos A cosB )
r

As A B
cos A cos B
PA PB
Figure 59
A pressure drop between A and B is necessary to initial flow toward

the right in the figure shown.
Variation of interfacial tension 
Figure 60
If a bubble of gas is bounded on one side by oil and on the other by

water. The net effect between A and P is then:
2
PB PA  (A 
cosA B 
cosB )
r
If B 
cos B A 
cosA
PA PB
A positive pressure drop from A to B would be necessary to initial
flow to the right.
The overall Jamin effect is of course increased in direction

proportional to the total number of bubbles that exit in a given channel.

Calculation of wettability
There are some means expressing the degree of wettability:
1-contact angle 
A contact angle of zero would indicate complete wetting by the
dense phase.
An angle of 90o indicated that either phase wets the solid.
An angle of 180 o complete wetting by the less dense phase.
2-the sessile drop ratio
Figure 61
It is the ratio of the height of droplet in the surface to the breads of

the droplet.
h
r
b
Sessile drop ratio of one indicates complete non-wetting the solid
surface by the dense phase.
A ratio of zero indicates complete wetting the solid surface by the

dense fluid.

3-the wettability number
o.a PTw.o

Wettability number (W.N.) = w.o PTo. a
Where;
PT w. o = the threshold pressure of core for oil to enter when core

initially saturated with water.
PTo .a = threshold pressure of core for air to enter when core initially
saturated with oil.
A wettability number of one would indicate a complete wetting by

water.
A wettability number of zero would indicate complete wetting by oil.
Relationship between gravity and capillary forces
Gravity force: the force tends to expel water from the rock.
It is also the force that causes oil to force water out of the rock
pores and it is opposite by the capillary force.
The water saturation at any point in the reservoir is the result of a

balance between the capillary and gravity force.

As the vertical distance above the free water level (Pc = 0)
increases, the gravity forces in the reservoir increases and water
saturation tends to be lower.
The gravity pressure in the reservoir is analogous to the capillary

pressure in the laboratory.
Gravity pressure gravity pressure 

gh
The reservoir point that can generally be determined from electric

logs is the depth of the free water level.
The laboratory capillary pressure test starts out with 100% water
saturation in the core and zero capillary.
However, the starting laboratory point corresponds to the reservoir

free water level not the original water oil contact (OWC). This is directly
used in laboratory to convert laboratory data to field data, when need to
calculate the depth of the free water level in the reservoir.
Fig (63) shows the distinction between the free water level and the
original water oil contact.

Figure 62
Converting laboratory capillary pressure data
To use laboratory data of capillary pressure it is necessary to

convert to the reservoir condition.
w.a cosL 2 
2 L cos L
( Pc ) lab  
r r
o.w cosR 2 
2 R cos R
( Pc )Re s  
r r
If L R 180

Pc R Pc L  R
L
Example:
Calculate the reservoir capillary pressure from the
following laboratory data:

Pc L 18 psi , S w 35 % ,
(o. w ) R 24 dyne / cm , (a .w ) L 72 dyne / cm ,
w 68lb / ft 3 and o 53ib / ft 3 .
Solution:
 24
( Pc ) R ( Pc ) L  R 18  6 psi
L 72
To convert the capillary pressure saturation data to height
saturation it is only necessary to rearrange the equation:
Pc 
gh
144( Pc ) R ( w o ) g 
h
144( Pc ) R 144 ( Pc ) R
h  
( w o ) g  g
Where;
h : ft, w , o : lb / ft 3 , Pc : psi
Example:
Calculate the height of the saturation plane for the last
example.
Solution:
144 ( Pc ) R 144 6
h   58 ft.
( w o ) (68 53)

 The water saturation (Sw = 35%) exists at a height of 58 ft above
the free water level.
Example:
Calculate the water saturation profile (depth versus Sw),
for the following laboratory capillary pressure data,
considering that the initial WOC is located at depth of
3788 ft.
Sw Pc
100 0
100 1.9
85 2.02
72 2.34
58 2.74
52 3.25
45 3.60
39 4.57
35 5.44
32 7.20
30 10.00
30 10.00
% Psi
Also given;
w 63 .8lb / ft 3
o 54.7lb / ft 3
a .w 70 dyne / cm

w.o 28dyne / cm
cos 1
Solution:

( Pc ) R ( Pc ) L  w .o
w.a
28
( Pc ) R ( Pc ) L  0.4( Pc ) L (1)
70
144  ( Pc ) R 144
h   
( Pc ) R
w o 63.8 54.7
h 15 .82 ( Pc ) R 6.328( Pc ) L (2)
As the initial OWC that is correspond to the displacement pressure is

at depth of 3788 ft, thus the free water level is at a depth of:
6.328 x 1.9=12 ft below the depth of the 1.WOC.
The depth of the free water level = 12 + 3788 = 3800 ft.
In genera, the relation between the deoth of the free water level at any
height value is;
D = F.D.L – h (3)
Using equation (1) and equation (2) and equation (3), we can
calculate the (D vs. Sw profile) as follows:
Sw ( Pc ) R h D
100 (F.W.L.) 0 0 3800

100 (1.WOC) 0.76 12 3788
85 0.81 12.8 3787

72 0.94 14.9 3785
58 1.10 17.4 3783
52 1.30 20.6 3779
45 1.44 22.8 3777
39 1.83 29 3771
35 2.18 34.5 3765
32 2.88 45.6 3754
30 4.00 63.6 3737
30 4.00 94.9 3705
% Psi ft ft
In the above example it was assumed that the reservoir was

homogeneous and that the capillary pressure test on a single core
simple was sufficient for estimating the entire water saturation profile.
Most of reservoirs are stratified and several simples must be

selected for capillary pressure test, so the actual stratification can be
taken into account.
Example:
Calculate the water saturation profile at a well drilled into
a reservoir has he following capillary pressure data for this
cores of different perm abilities;
Sw ( Pc )core:1 1000 md ( Pc )core:2 100 md ( Pc ) core:3 10 md

100 0.2 1.8 3.0
80 0.45 2.0 4.9
60 1.0 3.2 7.5
40 2.5 3.7 13
20 6
% Psi psi psi
Also given the following data;
Sub sea depth K Suitable Pc – S w

core
3743 93 Core : 2
3744 970 Core : 1
3745 12 Core : 3
3746 8 Core : 3
3747 1020 Core : 1
3748 108 Core : 2
ft md
Solution:
After deciding the suitable capillary–saturation curve:
Calculate ( Pc ) R for each foot of depth as the previous example.
h 3800 D
( Pc ) R  
15.82 15.82
Calculate ( Pc ) L .
(P ) 3800 D 3800 D
( Pc ) L  c R  
0 .4 0.4(15.82) 6.33

Or;
h 3800 D
( Pc ) L  
6.328 6.328
Read
S w for each ( P ) from curves P – S for each core (1,2and
c L c w
3)
Depth H ( Pc ) L Curve Sw
3743 57 8.99 Core : 2 30

3744 56 8.83 Core : 1 20
3745 55 8.68 Core : 3 54
3746 54 8.52 Core : 3 55
3747 53 8.36 Core : 2 20
3748 52 8.20 Core : 2 13
ft psi %
Extending the range of laboratory Pc – S w data
It is noticed that the permeability at a point n the reservoir often has

a great influence on the water saturation than does its structural location.
The permeability values in the above example were chosen so that the
Sw
three cores could be used to evaluate for each foot of the sand.
In many cases, the permeability of portions of the formation may not

Pc
be closed to that of the core simples tested. On this case additional –

Sw
curves can be determined by plotting the laboratory data as in the
proceeding example.
Example:
For the above example, estimate a capillary pressure curve
for 40 md core.
Solution:
Plot Pc vs. K for the three cores on log–log paper for each saturation
level given straight lines. For any K as 40 md, draw a horizontal line
and record Pc vs. S w that gives the new curve, Fig (64)
Figure 63
Pc Sw
1.7 100
2.5 80
4 60

6.2 50
8.4 40
11.5 30
Calculation of effective and absolute permeabilities

from capillary pressure data:
Purcell and Burdines method:

Purcell and Burdines have reported on computation of permeability
from capillary pressure data obtained by the mercury– injection. Method,
utilized the concept of pore– size distribution as follow:
The minimum capillary pressure required for displacing of a wetting

fluid or injecting a non-wetting fluid into a capillary tube of radius r is
given by:
2cos 
Pc 
r
2cos 
r 
pc
(1)
The flow rate through a single tube of radius (r) is given by

poiseuille equation:
r 4 p
Q
8L
Since the volume of the capillary is :

Vi 
r2 
L
(2)
vi 
r2 
P
Q 
8 L2
From equation (1) and equation (2);
Q 
cos 
2
vi p

2 L2 ( pc ) 2
(3)
For a porous medium of (n) capillary tubes of equal length L and

different radii.

cos 
2
p 

vi 

Qt  n
  2 

2 L2  pc  (4)
Due Darcy's law;
KAP
Qt 
L (5)
(cos ) 2 n vi
K 
2A

L i1 ( Pc ) 2
(6)
vi
As the volume of each capillary can expressed as a function of
Si vT
( ) of the total void volume of the system.
vi
 S i
vT
,

Also;
v
 T
A L
vi S i 
vT S i 
A 
L
(
cos ) 2 
 n Si
K 
2


i 1 Pc
2
i
(7)
Purcell introduced a lithology factor ( ) and a conversion factor,

generalizing equation (7) as;
dS nw

100
 K 10 .24(
cos) 2 
 2
S 0
Pc
(8)
Where;
S : Fractional total pore space occupied by liquid injected

S nw
or forced out of sample ( ).
K : md.

: Fraction.
Pc
: psi.
 : Dyne/cm.
 : Contact angle.
Purcell assumed that the contact angle for mercury was ( = 140o)
and that the interfacial tension of Hg = 480 dyne/cm.

1
dS

 K 14260   2
S 0 Pc
Pc Pc S
The integral is found by reading values of from ( – ) curve at
1
( 2
)
Pc
various saturations, calculating value of and plotting these values
as a function of corresponding saturation.
An average value of the lithology factor can be taken as

0.216 for sedimentary rocks.
The value of the integral is the area under the curve

1
{( 2 ) vs. Sw }
Pc
.
Calculation of relative permeability from capillary

data
Generalizing equation (8) and considering capillary pressure data

for displacement of the wetting phase,
S w dS
K w 10.24(cos) 2 
 

0 P2
c (9)
Where;
Kw
: the effective permeability to the wetting phase at any
Sw
saturation value ( ).

The related permeability to the wetting phase is given by the
following relationship;
Sw
dS
Kw 
0 Pc
2
K rw  100
K dS

0 Pc
2
(10)
Where the lithology factor ( ) is assumed to be constant for the

porous medium.
K nw
The effective permeability to the non-wetting phase ( ) can be
calculated in a similar fashion as equation (9) by assuming that the non-
wetting phase is contained in tubes or pores, free of the wetting phases;
100 dS
K nwt 10.24(
cos) 
 
 2
S S w Pc 2
(11)
K nwt
The relative permeability to the non-wetting phase ( ) is given
by;
100
K S S
dS P c
2
K nwt  nw  100w
K dS
P c
2
0
(12)
The following example illustrate how to use the above relationship

K ab Kr Pc
to calculate and from data

Example:
For mercury injection method given the following
capillary pressure saturation data;
SHg, % 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Patm 1.6 2.8 3.1 3.5 4.2 5.5 12.2 20 30
If 0.216 , 480dyne / cm ,
140 and 23%
Calculate;
K and ( K rw vs. S w ).
Solution:
dSSw
1 dS 0 P2
S Hg Pc
Pc
2 
Pc
2 K rw  100 c
dS
0 Pc 2
0 1.6 0.391 1
10 2.8 0.128 2.595 0.578
20 3.1 0.104 1.160 0.392
30 3.5 0.082 0.930 0.239
40 4.2 0.067 0.745 0.118
50 5.5 0.029 0.480 0.0405
60 12.2 0.007 0.180 0.0113
70 20 0.003 0.05 0.0032
80 30 0.001 0.020 0
6.16

dS

100
K 10.24(
cos) 2  2
0 Pc
Where;
K : md.
S : Fraction.
 : Fraction.
Pc : psi.
Or;
100 dS
K 4.75 10 6 (
cos) 2 
 

0 Pc
2
Where;
K : md.
S : Percent.
 : Percent.
Pc : atm.
 : Dyne/cm.
 K 4.75 10 6 (480 0.766)2 0.216 6.16 19 .65md
Figure 64

Petrophysics
Petrophysics is the study of the relationship that exist between and
textural rock properties, in other words, it is the structure interpretation of
physical rock properties.
Although, the reservoir engineer is mostly interested in porosity,

permeability and fluid saturation of reservoir rocks, there are certain
physical properties such as the formation resistively factor (F), the
resistively index (I), and the hydraul formation factor (Fh) which provide
a link between reservoir engineering and logging and from which
derivation may be made leading to the possible determination of relative
permeability from electric logs. This chapter shows how the properties of
clean rocks mostly common used in fluid–flow mechanics and electric–
log interpretation are interrelated.
Petrophysics of clean rocks
1) Permeability
Poiseuille (1846) derived an equation which relates the rate of flow of an
incompressible fluid of known viscosity through a horizontal straight
capillary of length (L) and radius (r) under the influence of a pressure
differential ( P ) as follows;
r4 
P
Q
8L
(–1)
Where;

Q
: cc/sec.
r : cm.

: Poise.
P ( P1 P2 ) : Dyne/cm2.
Figure 65
If we considered a linear porous medium of physical length (L)

and cross sectional area (A) as made up of a bundle of capillary
of average radius (r') and of average length (L'=Lt).
Where;
(t) is a tortuosity coefficient.
Poiseuille's law is written as;

n r 4 
P
Q
8 tL
(–2)
Figure 66
The tortuosity coefficient (t) is a dimensionless number

representing the departure of a porous system from being made
up by a bundle of straight pore capillaries. It is also a measure of
the tortuous path length which a practical fluid must travel,

expressed in terms of the shortest distance between two points
in that path, i.e. t=L'/L
Comparing Poiseuille's law with Darcy's law expressed in the

same system of units;
1.013 A 
KP 8 
n r 4 
P
Q 10 Q 
L 8 tL
nr 4
K  10 8
8At (-3)
Where;
P : Dyne/cm2.
n : Number of capillary tubes.
K : Darcy.
2) Porosity
 Volume porosity (
v
) of this bundle of capillary tubes is
expressed as the pore-space volume per bulk volume. It is
given by;

Vp n  r 2 
L 
t n r 2
v    t
V A L A
(-4)

 Surface porosity ( s ) is the cross sectional area of all
pores that are intersected by a plane surface and
expressed as a fraction of the total cross- sectional area
(A) of the rock.

n r 2 (-5)
s 
A
To aid better in the understanding of fluid flow in rocks,
correlations among porosity, permeability, Surface area, pore
size and other variables have been made.
Relation between porosity permeability, toruosity and

mean capillary radius
Equation (-3) can be written as;

n r 2 r 2
K  108
A 8 t
By combining this equation with equation (-4);
1 r 2
K   2 108
8 t
By solving for the mean pore radius (r');
r '  8 
Kt2 10 4

(-6)
Specific surface
The specific surface of a porous material is the total area

exposed with in the pores pace per unit volume.
Unit volume may be the solid volume in which case the specific
surface is represented by (Ss). The unit value may also be pore
space, in which case the specific surface is represented by (Sp).
For a packing of capillary tube;

int ernal surface area
S
unit volume


I .S . A. n (2  r)L  t 2
SP   
P.V . n (r )L 
2
t r
(-7)
I .S. A.
Ss 
S .V .
I .S . A .
S B 
P .V .
 A
1 .5 
 
S B  Vs 
 P.V .
   
P .
V .
 BV  
SP 1.5 
A  Vs Ps . 1 
  BV
P.V . 
   2
S s S P 
 

1  r (1 )
 (-9)
1 .5 
A
SB ( BV ) S .V (1 )

SS 1.5 A B.V
S .V
S B S S (1 )
(-10)
For a packing of spheres
n( 4 r 2 )L t 3
SS  
n( 4 3 r 3 )L  t r
(-11)
And;
n( 4 r 2 )L t 3 1 
SP   
( 4 
n r 3 )L  t  r 
3 1 
(-12)

Kozeny equation
A useful expression can be derived by combining equation (-6)

with equation (-7);
r  8
Kt2 104

2
SP 
And r
(1) For capillary tubes or consolidated

sands
Equating values of r obtained from equation (-6) and equation (-

7);
2 8K 
t2
r  104
SP 

K  2 108
2
t 
2
SP
darcy (-8)
Or;
3
K 2 108
2 S S (1 ) 2
t 
2
darcy (-9)
the above derivations assume that the capillaries of mean radius

( r ) have no roughness, and have constant cross section. It is
assumed that the roughness factor is included in the tortuosity
2
coefficient. The coefficient ( 2t ) in equation (-8) and equation (-

9) is called the (Kozeny constant) for consolidated rocks for
capillary tubes.
(2) For unconsolidated sands
In the case of a packing of spheres, the mean hydraulic radius of

the capillaries is unknown. Therefore the following simple derivation will
be used.
Using Poiseuille's law, the internal velocity inside a circular pipe is

given by;
r2 P
vi 
8 L
(-10)
Due to the internal roughness of the pipe, equation (-10) becomes;
r2  P
vi 
ts L
(-11)
Where;
ts
is the shape factor, which has an average value of 2.5
(t s 2.5)
.
Applying Darcy's law for the case of a porous medium;
KP
viupp  10 8
L
(-12)

viupp
The apparent velocity ( ) from the bases of Darcy's law can be
vi act
related to the actual velocity ( ) obtained by Poiseuille's law as
follow;
Q Vapp 
Aapp Vact 
Aact
A L
t PV 
Vapp Vact  act  Vact  Vact 
Aapp L 
t BV t t

VDarcy V pois. 
t
K
P 8 r2P 
 10  
L 
ts  L t
 r2
K  108
ts t
As;
t s 2.5
 r2
K  108
2.5 
t (-13)
As the mean hydraulic radius of a porous medium can be defined

as the ratio of the pore volume per unit bulk volume, divided by the
wetted surface per unit bulk volume;

PV
PV 1
r BV I .S .A.  
I .S . A. S P
BV
1
r
SP
Therefore, equation (-13) becomes;

K  2 108
2.5 
tSP
(-14)
Or;
3
K  108
2.5 
t (1 ) 2
SS 2 
(-15)
The value (2.5 t) is called the Kozeny constant for unconsolidated

porous medium.
Equating Kozeny constant for consolidated and unconsolidated

sands;
2.5t 2t 2
t 1.25 (-16)
This value of tortuosity (t) agrees very closely with experimental

determinations for unconsolidated sands.

ts
When the grains are non spherical, a shape factor ( ) must be
introduced which had been determined experimentally. The values of
these coefficients are given as:
Grain shape ts
Spherical 1.00
Well-rounded 1.02
Worn 1.07
Sharp (sub rounded) 1.17
Angular 1.27
ts
Introducing the shape factor ( ) into Kozeny's equation we
obtained for unconsolidated granular material.

K 108
2.5 
ts 
tSP 2
darcy (-17)
3
K 108
2.5 
ts 
tS S 2 (1 ) 2
darcy (-18)
SP SS
Where and are respectively the specific surface based on
the pore volume and the soil volume, obtained by the relation
1
SP 
( r ), previously defined.

Flow of electric current through clean reservoir rocks
The solid framework of the sedimentary reservoir rocks is made up

of minerals, for the most part, non conductive of electricity. Sedimentary
rocks are conductive of electricity only if their interconnected pore space
contain electrically conductive fluids, namely formation water, connate
water, interstitial water, ground water and the like.
Consider the box like container, Fig (68) is completely filled with
salty water and resistivity Rw ohm-meters.
Figure 67
Let the length of the box be L meters, and its cross sectional area
be A meters2.
The resistance of the base to the flow of current will be in ohms;
L
R Rw
A (1)
When a voltage (E), in volts, is applied between the sides A, a

current I in amperes will flow, thus, Due to ohm's law;
L
E I 
R I 
Rw
A

1 E
 I A  
Rw L
(2)
This expression, equation (2) is analogous to Darcy's law for the

horizontal flow of the fluids have a unit viscosity.
P
q A 
K
L (3)
Now consider that the box is completely filled with clean sand and
saturated to 100% with salt water of the same resistivity as before, Fig
(69). The resistance of the box will be increased by a factor called the
resistivity formation factor "F" which is always larger than one.
Figure 68
A new and smaller current (I') will now flow such that;
L
E I '
Ro 
A (4)
I ' I Ro Rw Ro
As , then , where is the resistivity of a unit
volume of the box that is completely filled with the porous medium and
Rw
fully saturated with a conductive fluid of a resistivity .
Comparing equation (2) and equation (4);

L L
E I '
Ro  I 
Rw
A A
Ro
It is shown that the resistivity ( ) is proportional to the resistivity of
Rw
the brine ( ). The constant of proportionality is called formation
resistivity factor.
R
F  o
Rw
(5)
This relation is an important in log-interpretation because of by

Rw Ro
knowing; and F, it is possible to calculate the resistivity which it
has when fully saturated with formation water. Such a condition
precludes any possibility of oil production.
The formation factor is a dimensionless quantity by which the

resistivity of the formation water is to be multiplied in order to obtain the
resistivity of the rock when 100% saturated in formation water.
Lithologic factors effecting formation factor
Rock porosity is the mean factor that controls the

passage of current, i.e. the value of the formation
factor.
The salty waters that rock contains in its pores.
Rock cementation and grin size distribution control
the size of the interconnected pore of their tortuosity.

Various formulas have been proposed to relate the formation factor

( F ) to the lithological factors of porosity ( ) and cementation factor
( m ).
Archie proposed the following formula;
a
F m

(6)
The constant ( a ) is determined empirically.
Satisfactory results are usually obtained with;
0.81
F 2

in sands, and
F 2
in compacted sands.
These two formulas differ little from (Humble formula):
0.62
F  2 .15

(7)
The Humble formula and the Archie formula for several vales of
( m ) are represented graphically in Fig (3).
Resistivity of rocks partially saturated with formation

waters
When oil and gas, which are non conductors of electricity, are
present, with in a porous medium together with a certain amount of salty

RT Ro
formation water, the resistivity ( ) will be larger than ( ). Since
there is a less available volume for the flow of electric current this
available water volume is represented by the water saturation in the pore
Sw
space .
RT
Resistivity of a partially saturated porous medium ( ) depends
not only on the value of ( S w ) but also on its distribution within the pore
space.
The fluid distribution within the porous medium depends on;
 The wetting properties of the rock.
 The direction in which it was established (drainage or

imbibition).
 Porosity type.
RT
Fig (69) shows how the ratio Ro varies as a function of saturation.
Figure 69

Curve (1) and (2) are for sands, the slope of which is 2 for the first
and 1.8 for the second. These slopes are called Saturation exponents
(n).
Curve (3) is for oil-wet sand in which case the value of (n) is
available with saturation and the degree of wetting.
Sw
The general formula which relates connate water saturation ( )
RT
and the true resistivity ( ) is Archie formula which may be written in
the following forms;
Ro FRw n
S w n n m / RL
 Rw 
Rt Rt
(8)
( n ) is the saturation exponent, the value of which is most generally

assumed to be 2 for water wet reservoir rocks.
( n ) can be measured in laboratory by measuring the electric

conductivity of the core at different partial fluids saturations.
Tortuosity determination
The simplest method by which tortuosity of rock capillaries can be

determined is made by computation from the value of formation factor F

and porosity .

For consolidated rocks where the porosity may be represented by
tortuous capillaries of actual length (Lt) and ending in number (n) in a

cross sectional area (A), a theoretical expression for the formation factor
(F), can be derived as follow:
L
R Ro 
A (9)
L
t
Rw 
n(r2 ) (10)
Using equation (10) and equation (-4);
L
t2
 R Rw 

A
L Lt2
 Ro  Rw 
A 
A
t2
 Ro Rw 

t2
 Ro  F
Rw 

t 2 F 
(12)
Formula (12) provides a ready laboratory means of determining (t)


since both ( ) and (F) are easily measured.

Effective tortuosity
In a completely water saturated rock, the passage of electric current

is not expected to take place effectively through the full volume of water.
This analogous to fluid flow in porous media at 100% saturation where
all the fluid is not moveable. The non movable water is the irreducible
S wi
water saturation, ( ). The irreducible water saturation, which occupies
capillaries through which there is neither pressure differential nor
potential drop, looks like non conductive mineral framework.
Thus, tortuosity of irreducible water saturation can be written as:
(1 S wi )
t 2 F 
(13)
te
The concept of effective tortuosity ( ) takes in another aspect
Sw i
when partial water saturation ( ) prevails, for in this situation the non-
wetting phase is non conductive of electricity. An effective tortuosity can
then be written as;
( S w S wi )
t e Fe 
2
Where;
Fe
: Effective formation value
F
Fe
The ratio is written as:

Ro 
F  Rw 
Ro 1

Fe Rt  Rt I
 R 
 w
I Sw
When is the resistivity index at the partial water saturation ( ),
also the following relationship can be written;
2
F Ro t S w S wi 
   
Fe Rt te 1 S wi 
 
 (14)
According to this relation, equation (-6) must be changed to;
r  8 
Kt2

(1 S wi ) 10 4
(15)
Similar adjustment should be made in Kozeny equation.
Hydraulic formation factor and index
Figure 70
By analogy with the formation resistivity factor, the hydraulic

Fh
formation factor ( ) may be written as;
Darcy flow rate R

Fh   o
poiseuille flow rate Rw

R 2 ) P
K ( 10 8

L

R4  P

8 L
8K
 Fh  2 10 8
R (16)
Where;
R is the radius of the tested core.
Considered the movable water volume;
 (1 S wi ) n(
R2  r 2 )L 
t
(1 S wi )
R2 
r 
2
n t (17)
But;
8K t2
r 
2
10 8
(1 S wi )
(15)
(1 S wi )
R2  
8K
t2 10 8
n
t 
 
(1 S wi )

2 
(1 S wi ) 2
n
t3

8 
K
R210 8
Fh
 Fh 2

(1 S wi )2
n
t3 (18)
Where;

C: is the total number of capillaries occupied by the phase fluid.
Sw
At partial saturation in the wetting-phase fluid ( ), an effective
Fhe
hydraulic formation factor ( ), may be expressed as;
2 ( S w S wi ) 2
Fhew 
ne w  (te w ) 3
(19)
Where;
ne w
: is the number of capillaries occupied by the wetting-phase.
te w
: is their tortuosity.
Similarly for the non wetting-phase;
2 (1 S w ) 2
Fhenw 
nn w (t n w ) 3
(20)
Where;
nn w
: is the number of capillaries occupied by the non wetting-
phase.
tn w
: is their tortuosity.
The effective hydraulic index ( I eh ) for the

Fhe Fh
wetting-phase is the ratio of ( ) to ( ) that are obtained by equation
(18) and equation (19).

3
n  S S  2
Fhe t
I eh     w wi 
Fn new 
te w 
1 S 

  wi
(21)
By definition this ratio, by analogy, is also the relative permeability

K rw
to the wetting phase ( ).
3
n  S w S wi 
2
t
K rw    
new    
tew 1 Swi 
(22)
Similarly, the relative permeability to the non-wetting phase ( K rnw )

is obtained by dividing equation (20) by equation (18);
3
 
n t  1 Sw
2

K rnw   
 
 
nnw tew 1 S wi 

(23)
S w S wi 

1 S  is
The ratio called the free wetting-phase saturation
 wi 
S wf
( ), and when substituting in equation (23) and equation (23) we
have;
3
n 
t 
K rw  
 S 
2
ne 
t ew  wf
w 
  (24)
And

3
n  t 
K rnw   1 Swf 
2
nnw  
t ew  (25)
The formulas (24) and (25) are fully general and are valid whether
the saturation changes are by imbibition or by drainage. They are not
new
useful without elimination of the number of capillaries involved ( n ,
nnw tew tnw
and ) and the tortuosity coefficients ( t , and ) from them in
order to obtain practical relative permeability formulas.
Relative permeability to the wetting-phase ( K rw ).
* Imbibition direction
When the wetting phase is increased from the irreducible saturation
S wi
( ), all the capillary acquire simultaneously a movable wetting-phase
saturation. Hence, we have;
n = new =
nnw
(26)
t
K rw ( )3 
2
S wf
t ew
(27)
Another formula can be obtained by using equation (14) and

equation (24);

Ro 3 2 1
K rw (imbibition) ( )  S wf 2
Rt
(28)
*Drainage direction
When The wetting-phase saturation is decreased because of the
injection of a non-wetting phase starting with too per cent wetting-phase
saturation, the largest capillaries are originally occupied by non wetting
fluid, then the next largest, and so on
At any intermediate saturation, the distribution of fluids may be

visualized as being in two bundles of capillaries, one occupied by non
wetting and the other by wetting fluid. Hence we have the relation.
n = new =
nnw
(29)
new
It is no longer possible to eliminate ( n and ) from equation (24)
t
tew
and after substitution of ( ) from equation (14);
n t 3
K rw(drainage) ( )( ) 
S wf 2
new tew
(24)
n Ro 3 2 1
K rw (drainage) ( )( )  S wf 2
new Rt
(30)
K rw (drainage)
From laboratory investigation, it has been shown that (
K rw (imbibition )
and ) show very little deviation from one another and that
such deviation may be considered to be due to errors of measurements.

n new
Hence, in the drainage direction and a single relative
permeability formula (27) or (27) may be used for the wetting-phase.
Relative permeability to the non wetting-phase ( K r ). nw
(1) Imbibition direction

In the imbibition direction, the wetting-phase fluid occurs
simultaneously in all the capillaries because the small capillaries are all
ready saturated at the start of imbibition with the wetting-phase, i.e.
S wi
( ).
Because of the large degree of interconnection between the

capillaries of all size, the wetting-phase saturation increases
simultaneously in all of them and the non wetting-phase becomes
constricted in all the pores simultaneously, given rise to coaxial flow of
both phases within a certain range of saturation changes. The non
wetting-phase saturation distribution is considered to be a succession of
inflations and constriction connected along the capillaries axis.
As the wetting-phase saturation increases, the constriction become

very narrow and eventually break down, leaving an insular non wetting
bubble in each pore. When all the filaments are broken in their
continuity, permeability to the non wetting-phase ceases, although a
large residual saturation to the non wetting-phase may be present. It will
Snwt
be represented by ( ) and is called the trapped non wetting-phase
saturation.

According to the above physical concept of the non wetting-phase
saturation distribution in a porous medium during imbibition;
n = new (31)
In addition, tortuosity of the non wetting filaments, which have the

same axis as that of the capillaries them selves, is equal to the tortuosity
at 100% saturation;
t = tew (32)
Therefore;
K rnw(imbibition) (1 S wf ) 2
(33)
1 S wf
The expression ( ) represents the free non wetting-phase
saturation. Considering the trapped non wetting-phase saturation,
S nwt S wf
( ), the term ( ) may be expressed as;
S S
S wf  w wi
1 S wi Snwt
(34)
K rnw
Hence, the formula for ( ) should have the form;
2
 S w Swi 
K rnw(imbibition ) 
 1 S S 
1  
 wi nwt 
(35)

(2) Drainage direction
In the drainage direction, the desaturation in the wetting-Phase
occurs gradually from large capillaries toward smaller ones. At any one
condition of liquid saturation. The non wetting-phase is found in the
largest capillaries and the wetting phase in the smaller capillaries.
Sw Snw S wi
Let , and represent the specific surface of wetting, non
wetting and irreducible wetting-phase on a pore-volume basis. The
Sw Snw S wi
volume of the pores having a surface , and are the
S w S nw Swi
reciprocal of , and .
The total pore space volume not occupied by irreducible water is

the sum of the two preceding volumes;
1 1 1
 
S wi S w S nw
(35)
But according to equation (-7);
2 2 2
 r r r
S wi wi Sw w Snw nw
and and (36)
rwi rw rnw

(37)
According to equation (15);

8 K wtew 2
rw  104
( S w S wi )
(38)
8 K nwtnw 2
rnw  10 4
(1 S w )
(38)
8K t2
rwi  104
(1 S wi )
(38)
Combining relations (38);
rw tew K rw
 
rwi t S wf
(39)
And;
rnw t K rnw
 nw
rwi t (1 S wf )
(39)
Substituting equation (39) into equation (37);
t Krw t
 ew Swf  nw K rnw (1 S ) 1
t t wf
 t 
  K rnw   K rw 2 S wf 2
tnw 1 1 1 1
2 (1 Swf ) 2 1 ew 
t t 
t   tew  1 

K rnw 2   
1 1 1 
t 
(1 S wf ) 21 
 t  rw
K 2 
S wf
2

nw     

Using equation (27);
  3

1
2 
t   

K rnw 2
1

t 
(1 S wf )
1
2  ew 
1 
t
 t 



t
t   
S wf 
2
 Swf

1
2

nw   
 ew  
 
 
2
t 
2
 
1
tew 2 

K rnw 
1
t (1 S wf ) 
1   S wf 2 
nw    
 
t

2
t 
2  1
Ro 4 

K rnw 2  S wf 4 
1 1

t (1 Swf ) 1 
 
 
nw   Rt  
 
As the tortuosity of the bundle of largest capillary size controls to a

large extent the value of the tortuosity at full saturation, it is reasonable
to postulate that;
t tnw
(41)
This because the capillary tubes act as conducting circuits in

parallel. When adding, in parallel, circuits of low conductance (small
capillaries) to highly conductive circuits (large capillaries), the former
change the over-all conductance relatively little.
Hence, the formula for the relative permeability to the non wetting
phase in the drainage direction is;

2
 1 Ro 1 
K rnw(drainage) 
1 Swf 
1 S wf 4 ( ) 4 
 Rt 
(43)
It appears that there are three equations useful in calculating the

relative permeability characteristics from petrophysical consideration,
namely equation (28) for the wetting-phase valid regardless of the
direction of saturation changes, equation (34) for the non wetting-phase
in the imbibition direction and equation (43) for the non wetting phase in
the drainage direction.
More general formulas for relative permeability in clean water-wet

rock can be written after substitution of Archie's relationship (8) using the
value of the saturation exponent (n) = 2
Ro
Sw 
Rt
1
K rw S w3 
S wf 2
(Drainage or imbibition) (44)
1 1
K rnw(drainage ) (1 Swf )(1 S wf 4 
Sw 2 )2
(45)
2
 S w S wi 
K rnw(imbibition ) 
1 
 1 Swi S nwt  (46)
Example:
Given the following data:
Sw 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Ro
Rt 0 0.75 0.165 0.275 0.400 0.535 0.685 0.840
If S wi = 20% and S nwt = 10%,

Calculate the wetting and non wetting-phase relative
permeabilities in each of drainage and imbibition
direction.
Solution:
1) For imbibition direction
According to equation (28) and equation (34);
Ro 3 2 1
Krw ( )  S wf 2 ,
Rt
and
2
 Sw S wi 
K rnw 
1 
 1 S S 

 wi nwt 
Sw Ro S wf 3 1 Ro 3 2

Ro 2 1
Rt  R
S wf 2
K rw S wf 2 ( )
 t Rt
20 0.000 0.000 0.0000 0.000 0.0000

30 0.075 0.125 0.0203 0.354 0.0072
40 0.165 0.250 0.0670 0.500 0.0335
50 0.275 0.375 0.1440 0.612 0.0880
60 0.400 0.500 0.2520 0.707 0. 1780
70 0.535 0.625 0.3910 0.790 0. 3090
80 0.685 0.750 0.5670 0. 866 0.4910
90 0.840 0.875 0.7700 0.935 0.7200

And;
Sw S wf 1 Swf Krw (1 S wf ) 2
20 0.0000 1.0000 1.0000

30 0.1428 0.8572 0.7348
40 0.2857 0.7143 0.5102
50 0.4286 0.5714 0.3265
60 0.5714 0.4286 0.1837
70 0.7143 0.2857 0.0816
80 0.8571 0.1428 0.0204
90 1.0000 0.000 0.0000
2) Drainage direction
Krw K rw(imbibition )
2
 
1
 4

1 S wf 
 4 o  
1 R
K rnw 1 S R  
 t  
wf
 
2
Ro 
1
 1 
1
 4
S  
1 Swf 
 4 o  
4
Sw 1 Swf 1 R
4 
R  K rnw 1 S wf R  
 t 
wf
t   
20 1.000 0.000 0.000 1.000
30 0.875 0.595 0.525 0.417
40 0.750 0.707 0.637 0.226
50 0.625 0.782 0.724 0.119
60 0.500 0.840 0.795 0.056
70 0.375 0.890 0.856 0.021
80 0.250 0.930 0.910 0.006

90 0.125 0.966 0.949 0.001
Example:
For the last example calculate K rw and K rnw for

imbibition and drainage direction using the following
equations;
1
K rw(imb dra) S w 3 
S wf 2
K rnw(imb) (1 S ef )2
1 1
K rnw(drainage ) (1 Sef )(1 Swf 4 
S w 2 )2
Solution:
(1) Imbibition direction
K rw(imb) (1 S wf ) 2
1
Sw Sw 3 Swf 2 K rw (imb dra ) S wf
20 0.008 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.000

30 0.027 0. 354 0.009 0.143 0.735
40 0.064 0.500 0.032 0.285 0.510
50 0.125 0.612 0.076 0.428 0.326
60 0.216 0.707 0.153 0.571 0.184
70 0.343 0.791 0.271 0.714 0.082
80 0.512 0.866 0.443 0.857 0.020
90 0.729 0.935 0.682 1.000 0.000
100 1 1 1
 S w =100% only for drainage direction where K rw = 1

 S w =90% for imbibition process represents the final
(Maximum) water saturation value, water there is a
trapped non wetting-phase saturation S nwt 0.10 .
(2) Drainage direction
Sw S 
wf
1
4 Sw
1
2 1 S wf
1
4 
Sw 
1 2
2 K rnw
20 0.000 0.447 1.000 1.000

30 0.595 0.548 0.454 0. 397
40 0.707 0.632 0.306 0.229
50 0.782 0.707 0.199 0.124
60 0.841 0.775 0.121 0.061
70 0.889 0.837 0.065 0.024
80 0.931 0.894 0.028 0.007
90 0.967 0.948 0.018 0.002
100 1.00 1.00 0 0
Fig (71) shows the above K rw and the K rnw obtained for
the example.

Figure 71

Referenes
1. Amyx J.D., Bass D.M., Whiting R.L.: "Petroleum

reservoir engineering – Physical properties". McGraw
Hill Book Company, New York, 1960.
2. Pirson S.J.: "Oil Reservoir engineering". McGraw Hill

Book Company, New York, 1958.
3. Craft B.C., Hawkins M.F.: "Applied petroleum reservoir

engineering". Prentice–Hall Inc. New Jersey, 1959.
4. Dake L.P.: "Fundamentals of reservoir engineering".

Elsevier Scientific publishing company, New York, 1978.

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Suez Canal University

Faculty of Pet. & Min. Eng.

Oil Reservoir Engineering

Oil Reservoir Engineering (1)

Oil Reservoir Engineering (2)

Oil Reservoir Engineering (3)

Oil Reservoir Engineering (4)

Oil is produced from wells drilled into underground porous rock

Reservoir rocks are mostly sedimentary in origin. They are either

Physical properties of reservoir rocks

Considered on hand–specimen scale reservoir rocks have defined

Oil Reservoir Engineering (5)

In oil reservoirs, the porosity represents the percentage of the total

One may distinguish two types of porosity, namely: absolute and

Porosity in sediments both treated and descried by natural

Oil Reservoir Engineering (6)

Effective porosity is a function of a great many lithological factors.

Geological factors affecting porosity

Oil Reservoir Engineering (7)

5 – Granulation and crushing of sand

Oil Reservoir Engineering (8)

r denoted the radius of sphere, thus for cubic packing:

For rhombohedra system:

B.V . 8r 3 sin 60

In general we can write:

Oil Reservoir Engineering (9)

Pore volume compressibility

Bulk volume compressibility

Experimental porosity measurements

Experimental porosity – determination procedures may be divided in

Oil Reservoir Engineering (10)

They are selected to be preferably10 to 20 cm 3 in bulk volume and

After extraction, the samples are dried in an over a 100 to 105 c o

Effective – porosity measurements:

For approximate work, some methods of obtaining effective porosity

An alternate method of obtaining the grain volume is to divide the

Oil Reservoir Engineering (11)

Weight of dry sample in air (Wa) = 20 gms.

Weight of coated sample (with paraffin of density 0.9

Weight of coated sample immersed in water = 10 gms.

Calculate the bulk volume of the sample.

Volume of water displaced = (20.9 – 10)/ew = 10.9 cm3.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (12)

Either the volume of mercury which overflows or the loss of weight

Oil Reservoir Engineering (13)

Weight of pycnometer filled with Hg = 350 gms.

Wt. of pycnometer filled with Hg and sample = 235.9 gms.

As the determination of the bulk volume by glass pycnometer can

Oil Reservoir Engineering (14)

A micrometer piston is used to pressure the sample cup, so that the

Oil Reservoir Engineering (15)

a number of other devices has been designed for measuring pore

In the determination of absolute porosity, it is required that all

Oil Reservoir Engineering (16)

The water saturation S w is defined by the equation:

pore volume filled by water

pore volume filled by oil

pore volume filled by gas

Three factors should be remembered concerning fluid saturation:

Oil Reservoir Engineering (17)

Water tending to be higher in the less porous section.

The saturation will vary with cumulative with drawal.

Fluid saturation measurements